Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
rHE UNlnD
NATIONS ONIVERSI"TY
TRANSNAT:IONALIZ.AT.ION,
SOUTHKAt;7' A$f lfN nERSPE(;7'1. HE·;;' PRtlIErT. trromVra:tif.1g.ojl1cc;; v 1iIin:( WQrlrf$P,f.afflJi.C'em;rr U~ji'lemry nf ~h:£·filrfI;p"i1w"
Po.
Hc;r1/(t"
fl'Yltpha:,-;rf
Ditimt11t,
QI,t~1Jrr
Ci'l~ fld:tippitr.ef!
Palma, HaJL, IJnivSIl'8iL)( !,')i lh~ 'PNil,-S-. rJu.et:(1n tHy, 11' H J L r P 'P'r N e-:;;
Work~n9 Papers of the United Nations University Asian Persgecttves Project (Southeast ASIa)
TABlE OF CONlENTS.
'rr·snsnatio·nal hation
1 1
I! Z! 3,.
I nbod'udiQf'I Tr ansnat.Ional I zat i on in the CO'lonia1 P'er i.od . on in the Post-Colonial TransnatioFializat
P~riod
B.
Economic Problems
Part Two: 1.
In~rDduction
Maj or Problema in the MalaysHm
,
7
Economy 7
2.
1. 4.
12 16
26 27
E,
Bibliography
Muzaffar 30
n 1.
State
at r ve State
32
c.
D.
fowards
EI
59
The capitalist
state:
An Evaluation
•.
41
F. Bibliography
IV.
4B
.~ND ETHNIC RELATIONS: PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE MALAYSIAN CASE •.•.••...••• S. Husin Ali
DEVELOPMENT ~ SOCIAL STRAHrIrATIDN
V.
Of
Raman
Par t; One
1. B.
Preface
Part two:
1. 2.
Poverty of Plantation
74
7.4c
Introduction
PI'[),V' 9.io1l18 for
77
3.
.4 •
Health Care
8 aai c Amli;lni ties
80 83
B6
5. 6,
C. Part
1. 2.
3.
'n. 93
4..
Causes
94
97 9.9 101 lQ2 103
5,
Conclusion
E. Bibliography
PR'[fAfE
ll'lis
upon
is
the
l"eporl
for
t.he f i rut
year
~f tt,!:! ~h'll1EJ,yEi.hn9tudy
of U'IL\.l
eq.feed
wss
iJerspecU v,es.
for
u
,Aa
WiilS
t he theme
Hu"
p'roJect
"lram:j!!~t
ltle
People.
1M's rspc.r~
l ine with
major
gec'tions,
fd Unq natural.Iy
lac!"! of the s~ctiQns
in
waS
l:heUWl3t'l
H gives
Ell
h isb:llri cal
anal ),sis
[If
f'
hIJ1Ij~hA
'B'I:'OrlClmy
N8.S
II
in
post-colonial
R1
periods.
0pilllBIl
It
tS
j
~!SD updates
.i, e; ,. the
j[fflpact
f.reoees si on an d
CUTT lllrl
t.
econ om:i.e
The S'tate
I
dis:tl.J8SeS
ti all
f the
CDuntl'Y
s pol U.ic.al
fl"oo til e cnl.on i a 1 pe rio d to. !~Merdekae Ii t.ea") to the anal.yzes the
0
period
(I' he
(past
rr;l!;lporlses andae.comodat.i
of Ute State
looks a t methods
or mecharu sms
in perpetllating
t:r.Hlsna.UonalizaUorl 'St.ruc:tur~s
of transnationalization
en
It also
€I
di scuseea
h B ve' h310
dominarn tin
nUe;! nCB
on soc i 81 s t HI ctur ~5
in tvla18YBie.
I"e lations r aaul
I]
trana-
nationalization_
Sedicm hss
901e.ty
f"'li),
hy th03ncl'ra
aut,hor Is
hls pa,rtieulBr
Sec:Han"
s~ HUBin A1'
Chandra MuzaffaT
~ho.[' I<ok PeJng
October 1984.
- ii -
- --
I ON
_,
I. INT~obuCTION
This paper
b\lO
gives an Ilutlihe
of the tt'Bnsnati'onaliiatioilt
arisi.ng
of the into
fr,om it.
It is eli v idea
main parts:
~~~LQ~'~rovides p
CI
a hi-storicsl
background,
showing the devef opment and post-colonial and on the world to the eount ry el'Uate
f bh!E transnationsl
It also
in 'the colonial
forms. of dependence
companies
it investi.g8b'!s
of bal.ance-of'-pevment.s
QrI
pubLi.c 'Sector
ala:c attempts
to pr-o-
·se.riau:s p.robleI'lllS.
I] "
lR.ANSNA BONAl I 'lAT """ -- IN ;;;..., - """._ -.- -...... ..... ........... ION "-" ....... COLONIAL PEIUOD THE -- - -._ _._,,,,",,, --,....,--........... - -.--_,_ _ =-_In the ~re-cDloni81 period, the M~lay Peninsular was mad~ up mainly of their three the own simple~of1main
<goods.
The
classes
and
the aristocrats,.
obtained
ftDITl
a shar-e pf freemen,
• .• 2
absncbed
ariel .i.rite.grab~d
export
of p:rimary
period acreagJ;l;
ctllllmociity
iflter:ests,
an end,
Br i tiah,
CQmpanies
c',..med 8)~0 of
estste
Contr.oUed
.62.~
of total
tin
export-import
.trade ..I
Besi,(jes ownership
econDmy
'for the
income estfiltes
Un (the~w'!:l
rice
s
Foronl y 2% of th~etotal.
in
th~.world.
66% of total
of food.inst-flilCe,
11'1 1932
for-
rice
consumption
in Malaya
pr oceaa
The tr.aflsnationalization
outflows of profit.
In 1937, foreign
.29~ 'of the include Illlated th<llt otller
to $187 million,
i6!s • J
or a lsn in
rf
W~:
it ,GEm s.afely
[If total
be 0;sti~
qn profits
comprised
.income
of colon'e:1
rule.
i(1s1&bility.
DCllon..ial
output:
al ight
t'tltia
chanqes
of OVBf
in
MalaYr;:l
'very
susceptible
to
€V€ln
wadd
lrarJe
In
t.he.
1932,
the
\1ClI'k
fa.rei? than
dropped
~nd expenditure
1110I'(f
half.4
Outing
DCflSS
umJoublBut
edly its
(if te'chnology
t.o undreamt
j
heights. livi.ngstandards
.~s a result
COr!1rnBnSUI'a'te
i(!/iU~the 'advanced
Leve.l e of
al so
not attain
for
or tial.anced
W:8S
were foreign
the impBtus
remitb~d
HI.
_""""'._--.-=_
TliANSNATHlNALIZAHON ..... ,....;-----_-....._ ...... IN T~E _..."-.,,.,._""" ....-""""- .....-- .....~-;-,..- ..... 1~(J5T -CGUJNIAL PERIOU ....'"""',_---_ ..... ...._"""' _
pel' ',od, t'1aJ aysis
IS
In tIle posb-Tndependence
ext erhal
dependence estat~·
hQB
In 1973 ~ foreigners.
acreage roreign
;i.liSlJl'-
assnt
s, 5
was aIM
of
'of
A survey by T~n Taf Wai6 of the largest pUbliclyonly 13 0 f the bop 50 of total paid-up capital
In
tDP 82 companie.9
yeal;s
f
84 P0:t cent
[)f total
prof'Lt s ,
recenl;
poi j cy and p:rQCBSS has led t.o qr-eater planhU orlalld fact
f
i:u:'quisi t ion
of QVOinership ehares
by public
mining
sedo[';'37
particularly
.ent.ecpr i.sea.
oWn'eo
But the
0
remains
control
eorporate
. structure.
to. S~;}of
't.h'e share.
In terMS of sectotal
(1979), 39% of
was 38% of E-state mere ial hank assets In the ar ea serv ices
a.creage (1981)
breakdown, the foreign share mining aasebs (1~n'6), .34~~ of comtrade Lurrrcvar (l97s) ,. 8
'0 fbl'sde,
dn value
In'E!8nS
thI"ee-fifth~ economy.
of
vexy
for ~x.por't! m~.king th'e economy potentially of the world IrQ the resilient to the.se
notorious
world fluctuations,
conmod 1. t i es. be hit
mainly
ies;
because
nature
Dr
of
OUT
expor-t
we will
f a general
.r~mesdon
depr'errai.nn
hard.
This was
i~npacL of world
reces~aon
commodity pr tcee , Lower g:t.O\-J"lih output. and de f'Lc i.t s in t.he balance-ofof
payments
current.
, 10
dependence
0f
on imparts avant
also
economy auscepS'LJP-
the' e f'f'ect s
in obtafninrj
by ot.har
of easen affect
l; i.a.l i t.erns
ccuntr Iee ,
In-
IIllJ)ort price
ftflcet of hade
dependence
is
ths deterioration
of
MBlaysi1ii! s
terms
(rf t rade-,
prices
'.
fur
\\136
laking
half
that
20' per cenl; and that;· in 1982 it for every grea'~I. 1 ass
unit:
anI y it
of expnr t r pp.nin-
aul ar ~lalaysia
C,()UId 0' b t· . aUl
L 1.
01'
imported
by ~1alay~ia.
ports
and 1. Z% of dead
r he
shipping position
cartel
r~ renca
a large
amount.
f funds flows
In 1978, although
f"oreign
cempan
assets
••• 5
the
pl'O fi t s and
~IQre'ove r,
t he rate In thE'!
0r
tmen t. 0 f farE!ig,ll
amounted to
hand ~ local
nli11ion~
13
investment
g. v ing
re-investment: obtained
ratH.
companies
$909 million
In the
rate
of 1 Deal 4GeL
was only
it
'L;:3n DB seen
j
rHOl'!5'
the
SSIOIB
unit
obt.ained
b>' a
Lnveatrnent,
b)
Due to increased
outflow
foreign
end interests)
the
r.=ountry.
ro.':;;;(=)' from - 6~~ to
The averaq~
out fl oW of from
Net inveg.trnamt
rose
$218 million
(1971-
ar;tonishing
Ihi~ is
si:lISO
dUG
to
'tt1rat 'thE!"degree of
debn:ioraliofl because
or
the
l$) 59
If we take
year
foJ:'i import
and export.
by hal f.
106S
to Peninsular
was d')
of lmport.s
foregone
SUi'll.
s.ub~tanUd
from
shipping
and
insurance
ere
1n
1983.
t
costs\'1§r~
lequj, v~le!lt.
t'G) abcII.Jt
but
In
o U:rer· war-ds,
out
expor-ts
NS i:lS:I'"n eight ~
f['I[JUI
H._.. world
e~Elmirle
the
Impact;
of recent
Dv€!rcoFnetlle-
rel~tions (e)
.9_
(i.®.
or no in-nation
be aai d Ehat
rat a l l .
mJtflc·onomy
it tan
today
is
fae' ng several
nature" L
~~!~I~~~!:§!
which will he
f~i:itOl:S
r emcved automat.tcalty
least Dr medi:uII"!-term
Ionq-t.srm
or at
one
La be Bcll ved in
two
year-s ~ although
Below i sa economy:
list
account; turned frome surplus of $2. '2 nil I Lon in 1919 tc deficits of $5.4 billion (l~Bl), $1.' billion (1~82),
The. current
In
account
in cur-rent
rsaSDns
alone
deficit-
:r~c;ession only).
rade
Inv is iblet
inV8stment
abroad, (1981),
freight
$,6, bil]i
ami Irtsunance ,
travel
am.
education,
foreign
from
i'
on O?B2;)
$.9..5
bi l l i.on (J 984 L
Thus' f
account
A hrge externai.:.. debt fha:t _= has __ ......... at Incredrhl e - .ntes in risen ---"'------ ............ ........-- -_ ..... """ ..."""'. """.---"",.._--....".-_ ...... .---,__............ __ - ..... ...,...,......,_ _ .......
At elld-19837
pr i vate eeetct-s)
U1e' total
'external
and In
l.eve I
doubled in just
was part1 y
• .'.9
cauaed
borroa
acenunt
coverdeficits
but it
h(;I.B
a Ino worsened.
the. current
the d~bt). to increase deM levels! Flows.
.account Obviously
avai d the
repaynlen't out-
~H::l!'vi.cing (rep.aymcFlt
af lean plus interest) came up to $3.5 billion. This waB equi va l ent to 42%) of' th~ $.8. 3 Dini~n j n n~w Ioane whic.h
t4a1aysi.a
ob tained
during
the year.
In othsr
\"lQrds,
.42
nent.s out of every ringg'it in nsW Leans mare l.y went to pay back QUI' old loans. fhe :;situation is going to get
ITIlJch worse loans
IlENe
in th~ next a
II
several
years..
;t4any of our
'01'
for·eign
grace
ve
to them •
We!!
will
By .198.6·~ th~
Llgrace period';
Thus, a significl'nUy
be spent
In 1986, the -
countryls debt.s~rvicing
sec l".IJl'.g)
can be expect.e d to be ill tI"Ie ral1ge of $5 billion In subsequent ev~n further. level
.in
1988, thegpace
over. Thus, in 1988 we will have to pay back part of the Ipan princj,p.al of pre-1980 loans' plus 1980, 1981~ 1982 and 1983 loans in eddiHon to the interest: of all theaa loans and
the intsr,est ter:l3st will of new: loans cont r-act.ed .in 19'84, 19B5; 198,6
0f
and 1987 as well ~ The at ream thus steadily It and pI'ob,abl y beyond,
Carl
and inthe
mcrease
i.m:til 19~O
be ant icipated
•... 10
ccunt
ry
at Leaat part
not,! plaguing to au ffer
of some
thr!l "aqun.i
0
es"
a f ex terna.l-
r-
fOI'tlJ1n(3te~,
negat .t[lting
\'l0
may not
have
for debt
re;schedul ing,
we: ~/iH
conaequenceer
dl'a.g the
and larger
expencli hu'f'i ;
ld
flO'N
BV:!'Jd
of debt aervf.ci.nq,
l.ahl.e for
theH'e wHl
(1.. e.
OUT
the popul.at.Lcn
by less.);
~'lalaysia.fiIci t.i ZP,rI!') and residents (d) there is e possi.bility more loans ing the In order
prob
that
wiB
have
11:0
borrow
to repay
old
l!,j~:iIlS, thus
pnatpon-
u8bt
l ems into
an even, bigger
cr i s i a at
ec.onomic
and
the
pro-
incl'e:asiFlg
tect ionism;
debt,s ,
and the
t
0 f u5$8tm billion
nscentiy
Ienqku
These
' .. 1 .
uncertain L"lOrld conditions
will This
affect
tvlalaysial
s commodity
exports.
earrliliHjS
have
The t.rade
balance
first
three months of
a'r,
prDvemHnt in demand or prices, .have all a r chis year , 4. 1ll1cre~8ing depletion of reSQUrCBS ---."....= ................
,.,., _ ' ....__ = ....... _
;O_' .....
tinr
quart.er
II'n
....
--"
".,.,
of
at-
tne
abundance
oJ natural
acute our
by the
0f
However,
depleOut' tima1'S
no.w facing
exhauat.i.on
rna]' g
key rescurcee,
r®"COl:Jrces ere
~ and we are
expected to be
·reser)jn~~ being depleted
net irr~orter
r eaources
by ()v.~I'-tLawling and po.l.l ut Inn , while' is w8!:lhe-d a'L-~'ay by soil and their
!Resource'" represent
:the real
euuntry
ecu-
in the~
future;
the cr.es·tiOrl ofa :set'iolls
j
void
.Ln export
earnings
exehanqe
to
rnport
or
yaar-.
t.he fan
"lIg
hE!"': been
-from serIous
of foreign
firms,
pay'rnen!:B
inand
Loans ~ frei.ght
.i
s to provide
enoug!l
for
basic needs ,
Although l'1alaysi:e is ne l aU vnI y developing for count r i.es, yet the bas ic needs of' a have shown that_ in
j-at.e
compared
to many other
~·'e have
~lOmE!: oor p
not suute~ded
In prov.idill~ peop l e.
st udi.ee'
as ~O to 60 per cent.
w',th .over ona-quar
ter
of towns
Th'B
-squet ~ers'.
the Income
n the
country
has
,
not
data,
b€H~f1eq.ui tabl y
di'Soh-ib·IJb!!r1.
