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MASTER’S PROGRAMME IN URBAN MANAGEMENT

AND DEVELOPMENT

(October 2004 – September 2005)

Institutional Capacity to Supply Water and Sanitation Services in


Dar es Salaam-Tanzania: A Challenge to Achieve the Millennium
Development Goals in Reducing Poverty

Gombo Samandito
Tanzania

Supervisor:
Jan Fransen

UMD 1
Rotterdam,
12 September 2005
DEDICATION

To my uncle (Baba mkubwa), the late Samandito Ntunganija Gombo

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DECLARATION

I Gombo Samandito Gombo declare that this thesis is a result of my own efforts and findings, and
that to the best of my knowledge it has not been presented as a dissertation for any professional
award in any institution of higher learning and or any paper or book anywhere in the world. So
any shortcomings or criticism against this dissertation remain my own responsibility. My
supervisor is not in anyway answerable in this dissertation.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My first thanks goes to Jan Fransen my supervisor who has been tirelessly giving me moral help,
directives, comments and critical reading of the text. Without his assistance the work would have
not been conducted well to look as it is now.

I give sincere thanks also to the members of IHS staff for their criticism and nice comments they
made during presentation. All these offered a good collective shaping of my dissertation.

With no doubt, I am extending my thanks to staffs in different institutions I happened to interview


in the city of Dar es Salaam. Included in this list are J.L Chidosa (DAWASCO), Abel Bimbiga
and Daudi Makamba (Plan International Dar es Salaam), Mrs. Malima (Water Aid Tanzania),
Pitio (WATSANET secretary), Eng. Nyakoro (DAWASCO), Alex Poteka of Moshi municipality
and Mboya (Health Officer-Ilala).

Since I can not thank all people who contributed to my work, I generally thank all those who have
contributed in one way or another to the completion of my dissertation

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ABSTRACT

Dar es Salaam, the single largest city in Tanzania with the population more than 2.5 million, is
growing very fast compared to other cities in the country. One feature of the city is shortage of
water and sanitation services which is revealed by young men pushing wheelbarrows with water
jerry cans seen on their way through congested traffic, women carrying buckets of water on their
heads as they shuttle across the city to and from water points and water tankers sell it to the
needy. The city has never witnessed clean water leading the ministry of health to advice people to
boil their water before use. Sanitation is even worse since only 10% of the population is served by
a sewer, the rest use either on or offsite pit latrines.

Low capacity of institutions is an important reason for water shortage and poor sanitation. The
capacity of these institutional is reduced by a number of factors, including shortage of funds, poor
performance, lack of coordination, poor management practices, poor governance, rapid
population growth and lack of organizing capacity.

This study assesses the extent of institutional capacity in the city. Attention is paid to know what
is really lacking in the actors concerned. The institutional capacity is assessed based on the theory
developed by Jerry van Sant that focuses on three aspects. These aspects are institutional
resources, institutional performance and institutional sustainability.

Case studies are drawn from a broad range of institutions. Included are Ministry of Water, public
agencies like Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority and Dar es Salaam Water and
Sewerage Corporation, private companies, Community Based Organisations, Non-Governmental
Organisations, municipalities, academic institutions, religious organizations and informal
operators. These institutions only supply water at the rate of less than 50% of the total need.
According to Household Water Source and Use Survey in July 2005, Dar es Salaam
municipalities (Temeke, Ilala and Kinondoni), the main actors in this case, Dar es Salaam Water
and Sewerage Authority and Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation supply water below
10% of the total need, and they are able to give out sewerage services below 10%.

According to the theory used to assess the capacity of institutions, the weaknesses of these
institutions in Dar es Salaam is mainly in performance, followed by resources and lastly
sustainability, and it is more evident in areas of governance, networking and coordination,
program results where they normally don’t reach targets, finance, leadership and organisational
learning. These institutions have strengths that can be used to improve the situation. These are
availability of qualified staff especially in public agencies, readily available donors like the World
Bank and IDA, political support and good policy environment.

Institutions are far away from meeting Millennium Development Goals in 2015 unless there is an
investment in institutional capacity building in the weak areas of actors. Institutions are able to
meet targets if facilitated; the economy of the country performs well, and in the Tanzanian
context of the National Development Vision of 2025, instead of the 2015 as stated in Millennium
Development Goals.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................... i
DECLARATION .................................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ iv
ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................. vii
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. viii
LIST OF IMAGES ............................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. ix
LIST OF CHARTS ............................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF ANNEXES ............................................................................................................ ix
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH METHODS ............................................................. 1
1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2. Background/Rationale ............................................................................................. 2
1.3. Definition/Statement of the problem ......................................................................... 2
1.4. Objectives .............................................................................................................. 3
1.5. Research Question .................................................................................................. 3
1.6. Scope of the study ................................................................................................... 4
1.7. Description of the research area ............................................................................... 4
1.8. Research Methodology ............................................................................................ 4
1.8.1. Observation ......................................................................................................... 4
1.8.2. Individual interview.............................................................................................. 4
1.8.3. Expert panels ....................................................................................................... 4
1.8.4. Reading of official reports, documents and literature review.................................... 5
1.9. Thesis Structure ...................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER TWO................................................................................................................... 6
THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .................................................... 6
2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 6
2.2. Water supply and sanitation and poverty reduction .................................................... 7
2.3. Partnership ............................................................................................................. 8
2.3.1. Directed Public Management ................................................................................ 8
2.3.2. Corporate utilities ................................................................................................. 9
2.3.3. Delegated private management: The French Model................................................. 9
2.3.4. Direct private management: The British Model ...................................................... 9
2.3.5. Public Water PLCs (Public Limited Company)....................................................... 9
2.4. Capacity of an institution; determinants and Indicators ............................................ 10
2.4.1. Culture .............................................................................................................. 10
2.4.2. Political environment .......................................................................................... 11
2.4.3. Legal framework/ regulatory environment............................................................ 11
2.4.4. Leadership of the organization ............................................................................ 11
2.4.5. Structure of the organization ............................................................................... 12
2.4.6. Organizing capacity ............................................................................................ 12
2.5. Institutional assessment ......................................................................................... 12
2.6. Assessing institutional capacity: Theory and criteria ................................................ 13

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2.7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 15
CURRENT SITUATION OF WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION ............................... 15
3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 15
3.2. Water supply-piped ............................................................................................... 15
3.3. Water supply-wells ............................................................................................... 20
3.4. Sanitation ............................................................................................................. 23
3.5. Ongoing initiatives to improve water supply and sanitation services in Dar es Salaam 26
3.6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................... 28
THE CAPACITY OF INSTITUTIONS TO PROVIDE WATER SUPPLY AND
SANITATION SERVICES .............................................................................................. 28
4.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 28
4.2. Actors involved in water supply and sanitation ........................................................ 28
4.3. Institutional Resources .......................................................................................... 30
4.4. Institutional Performance ....................................................................................... 36
4.5. Institutional Sustainability ..................................................................................... 42
4.6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 45
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................. 46
FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................... 46
5.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 46
5.2. Findings ............................................................................................................... 46
5.3. Recommendations ................................................................................................. 47
5.4. Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 48
REFERENCE...................................................................................................................... 49
ANNEXES ......................................................................................................................... 51

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ABBREVIATIONS

CBO: Community Based Organisations


CHRO: Chief Human Resources Officer
CL: Community Leaders
CWC: Community Water Committee
DAWASA: Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority
DAWASCO: Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation
DCC: Dar es Salaam City Council
DOCA: New Directions in Organizational Capacity Building
GIS: Geographical Information System
IHS: Institute for Housing and Urban Development Studies
IBRD: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
ICT: Information and Communication Technology
IDA: International Development Association
IDF: Institutional Development Framework
IDRC: International Development Research Centre-Canada
IMF: International Monetary Fund
ISA: Institutional Strength Assessment
ISR: Institutional Self Reliance
MDG: Millennium Development Goals
NDWP: Non-Delegated Works Program
NGO: Non-Governmental Organization
NPES: National Poverty Eradication Strategy
NUWA: National Water Urban Authority
OCAT: Organizational Assessment Capacity Tool
OCI: Organizational Capacity Indicator
PLC: Public Limited Company
PPI: Private Participation in Infrastructure ()
PWP: Priority Works Program
TANESCO: Tanzania Electricity Supply Company
TTAP: Training and Technical Assistance Plan
UCLAS: University College of Lands and Architectural Studies
UFW: Unaccounted-For Water
UNDP: United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF: United Nations Children's Fund
URT: United Republic of Tanzania
WATSANET: Water and Sanitation Network in Tanzania

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Comparison of water supply in developing countries: Nairobi (Kenya)


and Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) 7
Table 2: Aspects of institutional capacity to be assessed 13
Table 3. Piped water in Dar es Salaam 16
Table.4. Water demand as per Kinondoni Municipal data 17
Table.5. Water demand per day at 120 liters requirement per day per person 17
Table 6. A summary of deep and shallow wells in the city of Dar es Salaam 21
Table. 7. Funds for the implementation of DAWAS projects in 2005(USD) 27
Table. 8 Capacity of institutions as regards to legal structure and governance 31
Table. 9 Capacity of institutions as regards to human resources 32
Table. 10 Capacity of institutions according to Management Systems and
Practices 34
Table 11: Capacity of institutions in terms of finance 35
Table. 12. Summary of institutional capacity – institutional resources 36
Table. 13 Capacity of institutions in terms of services delivery 37
Table. 14 Capacity in terms of networking 38
Table. 15; Capacity of institutions in terms of application of technical knowledge 39
Table.16; Capacity of institutions in terms of constituency empowerment 40
Table.17; Capacity of institutions in terms of organisational culture 41
Table. 18. Summary of institutional capacity – institutional performance 42
Table.19; Capacity of institutions in terms of organizational autonomy 43
Table.20; Capacity of institutions in terms of leadership 43
Table.21 Capacity of institutions in terms of organizational learning 44
Table. 22. Summary of institutional capacity – institutional resources 45
Table. 23. Summary of institutional capacity 45
Table. 24. Summary of average institutional capacity (last column) 47

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LIST OF IMAGES

Image 1. Leakage in Dar es salaam-Makumbusho area 19


Image 2. Shallow well in Buguruni 21
Image. 3 Religious deep well in Makumbusho-Kinondoni 21
Image 4. Shallow well in Mbagalla 21
Image 5. Deep well by Plan International and Shallow well owned privately 22
Image 6. Lorry tankers for clean water at Makumbusho-Kinondoni 23
Image 7. Different toilets constructed by different institutions in Ilala 24
Image. 8: Lorry tanker for emptying septic tanks (scavengers) 25
Image 9: Offsite septic tank 25
Image 10: Leaking sewerage systems 25
Image 11: Imrovement project in Dar es salaam funded by the World Bank 26

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Percentage of loss and billed water 18


Figure 2. The water loss chain of Dar es Salaam 19
Figure. 3: Actors and their network in the sector of water supply and sanitation
In Dar es salaam 39

LIST OF CHARTS

Chart 1. Main source of water in Dar es Salaam 16


Chart 2. Time spent to a nearest water source 20

LIST OF ANNEXES

Annex 1. Institutional Capacity Assessment Models 51


Annex 2. The Contract between the government and City Water Services in 2003 54
Annex 3. Termination of contract with City Water Services 55
Annex 4. Complaints about water shortage in the city 56
Annex 5. Institutions and their capacities to supply water and sanitation services
in Dar es salaam 58
Annex 6. Specific findings and recommendations 60

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH METHODS

1.1. Introduction

Tanzania has been struggling to eradicate poverty since independence in 1961. The first phase of
government declared three enemies of the nation. These are poverty, ignorance and diseases.
Tanzania had many strategic actions in combating poverty, ignorance and diseases trough
programmes in education, health, water supply, roads and transportation and appropriate
technologies in agriculture (A. Mwaiselage &T. Mponzi 1999). The policy directions and
programmes between 1961 to early 1970s, though not explicit and not very successful, were
actions for economic development and poverty eradication. In 1981 an effort was made to address
poverty and its alleviation which resulted in the National Policy on Productivity, Incomes and
Prices becoming operational. In 1990s, the government declared war on poverty and established a
Poverty Eradication Programme under the Vice President’s Office. Such Strategies are like The
Tanzania Development Vision 2025(1995), The Poverty Eradication Initiative Programme
(1996), The National Poverty Eradication Strategy (1998) and Declaration on Poverty Eradication
in Tanzania, (1998). All these programmes have the primary aim of eradicating poverty as one of
the enemies of Tanzania. This report will concentrate on water supply and sanitation as an
indicator of non-income poverty and more attention will be put in the city of Dar es Salaam,
home to 2.5 1 million people.

The general objective of The National Poverty Eradication Strategy (NPES) (1998) is “To
provide a framework to guide poverty eradication initiatives in order to reduce absolute poverty
by 50% by the year 2010 and eradicate absolute poverty by the year 2025.” This objective would
be achieved by coordinating mechanisms, creation of enabling environment, empowering poor to
participate effectively, ensuring full participation of women and providing equality of opportunity
for men and women in all activities of poverty eradication.

The government’s move to improve the situation follows the World Summit on Sustainable
Development in 2002 that specified the targets of the “Millennium Development Goals on
poverty reduction, specifically on water supply and sanitation. The MDGs goals are:-halve by
2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and halve by
2015 the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation (Aldo B.and Peter R. 2005). As
regards to water supply and sanitation, NPES has specific objectives which are:-increasing access
to water up to a coverage of 90% within distance of 400 meters and increasing access to sanitary
services particularly to urban dwellers by at least 50% of current status (URT 1998). However,
the 2002/03 report on the performance of the National Poverty Eradication Strategy shows that
the rate of improvement is unlikely to reach targets.

The implementation of MDGs and NPES goals on water supply and sanitation system depend
much on the capacity of institutions concerned to organise resources and coordination of different
stakeholders to reach the goals set. It is possible that the goals are too ambitious and unachievable
in practice in relation to local institutional capacity in providing water supply and sanitation
services.

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According to 2002 National Census Report
1.2. Background/Rationale

National wide, only about 70% of the urban population has access to reliable water supply (URT
2001). This is not to speak of the quality of water, which in most case is poor (Lerise and Kyessi
2002). Most people who use piped water and can afford it routinely boil the water before use as
the safety of water is dubious (URT 2002:40).

Specifically to the study area in Dar es Salaam city, Lerise and Kyessi (2002) say that households
which have to cover more than six kilometers in the dry season are on the increase. As regards to
sanitation in Dar es Salaam, only 6% of population use sewer and 80% use pit latrines (Lerise and
Kyessi citing URT 1995:40)

Water Supply and Sanitation in Dar es Salaam has been a government responsibility since
independence in 1961 up to early 2000s. The government established agencies to deal with the
issue. The Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority (DAWASA) was established in 1997 to
provide the services. In its operation, DAWASA was not efficient and effective as people could
go without water and sanitary services.

Water Aid Tanzania says DAWASA proved failure. The water system had failed to keep up with
the population growth in the city. By 2003, only 98,000 households in a city of 2.5 million people
had a direct water connection. Through the advice of World Bank and IMF, it was observed that
DAWASA has failed to deliver services hence it has to be privatized. What are being privatised
under a 10 year lease contract are the billing, tariff collection, operation and routine maintenance.
The rehabilitation and development of the whole system will remain the responsibility of
DAWASA. City Water, a joint venture of BiWater (UK), Gauff (Germany), and Superdoll
(Tanzania) took over in August 1, 2003. City Water was expected to improve the services.
Unfortunately, since City Water took over, water tariffs have increased, but water quality has not
improved (Water Aid Tanzania). On 13th May 2005, the government of Tanzania has suspended
the contract with City Water Company to supply water in Dar es Salaam, and on the same month,
it has established a public company called Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation
(DAWASCO), to replace City Water. (see annex 2 &3)

1.3. Definition/Statement of the problem

Low capacity of institutions is an important reason for water shortage, and water shortage
remains a big problem to the poor, and a challenge to institutions concerned. The conflict
between multiple agencies having divided authorities and working under conflicting policies,
shortage of funds, leakage and rapid population growth contribute to shortage to a great extent.
Taking into account the water supply and sanitation situation in Dar es Salaam, the capacity of
institutions is questionable, hence calls forth a need for assessment to know what is really lacking
in the actors concerned, and try to concentrate more on how to improve capacity so that they are
able to meet goals.