Ac(~ordin'g
to'
(tIdal
go tng
to the
than
'top 5 per cent of houaehul ds in Malay'slB tf-le income going to the ar.e- genera.lly
bot.t.om 60 per cent;
is rn'Ul"Ei
of houaeho Ids
te~pBct s
combined.
in ather
:,
areas;
lh~ i~duBtrial and commerriBJ aectors grow much faster than the aqr i e ultur'al asct.cr . Sl..lch imbal ances .i.nevitabl y 1ead t o
g:ocial tensiolls I II •
I
eut I i.ned
~bOVB
Nill
'for our sad€) ty in the decade ahead. of the3B diletnmBs and impl' cat rona,
I n this
· • , 13
:iJ
rapid
pet
rate.
yee]·.
growth rate
it,'ElS
El.4~~
the
ear 1 y
] 90lls
GNP graw~I'
FelJ
to 7.:S~ (1 sa I).
In tho fTIPdlIJ,n-reJ'l.1r
WIJI I d eer1nrJll1Y.
Hevera
therr-
is 5.tiU
1.l~
HnC'f!rl~il'ty
1:11::-
1'~orclt"l!1 , r
ubovo
I C;{l,,~t fBil1t!j
to
0
tn
ogro;<j h:
L'Ui' .. en'l:
BCCOIw,l
[,he need
r-cstr'
C't oxh:::rna]
ri ivcn
fL"om qrowmq"
ami
dar I C1 r on
rfjt'f~S
I'09CHJTCes.
proh 1cnlti
f'Ol' rA~
Uu' ceunt ry
B EOI'
If
've ope
of
these
mrl
'the current.
end
acr-oun! trnp.
~eficilt furLher ,
dcht
up with
in \:h~ !'J;ral_j_l-PhiU
IIIBy BCOIll6fTIY.
In order
t.o avoid
t· is al ready doing t~u s: l.FI I:' It':l pub l ~co ssctort whar~ current e~penrliturep have been cul. It is unthat the pr-i"ll'lte sector can take up thE' slack the vacuum
11"'1
1 ikely
rapidly
enough to is ~e['y
fill
the short
t.erm,
fet~ y~rs
~Ie
Thus t l hure
tlir:! economy
in the next
than
\·)i11 expe+Ience
have
baen
used
to.
The increase
(b)
next
(c)
lha
Mal Elysia.
• .• l4
3,
~~~~~~~!~_e!!E~.:?
Acco.tdin-g 'to the
~~~~~el:!!_Ei~~'_~~_P~~!:£!~1_9~~_~8_!~~_SJE~~~!~_~~~_e:~~~ ,
t-1icl-terrn
l1eview
nf
the
fourth
Ha1sysia
the poverty
6H~.
4.
...
..,.
and redis·hiblJtion
....; _. __ ....., '-" .."..._
prospeot.s ,
~~~_.!~~!:I~~_e.f_~~::~2
access
0
The pr ob l ems
cantz-al
society .gro ..... ,th
U1S'
esp~ci811 y if pover ty
fas,t? can
"%1)1
"Ihen the
Ls. grcMing
t'ol er at e high,
also fact
be trickling
i es) .
pepu-
But.i f gro'wth
then
81 QWS
is i nfOL thcis13
creased
pnver ty and
at t he bctt om Lsyer s,
will
become
great:
8I".
YFe. i l; is at this
PO,l nt
has less
Ion prog.rammes.
pol.ic i.es
prov iding
the
best way to
ffi
tZ.13r his"
pol it las
in this direcHorJtend
to implement them.
poor
I::.I:lJ
eCHllr~~myht'lB .'Ill'eady
made it impossible
(lI'~1P).
l-3'5. n
4~1I"
t hl.'l
-paymcnl:1i
$1£19 1,~a9 $25
\,HJU
accuunt
publl
n'Orrl
de h cit
ng
mil 11011;:
1 iy
in
Ul
]901-(l{1
billion.
1],
In t.erms or
is
has e 1~(i bean C'urhdl f"J d [,[I"d I r-a I I y d or 1I0r-li:pmlcrl. r he the I~ew Pavel't Is h irular
prbapect
of
] ow~r fJrowLh
l'e:::'ltI:LJC-
Um lack
Df government-supp~r-ted
pUJ'rhal"es
of !:il1arl3s
FInally
I'
prcceaa
to
rapid growth
business
fast. ehDugh,
Indeed,
-to s.~~ith the c the ethnic tion that of income
problems of
case can be made
pnver t.y and Income inequBb tres , a strong compositiun of the el1tes
cr their
i Fit
bu~Lt't:' 'ibl
ssmefl, bul
(;I
f'er 'hp
ri qht s on
thei
of tb!:?' peer
1" 0\ r ,,"11[;
· .. 16 C"ornpositLen,
soc-Lal tensions
Unless
eauaad elites
p.1 Ace,
fore ~
of
s€ctions
f t h.A
ion.
In dofriq sc , I
i,1i 1.1
be louching
on th~ medium-term
[IS
S 8xteinal
income inequBlitlsa.
I mprov illg
the balance-
0 r---pf,lyment.8
shoul d be 8 top
government: prior it.Y.' In 1983, Ihe Inv isib,l@ Lis fieJ t , totalling $8.3 billlon, had the ~ollowing components. Investment income to abroad ($3.5 billion)~ fr~i.g~t 8~d insurance paymenls ($2.2 billion],' travel and
educEl:tion ($B75 million) and m.isee Ll anenus
t;lhargoe::; and
I
deHeil:
bur rm..ri ng should
be res t
minimum ~ airice
s €merg.ing
by po!';t.poning
prajects requiring 'foreign l~an~. At th~ same tims, ths finarw.r:::isl author .itLea shoul d re stri ct t ha
~xtent
'0 f the pI'i vat e ,sector
I
S exter-n~J
b-ot
rowirtq
qn loans
gsneTats
8U
a atre~~ of
COVEll'
ngu
fri~hmt to
~If~b t
be. 'st
r.j
8.nddiscouI'agea
only
In sele(~·t.ad Efrb.;:;.3
of
~raj il"l
ect a
C.3n earn
exchange
tri,;:itBd
r~)(,l;·eA.~··
of th8 amount
of profits
rcpa-
annual I y •
1'Ilj f; WDUl d lneCln i'e-86se):';.~lALJ the prnv i dirnq tfi;<' jnc~t!t.1 v6~ tp
pL~ej:lBnt cr
ih:ria for
fOl'c;rigrll fiI''l:ris. ~c )
T9 roouc@ freight
stren'Qthien
The peT frrrrnance of
has
to
Linea, fo nsd gn
t.he (wp(;1c'Hy of
the. cJl'lnted the
o'tln shipping
bBE'lH
H 15C has
d.omi ~gnC:8
has incurred
inSSBS
review
per rorm:~mce
f@f.
i.n~LJ8t-TY 16 .~811a(l
rrsurance , ab road
OVG['-
im,Utance
pi 8 1
hhe c ount
rv
over
seas
N{:~have
t..he: capaettv
f10W
ab:Toad for
studies.
0
{s ~
P·a:vm n h 8
f con treat
c h a r qeRj
81 So
very
~ i 9h 1 hav inq
•••
I II
r i.sen r8pid.ly
Lh.i S i the
to 'H.6
To
t'ciJll'I'1
~j('
qoverrrnen t
1d not award
Ci:JrI G t.r
t:i on and
eel i n the
turnkey
pr ojec
this
I'\a~ result
outflow
or
or
dollars.
choice.
In 1:8"rm~of
In
l'edlJc'
nq
the n.aU q.r"'i 5 depsnde'ncc on (-ol'si.gn steps ehou) cl be l.aken to Increase thr~
I
bOJ.TOW]ng ~
18\'(31
0f
funds
of'
ri
r-api.t.al
n_l ght:" ,
i.. e , t-talflYe.ians
ti uq the! r
hi
~Ifl.
r'Ur]d9abI:Osd. a va i table
AHhougll
~ the amount
-fl8ymcn
t'-t3 it
Am
~I
shorl-
cap
(which
inf.:'].tJries
til&.
t r anaf
sho\'nJ thot.
$2.3
in 19B3 alone.
Le ft the
of this
could rep'Fesent
funds;
3BFlt
Singepor8
pr cb lem,
and other
steps
let
C'Bpihl
through
... 19
(b -'
Uno Lhf'1 r i
oil to Induce
Due to the
l.mpr()Vernf~n'tB
1nc J'ea8e
in
rates
on 1. cane
ccmpanie s have
mnmt;o r l.he s.i tuat iun and get t Il~1b31lks tiJ t l"'onnrei'
thE! I evel
l.he
1n this
context!
their
bank
to change
method or
calculating
basis.
on sev.lnqs
"minimum monthly
baIance"
tatp
1 avel uF
88vinqs'may
lncreasa.
The publ:Lc
sector
expendi.tura.
bas
shot
up very
rapidly'
in
ten
responsible
of the present
'I
·econmlTy.
In 1
~aJ ~ t.he
s cut tent
direct
4.
oS
g()verr'lrne~~t
theI"(?fol.'e
very
Al though the
cuts WI!H"e in
fedElral
glo.vernmerlt
quest ionsar
to
~/htl
tI i(~l~ the
,·le•
that
the
be eXaiftine~~
(a)
affecting
shcul d
of the pcor-ar
sect Lone of
saci~ty
be ,['e-BXraminerJ.
For insr.,l'iUl[:;e,
there
cp~plaints of shortages of and increHa~d chat 'Be of • cert eirl drugs in qover Irrtent hospd tal sand clinics.
•..
:'20
Al so,
t.her-e
was
the
r<"I{:IS5l
ve 115~~rctluct Ion
i fl Ilu~m
i i ICJ
luru
in the
]9Elt~~
LJ f
1-llidgr)1
~llnr'~lti~\j1
r r)W-~' ['JH~
i eLua I
Bmlll(;..
abrlndonmpn t
hnuai nq pru~
r'
1,111'
(,PSI'>
i 'If>
I
51 ash
i nr]
>0
'F f Ill'
I lUd\lJ41
in t hp,'~e areas
~111llLJld
Br-.H~is 11(JL1
shoul
d lin I be rom~.
h£H L ie
revIew
udgel
ln
l and econem
m'"cal:l.
have
If!
cauaerl
lht>
undue
!'~l'dnhi p
::1' IlIt'l
Ilf
If
su
In
l·(:R~P
~-lf,Hr,{Hnil
ivr.lj!
HI UmslJ
(b)
011 lht~
uther
hnnd, pro j ie
F.I
mm"
111
ur i (3(Y:
11111 \Il'l'
LlI'\lI.-
shoul d be cur],
]I,)J
i Icu.
rneul: ()
(;LJJ'
high-ri6-'"
bui hHngs
(~~,p"'t'rr-ll [y
i
HI
l lqhl
fir
l he
enl, v n br
gl ut
1
r 0 rr 1!.C~
rt ),UVC r s
space ) , et e •
mul.or
h t rjh... ~I. my
f':!~p~rmj
dges,
(d
i"l?\1
i \I H
I ]<)9
or
kept
the
~I
Dff -Budqel,
Aqcne iss"
... ,tlere
have
.i ncr-eas i n9 rap i d l
even as
federa]
9prom I j no hfi'i
The ORA,s..Irou.hl come urule[" g rea If' reno and L wi r pr aaenl, ami
r(li-
shcul
(I
u:rgenU!f
and efficiency.
h·OS
At the pnd
1119 qUEI [,r:tnt:Eri'l
govB.rnmf!nt
gland
year
for $5 billion
in accumulated
ke-eps rising
to yaar,
t he
8S
servilL".ing. and
I 0 a I a rge
borrowing
pf
spendinq
federal (from
or
feels
of the
governrn~nt·s
1113 tween
deve Iepmerrt
by 1;2. 2 bilHon
but (fr'DJl1 the
M. 9 h i _u
Hln )
Expend
rose
by
'n
Ir1
l, i IJ I un
1bI H
ion L 11
p rt h::uhlrly p rng
nJ'nmp.
i t s Ilea"")! .i ndus
111(1 fi
t.he ml"'rllrl
llf
...• 2 J
the proposed
beBn scr i oua the
pro,jecb. doubts
In
the
nf
LO
h"n/r
the
iC"e"
eff1cJenc:y
arid, quaU
many or
Th(:'t f'ear
PI'Oj
ects
L.DT:rn~
f pr
ty .
of t.he. public
i ~that
n nr der
to make
hGavy imports
the
duties
be imposed.
'abUV'8
i>{e
e to pay
r·,ll" <:l:=:
3 r.~ nOft,'
G~~
I]
c(·~jnEriit
an.d
corn-
8t.:;lGI.
Nh~t may he
viable
foJi' the
parnes
\,!
.:i_able ftom
yj
l'tW 0
f' the
c iety
8$ a Nh0] e becauae
spend
much more
which
we do no t have
COrle Btl'"'!
0 f irnlJl'f5diate
nf Umge
Ij,I'ojec.t s ,
The govet[l1Tl8f"lt
from j ects abrCi~d
will
Lo fi.nance
Went i f'Lad by
~~!8!y).
HI c:m·1 (() F V;111~_~h 'fi VSt'1 rAaJ T he f'ol'eig~· 1003JiS requ ired
under
c a-
pita 1 Investment
nanc-e rilE! bul H
I5'X
(n fi-
r'
thi~
teI'na.J. rJe'bt, and r-esuU. .in very hi'clrn debt ae rv ipaymiBHl:.s. at a -t1me wh~n ~(e are'
a '$.eV€lr'"(!!! debf
Frorn
rapa:yment
'"SchB'dule .t~lon~oveI';
can
the,s:e
V@rI
hS(;3vy indu~tries
br.
e\r)ed.ffid
the
pal: u r e:
1'8 :;n:s bef'ot-e the ext.e rnal. debt s .1'\cJ:dl'3d to t his, ~-d_1l be the a:ddit inns]
out
nONS·
of funds
tie:!L,
mari.Sgeme:nt's
chatgesp
the
f'(j81 ,
.r ~iQn pa.rtner
c"Oinp~mt:es 111vo1ved
projed
pI'Ci-
.;!I+"~'~
',~ 'l
price
and economic
efridf'rlcy.
r"f'rlj~d3 ".llldl
pnuL rorwd
(JI-r.;
no't yd
BiU;l
be he r rl back
shuu l rI
~I
(IIi' ,~,
m1.nitTn sing
rore i'qn
J';
,r ds9rm.
4,• Gl'l':!ale r emuhas i 9 on ba\i,i r. needs
- ....
............
_ ... _---"-_
With
_--_
............
_._"""'----_._
......
r 1. hu I I uh 1
---_ ...... _
UI'-
ll1e
f'Bdur-t Lon
1:1
WI
ion
~~erv il.;(~!~,
~tRl -r ,
san+t.at r 1 l; l' . in it
Bel
l en , hOUSJnq"
0
l,
81e.)
snUl'ces
r !lllll'(-'
i'
rnnj I~J
r'1f:t::!'!:BSB]''Y
fI~
non l
111 pO-
I he (:unl ex~ of
II
Ie
I he
he poorer red
1S
or
peup l e ,
I:rJWI~II·r
1 hlEl imp Li es
t r ibut i DO
f income
k; I hp'
pam:'. aimed
at
poverty~
the
(b)
the
(c)
lowel"-incam'e
to consume':
by the
iding
l.he
f'cr a ah.i ft
bas.i.a !'u'led~;
as the [lufii:hi3sing rower and thLJ!'J sections of Bodell)' l'loul d tu bas ic s irn(thlB
f'lltl
have increased 1n absolute l~~m5 as well as r~li3li~e (e) a<; consume r dreln3ntlsillfts 'I owa
should
prcduct s , investment
goods LypeuF
investlllt;H'lt
also
Lntot-he
rcquued
is a.l.ao whJ.Jc
to prnduee
rTIQ1I'C'
qcudu
and thus
can
the
eecl.or
q iva
wi.rhout
redist:r :i..-
For a switch
b6Sic.
in
qji~rJhaf5i8
pr.OdUCCl.0Fl
to.warcis, pr o-
vidi~g for
needs.
Should
reduce
its
pr858nt
dependenne
on external
t~tj~!n{l:l.ogy.
('31.
l1igt)
ccst
in terms oftr>ade
irteome
los8e.6,
::lei>.
forr!l:ignexch8ll'lgel
outflow,
foi'~ap.i
t ell
j.nvestrtr~tlt cut
'8 co
high
'[Jayrnents
R,educing
re l iant .impetus'
nomic
g r,owt 1, •
8~elf~rp:lla""De~ we require m cempresulbst.i
UJt Ion
of import
a ['.onLl'achp.n more
of the®xternal
I' .
tr;att~
sect.or ~
sect8r,so
that
the
economy :prClduces
whi18'
'e.;.;; t~ rnal,
sect.or
y OCCUplSS8 very
irrvp.:ol'b3, of goods and
large
part;
or
tile
[3CDnOI)lY; .in
'I,.;!
tolal
f1'I'esb:.c
final
expendi, ture •
~"ould redlJc®;
,sector
Hu& 8xtreme
"openness:
trade
dependends.