The city of Dar es Salaam with a population of 2.5 million people and the growth rate of 7%,
needs 410,000m/day, the current production of water is 273000m3/day and a loss of 60%, the
water deficit is about 137,000m3/day. Unaccountable for water of 60% daily is due to leakage
caused by lack of maintenance, illegal connections and unregistered customers (Mashauri, 1999).
DAWASCO figures in July 2005 about water supply shows that the city needs about
400,000m3/day, production is 280,000m3/day, deficit is 120,000m3/day while leakage is 55%.

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City Water System company admitted that water rationing is currently in force across large parts
of the sprawling city. Only about 30 percent of 100,000 registered City Water customers receive
water seven days a week, 20 percent get water for three days or fewer a week, and the rest get
none from the water pipes at all

The shortage of water is evident. On any given day, young men pushing wheelbarrows stacked
high with 20-litre water jerry cans can be seen weaving their way through congested traffic.
Another common sight is that of women carrying buckets of water on their heads as they shuttle
across the city to and from water points. And, at various corners around the city, water tankers
sell it to the needy. (http://www.warmafrica.com/index/geo/13/cat/). A 20 litre (four gallons) jerry
can from one of these sellers costs 100 Tanzania shilling (US 10 cents) or more. (Mashauri,
1999). “City Water says the "street price" is more than 10 times what they charge through the
pipes

According to the World Bank, it is common for 5-20 percent of household income to go on water
and sanitation when provision is very inadequate. Another 5-10% going on health care or income
lost to water-related illnesses. If the family needs six jerry cans a day, it means he has to pay US
60 cents, and the same poor person is supposed to live less than one dollar a day. One can
imagine the share of the income left for other requirements. Water shortage in Dar es Salaam
accounts for serious poverty among poor people in the city. So what is the capacity of institutions
responsible for water supply in the city to attain the goal of supplying water to the poor to about
90% in 2010? Problem is often not ‘inadequate income’ or lack of ‘effective demand’ but
incapacity of public or private enterprises to provide ‘efficient’ solutions

In this case, it seems the capacity of institutions (private company, DAWASA as government
agency, NGOs, CBOs and informal operators) to supply water and sanitation services is
questionable. They are not able to deliver. The research assesses the capacity of these institutions
and suggests the way to improve the services to reduce poverty among the poor through water
supply and sanitation.

1.4. Objectives

The general objective of the study is to assess the capacity of institutions to supply water and
sanitation services in terms of resources, performance and their sustainability. The specific
objectives are:-
• To assess the extent of availability of institutional resources necessary in the sector
• To assess the extent of service provision through indicators of performance.
• To know the sustainability of water supply and sanitation services in the city.
• To give out suggestions on how to improve services delivery.

1.5. Research Question

• What are the resources available for provision of water supply and sanitation?
• What is the performance of institutions in provision of water supply and sanitation?
• What is the sustainability of water supply and sanitation services in the city?
• How can services of water supply and sanitation be improved?

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1.6. Scope of the study

The study concentrates on the institutions concerned with water supply and sanitation. In this
case, private companies, DAWASA, Dar es Salaam City Council and the three municipalities of
Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke, the Ministry of Water, NGOs, CBOs and informal operators are
taken into account.

1.7. Description of the research area

The research area is Dar es Salaam city. This includes the three municipalities of Temeke, Ilala
and Kinondoni. The area has a population of 2.5 million people and about 70% of them live in
unplanned settlement with poor sanitary facilities and shortage of safe drinking water.

1.8. Research Methodology

This assessment study is qualitative research and used more than one technique to capture
valuable information. Primary and secondary data is used. One technique can not capture all
information required to come out with a good conclusion and recommendations. The respondents
are the actors such as government agencies (DAWASA), private companies, NGOs, CBOs,
informal operators, the three municipalities (Ilala, Temeke and Kinondoni) and international
organisations such as Plan International, Action Aid and Water Aid. However, the information
gathered is concerned with the capacity of these institutions in terms of resources, performance,
and sustainability. Here, the type of information is related to the indicators of low capacity in
service delivery. The techniques used are as follows:-

1.8.1. Observation

This took place around the city to see the conditions of water and sanitation infrastructure.
Indicators like leakage, sewerage overflows, private and informal selling of water, long waiting
queue in water kiosks, types of water sources and their location are observed. This deals basically
with some indicators of performance.

1.8.2. Individual interview

With this technique, qualitative opinions from heads of departments, directors, heads of NGOs,
CBOs, in their institutions and heads of private companies are obtained. Also individual informal
operators are the target for interview. Out of 12 institutions visited in the study, 31 respondents
were interviewed. These distinguished individuals give out their feelings, facts and figures as
regards to performance, resources and sustainability of their institutions. The interview took a
form of guided questions and informal conversations in the issue.

This technique was limited to a certain extent by shortage of time, availability of interviewees and
some were not willing to cooperate fully in the exercise due to reasons best known to them.

1.8.3. Expert panels

Assessing institutional capacity is a complex issue. It needs people with high knowledge on the
issue and well acquainted with experience. These experts have done research and implemented
activities as regards to water supply and sanitation. They were able to say if institutions have the
capacity to supply water and sanitation services as a means to reduce poverty. Experts examined

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the weakness and challenges hindering effective services delivery. In the field work, it was not
possible to conduct expert panel discussion due to respondents being not available at one time,
and then an individual interview was done. They were able to suggest ways for improvement.

1.8.4. Reading of official reports, documents and literature review

This includes reviewing of official documents on actor’s activities, their targets, achievements
and problems. Indicators of institutional capacity were extracted also from these reports. The
limitation of this technique was difficulties to get reports, as some are still in preparation. Also
the study extensively used literatures to know what other scholars say about institutional capacity,
and this information is extracted from readers given at IHS, Erasmus University and the internet.

1.9. Thesis Structure

This thesis is comprises of five chapters. The first chapter gives the background, outlines research
issues and methodology.

The second chapter is concentrating on the overview of institutional capacity as a whole, the
factors behind capacity, and models of assessment. It is in this chapter where the guidelines for
assessing institutional capacity in Dar es Salaam are drawn.

The institutional capacity and water supply and sanitation situational analysis is dealt with in
chapter three and four. Here, information gathered is synthesised to give out meaning, and the
capacity of institutions in Dar es Salaam to meet policy targets of providing water supply and
sanitation services especially to the poor.

Finally, chapter five summarizes the findings, draw key conclusion and give recommendations.

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CHAPTER TWO

THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

2.1. Introduction

Water supply is essential for growth, as well as for social well-being. It is probably the most
difficult of all infrastructure services to substitute, and its absence or deficiency represents a
particular burden on the poor. In the developing world, 2 out of every 10 people lack access to a
safe water supply, and 5 out of 10 have inadequate sanitation. This means that worldwide, more
than 1.1 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water, and roughly 2.4 billion are
without adequate sanitation. Yet even these estimates understate the extent of the access gap.
Service is poor, even in many countries that have water supply systems. For many consumers,
piped water is often intermittent, and, when available, it is unsafe for drinking. In addition,
sanitation facilities are often inadequate, overloaded, in disrepair, or unused. To improve the
situation, the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 specified the targets of the
Millennium Development Goals, which aim to reduce by half the proportion of people without
sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015. (Aldo Baietti and Peter
Raymond 2005). However, success of MDGs would mean strong institutions, well equipped with
all the means to achieve the objectives both internationally and locally.

UNICEF estimates that at least 600 million people, 40% of the present urban population of less
developed countries live in housing that is so crowded, of such poor quality and with such
inadequate provision for water, sanitation, drainage and rubbish collection that their lives and
their health are continually at risk (Kevin Taylor and Jonathan Parkinson 2000). This is more
evident in developing countries and Sub-Saharan Africa the worst hit area.