Among the JLmp.OI:'.t-subs U tut.Ien rn88OS~.Ire:;; that csn b'B
gre.ati y increased.
wO:l'th
In
i"9Ell ~
ion
of
food,
including
(M06; milliard,
m.i H.i o iii }
!•
ducts
rice
C~I;l98
•.• 2Li.
ci-eFicy
rind
for aqr i.cul t.ur al, Fm sal F-I'eHanl The demand for
be
in!"!j Of
b~'Sis
sa in
will
,.
population
r"loreover_;
food
g.reater
whi ch
if rBdishibuii
VEl rne'.9SlU:8S
ami 64~~ ill St;ftI'"i;n·Il~k. I f poverty t i ve demand of the poor prav' cl"nq an increased mcreased will also aal.as rise.
Ina'
U 16 e ffl:JC'-
; Lhus Hi th
incomes
in, the
the refure
dove.Iopment
~hbuld
per unit
pital than large forBign firms, and which largely produce basic goods needed by the poorer majori.ty
local
population
(in
contrast
to the higher
pcopens Lt.y
of th(:l' bett.er-off
These smal Lsscal.e
for impo.rted ccnsuner prodact s) ,. induptries produce many iternssuch nat.s and be forreul a-
products.
'of an app rcpr-Iat,e b'!chnolooy policy deval opment; ,$tIategy. The present Ls comppneht of the prnposal.s to sHitch to a bash;'
(c)
The Forillulation
S. vital'
needs sslf-f'€llialilt.
d~p€'m:J2Ince on
t
high-cost
foreign
technology ccul d be
dc'VeJopment and
up-
gr,eding are
~ec.nnclo~l'i,es Which
l
often
to
fesl1-
c essible 1 fishing
trfJW
th
rad:ilhon
t sch-.
ia te .:;c'mpared t o
fishing)
Malay hOUS0. Resaac~ 00 ~t~ vlablll ~ an~ utilily of appro~riGt_ Maloysl n te~hnolog\ R is now n progress.
dependent
the
count.ries
tram
and finance
these st ructures
P~r.t Two, shows IlCI~~ I:.r.a,r;l8!'1(iltj, na Li.za t ion a .t he problems 'of t hewor' ld
economy.
slowdown in deilliahd and t.r ade ln the l'ic,h countries ,export up t he i I' rapid g.rowtl'l.
account.
r'-~eflm~hile:j'outlfWBstfor rees
(mainlY
YHJ:Lght
cap i tal,S'upPlng
TI1:115· has
to borrow
result,
,t>1a1oy-sia g:r. atiu all y qor stuck art the qlJagmh~G 0 f foreign
repaytiiBnt. Thus tile economy fr om dire.ct
.
end debt
spread
'I1vestment. ~ t.caoe
that
technology
fllTther
hansnationallzati1on
!t/ofsEnJ .. l9 1
will
lead
all
problern.$
in poverty
t
J
ir~ social
imbal8lnr:::ei3 ~
positteJrl
ecoflo'!lic
What is
imp.lies needs
requf.r ed reatruntur
Of
his
mq
[lElveloplliient lrldl"lStrieJ-s;
baai.c
smal Ivsca.le
local
rura.t
self-reliallce
...n
--=,.".,,_;'._
NOTES
Qfthe Halaysn
control
colOifliaJ
:}
[(hot
Kok Penq
(1983.a!
p. '57
.-
58).•
p. 41 - 42.")
.
of th(~
j
:5
D~p.8rtmant,
St.;;;d::istie·'s
t·1alotiY3ia
6
7 B
9'
10
world
fe'c0ssi6n on 1·18ila~/si.a~
KhqI'
11 12
Khat'
Kak fleng
p , 17 7 p, 110)
178)
D.
due. to
dependence
and
ane
i5xtracted 14 15
'frOn! Rhor
Kor.;,
Peng 0983~:
Chapten~i.u
11}.
r he
figuL:€m
tF1
t his section
~talaysi8
Plarli
- ••. 28
16
17
• .• 29,
fJIHlIDCnAPHY
Khor,
Kck: Penq ,
~~~!E~!l~~~_~!:,l~I_~!!~_~l.§1!~t~!~D_~~~~~~X Penanq: .
HBl3y~rakat, 19'B.3.
t·1a:ri.can
61tU:] ~(ms,
19B.b.
Puthud1€!";.;lrY"
J .)'.
Ownership
~md C6ntrol
in the. M:a] y an a
f;.CQllqnlY.
"Lncome
Dist.rHwtion
• " 30 THE
st PI1 [
1 UJN
In this preliminary
Ln
Ma!ayslo,
one haa to begin by as,king why the ehlc9 who Inl11u'il rl' pow 'I" l rom lI,e nrHish in 1957, were quit~ conlanL to oLJow MBloysia ( hen M lay~) Lo remain on th~
II dphery of an in-eI'IilBl' e I itOf'l
onal
system
ro
rna't
i l dj ffea'eITl'.J,'ji
1:1
w'l,y
t'L'§lI.ID-
th
60
consel'val:· ve'n
even
'or ol thaI:
Least
dCiide
I
' h Y dirl
not:
WA'I'~,
~o e\l~h,latIEl
unequa l
UOr1ship with
he weslel;'n
anrl domjnat~d
pea-pl r:?
B
'question
Cl
certain
a~ U tudes
\I !.dl!
rna.i111 y becauae
ot-"Iedthem ~0 be.
iIiiII............
HiE [1>1mGE'NC[ or
__ ...... -_ ......... =-:
A COl SERVAl TV
.---_.
...........
STATE
"""""
To start
of
E!
with, tl,ere
Was
no .strong
geopolitical
base for
he development
system;
IiIlDYl"!mBnl(Malay
hecause
politically loyaHyto
c.ol'mm.Hlity).
waS a f;urther
impediment.
IJ 1
By l'Elhfnp
and by prese.rving
'Ir'fBS
th~
For
was
to[)
SOV'BTB]Lgnt)'
'thE:1symbol
of s[lvf'reioJf1'I.)1
['om mOlJnl1g
the c:olorliehst
di ,
a strong ch~llengra
had Learnt
order.
"./;;[5
obvious
of
th9t_
w,ell his
ht"QiJl.Jh
l.,.clla where
syslel1ls
U'C IlInnihU at i on of
irrd 'genous
of qovernsnce
!!
31
By kBeping
nationalism jects lonial tothBir
lost
thA il1
Sultanates, the Britlah gaiMed in yet Another yet ano t her l'lay.
rule.
author The LJnqLJE':S Honing ~oc_LBties i 't Y~ 'there
ruler
- a tr~1.'it of feudal
royal
eve rywhere
factor was no q IJesti
- helped
enaur ed thatl:he
on o r a di I'Bct ,
colonial i sm.
Mil:::!
proletariat
lriay
present.
a,ntipaH'IY
If
thers
such
we l I
Gh'38[J3E
consciousness
This. happened
the. b i. ["·I:.hof
.lavanese~'(ork.ing-cL'1S9
sor-t s ,
In
the
ror ttm
r~ roads
buildings
Equally
vuur the
nlilldl
cohlinJ.d·
(;1m delayed
~ movemant .
the
ia .and Inriia
be.
Lhe·!.'
mnre criticol
of alien
rule
compared to the
tradHional
e.l Lt es \"lith
of p:rivilegtl
t o thE! colonialisbs.
claBs as
cAtion, by the colonial
producl of achievement
and colonial There
W&lS
frustr61tio'l
as such. rhis
sharpened its
the was al ao
anli-
no ~~uch frust.{,';!;tionI'IUhirli
~~iale'y ·cufilmuni-
ty since
'I\'hy the
t.radrt.ional elites
1f anything, of colonial rule -
rs+
movement.
8
the presence
Immigrant
consequence ~nti-ca-
a powmrful
ionia)
struggle..
deliberately
Li zed throuGh in lbe.ir ni t iss, inq
adm~ni6tratiye cc l oru al
- and - Ilule.
a common anti-cQlord,al
sm
·6~:E,~-
.independence
tt'Il;Qugh
•••
'3.Z
a subordinate
trend
element.s
in lhe
Independence
movement st.s
r
y mor-e radical
hnic
rn8de
up of": aehne I
minor civil
1~lhHB
servants
pre s-
suus overt
scc tetv
reason.
0 f:' t he
an U111£'3by
tht'OlJgh
pnl i t i.caI
bLoody , activities a
:3 "'glrli 0r
o f 'the par-t.Iy
fie,snt. sB9men't
o f soc i et y and,
cr sddb.Ll il y
neqot iat.ors
ficia,r Ies
the
pMple
as a Whole
econenri.c
the
Favouuble
earl'1'
fi Hies.
In
radicali~m
a-
Irtt.el l i.qentai.e .•
STATE
Ive nati.ona lLsm
('V~] tisfl~
that
eonservat
gave birth
dent '.'Ihien.
to
COnS8I'Vat
t.han in
\lffi.~
the-
economy. Iy
rlLde~)endencI!:Blites
on Eounomio
H
Vl~H3
f'urxlamertt.a.l
\"~lictl continued
to lin'!.:; a per Ipher al capi tal ~et state from the ht which
the" economy
trs,
Indeed
of bas.ic
even ownership,
control
of
comtnodl t iBSW-3S
years
rights
of
Independence
wer~ also
~haped
to ~
by the
backqround .
democracy of sort~
and liberties
·.d;
pol
it Ica l part J. A,S t Lr ade urri.ons and vat ibus .soci a 1 groups.
from the for co] on.ta.l
E' 1'8.
Urue ~
8ssem-
thece w~rA SaMe obvious curbs and cm,trols on th~ freedom of speech and
bly r d~v Ell nped the
USB 0
ed agsir1st
f v.i Oilence
tect
f'rorn meaningful
0f
n a:rra!lgemen
at the Leve.l
Int.arnat.Iortal
1"'81 Ions at
provided
a de fence poForet qn po.western Nonet.he-
protection L0 Br it.a:in
to the
at atue qua.
throunh
5
ol.il.entatfl"dtowads
th~
here
t·
If:
lo the Unites
nat i.on
as such.
len,to , t hea,nU
and
f oe
-c:.ommur1ist
character
of the
W;:j8'
alike. politics,
very and fOI'8ign POl'iC)'1 by the the a:dministrat of thlB coun-
Like
try
W93
al.so
mI.H:i1 Lnf'Iuencecl
co.Loru.al
'tradition.
procedures cerned
I3rHU"h,
of pOYier conand
was dL5cidedly
It wt4.S a topthe
St.Sb..JB
hf.er archy
lstgBly
preserving
e f'''-idency
compet encs ,
Educat i.nn was directed f'ul fill within the the needs of .a market
[()LoJ<3Irda thB
same, PUr-POS.B.
eCOIIOmy~
T he
rn~in
a rn was to
cr
eat
ed by an system.
was
vi'hicl! 1 cleated
Eociety
phas is·ed.
n f f<nolidedge
that
stressed,
indeed
the
svatem 'all
eneured that
itself.
Even when it cami to ethnic rBlatio~8, ths eolQn~al i~print wa~ ullmi~ takable. There Was no .aHempt to f(lJ"'ga a 9snuine. mu]t· -ethnrc bas ts t Q Lhe
naHon.
It wa.s inteJr-ethn"ic
r[!lations
which
i~E!£8
enceuraqed
as ref'Lecl.ed
in
the stru·tur~ of the ruling coalition, lh~ Alliance itself. As in the colonial par i.ed, tf1fH'e was a ccrre l at i on be+ween economic: funct.ion and ethni.c. identity though
giol1
in certain
spheres
[ducat
Inn,
ami culture
al so mirrored
t.he et.hnic
r.olonialiets!
portance
growth
to ericcuraqe the
nat Ional Ian-
for. the
use end study of DthEr local ]anguages. notably [hin~5e and T~mi].
bal.enue
IJ
rhe same
with of
I~thnic
inte~est Devalup.lnq
Ii
religion
a na' Icnal
the
the
b211:;i3
incorporation
Was
to the process
0r
stat
o and its
t hi.s Eltab~
ri3I."B
in
the
rust
~~Ileilleyears of
Indepf'ntJ 110B
'\~a9 eCDnoml.c
growth,
a~~1ni6tr~tivp ~friolencYr a ~erLaln dsgree of public weLfar~, scm~ ethnic hel:moflY. Tllis L'/f;Hl to two maill facto~·s. first" clue since '~hE ±ntornati.onol
cal=JH.aH~I· system also gained
bel'
had enjoyed
t emendolls growth
from the
aar l y
-
cons i de-reb1)".
crl~n('ldHh~.'~
it ehnae to
demand a.n
capitalist E.quaU)'
L".porhnt,
'A/,h ich
I;:lLOpS B
the in rernatiot10
al
1'18.S
Ihe large-s,C'al
introduc lion
roil-palm of I~hich
point.
Besides,
thE!' country
effectively
H ~~asa part.
This brings us to the second l-lhich factor. The nat.irma.I political Leader-ship deve.l.npmerrt
t.tr .ibutes
tOI,<.~ard5,economic
snd
or
P91itical stability.
First, it undoubtedly
which had no nation
Df sorts.
was a aense poor and
words, Per-a
at.ructuree
the
relat
iorU;hips!
'j'
there
m a desiL"ebo
for tllni'l,te.
aftp.r·
'I
Tl was; in other
influenced
CI f
a section
father of
Prime
ftJundint',l
'For tllis.
[JIF
ds ,
vor
ideas
IS-
tice
I hi' y possessed
~ vicr,e heav il y
nf Iuenced
by a senae
o r pnl r i Arc-hal
b"t:d-IP~
Vl.:~1 et'1f'12 •
econd,
Us World
!-h4.;o nab
cnal
I nder sh.ip
a l sn lJIanifas
romparD'd
BU a
!3('11W:'
n r real ",~ifll tn
N('oll h.
t 10 Q mJlJib" r
or
.'i[[~
n I '~'r:2 r
I t Ii ~'d
or
hlsto
y.
l he 1, ader sh rp
11,J;"-l~ WEll!! un ,
IJl11,t,Iot
ln al low for
P CJ
~f'
i~Hhif1
~l)l R I ~:"i 1
~m and
it S flf:'cephllll
soC'l a I
['00
rt1 n r ~h.l s ,
Iwrf'!
ta
by
rill
InP-S'}ns
l~e
Ii),
L I->vldpflc
Uo 1111('
~ugg(!st
that
role
rh d not !ilnle
lndulgor in
in me~sivn. and
organlBed
did nal.ure
ccrrun!
l cn ,
DLilr:3'1' [tanrl ,
LhaL l hu
OppOI"unltlEHI
no l avui I l.hemaeIven
:;'Ijnr'e lim
lures
werr;,
or rJ 1 rrPl'
r.1".l'3'~
'j
lile
dE'Ill:1opmBlIl
the
or
acnnnm i n
VS[l-
I n an..,.
~'Jafi l,Indeniabl
y an a l: ~ r iuu ~0,
some
baclcqrcund ar Lal.cc
~nj cyerl
IJ
l he ru]
plo}'ed
fH:t r r .
['t:l't 1 C
lhasa
a 1t.h,
e l i l.ee had,
Sluperfir:h11
LhaL reason,
lose
wea
11
~11
conf'rrmt ed
Third of the
ther~
oleranc~.
ntliLude
eapec.i.al l y' to gi ve- and-
~'a] ay rt Jlillt]
n f t he non-Ha Iays
Of course.
compromise
t"en'
in
are
I:.he fj
fhe-s.
restraint
"QUI'
Nonetheless.
sf: t it ude
\'l9S also
Al"ld be.Lar-ancc ,1 j ke
all
and JUStiC8
at tr .ibul.ed
by the oth-
l ccat i cn of
Ic
elite
which hdt
less
U,reatened
W,:H~
cDtnmunitles
Jt s admtru atocret
wet'
inhe~ilE!'d,
lea!he
appointed
th!;'! hereditary
or: p1:olee'l:oo
r1lJ Iere
0 r Ch.l.a r ~·tln.i8l~ts
B8 ill
M~hy states
of I he
(:1\'11
f rorn cnmnel
WEH'!
i.l r nn by
nnl ea
"01.0-
I'lLhnic qunl.aa ,
!,.II"
I;lCI::Uj)~LJ
LI1~ caae
service.
It raapons
Lhei.r
St~I.IJS
I:mal s it uaLions
tb l o rot ':he~ r
ThQugh the
int8r[1;:;U.Q[~al
j, [:i o-aJs
C~)Plt8Li·,~tSy5tern
i.n H
peel to ensure
tty.:!
a cGlL'tain
defJr.:B{l
0f
economic de'!
hiel ve yft~tr £
of independBnC6"
CQn
wet's
vel")!
clear
_Lnuic;aU,oh~ Lhat,
J;saJ chal.Lenqea
front i ng
tbA
VAst
they
dfjseif'\! 8d..