Problems result from the use of inappropriate technology. They may also be due to poor operation
and maintenance and the fact that the facilities provided are insufficient to meet the needs of the
population that they are intended to serve. The result is that the absolute number of people
without access to adequate sanitation continues to grow in many countries and regions (Kevin
TAYLOR and Jonathan Parkinson 2000).

Brilhante, O. 2003, puts it clear that “the deliverance of infrastructure services should be done
through institutions that have the capacity to provide services effectively. Inadequate institutional
development has been at the centre of most unsatisfactory services delivery results.

Weak institutions might refer to both the services delivery agencies and the overall institutional
framework in which services are delivered. Problems in services delivery agencies include
inadequate financial and managerial capabilities, failure to define goals of the government or
agency, poor commitment to success, and poor personnel policies. The environment in which
services delivery operate may be poor because of deficient regulatory and legal systems or donor
policies that conflict with the agencies”. Examples of this lack of institutional capacity is given in
two East African Largest cities of Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) and Nairobi (Kenya)

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Table 1. Comparison of water supply in developing countries: Nairobi (Kenya) and Dar es
Salaam (Tanzania)
Dar es Salaam Nairobi
The city of Dar es Salaam with a population of In Nairobi, the capital city with a population of
2.5 million people and the growth rate of 7%, about 2.3 million in 2003, service is provided by the
needs 410,000m/day, the current production of Water and Sewerage Department of the Nairobi City
water is 273000m/day and a loss of 60%, the Council. Nairobi has an installed production
water deficit is about 137,000m3/day. capacity of 420,000 cubic meters per day and
Unaccountable for water of 60% daily is due to 182,295 legal connections, of which 164,000 are
leakage caused by lack of maintenance, illegal domestic connections; often, water from a single
connections and unregistered customers connection is shared by multiple households.
(Mashauri, 1999). Although the production capacity is large and
theoretically sufficient to meet demand, total water
From a survey of 660 households drawn from available for actual sale and use is significantly
all income levels in 1986-87, 47 % had no lower unaccounted-for water (UFW) in the system is
piped water supply either inside or immediately estimated to be about 50 percent. The UFW is
outside their houses while 32% had a shared attributable to both technical losses (leakages,
piped water supply. Of the households without especially in older pipes) and commercial losses
piped water, 67% bought water from (unbilled and uncollected revenues and theft).
neighbours while 26% drew water from public (Sumila Gulyani, Debabrata Talukdar, and R.
water kiosks or standpipes. The average water Mukami Kariuki 2005)
consumption was only 23.6 litres a day. Of all
the 660 households, 89% had simple pit latrines A report in 1994 described how 55% of Nairobi’s
(and most of Dar es Salaam continues to rely on population lived in informal settlements which are
pit latrines). Only 4.5% had toilets connected to squeezed on to less than 6% of the city’s land area.
septic tanks or sewers. Most households have to Only 12% of plots in these settlements have piped
share sanitary facilities. Overflowing latrines supplies. Most people have to obtain water from
are a serious problem, especially in the rainy kiosks. Water shortages are common; a survey
season and provision to empty septic tanks or found that 80% of households complained of water
latrines is very inadequate. (Kulaba 1989). “In shortages and pipes often running dry. With regard
some instances, newly installed pumps were to sanitation, this same survey suggests that 94% of
stolen within weeks of being installed. Pit inhabitants of the informal settlements do not have
latrines were the only form of access to adequate sanitation. Only a minority of
sanitation”(CARE Tanzania 1998) dwellings have toilets. (Alder 1995)
Source: Field survey 2005

From the above table, these two cities show inadequacy in water supply and sanitation facilities.
The institutions that have the obligation to give the services are not capable of reaching targets
posing a challenge to researchers to know their capacity to implement policies and meet goals and
objectives especially of reducing the burden of poverty from the poor who can not access the
services.

2.2. Water supply and sanitation and poverty reduction

Access to at least minimal infrastructure services is one of the essential criteria for defining
welfare. To a great extent, the poor can be identified as “those who are unable to consume a basic
quantity of clean water and who are subject to unsanitary surroundings, with extremely limited
mobility or communications beyond their immediate settlement (World Bank 1994).

Literature describes images of the rich and connected households often wasting water liberally for
gardening, washing of cars, and water for swimming pools. The poor, by contrast, are not
connected, have to buy water by the bucket, and pay exorbitant prices (Fass 1988, Whittington
and others 1991, World Bank Water Demand Research Team 1993, Crane 1994). The outcome,

7
as mentioned earlier, is that the poor consume far less and pay far more per unit of water relative
to their rich and connected counterparts. (Sumila Gulyani, Debabrata Talukdar, and R. Mukami
Kariuki 2005). In Dar es Salaam, rich areas of Oysterbay and Msasani enjoy the presence of
water almost 24 hours a day while in poor unplanned settlement spend even their last coin for
purchase of unreliable and unhealthy water.

Access to clean water and sanitation has the most obvious and direct consumption benefits in
reducing mortality and morbidity. It can also affect the productive capacity of the poor and can
affect men and women differently. The poor women in particular must commit large shares of
their income or time to obtaining water. This time could otherwise be devoted to important
domestic duties, such as childcare or to income earning activities (Brilhante, O. 2003). The
construction and maintenance of water works contribute to poverty reduction by providing direct
employment. Infrastructure also offers the opportunity to reduce poverty through health
improvements. “Unsafe or inadequate water and sanitation are estimated to account for 80% of
illness and 50% of hospitalisation in developing countries” (Brilhante, O. 2003). Improving water
and sanitation can allow workers to produce more during their work hours and to work longer
hours. These changes can translate into higher incomes as wage rates rise and more paid hours are
worked.

2.3. Partnership

According to the World Bank’s Private Participation in Infrastructure (PPI) database, the water
sector received only 5 percent of total private investment in infrastructure between 1990 and
2002. It has thus been a particularly difficult sector for attracting sorely needed private capital,
operational skills, and management expertise. The main reason is that the water sector is subject
to a number of specific risks, which do not affect the other infrastructure sectors or affect them to
a lesser degree. These risks include high capital intensity, political pressure on tariffs, a
frequently held conviction of water as a “free” good, deficient regulation, sub sovereign risk and
lack of sub sovereigns’ access to financing, poor condition and insufficient knowledge of
networks and customer bases, and currency mismatch between revenues and financing
sources.(Aldo Baietti and Peter Raymond 2005). In Tanzania, the private sector is considerably
weak in terms of capital and experience in running private activities due to long history of public
dominance in all sectors of the country’s economy.

There is a menu of institutional options that allow governments, public sector agencies, and
private groups (both for profit and non-profit) to assume responsibility for different aspects of
services provision. The choices among the options will vary among countries, on the basis of
their economic, institutional and social characteristics. (Brilhante, O. 2003). Involving many
actors is a good option for organising capacity to provide water supply and sanitation. Below are
some ways of partnership in the issue of water supply and sanitation.

2.3.1. Directed Public Management

“This comprises the archetypal municipal water works departments found in many countries. The
water utility in this case is part of the local government apparatus, forming a municipal or district
agency, services or department. The degree of autonomy enjoyed by this type of utility varies
considerably. At one extreme is the water works department that lacks even a separate financial
budget and is under direct control of the mayoral office” (Brilhante, O. 2003. pp. 113). Half of the
population in the EU and the United States of America are served by public water municipalities
(Blokland 1999). In Dar es Salaam, water supply and sanitation is not the duty of municipalities,

8
this is a responsibility of DAWASCO as a public agency. Municipalities remain partners in the
whole process since they are the custodians of land in the city.

2.3.2. Corporate utilities

Corporate utility describes a management mode whereby a direct public utility operates as a quasi
corporation. The corporative utility is variously called a water board or authority and is known in
Africa and Latin America under a generic name of parastatal. The essence of a corporative utility
is that the utility enjoys autonomous corporate status under a special law or act drawn up
specifically for the utility in question. In practice, these utilities can be more accurately described
as quasi corporation. For one, they are constituted as stockholding entities, but tend to be
governed by boards composed of senior government officials. For another, the fact that they are
subject to public law means that they remain firmly rooted in the public sector. These are more
common in Africa and Asia. (Brilhante, O. 2003). Corporatised utilities are prevalent for mostly
in Africa and Asia where public utilities were corporatised in great numbers in 1970s and 1980s
(Blokland 1999). Things have changed in the 1990s in Africa where there is a move towards
privatising water supply and sanitation. Tanzania is one country that privatised some activities
formerly performed by DAWASA.