EJ
r ever-
ths
Third
I'lodd,
E!CQuq,Je.
~~h l i
e'~lIomltg!.'o'i'Jth
re,suUed
was totally.
in scmf;!.socaa.l
0f
al1.,
osper i t i
\.,r(3I"E!
nol,
t.H~HNi :0 create 1
a sU::ong8,cienti
If-11Y
I::h~ f'oundatInn
'For ;autQiIlOITIO!,.mindl!~t-dCll
mt;.<'ln-
ing(ul
~gr~Ti8n tefDrm~
poHU cal
hampet'ed
The
I Ilthf$
Illent.ioned:~ dem!iJer-acy,.
arena,
t ha various
eurbs
and h:iLndered
th~~ grQ~;!th of
t
edqed pf.lK'hc::ipatQry
I"ternal
5-ecul'ly Ad i,
in particular
d8te:J:'
tion
\-/i
t La pOPlI.l ar
irl'J
01 v ennent
Inteuctinn
war3
and apparent
1\ nUlTlb'A"[
fIlet
real ,
b f soc i81
1rl®.i;l,
por t.ended
t.hi
danger.
I-or exampler·
BG~ne
tho
ria bu r~pf
paucity
Nfner-€
1\1:51J~ays:Lh the .
W,lS c.e:dairdy
~""'SS
'ffSS
profIBQ~i.o!!s~
WB~
.arid
imJush.y. ly
In a s.i t.uat.ion
rnhJd,le
pf
sooJml mnbi Li ty
especisl-
and upper
political
18v(;~J..~j
unhea.l Lby,
5JrnilDr] y ~
""'hiC:'h
not
f t hJngs.
r thouqh
nut; as ramp8:r~k
as in s~um(3other
0
places
r
elir.(;lS.
thB!r€t
ignJ3,
F" Indepsndence
to sho~'i
This of
1.-113;8 9}ltting
po l tt Ical
to r eduee
(.he effectiveness
• .' _ 3.7
ill
this
88881'-
W'Bye
hOWBV('U" ~
fo.p
the d ianqes
that hand,
t:(ln~plex.iClnl
t. he post
~mllc';"
- 1(:)69 period.
Oil
0r
course,
the one
the ethnic
\'Jhi.ch
\')8
-Ll, 19.69
None! he l ess,'
ill influencing
Lhe pattern
in a wh.i l B •
q u ast icn.
re f Lecl; upon
character of the statA in the first twelve years or Independence relatiol"'l to orre cr udal To. what ex.tent vias t:he ext.arna as. egain::.-i .i.nt erria L factors ring that period?
Reflections
in
TILJ-
l environment
conservativ~ stata,
f
brand or nationalism
colonialism
a conservative
SOfIH'i
fJ
ployed
sl rue-
ths tics;
Sf.l'me.
Li
nascent
~:ate.
It
\"1;;18
significant elite
than
capitalist
Ent.errial.social
interests
'Short run
did
ifibemat ional
cap.i tal
j_
('3
SUCll
not; prnve
to bean
of the
BOC iaJl.
apher'es ,
I ndeed,
l'ties
and orientation
politic~l
leader hip
app~ar to be able to mitiqate against some of th adver se e ffec.ts of Int.emat ronal., capital Lst, dom tnanca
8.hd
control.
• •• }[l
1hal aHar
I
there
13th'
were
chanqes in
HIF
rof s , funrtion
I
end
ehrH'J]I:h;or
W80
IJ Itha
stnl-e
Hey
i a urulen.iab
I p- "
H!; on of
t Del r-
rmtthB
cau gr;,
or
I::.be e chenqes , B
dance
H ml1~rel~' aarved
l h i atnrv rr"m axpanal
8 r::~T'
te
ee rt a in phase
in pas t -i rHjt'rl~m-
r101 i tica
lha
'.ucC'C'eJfllg
sigrliricliltll ~Jakp Dr
IflPSC c p Ltnl
mmfll'llh
III i-
pl'(lr1ttll1oM i.hal
and
prmJf,)eJuJu::I at
stu,
ponse
\'IJ:lS
o f '~~h,Bt"1i::dly a , E
uu
1 n en
t:)
t hn i call
~ -orle,nted
sue le t ~.
pol
L: i a] 1
W~i.'lI IJ
uSl~[lm·t:lLJ~.
Tilis IJnrlrrqolng
- rUral
esprwinHy
trannfclI"lnal i n [ltu'U
WiT-I
nlsr:
edLJrf..l~ "Oil
or
so
(q.
\:il
th
unIVf.'rS-Hl~1
iOf1
or
c:LlueBl i 011
intr'1 hi gl'uH-pal'
;'I"H11
L'IIU~ [I
t'J,::;~
i~ 'I'he I
r(j[lIon
CIJI'1SC iOJ.,lSneS5
or
.
Um 1n
imporhmc:e
'8
aCOOOrnJL,C mDI'8
st
ronqth rend
EI
;:)IIIOl1q
rum
I]
genB,.
of young
131:.
t~D 1 ays
sense,
t hp
w Iceap
~pp I i C";c'I'1,OII j
r ethrll~
quct BE:!ami
hn i e pr~
r er-encas on
behal r
or the f.lalsy
t DWrilrd!Ol lhe
1a Le~.i 1 x l::. L cO
nue l eus
n f a ~ ala)1 lIliddle-c
lass
see!ldng
econonu
L"
second
echa.Inn
Drganin,liOf"l leaders
(U~'I/I.~O). the
mainstay
of tJ1El' ruling
cce'l I-
bon.
These
6E!CO'm:!
echelon
fast
pBrce i vedl:.hs
\1195
stale!1 as the
f th~ t hat
ruling
followed
Election,
Lhe r lot
uni Ly fur
Abdul
to
gjm
mouut, i.J ar
auoceae luI
challenge
h l he
Raz ak
w~~
Dr he r
situations ~]8ewhere1
Ilssodfl t, Y1Jtl1 Iun
gthered
J1I \\1
around an estRblished
his
i
leAde~
i•
\-1 i l
r unku
now
he i r- appnren l
Abdul
firml y ensconced
p~lvBd
y Pret:lI rlCr1r
EI
rHo'll!;
nbbno
the path
of
qener al
of ur'IM1
lfH'HJ~l:'::J •
'••.
39
[f
f!'o!l1 another
1yais would
veiled
c I iq ue L~_on Hid,
its
e i qn.l fic8nce
Qf
(J,ffice.-
already
and luore
the rise
ol a 5tfLte that ~lJOuldcome to r epre sent Df a t1ftlay micldle-cl ass and d deo.l agy of this
rnors
stiU
'that
.......
._.,.,....",.".-
-.....:
"""
sense.
it
\'138
clear
esJ:.abJ'ishiny
and c1s{;s.
capH:alisrn
\'IflS
0f
\~as t he
~~~~Lg'~~~~~~ of Dr
H~lhrtthllL ~"lnhammHd ~
Prime
for a p ctect.tve
bi ased
towal:ds class. of
B~,~~!~~!_~::~!~! (t>1~nbiil
to
by a group
Ahm,®,d [ladUl1i,
Mini.dar)
wh i ch at tBOQpced
the sort
in the way of the growth of an acquisitive capitalist sb~rit among the Melays~
It even spa.l t out viswltUy of a r-fluellt , st.yl i sh capital i.st t:he Mfllay
policies
cap.iIts
LaLtst
idesl.
There is,
t.hat its:
isl
main purpose
el itBS.
i 9 t he neat ion of HaIay pro fe:ssional eLit e stratu~1l Is out by all or the
indust:r Ial
orientation
NEP borne
sorts
of privileges,
those who ere linked to Malay otficialdo~ h~ve on the whole, also benefited from the NEpis lop-0trJed emphasis.
The 'ethnic uoderp irm inqs
0
the policy
to~/CIds r out fits
in the way in
claaa,
are r.e~cting
ni.sm by setting
ethnic
st renqt.heni.nq their
.••• 41]
i~ta~ests.
endeavour is. this
Loa
total
ethnic
culture
in
M81a~~ian society. 1f any l hing, the etnruc fur-cad by religious ~~ithLn Islam"
1inked to
character
0f
di 'I'(:l'tamie$.
nouncad ",,'Uh the exc Ius.i ve " duct r inaire l al.am is no!: rea LLy f~ssociab:~d with
Lhe i deol,agy
sort
party.
of t'Bvivalist
This i si true
the state
is al sn responding
:i.d~as and
ano+he r h@nd~ilu:lidel!l of
a whole system directed The poli tical The h.ter arcruca.l the apex are;
\'Iay"
of profits
•.
.al so serves
nf
power
al,
to some
tent , features'
upon
f an unequal
unity
economi c order.
Capt-
definite divsrqent
lTlunit},. bcundar tes
aim:
Uw.l there
wi:thin
are
and class
to
especially
sar i.uus
thre'at
A~ ths class
power becomes
drive
even
t~wards w~alth
qreat er,
8ecwRulation within
corrErDlnvl!'H"
becomes mere Lntensc , the .de s.ir-e to scqui:r'if) mcr e and more political
fol" it is
aLi t.e cemnrt t.ed to tvlalay eapft a l.i sm that total e.lass , the control"
H. is
the conso.l Idat ton of the' power of a cap' t.al Lst, onceevt~:rylhiI1g system import ant , to this 1" ke pa-rlisE1IBil,1a.ry electiolls and par-.
~iortI1. noting
that
become les~
41
of (::hecklng the power of t,he elites party or ail aut.onomuus public shoved
a dacl
iiltersst
Lsrnen
OI'''
an indepe:no6'F1It
i II
I
Labour
muve~ent - is
there has been
a side
ine
0f
buy
ast,
Few
year
Severe
curbs
are
to break
f democracy
and to
BV 01 Vel
political
@ystem. r e Lat ions second ton. a shi ft ~lwa,>,' from Bl'il@in This is,
if'il a senee,
and t he colotOI
g'2nel'if!ition
ect.ual
~3 .bout
1
or
[ t r athe
dHiOHa1 ~ ties
I
- unlike
LQOKCast
of the
leader'ship
fi ret.
is a meaaure
the country
08i'l.l'.l1"aU·on leaders
background.
ment; to
SimilarlYt
_._
AN EVALUATION
.... _ ~._,.:_"""",,..-, ....
=0;. _
....
I if one 1180 to
the post
~~.(1)'
aa against sense
att rdbutes
rof
it:::. gre8tar
.independence
non-aligned sbrbJs would be among t.ha plus po.i.nt.s, t he state today has
at
much bettel'
it~own
f.;F1Ut iDri
here?
it upholds oopitalist
FIre
defined
within
the f1~I'S-
pect i ve dependent
ties
grm~ing
f
this,.
the
exact.s
a heavy
tolI
LJp6n
ami
it s
paop
le,
Apar
t
1.
0 f capital tho
and
'(fhich
Impove r l.she9
t he loco arrd is a
devel.opment to
scientific
Ls rm need
that
.'::;lh.::h a base
the em~ncipGlU nn of
Il:t"f
'Be"': des,
genera be nhher
dependence
wh i ch have
1'Inaqual
Ls Inf'ormat
1\1
Inn
'I
dependence;
dependence;
in the
.0 f
cul tur al
a di ree t ion peep 1e ,
c!ou:rj nant,
1 t,hese
dependences.'
Q
de ve.l oprnent
r l he
1ectual
'V
For
as long
as there
is
int~J
upon the on
E:l1C
f knowl edge
1al
ehanqe , well-being
mude l s of
development
to
conditioned
of
nnet
s Clwns.nc.iety.
he Ips
'1:0 p.srpetuaho.
unequal
every sphere or toocisty within the demesHc set.t i.nq, For it continually strengthens (as long as th~ intBtnational capltalist sys'i.em is pr osper inq) local economic, cu l.t.ura.lnd political elites a who
structures
serveM the system th~
0f
conduits,
~nd perpetuat
i.on of
dE!-pendence.
~'hat thi~
atst.ence
means
js
thai. oep@nd~ncB
the aggravation
1$ p"n~tly l'.e.sPQrlsible
f'or the to
perthe
and
country.
pcrf'ormance and \~ithin a fact policies;
IBAderships
of their and
II rhi:lll
backl e uoththes8 ,
related Various
exsmp.Le
neqal.i ve sectors It is
impede
t hat
~d t:h
t Ileell'l:ph.a~i
POVSI'ty
productivity,
become
of et.hnic is the
\ole
have already
polarization of the
various communities - especially ths widening chasm between ~ aye an d non-~1al~y6. .. [al As 8oC'i~] interad ion among t.hs communi ties
• •• 4-5 decLi.nes partly because of ethnic policies. HIe pcospecb of cr eab inq :,1
genuInely united society forgBci by shared values and shared interests becomes
d'rnrnel' and d.immer ,
Sl.
BQ
- pl"ofit-max:irn tzatinn,
t.hat, cresenb-uay
Leadarshl pis,
all
sorts
of grave
whll ch has fie i t!16H' t.!le· l;1.i11 nor the ab i 1.]t Y to overeeme
meaeut e ::;1:o keep
to var-Ious authoritarian
tam, hC)\oJ8ver!
in
pClWBT.
authori t.ar.i.an
and of
tends to
acquiescence,
historic~J F~clor8.
are
bD
ext ent
typicl3il
Thifd'--~'lDrJ d socil?tie~
we
Stl\~,
Was
a change in 1eader-srrip Sine!!) the chanqe the same 1"1 ierarchy f;Mr.a
~·H.lS FlO
eompant ed by the r~ se of a Malay m' ddle:-clilSS. t.he same st r uct ure in the socisl and all that
reI allons,
IJI'"O
wHhin
E.I'snsform·sti[m. whi en
typt~
Gesides1
st ruct
i'lOLiJ.d
forct:s
chartqe , 't.rue
file of
of tran~fprence
instances
SCI
much of the
WOl'J d.
Scmetime!3',
~~'3
,in
auccesaton
and achieved
••• 44
1n .some courrtr iesl:.hete pH have evE!'1'Ibeen alterat.iom.. of Indi of pm~eJ' accom-
as in t he caae
a fteI:
a.
0 ftenlimes
hO\'ieVer, Leader-ehtp
moa-e
OCCUI:S
a bloody coup.
patt ern
remains
the aame ,
\'Jhy
of all
the problems
stabs
F.lrat,
lliid-seventies
to remain
OF
C(lUI'SB"
wi thi n the
0 tl
capi l al i st sy:;::terrl.~
the
L,thAt
threatens
- as '
of a
!;i,e-vel'€!
cr isi s .
whic.h pruducerl
t.hoae cornrnoditiss
that
thf! system
midc:Ue-tlas5
loyalty
the pG:l'petl..Jat.iarlt
Second, as in the case. of the .iridependence elites" of the posi:-69 !;>t~h: al.sn posees.sed certain
keep them
about
is no denying that
what.ever recognilion
is still
some concern
there
about sod al
a sense
is still
bal ance
cor:ti.mre loal1
for
sOIl1r5 disSBI")E.
for art.Ieul
as a ~lhole in thetr
filer alItes
At t he sarnA-'time provide
substanUall~/ gi'lleii its
\oil
I: In
n thei
mlF'i rank-and-
the poat-69
leaders
done. we11to
\'fhicn in turn
s st.ab Ll
has contributed
in particular.
system
I
dominance
vital
to
the
it y ~
•••
t I.;
I'
notgi
its
the
repression"
as has
of
- is
0 f C(18ccinn
leadel'3
to
rein furce
I:JH~l.r ov~r'l.;tlelm.iillg
as
J.t ex i sbs at
-
point
in t ime alao
tends
1::0 t avor
th~ ~t·81te.
of unquestioning
'I: heu"
on - wcrks to I.:.headvantage
mrn" qr an I: past; cent :i.nu~s as eU,llir, secIJrity is
~hBnge.
This
8 fteE
again
benefits an inter-ethnic
:.;ts
,G!
coaliLion
which promises
111 such
sthni:
fe8~
f.l
~"!E'lc;uri r_y
cul tUI'e of t()~al
of
w~y that
chanqe
Thi.s is
to be el>::ped.8d in because of
apprehenar
to
chsnqe,
state
t a f t.hE!se
i t s con-
there
the
~.d,abil..l,ty is
has hac
110 _l OI"lQ'S'r'
llre crisis
l.he
in l.errrat Lonal
weSiknes~es
oapllmism
0f
- a cr i 81.s W1,Jch in
system
;end
w.nl
fUl1dSlmentaJ,
t.he
enr .ir~
e aevare
Industrial
fi seal
HlP,
fOl.'thcOIIli.1l1j
because
of
policies
Independence
fiowever,
in 1957.
me re
signi flCar"lt
'Chen the
an bernational
SYBhenn
that Malay
'."Iitl'11n fvlalaysl!JiIl
ru r~l
pcpua
i t se l f.
0f
• • ii46
corrlJptiollClr;,d ting
d.i,scriminaU(jJ1
\.tflt
lly a ffiHGti
un,
I hey
are
reac0 r Lhe
i ce s in are
At
nOJl-~·1tllay communities
beginning oasaa ,
parce j, ve. as
fj
by e·""pre.8 5_L thE! ir' gr ,1 ng evance s on srec:L sent irnen t~ ale pr ov Ld.iriq
fl
e soc i.n-
sharper
edg~ to social
These
p.robElst.
f,1:r~
pruce-sse:;;:
S:i.~JIlS:.
in turn
suppor-t ad by a so.
ql;o~~ilf1g
~~O"rking-el,
f-IS8
~'{hich is
begin-
ning
to show
of l'EJstlGssne
The middle~.d8ss
i 8 aI GO ex.panding
Co:rnp8 ti
1: ap i ell
Y and is
ng pn I i H cal
i t;es NiH
i dBOdi Scovel'
10g1 BS and
economic
~\s t hi
fl
be
of
SLlr@
in
or
elites.
If in the mi dst
for a si~ni
and Il10bHity
91ah~ itself
wUI be In per.i l ,
effecr._L vel y d8SiEB
p ~
be fore
here
will
have
to be Ina5siv8. social
For chanqe
among all
sectors of society.
acenar] o , Re --~ ......t Ions f'Lec .!....=--:.... .......
(I)
rhe ascendancy
0 fa
JL P:El,dAfShip
in
have nat
(2).
has been
ed by fur-ther
of the various
challe~g~s confronting
( 3)
brings about all sorts of structural chan~es which~ in the long run I threaten to undermine the .system·
i t sa I f.
(4)
capitalist
system
t houqh
bne
the Nalaysian'
in
economy in p~rtici;laf
state
has maMH]ed
IOf UB ElSGlr'3
to
v:·ar. ty ie
capitaH.st
(6)
In
o-f p'ol i-
t ieal
i$ C-J,'wcial.
· .• 48
Ethnicity, _ Development . ... .... ...... .......... ClBss ""'.and ...._'-= .....__ .",_,~-"......".,..:... MaIaysh! .....:.."""' .."._ ..... Sains 50sia1, 1964.
Gull' ck I. J. ~4.
l~~~2~~2~=~~~!!~~!I!_?~~!~~§ __ _!::!_~~~~~E~~~~!~~~ .
_ .... "....._ ...... __ ...... _,..,_. _= .._ ...
Strucl:u.r.es·
.".,...,--~ ..................
and Dependence ,
..... _ ..... ..........
r!~~~E!!::!E1~~!J_ ~~~l~~~~ _~[!~~~e:L~~_~!~~!~!:~ _2f_~~~ ~ 2E_ ~~Y~!l1' _!!J_~~~~~E:~!:~_ ~·~!~~.!~~~~!2~_~!!!~1!~~~ ~2!~Y _~~~!~tl··
1
Chandra.
AliI'an~ 1979.
(UecembBr, 1981).
· . ~ 49
DE VELOpr'1ENT , SOCIAL
--
011
..... _--
--- - --_.
CSHe
S.
This paper
H1I51N All
tl~e iinp~cts of t.he on social stratification 0 f' and imp1icElti()n~ de·vcdopment
first
of all
polilico-economic
!rir;-d ethnic
t"elat.:Lons,
the stratification
of
the
oount ry UsEil f. in
the other
d5 acuas 'transand
nationalization
aspect.s which
arid the
st.ate ,
a f aoc.i.al, in
strudtlrfjll
n uence
For the p resent , the paiJel~' will on t.he national "be dons
,
attempL:ing
iHhicf i 'i'ti 11
strati
ficat.ion in the
syslem
'~!ake
0F
t.tco ..ecenorui.c
tlevel opmerrt
which
too,k pJ ace
11!estern co l ord.a.l
I ul e ,
Tradi t.i ona l. ~181ay soc i.ety \"las baaed al thoLlgh soms PI' imi.t i ve forms
'0 f
illainly
on an
economy,
ovltlsrship of agric'uHlirtll
the Land and thus bhe peaaant s not work thE! land
themselvf;is;
(b) Lhuse who ope-r6l'ted Hne land. and
~·(hD
,product
served
to (a);
(a) either
services.
· . ~50
1388io.8'$
land!
(b) of
mdning
or barter trade.
18
The
on retaining
personal
retinue
and also
for
the purpose
of personal
WOI"J~H1d OJ!
aggrandis·Eime,nt.
J.
in
t:
ice agE'i
Cl.ll:tule·
.and fishing.
'1'1~®ds,
0
They
Q, f~:en
opened and
just
.enouqh
~o metat the
their
since \'iorcls,
thBirs was s
sutbsisb:~1IC'6
duce surplus
WBli"C
'For exchange
or sale.
these
in cat.eqory
they
1
especiaLly
I n return
for their
services,
,
·slIster;18tlct':1s.nd
·Httle(llhrl:..uG.
stroLL'fica
Hen,.
I l: . S common to divide
I
t cadi t i.ona.l
socle.ty into
\',no
(Z~!:,S1_~::~~Ei~~~~)
y forming apex
Q
and
those
are
t.he upper ol.ass t const sted thi.s c.I ass Neh~ ..the val'
't61ri'Hori1El~ of the Sultan.
iOLJ3
.thnSs
n cat.cqor.y
'( 8) above.
PIt the
most
of whom
as the nobility
power .
~",hic.h they
ccul d control
E;:
l'e90Ul""CeB
this,
0f
coul.d
snhance at at
LIS
mor.e
of tlheir
econonu
Tha nature
social
or ex tent
Vl~S
811 y and
6.Dili ti as ami
('01'
the class
it
18
to as the comeon
and (c) above.
(E.~~t§~).
Thin class
both
... 51
Econom.ical1.y ~ the there ruled exi st.ed 'them. common people were more
OT.'
less
any
equar
aile!
La one another,
tllP. nob.i.l l Ly uho Ihey depended
Ilut
entirely
a wide' doss
soci.c-eocnomic
Pnl i 1:icall)i,
power ,
10 f
Lhe: pal.rorraqe
the. ruling
of
particular
Sultan
or
'tihorn they
from a: iother
fight.i.l1g ccul.d
ftClIll
nl ass
SBI'\e
time the-ir
to time be forced
r'ul.er
than
S
tile in!3b-
cut ion
cocvee
to serve
to
1.n t he avant
the rulers,
f'
Sccaa.l Ly r they
wer·e
nnd t- he languaqe.
rqm~r
word'
was often
HeIf-degrading;
01'
r'or ex~!nple ~
per son
such
ms hamba (slave)
e§~~~ (dog)_.
fi-caUoll
0f
i,-,Ias
largely lil ked ~·Jith this, mode of ',.,;es n.o't static ,. I\t one stage
t t
pr educt.Iurs.
as in the power ful, and
~1a1.w sac-lety
Plrmnid, series
.
with
the:" S-ultafl
Il1inclI'
at the
at
the
boHom,
S~I'V
ti ve
in
r~ediators.
in' 1511 right
runebeentn
!MaS (Ji
~;jF1tegt abed,
V~r-.iOlJS
e.ac-f, of
thti3'm fOT'rrdnQ
apex, of
a series
repI'Emcnlir.rg
t heir
the
var.ious
Sultans
and
ch i.afs . t.her'e
From the
l'f:'_
question
SOIJfCes..
'maS
of political
18gitin~acy
Y
Slid
or from cornpeti\I;i-on
dragged them, all 6'xtensive tllJ't they into
wer e 0 nen
and so
there
unhelpines8
C!if,JOllg
underwent
to this
stHI'ctUl'aJ. spans
ttakB of I~riti.sh
of Poduguee,B
t'8VB
did nat
much impect
on the t 'aditioflsl
social
~lructtrre.
iii
ii
it>
52
J ud i.o i.a 1,
and so
For til.
mining d~velaped
In some of the
'fer l . l e
31:':'0
8 r'aas
l'tere
encouraged
to plant on small-holdings. Wihtin h@rdly ~ quarLef of 8 century, this country had become tha world's leading producer of Un and rubber. The quick
pace of acunorni.c d~ve'lopment.
ni,s tz-at i.nn ..in c iv U ~
(488
j udf.c i a.l and aecur i t.y mat mEli ntaining pc I iti c al slebHi t.y and pr-nv -eli ng j
econorm.c CjI'owl:h. A flew educat Ion system
conducive
For
CDI'pS
\-I.as developed
to nroduce
Df local people requir~d to man the various sarv'ces, W'tl, all th8SB chsngesf trwmB end ports
beqan t psp:r
ing up to serve
as centr-es for
tical activities. A network of roads were built tD link diffsr~nt aress or pl.aces for the purpose of faeili'ti3Hng administra't' on and "trall(Sporting econcni ic
produce.
MOtl'E1Y
seefjin9
I
from the
.
urban
centres
into
t.he rural
all
perIpher i es ,
types
ID
Var_lm.lE
kin-ds ofshQPs
business.
F arnalI
scale
The economy
and also
metvopo.us.
All ~heRe led to two importsnt ch~nges in the social btructure. riistly! it formed ~ plural sociBty in M~layai~. Sj6ondly, it stimulated th~ gtowth
of
Fi~W
an a] t ered
soc1.al straLificat
Tlese
ion
systen1,
Let
When th~ bin mines and~stat~$ wer~ ~pened~ were not recruited by the
I
I nat.ead
and the
:groups
COr1t
rae t 1 abourer s
Ch.ina , t-hsI'here
India
.and South
work- ~E rubber
lar.tE!I'IilB
t In rrli.nel's.
Indians, who w~re absorbed i~to same gpvernm~Nt departmen t/3 t such 9S pub l Le works 1 pnst; and railways. B~es;j,des. these worker.s, t,heI'e I,.mre also other Chrneae and lndian .immigrants . 'r'lho came on
t.h sit
0f
t he eccncmy ,
The f1 n·w 0 f
..
Ii
53-
~hl" LoLal
pDpulatiofl
ill
Peninsu.l·a
",talo.),sia
11.4
Wll11
Len,
mads up
j 'n La.
~ertain pattern in the demographic an~ acrup~tian91 ~ore t an a third of -he populnLion In ~he Meloys are le~aL urbanlzod,
1'.lhile the are in
C'lit1rH-H~ ~ tOIIJtlBj
(25.
t:i~.n of
have
I
'them m
with
about
(56. f1 ,'fl)
I
~hle
betwEen,
with more
than mainly
turs,
EI
! II j rd (£11. 4-~~)
In the
nHfI1l'!l Y
J
elt;ltas
uhich
pn~dOO1lnant1'Y
thB rurel Malaya are predominantly rural Chinese tapping I nrJj sns are
!TIl!! i.n.l
1n padi snd rubber ogricuJlu~ , the afld vegetable gudsnillg. while t he rural
5imi1 arl Y.I cccupa Uons
SHBociBted with the urban areas. such 89 labouring and management Fadm 1ng, ccnst,r uct ion end
But I n the gClvBrnm~"t
Ina,]or J ~ y..
in manu-
are
mainly
I
in the handa a'F the 'Chine::!JEl. the ~'Ielay cnns't i.t ute the 9
The demDg:raphic
and m~eupat.iClnal distr Ibu [liOn among I:I"p'· d i fferent r-eligiofl and cuatnm, stratification ~ E!X trmsi Ve chanqas of the tradi U onal strata 'of society.
8
thasB rrdated
to language,
Returnin gto
the question
WB,I
of social upper
0f
modi fieation
t ructur e and
ena,
At the
first
membeI'~
The Sultans
were: stripped
ami
and other
Brad
ceased to
t;lleit'
be in\foh,ed
admin.i:swerE!
departlllents
and
"1i?maS1ed by
~lfJlay administrahll'S
al.ways played
secnnd
After independence
paop.le who expanded the
from the
ranks
service the
corps,
vlho eithe·r
werE! permittr:::li,
\'Jh' Le in
cf'f ica,
Unite~
~talays Nationel
fLsht fDr neticnal independ~nc~. Same of them senior civil servants~taking place of' their British out through the process
eeonorui.c growth took
df Mal~yani~Btion.
a
pl aC'B. at
rather rapid
c.l ase
torho
pace,
prdses.
I'lith
fe~\' except.Lona,
did not,
LJ&e
most
ruling
it for
inv~sbHentill
areas
of bust ness'
endeavDur.
to Bee unul
but thI'Dugh
they
0f
hard work, good business EJut thei r contro1 capi.t.a.l , ChinssEl of the
manipul-ations"
th[)h
own estates;
later
formed
always -beI!H-.ess l
that
of the
the
number of thsmalso
of them
~'1@1 an Indian ay
Halays" participation
ElC'tivi.ties
beginning.
~\ er H DBvelopmeflt. the
COl.lnCll
to encourage
Rur-al .and
Indusf.ri.a.l
~ through
I.:y (RIDA)
on ,9 slilgh:Uy
(NEP)
hrg!3T
scale
lrltraduction ethnic as wi U
LB.ading of them.
DB
foJLlm·J'j, no thE!- tr aumat re intlHa policy of ~his purpose. the apeedy qrowth
to as the Hay lJincident, bed to encourage ent erpr ises were set up for
t"lalay c F;lpibd is ts ;
At
vms open
wider.
fur
t [I par+Lcipat.e
successful.
01'
As
bondsmen
fL1Jl:'
.~8·S ~
the
clI'h'J'
B~O Fighting
feUewing ~ the
fhe s:oeia,l
strud,LJrrs
(~!~!:J~_~~~E~~~) also
rubber and educat.Lonal 'r land
of cash c:ropslike
emonghhern
or
IM'it.1n
econ61f1Y and
O'Nn~'r.sand
at.
Smile
Land
fl'()'~
the peasants.
lage and
~lhereas th~fT5
have al Nays.·
to dispf)s€!
of
who weN
legal the
forced
F tlebt,
have
in~
oaused
D1'
at Lon increcase
of
.gfO'L!pS
to
In
the \!ill~ges.
being
of
who have
Li tt l.e
Thus!
no
.accumulale
Land begar.lto
01'
between
sharecroppers
shcpkeepere
owner-s ,
rural
Some of these
also
members forming
in lhe
of t.hgl. psasant.ry.
ear l.rar ~ manyl::.owns and Indust r Jes had grown ~ which opened up new oppcrt unities for
and
a Ffic@ boys,
uni·formed
for
as work:el's,
B
so forth.
ftrit .:l.ndep®nch!':riC0, ~
9I'f3Vf
,t 11E:numb@I' of workers
Lndus tr
newl.y
services
established
rHfferBntgov~rnrrl)~f1t
the growth
early part Df British colonial rul~J immigrsnt work~rs were brought f~Dm Incaa and Chin,e. [)ul aft er irdependen,QB the tEl t'la~ more movement from rural
j
to urban
;li
\11th the
;§Sf;D!Ilid
a dellbstsh! policy
to enceuraqe
1,.56
of t~81ay
workers have bB~n increasing very f~sL since then. although Inc! an workers combined still C:Dn~titLJte tile majority.
Perhaps the most striking
change has
pI'Bviously
in the traditions.!
areas , ther s have come Into and the aal ar iat., alb~it. in this
1end mm~rs,
shopkeepers
like
in
clerks. a large
or govl8I"nment
lie's
velL'y
p.I.'O-
nuch in behie~n
doctors,
LJ
j!
fmgJneet's,
etc. than
iel
th~' economic
the position
f Iridi.ans
o ... r al L proportion e
in theseJ
popul at.Inn,
illg
categories,
gUVEl1."f"ll'lent
By contrast
adminishaU
1_1(:1
segment of this
or
gr.owth but al so
judiciary.
t
of other re18.ted
service;
(a)
The Upper Class: made up of (1) the nobilitYt (ii) leading government politicia~s and administrators, or businessmen~ And (iv) successful proFessionals. Those in category (i) are ~xclusiv81y Halayj in (ii) mostly Malay~ whilB • those il1 cat~gClry (iii) and U.v) are mostly Ilon~
Mah~ J the majority
Df
whcl'1Il'!ElI.:1E! Chinese.
••. 57
are
and associ.aUons.
forming Front first
For eXBrrtph
the Government ..
p~rtner-
or
j Clint
venture
and
or ex-t:!ivil servants hav~ bEicome directoI's or .sePl.ior .xecutives in some of thB big non-Malay companies. Socially some members .of the uppercla8s are also
B.
g. the Royal
Selangor Golf CIlJb~ t.he Lake Club or even some cevert penthouses. (b) The Middle Class: m~de up of (i) middle range gpvernment
fessionals, \\lhereas,
technical
that- of thl;lmedical,
~xarnpl~.t (ii)~
are non-Ha Lsya but. the ~·ta]6Y ccmpcnent is incr.ea~ing. As f'or these in category
(i it) they are still most 1y rwn-Hal.Erys,
but
fullowinq phenomenal ,
share
(i)
8.