2.3.3. Delegated private management: The French Model

The French Model is the most popular of private sector participation in water supply and
sanitation. In this model, Water Utility Management is given to private company. However
ownership of the company is not transferred. (Brilhante, O. 2003). This can take the form of
management contracts, lease contract and concession contract. In the case of Dar es Salaam, a
Lease contract was made, supply of water was given to City Water for the period of 10 years
from 2003 though it ended in May 2005 due to failures in delivery of services.

2.3.4. Direct private management: The British Model

The water utilities being privatised, shares owned and traded on the stock exchange and privately
managed. (Brilhante, O. 2003). This has a lot of consequences if not properly managed, as it can
affect the poor negatively since normally prices for water will rise. Here, strong government
regulation is required to maintain standards and environment, and protect people from monopoly
abuse with regards to price, service quality and coverage. This can be better where the private
capital is strong enough to run the services, which is not the case in developing countries like
Tanzania.

2.3.5. Public Water PLCs (Public Limited Company)

The public water companies (PLCs), refer to a mode of organisation where the utility is
incorporated as limited company under company law, but where its stocks are owned by local,
provincial, or, less frequent, national government representatives. (Brilhante, O. 2003).
DAWASCO, the newly established public company to replace City Water Services Company in
the city of Dar es Salaam follows under this category.

9
2.4. Capacity of an institution; determinants and Indicators

Nick Devas (2001) identifies seven things that have an influence on the capacity of an institution
to deliver services as follows:-
• City boundaries always exclude the areas where poor people live.
• City governments are often not responsible for many of services on which the poor
depend like water supply. There has been a tendency for responsibilities to be shifted
from city government to parastatal agencies or companies which lack adequate
mechanisms of democratic accountability to local citizens.
• There are often legal restrictions which prevent city governments from addressing the
needs of the poor.
• Most cities lack adequate information on which to base their policies and decisions. Some
do not have accurate information on population, leave alone the incidence of poverty, and
many lack basic information on the extent of quality of service provision.
• The capacity of municipal government staff, both technical and managerial, is often
seriously weak, due to low rates of remuneration and senior positions remain vacant.
• Lack of financial resources is another constraint, with all cities experiencing serious
problems in mobilizing local revenue, weakness in financial management and problems
of corruption further erode the resource available to address poverty.
• City governments are often constrained by conflicts with higher levels of government.

There are other several determinants that can influence the capacity of an institution in
implementing policies. These are such as culture, political environment, leadership, legal
framework, structure of the organisation and organising capacity.

2.4.1. Culture

There are different layers of culture as being national, organizational, occupational (professional)
and even generation culture. In this case, attention will be given to organizational culture. Culture
can be visible and it is easy to distinguish one culture from a nation, organization or any
institution from the other. Some characteristics of culture are developed by scholars like first,
power distance (measures the degree of equality; how power is used and distributed in an
organization) whereby some organizations have low power distance while others have high power
distance. Supervisors are believed to be entitled to privileges in higher distance cultures, low
power distances are more decentralized (Hofstede, Geert (1991). Second is Uncertainty
avoidance which measures degree of acceptance of unclear and ambiguous situations. This is lack
of tolerance for ambiguity and the need for formal rules. This dimensions measures the extent to
which people in the society feel threatened by and try to avoid ambiguous situations. They may
do this by establishing more formal rules, rejecting deviant ideas and behaviors, and accepting the
possibility of absolute truths and the attainment of unchallengeable expertise. Third is
individualism/collectivism (measures the degree of independence of an individual) which is
concerned for yourself as an individual as opposed to concern for the priorities and rules of the
group to which you belong (Hofstede, 1984). In low individualism, policies and practices vary
according to relations, belief in group decisions while in high individualism policies and practices
apply to all.

Fourth is Masculinity/femininity (measures the degree of motivational factors)which are values


concerning the extent of emphasis on work goals (earnings, advancement) and assertiveness, as
opposed to personal goals (friendly atmosphere, getting along with the boss and others) and
nurturance. The first set of values is to be associated with males and the second more with

10
females. According to Hofstede’s definitions, masculine societies define gender roles more
rigidly than feminine societies. Deal and Kennedy (1982) argue that “culture is the single most
important factor accounting for success or failure in organizations. If real change is to occur in
organizations rather than cosmetic or short – lived change, it has to happen at the cultural level.
Corporate culture has many powerful attractions as a lever for change”

2.4.2. Political environment

In politics there is always an interaction which is negotiable between social actors using power to
reach their aims. In urban areas politics play a big role as it forms a part of decision makers
normally elected people and it is expected that decision makers will respond to people’s needs.
“The state for instance, creates both critical problems and opportunity structures. Civil society is
the realm of voluntary associations outside the state that draws its authority from culture rather
than laws from the government” (J. Walton, 1998). The political environment is a crucial
determinant of whether an institution can work well or poor implement policies, as in violent
situations, all activities and services are always affected adversely. This can happen in all levels
of known institutions. “Under municipal management, water provision is often used as a vote
winning tool by elected councillors or mayors who then choose to set the tariff below cost
recovery levels, or burden the utility with excess staff”. (Brilhante, O. 2003. pp 113). The water
sector has a long history of tariffs below costs recovery and political resistances to raising them.
Considerable government commitment is required to raise tariffs to cover costs, and to build
regulatory arrangements that give private companies confidence that they can make a fair rate of
returns on their investments. (Gisele Silva, Nicola Tynan, and Yesin Yilmaz 1998).

2.4.3. Legal framework/ regulatory environment

Every institution in urban setting works under a certain regulation that guides its functions. This
regulatory environment are geared towards fulfilling an institutional interest and they rarely
address the needs of the poor (Nick Devas, 2001, page 404) he considers a particular obstacle in
addressing the needs of the poor is regulatory environment within which city governments (and
other institutions) are operating. Most of institutions use inherited and collection of repressive
bylaws that are unsuitable to the needs of the poor. (Halfani, 1997, p 147). Due to prevalence of
corruption in Dar es Salaam, laws are usually not followed, but services respond to whoever is
able to use bribe to get them.

2.4.4. Leadership of the organization

Leadership can exist at many places inside the organization, both formally and informally.
Formal leadership is exercised by those appointed or elected to positions of authority; it entails
activities such as setting direction, providing symbols of mission, ensuring that tasks are done,
and supporting resource development. Informal leadership is exerted by persons who become
influential because they possess special skills or resources valued or needed by others.
(http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-28368-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html). For water supply and sanitation
services to be delivered well, informal leadership in organisations have to be clearly known to
reduce the possibility of negative influence.

11
2.4.5. Structure of the organization

A resilient, responsive structure is essential to facilitate communication, coordinate activities,


manage resources, and ensure equal opportunity and the equitable distribution of benefits among
network participants. Roles of network members and of structural units such as the coordinator,
the steering committee or advisory group, project leaders, consultants, and network members
must be well-defined and known to all. Roles must be able to evolve as the network matures.
(http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-28368-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html). Coordination is the process of linking
specialized activities of individuals or groups so that they can and will work toward common
ends. The coordination process helps people to work in harmony by providing systems and
mechanisms for understanding and communicating one another's activities. In this case,
organising capacity is needed as explained in the next section.

2.4.6. Organizing capacity

Organizing capacity is defined as “the ability to enlist all actors involved, and with their help
generate new ideas and develop and implement a policy designed to respond to fundamental
developments and create conditions for sustainable development” (Leo van den Berg, Eric Braun
and Jan van der Meer 1997). This incorporates public, private and mixed public-private networks
to reach objectives that are difficult (or impossible) to obtain by public authorities alone.