A large
supporters of the governing political partlBSj either t the state nr dj_str.i.c't levels. As for
thOSB
in category
(ii)"
·,dthou9h
qui.t s
900(J
0f
the governing
in
Slign.i f'icant
al So act ive
the oppcsf.t.i.cn,
of
Soc.i al l.y , in
eIubs , e. g.
(i) the
ment Qr uniformed ssrvicesJ and (iii) warkers in commer~iBl end industri~l ~nterprises. A big
maj ad t y o f thcl'S~ . n {l} and (ii) are M,alays, there are some Chil'1€se peaaant.s
EH,:
but
in Dertain in
·3.
v· 1] ages
number
working
Iabourere
they
where the
!?SEl'·
mil at ed,
same time
cl
t!3S,
cooperstionl
such as strikes.
dominantly Malay peaBant~ and th~ largely ChinBBe workers~ the~8 is a gr~at social distance, ~nd oftsn
their ignorance 'Of each other: s value's
i
have hd to
stereotyping
and suspicion
amonq them,
features
CRil
he ob~erved
be
system.
Firstly
there
seems to
an
intsr-
and class:
an
n the system.
The ethnic
c:QhJrrln is
factor
in
divid~s
vert ieal
tlJrn sub-
rapre:sBflting
Bcl1nic gr'oup.tCach
• " • 59.
smaller
~,ElrJi'le
parts
represent
At the
ere also
o cu t across
EI['
cl ass
interethnically.
S
the
II e r: t tc
at worK on
nemal y ,
the forc~ that pulls towards'ethnic interest and ~clarieation and the one that pull s accQl'ding t~ class int srsst. Undsl' t.he present drculI'Is t.anea it appear s -that the e-thni.c pi.Jll is much st ronqer, III Hala}"S' an pnl Lt .i ca novi,
ethnic:all y~based raci.s.l policies
,
political
OI'
part Ies
8.:r'0I
rel at i Yely
e ~PQl.lsi ng cl ass
difficult;
because
'the horizontal
class
lines
1s net
cut
SCCl'OSS
the
I/ert.ical
in each strat.uff1t
may be eoncent
membership:
confin.ed
Indians, atc , ,
Thusvthe
fllJnt::tiQn.~.
on ethnic
Golonial
et,~~mlic to
Df
part Leul.ar
could be
during
the
regarded
p,oHtlcsl
ex
that
country,
S!trat i f:H~ation. \leverthrHe~3, there is pI'eValerrr belle f arn'ong9t1ii'1~ the Malays h.el d pnliticsl power , \'/hile the ChinBSBt:.h.e economic one ,
is
fallacious,
simply
becauee
in I'8ality
8
the
small
economi ca lI y
~tel1.
I t is this
forms the cure of the upper class, and remains far apart from the other especi~lly
thB
lower class.
Now we maya on to the second question in thls paper, whic is: what 1s ths significance or implication of the stratification and ethnic systems for socio-floorlaITIic development? Do the systems hc lp to stimulate ell' constrain
• •• 6U
the
pror-uea
fair
d i atr iblJtion
.0 f
the
that. during
per-Iod,
members of
by virtue
of
or
their positiont
could
beth
O'l-Jninterssti'
\'4'hic:i1 they
atths
British
\'Jsakened the
fEudal
al.ruct.ure
development
st r uc ture
pro
the Br I t i sh of
89C10-
r' r s
to
0f
Undoubtedly, towns
aconomic
but this
a t the
ex panse
of wldElmi:ng eccf.n-economi.c
and viUagep
dch
themselv8sthera
Landl eea,
or
I'Iere groups
market
at
of peasants
same time
economy arid
or were rende.eed
\'lel'S
the
of
the
nob i lit.y
educated
treined
chanqes
be ~bsorbed Int o
cl aas were unab.Ie to take hEld the oppor.tunity able to accumulat;e they were able
'ollith ne\~ p[]litico-adII'lJni.straUve
advant.aqe their
f the
nel-l
l'
those
,
al.ready
privilegei,d
ru.l aa and
funcUon.
Some of them
from differe.nt
\-.ras nothi:rlg
industries
compared
and business.
to acquire
Th~ point
of the
is that
in
thr;: upper In of
the
class",
the strBtifled
r
does not
di,stribut.i,.on
growth r in feel
inequality
Independence.
suppressing
nizations IUli1atlcE!
r
t adi.cal
groups
of F:reedom f'ight(j!l's
~lCA and t,llC.
orgacf the
til'fle.
the British
0 f' U~'iNO;
out earlier,
the leBdBfship in this party was made up of strong elements from the upp®r
· .~61 class, such as the ex-civil 'ssrvw,ts (some of whom has ~oygl connedtions)~
b uainensman l'Ierp. quite Ullllks and
jJ ro
f'B8sionals
econcmf.cal and
Ly these
people
Ni th
radical
I:he Malayan
was Nilling
economic
in the capd ba.l i.st. sector tO~'ia]['dB put3.IJing B1' tish i by those ear.l i.er-,
the read to eapj.Lal i st. development. The capi t.a l.i sl system in the. ~\.lliancB
it
WJ;l,s
was already
allowa
keen
who control the means of production over the. new ,!:'ul:Lng cl ass
quo! this net only· because
Vla~
d i trieuIt
Ol~n
and
:systmu could
serve
th~ir
c.l aas
interest, Aner indepennet"lce the government invested large amount s of money both in the public and private ~ectar. It also inviled foreign inv~stm~nt. And
so roads
j
bUildings
and
bridges
1·lere cO(:lshl.lcted,
jUFl~lles cut
nown
for y,
their
loggin~ or devBlcpment
unl imi.t ed field
mnst ofth@m pol
j, t ieal
was 61mD~t an
Irlitia,ll t.hrough
links
e:rnment
re-warding eont.ract
lv-ill ing to
jobs. cut
Sometil1l1t3'8
they obtained
II1a18Ys ",,'!lowers
in whal
I
is commonly
Chines,€))
some
Ali
of
obtain a result
while
eEl_pital th,er.e
Later as
directly qrm ..p of l
encouraged
enter
in bUfJiMSS
time
gr'I3~[ a large
capitalists
p8rt:b~8
rampant
1Tl1:lny or high
of 'I\!h.omwere pIaoes
B.S,
Irivo.Ived
ruli.ng became
some of
[_flE1leCldinrg
,
government
in
new ricJharnong
ChineslS
~·1C1st them nf
their
stakes
Of
in the ruling
especially tremendous
political
r'1I3'fit
the poor
Two y~us
IncepenIslamic:
de nc e , UMNOlost
· •• 62 Party
(PAS),
particularly
presented
in bhe states>
Not
only
Alliance
because
So the.
government
:i.rnfllediateJ.y launched ,
of chis plan
0f
ai~ of alleviating
major aspects and
br
91?lttJ
ement
replanting
luges,
and
housj ng FeLl' new set t.l.er s, and the cunat ruction \'H!!re given
ar[~J3s1
QU,S SQe
is}
'Eirfl(~niti.es
and obviously
f'r 01 11 among
the
hav~& and
the heve-nots,
with
'.
wi't:hif'l tha
to those wha forln
people,
The b~nefi
this
qUBstion
of soc>hl thet-1BY
For
Eo be lost
to be deet.rcyed ,
few days after the GBnE'!I'~lElection, rl'luch groul1d to oppmi.dt.ion prarties, The el.ecttcn
wiLh f'aciral
Net;ional
8S
in
hi'ghlJ"
chel'ged
lSi!,
or ethnic
issuef.i,
arid caused
great
,t ens i nna •
disBal'Vsd
h e gOIl81' nmen t
the
its Director.
Parliament
'Par'ty
1-185
NEP in a radio
l
speech. Front
after
about
more parties
lo form the
(NFl.
was enlarged ~
The Nf later
~lon convincingly
• .• 63
E!
set
IP.B
of e.l=c U nns
g
1n 19 jl'l.i!
11l
1 q7B.
at taus
und
1992.
and
~D
ronw"dt
L
he
11'H1S.
g~WfJ
rnaen t ,
llrula: [JrMV
U!]
pul re lua ,
progrFlmlU~fI ~ B8 p.mlmdi~d
TIlA 1- ow
['I
OIJj 6C r J vpa
o r i he Nrp fe 11owerJ b,
plens ~re ~
of
( a)
pcvwrty trr~3p~ctivc
rudune and
IiilVElntW611
Ru~l.ety t~
y with
0c!QIJO-
the
rdarrt.], fu:"aU.on
at hn
H::ll
mic funot!On.
PDVOlty
conLll,ue~ to be
l<url:!
seribu9 problem;
ali 11 hi gh. 19UO-83.
Incid~nr~ of pcv~rtyj
the Nr'P
rj()'V rclt'n-
espodu
11~' .i f I Lhe
1 e rOMS is
AH.ho~~gh s 1nee
doc line
fiqurea. yet it l~
['I.H'F:ll
b~hieel1
b it:;jl:]relst arncng
J:ubhs r
flIllH~lJ
he 1de re
from
'15.
I ng
deve
cpment,
plan,
bL':l
be
~{lurElgtfE![lUiii
pol
i.ey
upper
,,19sB
for- the
benefit
of the
lOWBI"
e.Iaaa ,
But
how
pol ioias
succeeded
in reducing Sincet~e
erad.i-
cat ing
pl"'ob!em or poyert y?
drsinage
and irrigatian,
Land,
and other
Iet
eriorrnnual y..
I.nCrfl<;lse: of f
to
have
annual
eI
those needing
al cne
wit h the
caridi tio,n
\o:)hohave managed
chanqed
no~~ e~:isting
by
t.o expcaa
to explcHati(Jn
tnDf1~y USe
fu.1! because
ths
concerned
to incrs8se output through double ~ropp1ng. e f the schemes lesn on.lv be de r i ved 1 f they
exisHnq pe8,€Iants
Q
benefit
iii the Lendl€-BS period
followed
fer
by chanqas
and
Q
sysbJl11s of
land
DWfl~ra.hiPr
tBIli8J1C)I,
marketing
so
rort:h.
ar a nut
aaeured
wh.kh
6us.l;.Qined
t,ilnL'l.
~o c)!ed
Alal tenan's
double
for
p lnq
pef:lS!lm~fl',
6C"InI!;
are
requ.i I'f.ld to
Lh(~
~hiHo
vlrtu!!Illy
har-d wm·k.
• ""
6'4·
be ovarccme
by a cornnrehens i.ve
r
l.hat
can
l'8moVs
and exp.lo.it.at.Ive
e-l at Ionstu.ps
which normal.Ly
social st.ructure,
areas,
those
in the
stratuITI
as land-
lnrds , middlemen
and moneylend(:n's)
vested
0f
do not f'avoor
intBrB5ta.
t.he
pr eaen t ru 1ing
thr=i
oppositior1
of land
I'Bfortn.
Indeed
Jt is
fit
grsat
pr ob l.em to eraby
perpehated
the st raNever-foJ:'
the survival
their
rural
In order
t.o get
masses ~ the
programme
,0f't en pr-esent.ad
its
controlled to favour
In its
lmp.1ementation
too ~ it as
lends
billing for
br
being monopolized
gfD1JPS
~h~t are
nus
exacerbat.es
i.nler-ethnic
8S will
be discussed
later.
RegarC!in-g 'the. objective of reshuDb.uring socret.y , then!,
81'e
two important
an-d control
aTI§),
of the
~ tile m.ajority
ar-eas ~ whereas
digtriblrHon
is a.lsn refl~cte!J
slrea-c1y
of the rural
Accol'dlng
than thos'sof
ar-eae.
Plan:
of
lohill
of p~v'i3,rty
Wag
highe~lt
Lture
(54. 9~~)•
were
t1$9'7~ /-
8FlO
11$600/- respect.tve.l v ,
houaehnl.d
fGT'
By 8thnir::
dist.ributJ an
the mean
Thus
incomes
~H 1;27I~ ~10lays~
SlEfas·j
Chinese
by 'sthnidty
thtl! Nalays~
who furm
Ui® rural
by and
occupational
t4A.lay.€
quotas
strong
into
pal ttica]
AlthGL!gh
this
resulted
yet
the'
those
by
recrui.Eed as
\'~Bll
the. higher
fOt'Bigr.l
Neve:rkMe.le.s.s,
rnoreex:-PQU as
local
senior
To add mer a t·e-eth t.o hh.i s ObJAdive.~8n by P8rH~menl:.7 for morel Malay pai'ticipat.i:r.m cbject i.ve of thE! NEP. I'U'I~~ to make SUl"1!! that
more
COCII'.cjitlat.ion
AtthBs"Srn'E?
·govefnl'ne-ntalso
SlppE'oprh.te
ground
D
\1hich C8"f1I·train
tMrn! in vclcations
It is
rioted
that
t:I'E!f"Illmber of
M®!rny e~ecuti¥es and m.n~gers in bu~~nesi being t aken t 0 Increase .their prnpor t Ien,
ih-el F cannot dons ~ for
whsre
~nd industry i® 1ma11~ ~teps But the rest ructur.i ng objecti or' uni verat
fOT
stop
their
the Chin®8~,
1TItJro
places
theyfihd
grea1ter
:i n the admibeen givan
~tD8t 'of
opportuJ!iUesby
nist·rat.ive
·s racial
t·1alay in the
·and by Chinese
ahI®'Ys
indi v iduaJ.8 .
the l1:wmber
0f
and :Llldus:hy.
HlP.
s tr;olig ncrps
cf
tha
the
clas.ses.
wi 11 be further
atr'enqthened
by the other
aspect. of the
s economy,
large while
tin those
and rubber Indust,r Les and ~omm{Jrc€, b-eing controlled years B.ritish Foreign capital has been F1I'oportioriEdl y
such as Japan, the t'1aley
British,
Over the
decreasin'i;l
from other
sources,
j
U. S. and
massea end the
Ne\lerthBl6!s~
foreign
indeed. arrd
Out
(J.
In 1970,
t~e total
ahare
ot-her Malaysians
(ma.inl y B1' t ish )..'. But ~y 198Q; 'the i of the tqtal share capf.t al valued at
I
mill Lon,
B
rose
6 7%) whil
increased
has set
up a f arget
for
that ctber
by 1990 the
~hat8
squit.y
o f' ·shQUld
be
3m~,
~~hile those
Al thcuqh
,to sh-efl'gtheli
the Nat i[)nal The
ent.erpr i ses
t:Juncil an d set
Ccrpccat i on (PE~NAS)
Urban De.... epment, Authn:t it y (L~DA .• el { pr laes was prnv.i deo by th,s government;
initial capit al of these fjublic enter;.. some o,r them have fo.rmed their own
:In established referred
cOlnp!lmies.
subsidiary
largely
companies responsible
nr brought desire
up shares
'for lnol'ea!;ling
the sbare
f t.haae
e,nterprisesttl
'But
_ •• 67
I'~centJy, Dwil1,g ~o 1naaaa ilicurI'ed~ mSI1Y subs i dial' ieS and projects by these bodies have been di recbed
govErmlient
undertaken tims
tzat.Ion
',0
bel on
new
closed down.
policies
/\t tile
SI"'!Cll
same
pr ivat
the
h9S
a.l
ao
as
of the public to the private Anterpris0 and Malays are encouraged sored to participate in the activitiBs ~lthin this sector.
Obviously inco portion
links
ar
spon-
}m6 of the
CCJUlltI'Y IS
\,JesUh
of the pecp l e ,
l.ha L
Hill
Bv~nb.mJJ.y be those
vfho already
USe
1:hey can
0
th8'ir
adv
iii
rirrns.
UPPB!'
Ellnprnant
the
signi ficant.
aer bed that
a handf'ul, in t.he
qBtlef'itted
As fer
c Icse.Iy
pr omtnent
arn'Qng
gQvernment
Leadera,
I
the dolreci.crs
execu t i VEla of vsr Lcus pub.l Lc and pr.i vat e ent.erp rices rul ted from Ihere serving
01'
is a possiiJility
f'nr capital
bodies to be eventually passed ever tp ~om~ 9f thesB individuals since th~re is a policy toward ~uch transfer. The strengthening of he economic b~se of
the ~1alay upper
gap between
BOci
class
effect
rich
of fu:rtller
Ir/idening
Bu ~
t.he economtc
til is peohLern of
di fferElilt ethnic
o-eocnomi c Imba.lance
b.8b·.Jesli the
grQup is net
as
much attentiol1
groups.
The NP Gove:rnm'~nt is fu.l Iy commit ted to the capf t.ali at "eve 1opmsnt; for
the Malays and the creation of a viabla group of Malay capitalists who can
stand
shoulder
high
alongside
non-Hal.eya,
especially its
thl!! Chinese.
modernisation
The basis
on vr';)stern
fnr
lioes"
Capitalism is essentially
'that! after
s t path, Nhich
6urprisiflg
• •• 60
capitalist
nt'll,,!s I inveat.or
eystemJ
sector is dominant.
B"G pOSGi
ThB policy b Le •
net 1'4atly onl y For
to continue
under
on
pioneer'
st8hlS
and foreign
open
10ce1 capitalists
tha t r.i.ch
t·r:[
to Dp8rabe
their
with
D~
I he indications
are
unequal d.in-
f rom econom.Io
aama uneven
proceus
~he position
of the strong
str~nge8t withtn
can
g1 vs r tse
1:..0
amonq Ehe
PtJCltp(Jn~d,
Ta some
dL'!:';gree this
y checked
or at least
the this
by pursuing
object
prbgramma against
Eii!;p~C'i:ally in Adrni ttedl of
the
poverty
ru;ral , pr.ogramme
uplj_F~nn7.intof
pOOI"t
Hr·C'as,
iV e
for
UiB t\~[P.
has
b rouqht abuut
SOITI~.irnpr-ovement
SOllie members
Imler
class
r per-capita
incomes
have
-shadily real
those
prH't
B.H:h-ough rapid
.irtcome :i ncr-ease'
.in thE! upper
ins.:i.gn cant. Hi
el aaa .Ls mcrre and
rates have rendereD the I S i nee at. thE! same time 'mrJ l'QV~ment amon.g
.inflation
faster
th~re
is
mcch ev Ldence
to sup-
Ion that:
po,or~:r.
when 'eXploitation
stronger .
. .s regards A the
second
mathnd,
,it seems
to depend
on playing
one ethnic
group 3Qainsl
the other.
of the smalr
ppor are Malays most Df th~n ~eing Ier , The p rob Iem
0f
in this
count ry is
f a class
II.ati:.H'B
0 ft.he
as well
to the
this
relative
af f'Luertce
among the
Sarna of these
p.olHic:iarl8,
iSSUE!
of sither
t he uppel' or
0):"
mitldl
El
c less
arae
in a.rt"ler to gain
support
often
gIven a racial
r h.ey do this
by
twi~t. The
uppearInq
class.
ruling t o canoy
class they
Ui€l
0 fter1
imag~ that
t~alays.
r
po l iciEls
and middle
This origlin.
Cl"l3iatBs
In
disl'5i8:i:.isfacti.on,
qropps
t.ry t D
whip up thesuppol't
language and
cul tur a,
illstanee
\1ays
happens!
the
!,~oes and
sorrows
grolJp .is
ill
blamed
another.
ter'leion saem.lS: to
it.s
outward
ptn'~ua are
f p,e,opl@ v,'hich is
g.toUp~ of
in c-omposJ..tion. into
expanding
Pflople from
pre.g8U"l·e~ they
whip up 'support
!9
i SSIJ~$ that
ffHctive'~
The
or. ethnic
Lasues.,
element of the
is
cannot
last
very' long.
A,9 it is
government!
slQ~'il'y., since!
U rb
iF1dep'erlden.c e.
l
Meanwhile,!
ths, lower
nJO I' e
m~.in 9 t:. 0
h Pr"i:Jce ss<ss a B
'0'oI:k~rst
indust.rialac:tiClnsj
t skan by
the l;lI:!tter.
As this
kind of devel-
it. is possibl
e. that
while the
con f'l.Ict
baeome dearer
side. On the other hand, more interesting although sDmetimes d~ngerDu~ devel.
to un fold
8l5pl;!.ciaH y the
peasants
in
.7D
by t he peasants
LO express
thf.' 1[,
!,'H,)C'l CI-I."t:orn::III'!ic
aer
es of UltHJal sixtfles
1980
l'(;mped
cp~ning
Iva Il' .AI
of I and
and paeannt
demonshouqh
in 8il1] i ng-Sik
1-hey received
imn1Bd.iRLe inn.
po I ley
,!'unnvwy
in n
Dt
T 11~S8
mellhl
and
ih~
AJ.'1 n whole,
'f"l"'tl"t"
rmrLicuhr
the
lhe the
fum~nnl51
l n l.ht: i r
j 'l;JhBrg
net
QovernrflflOlt
I:;'fHlcm1ic
r·lrtlHias.
In reI J ity.,
e('lr]
QUS
thee
ar
e 00
y 'he
h!dinq
and Qrow ing
he IIow
t ham
accfu-econon
he pe06~1l try
i qn l fi canl,
is
U'tl'l
then",'
r~~.U
(H:lSHI:!SS
have
110 l;
been
ex-
l hruuqh
LBi:'IIlS.
1Br-ger
mlH',emenb;:
Spearheaded
l<ediJh, I<ehmhm
the
as t.hal;
'They
he l Ieve
or
development in
fa:i.th
it among tlusto
thB country.
the}
ennt.ertd
lhetE
is [hev
naed claim
at cenqthen
But
an
Islamic
government.
that their
there
struggle
aed
011
pr
incipl,es
ar a many ~plinter
groups
militancy.
giou!~
is
SPP'I%J.l S t
shoo
frlist
1 ndi.c
at .Lons that
movement
OM 0 Fths
reaol'l9f1 t. S COl1cDtning
an 0Pl1os' Hun is
aesoe i a led
of
Otll:'
sect Len
ruling
or
It c~n
[hEl
Hit 11 th~
e l ass. hi nnt.ut-a ,
J t may be Bald
, in an inter-uLhruc
a.
S3 '.... '011 as
onrd l.he
Ctlp ij
~ st r nt i rled . t::IDI:~iel~
1 JLh Hala)'s
deve l opml!ir1tEll
t t:ll n!3 t
· • .71
path can, i.n the short run ~ ·caLl·S8 great e I" inequality whc;g-re l ass di ff'e rencee c
e.l aas displaying If co·mposiUon. behieun
regions
and
al~rt.ructur·a
conactousriaaa
class then .solidarit.y H \'iould be
\-lith each
greater
'hi$ happens,
owndfl:ss
interest"
and
ea-sily
At the
deceived
earns
time,
will
dhH.:)ati8-
allthsse
countr.y.
I'
COl;1~1UN ITIES
] N -_DEVELOPMENT; CASE =Slum [5 ........... ........... .."..--,_, _-."",-_.-=--._ ..... .... .....,._ --..,
R~\MAN
PART O~[
that is spearheaded
soc.i et; y has left This study
commuru t i.as ,
wn 1
pl~ntation workers ahd sq~~tterB as Lwa communities whioh ar~ ~ntrenched in a cvc l e 0 f persisteir"li't pov ar t.y.
The p.l antat.Lon
H br"ought cap.i tal,
of politicU
colonization;:
CI:BSb:"l
to"g,ether to
economic
which have remadnad basicslly In many Sout heest Asian econemres economic}, spc i al, and poli-tical
the
onslaught of time.
Hie p Iant at Ion 5e.eto!" brought the' count ry and has thus tures and the
naj.ur
di ffere:nt
r.aces
f peop l
f.['()tn
d.i f feI'"ent
It introduced new cropa into det errnined the popul ation~. eXi st ing social at ruc-,
e c f the ecormmy' of the, c'Owntry. the whole enviromuenl whicll the. peuple of
this country hav~inharited and it ia perhaps the clearest~ most dynamic 8xaMple of the process of tr8n9natio~allzatiDn through a Mistorical
per sp ectl V e,. Quite seen as the apart from the p.lant at ion economy; the squatter problem can tie
of the
qnvernment ,
· ..n
DElvelopmClrlt P rqjeGts' di sp.Lace 1-_ T,~d.ili anal
cornmun i t Ies, +.e Ell' ing
self-reliant,
the labour
market
~~n highlight 1.
forces
problem aa a product
that
set
Gut to
modlBl't1ize
the economy,
s[]ciet y, I'd th emphasis on t he USB 0 f' of 'the pr ope I'.t_i ed c;ommutlHy. to reduce
the
coe
.leg1;llsIJj1p.rs,tructure
c1El~8 Wlli
of peonl e moving
o f constant
of transnationaliz;;ltion
can be seen
in the squalor;
sickn®es, and suffering frD~ this senseless m~splacijment of re~ources. There is much tcom for a re-exsmination of our policieB~ prioiities and per-spect.Ives l-litln respect to development.
•.. 74
PART
rwo
or
PLANTATION WORKERS
[)f
mill ian
wQrk~rs, of wttich almost 60% in tubbe~ estates end 37% in pelm oil eS~Btes~ (Labour In~icatQrs 1981 - 1982). Indians constitute th~ majority (09%), fOllowed by Malays (38%) and the Chinese (13~). (Malay~ian 8usiness~ 1984'.
Palm oil expor-t earnings From the
and rubber exports
'together
accounted
,Of the oount ry in 198) {Economic Report timB' of the exodus chanqe still
They
of
s.ufrer
from rn'alf1utri~
ticn Ind drink to forget the mis~ry of thef~ hollow existanca. They know little about their labour rights and are ea~ily exploited by plantation
managements.
Rotting educat.i.orta.l
houses , poor
,end limited
or
their
(,:Vii
til
rubber
of he.ving to
monbh.l.y earnings
creased
plant~tiCln Labour force have d~frolil $32& for .rubber and $ 2'611, f'(JI;' palm oLI in 1980
of the
to' $266 and $258 re:spBd i vel y tn 1983. Rubbe'l:' n.esea:rd, plantation
although
Inat i tut.s
figures
the'
work$l"s!
inflation)
has risen
only 3~~
(!~~_~~,~
§t~!i~~_!!~~§ 5. 2D.
•.. 75
It
Is l.her ef'or-e
10\'1
no ~"ondeI' 'that
of r:mvel'ty
Accordill']
in
t.he plan-
tation
ys
ar-s,
in
l D the
increaSed 19fJfl)
P'Iarr,
povert.y
From ,35.1~6 in ]9 BO to mor e than The p.l ant at.inn leaving lUtle
01'
all
h'
income
on food; medicine
t ransocrt.,
educat Ion,
plant.'a'!:.ion workers
legacy
him to on his
having
environment.
the- p.larit.at.Lona,
little
chnrce
but. bJ continlJe·liv
t o lie- in
the
aspects
Vt"rl"itol'y.
R. 1.
in which blocks of people ar~ treated as unitg and are ~~rched through a set of regime,ntatioll under the surveillance of ehe small ellp~rvi(imry staffll. (Beckford~ 1982 1983)
j
labour
frt~quenHy
int.hsi:r
exposed
open
to var.Icus
dangers
in ruober
weeders
applying
they
\l.ih81l
and headaches,
r "hi,ps
of bark
from rubber tra~s hitting their ey€s while tapping and p~lm oil harV€~t~Ts
have been injlJre~ from tile' 'thorns of f811in~ 'fruit bunches and palm
leave5.
• , ,76
80
a haven
for snakes,
sccrpIons
~I,lork.
fOE
Al though
country, his
worker
the
weI fare
gets
scant
ignored.
rights
as
human being,
to a decent
is alnlQfJt always
neglected or conveniently
Basically
t.r
the
at ate acts
en behalf
altho-ugh
it
i8s 1:.D pia)' 9 balallcing role. ThB prE'iis!mt trend in Halays is however is increasing state ownership of plantetionB. Permodalan Nasional B8rhad~ a
qovernmerrt; cmnpiiLny has now bought
and is
S(~ndirifln
['j,e-rnad
the
largest.
sharehol der' o.f Hj_ghlaf1d~ and Lowlands (Se'e Table 1). among t he top
are ami 6th
as ranking
occup.i.ed the
the
3rd,
'third
five
t~t , h
rat {ngs .
is the HEll
first. at
Phil Ipp.ines
M $50 million)
and K'urnpultm
(Q~~~~~~:!_I!~~~~ 2.9,,12.1984)
The govertimsnt t icn ~taterevenue
I
s direct r o.l e
t·1alay:s:la
H
ill the
economy base
sa to tJwn~d plant
0f
Ieadinq
in theB~
questions
V~ i] 0 f Um Hed
the' acquf.s.i ti on n f
answ'p.l'S
satisfactory
degrading'
have to, be
living
faced
by the
dispoSSI3SS'E3d c Lasaes
of plantation
workers.
• •• 77'
I I.
---------------------Due to the
ron
l-lOllS ING
of their live
thB
nature
to
cccupat.i.on,
plfilrrtsti.Dril
by the,! r ernployers
i.~ there fore
prov Ideo by
is al.so a legal
19&2 Labour
Indicatar:s for
Peninsular MalaysiB,
BJ% of coconut with
t.ea plantation
r-esps(:tiv,dy
were provided
free
housing.
an average
w(JI"ker3\·rer~
not pro-
the
room
(J ft x 6 rt).
measuring small
and play.
130 sq.
arid 'li\/ing
,
children have
conditions
cramped
household houses
norma]
ly comprises
houses
an ave-rag@! of is .~ 10 and
pel' sons.
MOIst
f these
are pte-war
and dilapidated
Al thouoh
condition.
tile IaN (Tbe Workers
L-m nimum
standards
of HOLlsing_7
Ad
1966)
pruvi.ai.onenre
exc.Iosur-es is
violated.
Most
plel"'ltaU em dw,ellirl9's
for ki tchen
nE!-glected.
Dr bathroom,
totally'
are
A Qlrowing problem
I[)
'~or'ke1's
f housing
purposes.
As thai.r at tcday
and just,
6Ufficient
USe:
to support. to rent
01'
the,'
• ., .7B
to expect
Iabour H.
is imperative thereforB that the ~tate ~nd the plantation manag~ment devise
a wo,rkable house cnmership ~hey are still employed. Although
the number is
m;MS r'E!pOl'ts
reveal
that
such echemes
TABLE 1
.
N,AN-1'JW
•.. 79
OF JiEC'l'AHAUE
(I
nc
Hami:.
In
I
I
TOll
au
Year' Ending
I"OJ'
HUJJUFJj
OIL PAU1
,!'O'l'AL
L, fJ&rrisons Malaysian plantntlolW BeJ'had (brgel!1it ~harehoJ del' .. ret'1llodda.n Na ... alonal BCl'b.ad as at ~U~1.83. - 5~
Harch 1983
,28,569
.4
nerhad
sept 1983
'
...
5~ III gh lant1:F 8: I.owlund6 Uerhad. (largcst sha,r(lhoI d er 11 ermod a 1 an Nasionnl llbd arid Kumpulan Guthrie
55.19')!. aa nt
11
Dec.
1983
8,294
.1319004'
14...85 1
6. GuUll·!,e i\opel
by Kumpnlan
Ehd
1983
11,574
,I'.l.ua,fati(lns
,5ourcB6;
lnves tor~
:p,f~ge66
Digest
- M:id-Decemb~H' 1lH34 ,
TilDes -
QPd
[Justnesa
<1.1.. 1985.
Hanlcec1
I'll:cord
• •• 80
A natiQnwi de N.ational
1983 reveaLs that there are vmrkers
that
(~~~_§~E~i!~_I!'ill~~'
dwellings
[10
31.8 ....
1983).
5m~ of
plantatiOl!
w'sre in a.
years
deplorable
p,tovidedi wer!:! 30 or
old. end
1'"1"0
There is a clear
BCti
violahd
~/orkers continue
to
continue
hous inq conditions, Nhile maneqernent s to boast that they are pruvadi fig w~rkerE with free houai.nq, r n the
by3tWlde:r
, damp and
dark
in not ~nf;orcing
ths
III,
HEALTH CARE
Various persof'lali:tie's are involved grade$ in administering medioal
int
treatment of whom
eta
sick workers.
Groulp I-Icspital.
U'I(5highest qualified
he Est at e
The plan-
The
.
al so empoVle-I'e.dto
Al though
'p.a:ramedic,
0f
educat ion
they havtl'rec~ived
nature
their
role
I~fBr'ld
l'lOrke:rs
their childre.n may be 'suffer:ifig from e varied rangl9 of health problem® such
as malru.l'trition~
def'Ic.ierrcy,
other
al Ierq.ic
to pesticides7 dia:ttho·e.~, malai'ia ~ and So 01'1. The t rained to trecat admp.l El ElilrnentssuDh 8.S headaches f
in flu'enz"B and minor cuts and brui ses •
injections
They
atomach aches"
I'e.poFte.d to
rsvsl'" ~
are
be h8r1ding
out
and even
fo.raU
'these·. ai Iment.s ,
sceptical
men~ thBY recBived and fear hsving to re50rt to thB plantation HA. Unlike th~ HAs in the government
in has.pHals and r eee i ved lectures
f'r om qualified
• •• Ell
1n formal, course
by
from their
sen iors,
Vd"1D ha
PI'
VEl
gone lhrough
01'
;31In i-
Lar training.