Strategic networks among public actors, between public and private actors, or among private
actors, as a means to cope with the dynamics of today’s urban society, have become equally
important. At the same time, networks call for more coordination

Leadership of key persons or organization is necessary to utilize the potential of existing and new
networks and to direct the efforts of the parties involved. (Leo van den Berg, Eric Braun and Jan
van der Meer 1997). As the capacity of public authorities to deliver services deteriorates, delivery
of services has to be done in a collaborative way. Some actors have to come in the sector, but a
good network is required to be able to organize the capacity towards a common goal and vision.
Networks lack a formal (legal) hierarchical structure which can be more problematic as can end
up in serious conflicts among partners, affecting negatively water supply and sanitation sector,
and the poor will suffer the most. A good partnership in water supply and sanitation will depend
much on institutional assessment reports that show the capacity of different actors in the sector.

2.5. Institutional assessment

Institutional assessment has been described as "processes which use concepts and methods from
the social and behavioural sciences to assess organizations' current practices and find ways to
increase their effectiveness and efficiency" (Universalia 1993).

The social science constructs used by IDRC (International Development Research Centre-
Canada) to conceptualize the complex processes of institutional growth and development are
"institutional capacity development," "institutional strengthening," and "institutional
performance." It is essential for IDRC to learn what areas of an institution to invest in
(institutional strengthening/capacity development) and the returns from these investments that can
be expected (institutional performance). http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-28368-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html

Because in the real world specific institutional requirements are usually codified to focus upon
specific single resources, or are designed to serve specific, administrative, judicial (legal) or

12
educational requirements, their spatial and jurisdictional “boundaries” may overlap, conflict with
or otherwise interfere with other resource specific institutions.

Institutional assessments should be conducted as learning exercises for both donor and recipient
institutions. They should be designed to diagnose areas of need so as to guide capacity building
efforts. In the best sense, an evaluation serves as a reforming process, seeking ways to make the
institution stronger and better. http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-28368-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html.
However, there are several models that are used to assess institutional capacity. These models
explain the general phenomenon, but they can be localised to fit a particular environment. (See
annex 1 for institutional capacity assessment models)

2.6. Assessing institutional capacity: Theory and criteria

Numerous frameworks for describing or assessing the institutional capacity of development


organizations are in development and use. Past history in measuring institutional capacity in the
development arena reflects real conceptual and practical limitations. That is, the purpose often is
not simply to judge an organization’s capacity but rather to provide a learning tool for
institutional self-understanding and a launching pad for capacity enhancement (Jerry Van San
2000). However, Jerry Van Sant (2000) identifies three aspects of measuring the capacity of an
institution such as institutional resources, institutional performance and institutional
sustainability.

Table 2: Aspects of institutional capacity to be assessed


Institutional Resources Institutional Performance Institutional Sustainability
• Legal structure and • Program results • Organizational
governance • Networking and external autonomy
• Human resources relations • Leadership
• Management • Application of technical • Organizational learning
systems and knowledge
practices • Constituency
• Financial resources empowerment
Source: Frameworks for assessing the institutional capacity of PVOs and NGOs by Jerry
Van Sant, Duke University

Institutional resources represents the attributes of an organization possesses or controls


and consists of its basic legal structure, assured access to human, financial, technical, and
other resources, and its management systems and structure, including performance
management systems.(Jerry Van Sant 2000) Most institutions lack governance aspect;
accountability and transparency and there is little information sharing, which influences
their capacity on water supply and sanitation delivery negatively.

Institutional performance measures an institution’s program, services, or other impacts as


a result of how effectively it employs its institutional and technical resources. For NGOs,
external relations and the empowerment of civil society are frequently key intended
outcomes. Institutional performance assesses both efficiency and effectiveness at a point
in time. (Jerry Van Sant 2000). “But before assessing an institution's outputs, it is first
necessary to gain an understanding of institutional motivation: its mission and goals, and
in so far as possible, its culture and organizational incentives. These drive performance

13
from within, and a performance assessment must address how well the organization is
fulfilling its mission (http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-28368-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html). Other
Performance indicators to be taken into account are; “Ability to network with other
organisations or sectors, Managing water losses, Billing and collection, Ability/efforts to
reduce debtors, Existence of management plans(budgets, operation and maintenance),
Responsiveness to consumer needs and complaints, Quality of financial statements and
frequency of audits, Existence of management information systems, Environmental
management and water quality, Adequacy in terms of quantity(demand and supply
balance), Water pressure and duration of supply, Reliability in terms of freedom from
breakdowns and Organisation mission, goals and objectives”, (Madzivanyika, Joel 2000).

Institutional Sustainability incorporates more forward-looking attributes such as


organizational autonomy, leadership, and learning capacity which, in turn, help ensure
sustainability and self-reliance in the future. Leadership can exist at many places inside
the organization, both formally and informally. Formal leadership is exercised by those
appointed or elected to positions of authority; it entails activities such as setting direction,
providing symbols of mission, ensuring that tasks are done, and supporting resource
development. Informal leadership is exerted by persons who become influential because
they possess special skills or resources valued or needed by others.

2.7. Conclusion

Taking into account of the nature of institutions involved in the supply of water and
sanitation in the city of Dar es Salaam, different concepts that are written in above
sections will be applied. The concepts in table 2(from Jerry Van Sant 2000) are all
relevant to the situation. In addition to that, culture and organisational structure as regards
performance (for public institutions like DAWASA, DAWASCO and municipalities). All
the aspects of institutional capacity will be analysed in chapter four.

14
CHAPTER THREE

CURRENT SITUATION OF WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION

3.1. Introduction

Dar es Salaam, the largest city in Tanzania, has rapid population growth at the rate of 4.3%
according to 2002 population census, yet the most hit by water shortage. The whole city has no
water policy (a framework in which all actors get their direction and targets to meet) of its own
apart from the National Water Policy. The targets that institutions struggle to achieve are those
stated in MDGs, NPES (National Poverty Eradication Strategy) and the National Water policy.
The MDGs goals are; “halve by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe
drinking water and halve by 2015 the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation”
(Aldo Baietti and Peter Raymond 2005). NPES has specific objectives as regards to water supply
and sanitation which are “Increasing access to water up to a coverage of 90% within distance of
400 meters and Increasing access to sanitary services particularly to urban dwellers by at least
50% of current status (URT 1998).As regards to the sector in Dar es Salaam city, Lerise and
Kyessi (2002) say that households which have to cover more than six kilometers in the dry season
are on the increase and only 6% of population use sewer while 80% use pit latrines

The current situation of water supply and sanitation is examined in this case, i.e. the water
sources, the levels of supply, problems and initiatives underway. Also the levels of sanitation
services are examined. The levels of performance of institutions in Dar es Salaam which is not
doing well are compared to objectives set at international (MDGs) and national (NPES and
National Water Policy 2002) level.

3.2. Water supply-piped

i). Sources
According to DAWASCO, the sources of water supply in Dar es Salaam are River Ruvu that
comprises Upper and Lower Ruvu in Coast region, and River Kizinga in southern area of the city.
Other sources of water are deep and shallow wells; springs and local wells.

DAWASA has used the Ruvu River as its main water source since the 1950s. The Upper Ruvu
scheme has a present capacity of about 81Mld (millions of litres per day), while the Lower Ruvu
scheme has a design capacity of 182 MLD. Other sources, which are being used, are at Mtoni to
the south of the city with a capacity of about 9 Mld. and ground water. The agency responsible
for operation and maintenance in the city, DAWASCO says the area of supply covers not only the
city but also the villages and townships on the route of the two transmission mains. The
approximate length of existing mains in the city is about 824km, with 237km of primary
distribution and 587km of secondary distribution mains. (URT 2004)

15
Chart 1. Main source of water in Dar es Salaam

Main source of water

50
40
percent

30
20
10
0

Private
Other

kiosk/water

well in your

Rain water

Vendor
dawasco

well outside
Neghbours

Community

Neighbours
Private

dawasco

deep
Hand-dug

Hand-dug

deep
Source of water

Temeke Ilala Kinondoni

Source: Field survey 2005

As per bar chart 1, wells were the main source of water in the two municipalities of Ilala and
Temeke where private DAWASCO piped water is below 10%. The case is different in Kinondoni
where people depend more on neighbours DAWASCO connections rather than other sources
which is 14%

ii) Demand and Supply


The increase in population in the city is a significant determinant of the increase in demand for
services like water supply. Unfortunately, always services or supply of water is lagging behind
demand. The population in the city is far beyond the services that can be delivered by institutions
responsible. The trend of supply of water from 1997 to the present has never gone beyond 43%
according to some researchers as revealed in table 1.