Then~ is therefore
j'
a lack of organised
st ruct.ured
training
Institute
Local uni -
versitites
hos~itals.
HA spends t.hat
by the
two years
learnif1g
under
"
thE guidance
of a
EX:Jll1'lina~
he sits Estate
for t'he qr.ade 3 Hnsp.i.t.al Assistant Ho::;pital Assistant R,eg.;i,strati.on to· hsvs
A G.rade ·3 HA has
rjoanl.
The of ptacJ.
two years
1 al'g~$ecH,on
to four
years
but
formal
training. prescrib-
as 'i:..rrey are!
also
They
ing medicines.
·s.in,c~tf"ey are
to diagnose illne6se~·.
I t waul d not be an §xagge,t'.aU on th~:re fore is actual l y pr act i sing medicine mont. that Thi B is.
8
par·amecJical
con+r-avent ion o f the Hed.ic·E!l Act 1971 Hhich cl~arlystates medical PI'"8Cti t.Ione r e can praGt Ise medicine. person,
[8
msdtcal
,
tal~
hours.
is ,sev®rly
O\\I'f1 C HniC8,
which time
onere
supervisin-g
medical
or
qood
mandat.ot-y requiremen'~ under the Labour Code 1933. This Dode ~lsoO states that th6 CQmmiBS~on@r of Labour may require that hospi. to reside at snd have charge
ho!Opibal s are manned
O.rIC~ thB
m·Qst e.s'tate
hospit,al
a \'leek
for only
•.• J:J2
This~gain
thatl:.he
j_ 9
a v.iol(:JtiDn
(I-IA)
Cod!!!
hO:'3pi~·
dr-ess~.L'
has the
~J:!9J~E~
There are nQW 7q such ~stat.~ ,hospi:tah' vide shoddy .and improper
Th!3 scenar i.o is
.i.n the
c,p-unhy
th3TBfD[,E:
lill@,rmi nq ~ HAs re
luctan
~D
S irJr-l med.ical
leave
chits
for
,ticked
off
that
~ven si~·k
W(ffI< D£ G hEP/€l
D0:sn forced
to report
government
to
not.
Under
adm.it them Dr do not have the' equ.ipment and exp:erU se to the Labour i:l.he mf3nagement:is.1 i.ah le +'0. pI"(Jvidp.
l'nOSt.
them.
For
J-,I'"ensport.
expenses of
w,orksI'.
Howeva r,
C:'ClU
igntn:ant
to bear
FurtheI'·more.t
vat e H08piial3:
eX'empt any Act
a II ptiv~te
1";l7 1..
from
110Spital
has the
to
hospital
Or"
regist.H1Uon.
no
estate
has,
to
heen reqistere'd
them .rn Lrmbo ,
8·}::empted
Lhi s Aot.
urban
to standards
o f rne.dical cere?
j, S
<llIl:re"®.dy
cut.dat ed a s to the
i n8,ta[iJc.IEl.~ the on. The labour
C8dt!lcO
U. i tie~
ftequired one a Bind
o f s.l ok \"IoJ'kers..
i
Fnr
list
sy tings
0 f'f i cer
heEl th oFficers
bh€l Labour
insl':mct health
in p.l sntations ..
L"
A t rrta.i of 2:53" 17.0 \.jorl<ers and th!:li pineapple, care" There quali fied programmes coconut
and ben plant.at Icns
dependent
pal.m
j.
pre' dependant
medical
~
is. no lCH;lic-al reason why they should care. is very obviou£Jin: the neglect
and'
-the prOVlS.lon
of sophJs1:io9,teCi he,alth
••• EO
for the
pIElV
al enee
f'o.l.k Ls spend as
as a result
PI antat.ton
to
towards
these
costs.
In moat plant8tions~ 20 - 30 hDusehold will share about 8 toilets4 BeBid~a thElt~ tha toilets ar~ usually in a, filthy condition and not propedy rn~illtairr~"d. What is worse,. are regularly. emptied, which results in the buckets bsing full by 8v0ning, filling ths·air with EI heavy stench. Thus workers are .robbed of their human dignity \>lithhaving
to answer
nature
I:~
calI
an tile open
I,
T Iris is na tur al Ly
It is
are used and ~/he.re for each
hnks
for
every
pithltrill1es dwelling.
b)
piped water supply is available for most plantatioll wotkersJ the rrequenoy'~nd quality of the wat~r applied is Dpen to question. PI 19$;~ NUP\v survey has indicated that very
ptant.al.i.on reatr·cted 31. s .1983). houses have 24 hour supp.ly, Supply was
r~w
(lb~_~!::~_~.~!,~~~.l!12:I~~' ~
related
diseases
and
POOI'Ell'
standard
of
health
In plantations where piped water is available, it is uSlJally provided in a single stand. On~ stand pipe is
shared
queuing
by
In such cases
up for wat er is
the p.l.aht.at'Lon
prevalent.
the
~'jal:el'
C'DF'lIe6
nom
as'candpipe
Smrietimes
or.- Si t_ maybe
Qlf
it carries all sorts, but the olanta.tion families have little choice.
In some plantations, the mallagement builds
res i dues,
tankS.
to ~o11ect rain Dr stream water which is supplied through pipes directly to t~B w~rkers1 hQM€& btit ther~ j~ no
g usr .sr!t B e U, a t 't h B
and pUI'i Hed.
~/a t er
Again
e l act;r iaity
indicate
t hat. almost
lOme,
0 f'
Hy·
comes on in the
which it is
4 ~3D am
afhr
to 6: 00 alii after
cut aff.
wanting
Z.:.QQ
E~_~!].HLlg.:.~Q_E!J:1
tOo continue
ridIs.
'•.• S5
revaal
ed that
t.here were
elect~ipity.
A r"requE!nt compl ai.nt In mElny pl~r1tatiQns absence of any pub l.i c transpnrl~ faciHbes
Bshlte.
The. majority
j
is the
in
out of thl'l
are sHua.te.d
people
Nho
of the
plantelim'ls
Plant.8rUan
inhrjor
have to go iflto
~,! h it
buamaas
0f
b ir 1:.11, s
mar r Iaqea
appUe
pit abe
taxies Children
involved.
e)
Creches
Act 1966
the:' r
plantations
VD~jng
and
children
work ..
~lowever
en flverage
actually
do
30" lSi
The management
maintenance accept looked a Her.
l~lthQugh afteI' are
leyally .responsible
the' chi Idren are
for the
nut,
ab.l s et anoards
children
under
the
to be CI'i;lT0d far
in the
Hli.S.i$
'.. , as
becaus~ gad ens women are fur the Qut working
One child
it
is
care
of 50 children '.
t
usually
~{ho has to l' t er al.I y run from one h(l~ding in rant haraased bo bother
The children
some
Some ()f the creches have rot ten pI ank 'Nall a eaten away by termites leaving gaping holes. Some creches
are Lnhated with I"sts; ccckcoeohesand CQuid expose mosqui t.oa, the The
Diarrhoea
is also
as
cOIfi1ilH:Jn illness
pla.l1t~tion
childrel11
inf6ction
provide,
~ow'evIBr this
is not always
case. toil~t
in
Nothing
and i-Iholesome 'L"tater in Clrder that cJ ean and food ,can be prepared
II.
EDUCAnDN There is ge--FIiBfally a lack of educational oris .i.n the facilities country plan'ta'tiorJ$
irJ plantations.
prov i ded schooling had schonl s 'for
rlantati
t~1eir L'mrk,Elr s
children.
poorly
• •• 87
After
SlX
years
a1togeth8l' the
because
plantation
'NDrkfotce
pI antation
~hildren and this is obvious irt ths neglBct by the education Buthorities.
There are no real ol.assccom Leasona conducted
learning..
The ne is also
a lack
of trainedteacheI:s~
scheol.s
op.t!I"Hte
hliiO
.in plantation
like
this..
The
cl.aesrcom teacher
"'lhich
is ths
Lnt.o
standard, then move to the o·there-he! of the room to bsach the oU"Jerc1.ass,.
A 1992 ·Socia that .Qnly 20%
0f
Ecnnemi.c
RE!ssar'eh
'I
of 28 p l ent at Ione
lOMU
ee rl:i
of Education
level
11:186
than
hal f paased.
cation Level, (about 17 years of age) and of these l~ss than a quarter passed.
minub~
I),
3~~ 0 f these
(C.lad1
started,
Lava.I st!!Jdies.
lit-tle
suppcct
towards
the
~ducatil('m-
In 19£:lO, onlyn~
of ~llJbber plontati.ot'lsJ
and 33%
0f
ions
pr ov ided
transport
going children
worker's of p Iant
of ,
lead
to
the
rumq
0f
ab i on
eh.i Ldnen
• •• 88
- .........
0f
Norkers must be
V] ewed ~lit
h
: the
concern especially
F fOl'sig'l
that This
1abnur ,
E SJnswer to
tn,Po
the
of Nor~rs
go.v.6rnmenli.: and other
factories
elilployrm!l.nt.
An agreernlB'rrt
to supply
pr-obl ems
workers for
Indone'3ian" \"lill only
her plantations.
Lankan,
0f
Sri
Ind.i.an,
they
Asean migrant
be known once
arrive that
fr't..dts di.sadvent
ror
mst.ance
skill~
e ra
an irnm~diate
L·/hiclh have
observation
is the
fact
p~lill
rubber , ~lal"'ve~Ht1g[)il
.'~p,att from this
up and working
work inq
in pJ.antat f ons ,
be \.,rilling
imn1igr~nt
for 't is still
poorer
in ord® t to earn
of these workers.
are
Th~ pr~sent
I
problemg
with the.
f:intationworkforce
of an alien
definit.el
presence
In the wBging
ono
rubber
ccnt.rcver
the National
0f
Union of f'erce) .
1982
Workers
Producers Association
rubber tappen.
The
agreement expiI"ed
predi.ot.ed
on D€.cernber
past
20
mo~thB negotiations
(~~!!!~!
have to
~~~~~f~~' 1984).
up in
end
the This
industry.
(!~~_~~~~§~E~!!!_!!!~!' 25.11~84).
Third t'1el:;!ysia Plan l'ecf)grll.i,_ed
stgpPBd
on
its
plantation
~H)rkers as a poverty
effecl:ivBl~!
in to improve
their
• .. 89'
or quality
0f
:::!
H fe.
The plantation
havs for the post
workers
0f
at thl2' rnL!rc},
the
.WEI years
~rith en
t c bear
In the
industry
ullfai:r
wag'e
uy~tem.
Ta top It all~ their d1gn1t, as human beings enlilled to a decent Workers livB9 are socially enqin~ered
needs and 1'!ml"nHJaa , cOI'll:1"ol nf mllrl!l~gemenl:. over basic
Thay
are al~o djQmj5B~d if th~y rei5s any objectiues. lhe g~vernment should take 8 herd look at lhe declining p02iLi~1 of the ~1~nl9tioM w~rkrcrca ~nd work to improve thefr IJvJng ccndilions 1n th9
fol1Qwi ng vl'[ilya; i)
iii)
facilities
irnp·.l"DV]ng
service plantations,.
iv}
Look into
and suppo.ding
educat Ional
opp,qrtunities
to ensu re l hat
phntsUons
to
edueat.e
rolk in labour
rightB~ proper
ands(]
Oil.
vii)
wCilr1,force,
for
""asy ~ntEi r-
t i.al
plantations •.
••• 90
PAR"f THffEE
1.
In
ah,d urban
t~Ell B)' 6i
a ~ squatters
However,
0l'1;)
very much
81
in the rur-al
around
at-eaa,
much Mgher
lumpur,
or
takes
purchase
a pl~ce
Q
stay
01'
pcsseaetcn
land. In
(iii
The quality
or
the Inaeeur it Y
Ha'r'ieV6rJ
0f
land tenut"8.
.i.nst ancaa whel~,e some squat
I;:.here ere
dr~in~ge
In Lhe country
of rapid
trans,nationaliz.ation
and mnderrti.zet.Lon
of the p~oblem.
hn:itory had ,)6,000 s.qu,attn. fBlJl'liliBS and 200,000
sepan
the
dramahfcal.Ly.
()I'
teted a 60 per cent incrB8s9 over the last cr eaainq a t Ell vary f~:U3t rat e.
1 twas onl y early
tWD
last year
ami piece
that
about
occupy ihlg
railway
ws>' for only to
reserve
were threatened
been forced
dave.Iapnent
@l:ready of land. being
(KIM)
statutory
'bodies
0f
6shblishad
is. tuday 'thus one of
large
and
parnaLs
port
B•
What
ur.bani3ri!!!ijEj
It .i.s
12 ~0.00 hectares
bet'cer
11 fe,
the
poor
home-
e stablished
willel,
C'ommUini-
tie~ appsared.
hells and even remaining
into
0,1' into
ingenious
e))t.enslcfls
existing
hcuees ,
Somerdlway
decades.
we be squatof plantheir
ill .Malaysia;
ters.
t.ation job~
it is .r€llev~mt
have
to COl1sid'er
the plight
employment
been tel"minate-d ~
t hey also
these
estates
- -----~----~
pr-ivata owners
(!~~~~~~ ,
01"
The ·estates
to
were acquired
put to
by
di ffBrent
dEivelopment.
• •• 92.
prob.Iem
wotkers. prospects
In housing
0
starved
sq uatt.er t.owards
desperat.e l y to their
as thf!Y face
the}1
The compensation
dCl\~n payment
nor a house.
pert inent. to ecrts i.der the future Licences
(T. (1. L. ) •
0f
those
en lands
T .Il.L, s
T.O.L.s
are issued
annual! y •
to r·ermwal
of bein9
transferred
to' anyone
by the
per-scn Lo whom
they ar.e iSBulEfd. Once the I.D.L. Bxpired·and no F~~~wal is granted} the CCDUp~rits may
be furced much Larqer
r.o
squatter
inn at.ed each, time ths state the land for ' development' .
out flow sett.Iera,
refusea Thus,
it needs
to
1BgM mechanism
n,
ETHNIC
DISTRIBUT
ION OF SQUA.TTERS
0f
car r Ied out on some 2 ~000 aquat b=rrs In 1~7.3. (Inst itut€) 19SO) sh~\~~d the ethnic was o'nly dis'tl'ibution
0f
Public
squatter survey,
as - 25.]9~ r~alaYt
1 1%6/68
of~1alay
u.es.
A more recent survey of squat tees in
't(er-~
rc i t Y Ha11,
151;; Indi an,
Kuehl
l.umpur },
About
Over a span of 6 years .,~he. r~a.lay squatter its b size, whil~the 1"1I:::n-I'1el squatter ay
at tr ibuted to tht" implellTl,~.nta.tjon (J f tile Nliw Economic: Policy during thE 1970's to restructure ~ociety by encouraging Malays to participate In urban
• •• 9.3
be the
to the d ty .
sJl0WS
thst
squatters
~---------~----~~-=----~~-~
prob l.ema, According to a 19E1OIepoJ;t r
by the t'Led to of' redfl['Sl TerrH:.ory
I,
Administntion,
2.
j.
lack
of professional sect.or
6'ld118 for
the urban
employment
market;
IrtfoI'm~l incenti
activities
sufficient
j,
seccor
4,
.Inadequat.a
hotJ!lling espec.i.aLl.y
5,.
Land
use
and other
economi c polio-ies
per Ipher-al areaiS and acti v iUes;
11.
• •• '94,
12.
di.seases
an t.he
IS,
alYiOf1lg
~sigrd
fic,snt
number
of
IV.
CAUSES =._...",..,...,.""'" THE EX! 51 ENCE -= SQ,UA """,_'_.". fOB OF ..... HERS
....._."""'! _
=.",.,...
=."....._".._.""."""""
...",....,,..,,__"....
~_
•...J
The unconb'oHed
urban areas rent.al.a,
in
drift
Q
0'( p£NJple
in search
J obs
creates
.,
for
iitr)Q
high
r,he irHtrig'T.'(3ting
h:n.'cl!ldto
aquat..
i t', K1 ne m.g l' (~LlOfl r..... e Irit 0.' , U8"9' 'L umpLllt' '...t _ ,', 8nnUIQ (i ts growth
1"... ",'
~!as 2.5
pel" oent
fdgrat:i.on.
weU
a~ t.he inadequat~
f I~nd l"Iel d
U,B
pe·~5)af1kq.
The unbalanced nature of development whereby inV8stIDent into the .sgr Ieult.urul
B['E!"S6
pea.8ant
eeet or is marginal
whilst
is relatively