Table 3. Piped water in Dar es Salaam


Year Population Production (M3) Required Deficit leakage Actual supply %of real
(million) (M3) (M3) (M3) production
2
1997 3.0 294000 408000 114000 60% 176,400 43
3
1999 2.1 273000 410000 137000 60% 109200 26.6
4
2003 2.5 280000 400000 120000 55% 126000 32
5
2005 2.6 280000 400000 120000 55% 126000 32
Source:-Field survey 2005

2
Rajab J. Mtoro-DAWASA
3
Mashauri, 1999. water supply during DAWASA era
4
City water report 2003. Almost the same production as in DAWASA period
5
dawasco report 2005

16
The above table of piped water production in the city shows little significant change in production
though there is an increase in population. Sometimes data is confusing, different sources have
different information about one thing. Some information from Water Section in Kinondoni
municipality says that, “By estimation, water needed by humans and livestock in Dar es Salaam is
157,006 m3 per day. If comparison is made between water supplied through wells and DAWASA
which is 205,997 m3 per day, it seems there is excess supply of 48,991 m3”. Table 4 below shows
the demand and supply of water at the minimum amount of water a person can survive a day that
is 60 litres. When the amount of water is added to 120 litres a person a day (Table 5) as
estimation, people of Dar es Salaam are considered to be well supplied with water and there is no
shortage. This is an information dilemma. This information seems not to be true if you compare it
with the actual situation in the city where it is evident through indicators that water is not enough.
A very recent research done, Household water Source and Use survey in July 2005, Dar es
Salaam municipalities (Temeke, Ilala and Kinondoni)” shows that only 8% of the population are
connected to DAWASCO systems and that is what the organisation can do to people. A question
comes in here, which research to trust?

Table.4. Water demand as per Kinondoni Municipal data


Municipality Population Average requirements Water demand per
per person(litres) day(litres)
Ilala 633,393 60 38,003,580
Kinondoni 1,100,000 60 66,000,000
Temeke 762,685 60 45,761,100
Total 2,496,078 149,764,680
Source: - Rural water section in Kinondoni municipality 2005

Table.5. Water demand per day at 120 liters requirement per day per person
Municipality Population Average requirements Water demand per
per person(litres) day(litres)
Ilala 633,393 120 76,007,160
Kinondoni 1,100,000 120 132,000,000
Temeke 762,685 120 91,522,200
Total 2,496,078 299,529,360
Source: Field survey 2005

The issue here lays in the fact that, it is hard to tell what is the actual supply of water in the city of
Dar es Salaam since institutions don’t have one true data to rely on when solving the problem of
water shortage. This information could lead to wrong solution to a wrong extent of a problem.

Water Aid Dar es Salaam says City Water Systems in 2003 (before DAWASCO) had 98,000
direct customers in a city of around 2.5 million people which is about 19.6%% of the total houses.
This water also is not equally distributed. According to the water engineer in DAWASCO, Some
areas are well supplied, especially where the higher income areas of Oysterbay, Mikocheni (along
Lower and Upper Ruvu in the A.H.Mwinyi road) live while the poor people’s areas, unplanned
ones rarely get piped water. These areas are Mbagalla, Ukonga, Kigamboni, Tabata, Pugu,
Kimara, Mbezi Juu and may more. In his 2005/06 budget, the minister for water Edward Lowasa
said, “Though the production of water from River Ruvu has increased by 15%, water supply in
some areas has decreased. For example, in areas formerly used to have water twice a week, now
get water once a month or not at all”

17
iii) Coverage and network conditions
As per the water engineer in the DCC, the condition of water supply network is very poor. Pipes
are old enough to break down and sometimes mix with sanitary sewers like the case of Kariakoo,
the situation leading to consumption of unsafe water. Water pipes have no proper channels
especially in the 70% unplanned areas of the city. Water Aid noted that water supply in the city is
characterised by illegal connections, rationing, high tarrifs, poor people pay as they use and
expensively while rich people pay less than what they use. Even the areas covered don’t receive
water regulary.

iv) Payment sytems


Payment system is of flat rate and it is normally paid monthly. In this case, there is a tendency of
sending bills even to people who have never witnessed a single drop of water. As noted by Action
Aid Tanzania in 2004, “since City Water (this was fired in May 2005 for failure) took over, water
tariffs have increased substantially, but water quality has not improved. Whole areas are being cut
off because a few households fail to pay their bills. Customers continue to receive bills without
receiving water, sometimes resulting in City Water bill collectors being ‘chased away with dogs
and knives’”. Apart from the 98,000 direct conected custommers, the rest which is 80.2% buy
from neighbours or vendors, and pay between Tsh. 100-200 (0.1-0.2 USD) per jerry can which is
very expensive to a poor family(Household survey 2005). Other domestic users pay a flat rate of
10,000 Tsh.(10 USD) a month regardless of the amount of water they use for drinking, gardening
and washing their vehicles. Though the figure below shows 23% of water is billed, DAWASCO
says it is even below that and it is estimated at around 17% only. City Water Services once said
the "street price" is more than 10 times what they charge through the pipes

Figure 1; Percentage of loss and billed water

Source:-Water Aid Tanzania 2003

v). Problems of piped water in the city


The real situation of water shortage which is mainly caused by the following reasons according to
Water Aid Tanzania as revealed in figure 3 bellow are: leakage which acocounts for 55-60% that
is mostly causesd by old pipes that reduces the capacity of supply as indicated in figure 2 of the
water loss chain, illegal connection that overpowers the water network, poor billing system that is
a burden to the poor, rationing that doesn’t take into account of people’s incomes(in practice,
rationing does not take place in some places of the city) and illegal irrigation

18
Figure 2. The water loss chain of Dar es Salaam

Source: - Water Aid Tanzania 2003

vi) Indicators of water shortage in Dar es Salaam


Water vendors, ranging from push carts selling on average 600litres a day, to owners of trucks
selling up to 20,000 litres a day (Kyessi 2002.pp 135). Owners of trucks selling water in bulky
interviewed at Makumbusho area in Kinondoni municipality said they have no license; they buy
water from DAWASCO pipes and sell also to the neighbouring districts of the city like
Mkuranga, Kisarawe, Kibaha and Bagamoyo. The shortage of water is evident since one can see
push carts, women carrying water and long queue at water points. City Water System company in
2005 April once admitted that water rationing is currently in force across large parts of the
sprawling city. Only about 30 percent of 100,000 registered City Water customers receive water
seven days a week, 20 percent get water for three days or fewer a week, and the rest get none
from the water pipes at all(see annex 4)

vii) Water accessibility Image 1. . Leakage in Dar es salaam


According to Household water Source and Makumbusho area
Use survey in July 2005, Dar es Salaam
municipalities (Temeke, Ilala and
Kinondoni); accessibility to water points is
very limited to majority of city residents.
About 25.7% of the population in the city get
water within 400m and a walking distance of
about 4 minutes and for those who depend on
neighbours connections, they can not access
water throughout a day unless the owner
agrees. This situation poses a big problem in
terms of time spent in search for water and its
extremely inconvenient. Source: Field Survey 2005

19
viii) Water reliability
Either piped or wells, they are all not reliable at all. As per the 2005/6 budget of the ministry of
water, when the amount of water in the river Ruvu decreases, the whole city suffers water
shortage and rationing becomes the order of the day. This is because of drought, environmental
degradation and other activities at the source of the river”. Unreliability is more serious in
unplanned settlements and the outskirts of the city where people pay high prices for less and
unsafe water. Low pressure is common also. Sometimes one has to wake up at the midnight to
fetch water when pressure is high and there are few users.

Chart 2. Time spent to a nearest water source

Minutes to reach source of water

30

25
20 Kinondoni
percent

15 Temeke

10 Ilala

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14 15 18 20 22 25 30 35 40 45 50 60
Minutes

Source: Field Survey 2005

3.3. Water supply-wells

i) Sources and coverage


Wells are the main source of water in the city of Dar es Salaam according the 2005 Household
survey on water uses and the water section in Kinondoni municipality. This source suppliments
the piped supply and it is widespread in low income and unplanned areas and the rural part of the
city. Institutions engaged in this water supply system are the municipalities of Temeke, Ilala and
Kinondoni. Interviews with officials from International NGOs shows that they play a role in the
provision of water wells. These are Plan International in Ilala with 8 boreholes, Water Aid in
Temeke with 10 boreholes and Care international in Kinondoni with 5 boreholes. Community
Based Organisation, Mosques and private individuals also have a big number of water wells(refer
table. 6)

ii) Types of wells


According to Kinondoni municipal council, the common types are deep and shallow wells. In this
case, deep wells are commonly owned communally and are dug by international organizations
like Plan International, Water Aid and Care Tanzania and the three municipalities of Ilala,

20
Temeke and Kinondoni. Deep wells have many distribution points and stand tapes. They need big
capital to dig which it rarely happen for individuals to have one.

According to Plan International official’s interview in Ilala, shallow wells are very common in
unplanned settlement; they are easily dug by individuals and owned privately. These are mostly
not covered and prone to contamination through faecal matters hence threatening people’s health

Image 2. Shallow well in Buguruni Image. 3: Religious deep well


Makumbusho-Kinondoni

Source: Field survey 2005 Source: Field Survey (A mosque deep well
funded by the Kuwait Fund)
iii) Demand and supply Image 4. Shallow well in Mbagalla
The total water to be produced by both
deep and shallow wells in the city is
4,897m3, but the actual production is not
known. The quality of water is low and it
is considered to be contaminated by
domestic wastes. The study shows that
there are more private wells than those
owned by CBOs and other institutions.
This is because people consider that as
their main source of water, and easy to
manage, no payment of bills, shallow and
needs low capital to dig one. Source: Field Survey 2005

Table 6. A summary of deep and shallow wells in the city of Dar es Salaam
Municipality Deep Shallow total actual production capacity ownership
well wells capacity
working Not Cubic private institutio CBO
working metres n
Ilala 181 51 232 ? ? 1,092 121 53 58
Kinondoni 201 7 208 ? ? 1,105 140 35 33
Temeke 137 120 157 ? ? 2,700 94 76 90
Total 519 178 597 4,897 355 164 181
Source: Kinondoni Municipal Council, rural water section 2005

21
iv) Areas they cover
As one goes out of the city to the outskirts, wells are common source of water. Dar es Salaam is
predominantly unplanned about 70%, and dwellers in these areas hardly get piped water. Even in
planned areas like Tabata, they basically depend on wells. The municipal rural water engineer in
Ilala says, ‘Tabata is one of the most hit areas by shortage of water, now their main source of
water is wells so do all areas that are not planned”.

v) Conditions of wells
An observation by the researcher shows that, these wells are characterised by being dug in
residential compounds, sometimes near pit latrines, some are uncovered and they are said most of
them are contaminated. “They also have high content of salt” (Ilala water engineer 2005). These
wells easily dry in dry season and get water in rain season. But the challenge here is in rain
season. Due to poor drainage system in the city, most wells are contaminated. A resident in
Buguruni says, “ we use some purification drugs provided by the municipality and PLAN to make
water safer for consumption, and we must boil them, otherwise cholera can occur”.

Image 5. Deep well by Plan International and Shallow well owned privately

Deep well by Plan International Shallow well by private

Source: Field Survey 2005

vi) Management of wells


Management of these wells depends on the owner. For community, there are water committees
that are responsible for the day to day operation of wells. People are supposed to pay some token
for the use of water for the purpose of raising money for operation and maintanaince. According
to Kombe who did research in community water management in Temeke municipality, almost all
CBOs have similar system of management . He identified the following features of management
citing an example of Tungi as a CBO:- representative participation-elected community water
committee (CWC), CWC fully responsible for sales (Water Aid conditionality), kiosks operator
hired at 20% of the monthly revenue, prices set by Community Water Committee and
Community leaders (CL), bank account for water, distribution generally even but limited, no
provision for the poor (profit-motivated), no on-site connections (private households),
unregulated competition between community-managed and private wells/boreholes (private
suppliers loosing customers), uneasy relationship (private versus community suppliers) and
deliberate higher representation of women in CWC.

22
vii) Payments
Payments are made to enable operation and maintenance. This means most wells are not for profit
making. There are no billing system in this case. Users go to the well and pay the money to the
collector who is normally the owner. The prices of water in wells range from 20 –50 Tanznian
shilling which is relatively expensive to the poor, but cheaper compared to the piped ones
especially when buys from vendors.

viii) Problems of wells Image 6: Lorry tankers for clean water at


Though used by the majority in the city of Makumbusho-Kinondoni
Dar es Salaam, wells have a lot of problems
that directly affect people’s health. This is
according to interview with all the
respondents in the study. The common
problems are; drought whereby wells are
always seasonal, with enough supply in rain
season and shortage in dry season,
contamination following their nature and
locational characteristics. Since wells are dug
in residential areas, they are contaminated
through toilets leading to chorela and other
waterborne deseases accounting to more than
70% of all diseases in Dar es Salaam, silting
is another problem which is caused by storm
water since there are no good drainage Source: Field survey 2005
system in the area. and most wells have salt
water.

3.4. Sanitation

Sanitation is a very important component of urban services. As urban dwellers increase, they call
forth the increases in demand for sanitary facilities. The situation of sanitation services in urban
centres is always under capacity, and being more in terrible situations in unplanned areas where
most of the poor people live.

i) Types of sanitary facilities


DAWASCO water and sewerage engineers noted that, there are basically three types of sanitary
infrastructures in Dar es Salaam. These are sewers, offside system (septic tanks) and onsite
system (pit latrines). Sewers are managed by DAWASA and DAWASCO while onsite and offsite
system are under the municipalities. Municipalities have public pay toilets that are beautiful and
well managed, while pit latrines are private and poor.

23
Image 7. Different toilets constructed by different institutions in Ilala

Plan International Ilala Municipality Private owned

Source: Field survey 2005

ii) Levels of sanitation services


The coverage of sewerage systems is considerably less than that of the water supply systems.
DAWASCO data shows that only 10% of people in the city are served by the sewer system, the
rest use offsite (septic tanks) or onsite sanitation (pit latrines). This is partly due to the shortage of
sewerage system infrastructure, and partly reluctance by some users to be connected to sewerage
systems in view of the cost involved. People living in peri-urban areas primarily depend on
cesspits or pit latrines, which are emptied by the local authority or private operators. “However
the standards of latrines are in a poor state and as a consequence, “over 70% of diseases attended
to in health facilities are water and sanitation related” (URT 2004). It is common in squatter areas
on the city for more than one household to share one pit latrine. These areas are like Buguruni,
Manzese, Vingunguti, and Mbagala to mention a few.

Sanitation is the issue in all the three municipalities in the city. “Temeke (one of the three
municipalities in the city of Dar es Salaam) takes the form of poor built; un-maintained latrines,
and open garbage pits and sewers. More than 78% of the population use pit latrines. These latter
individuals require defecating in places of convenience, sometimes using plastic bags or news
papers within which to wrap feces”. (www.waterforpeople.org/waterforpeopleafrica)

Box. 1. Levels of sanitation services in Dar es Salaam


The Dar es Salaam city population uses either off-site (6%) or onsite (94%) system of excreta
disposal regardless of the level of underground water table or the type of the soil in the area
(URT 1997). The 1988 population census indicated that only 14.6% of the city households had
flushed toilets while 82.9% depended on palatines. It is hoped that with limited water
improvement in the city and absence of extension of sewer systems, the situation might worse.
Worse still, all informal settlements depend on onsite sanitation only. The off-site systems consist
only of 130 kilometres of sewer and 17 sewerage pumping stations. The areas covered are mainly
in the city centre and Ubungo and Vingunguti industrial areas. A few outlying residential areas
such as Upanga, Oysterbay and Kijitonyama are also covered by central sewer systems (Kaseva
1997)
Source: Kyessi 2002

24
Image 9: Offsite septic tank
Image. 8: Lorry tanker for emptying
Septic tanks (scavengers)

Source: Field survey 2005 Source: Field survey 2005

iii) Problems of sanitation in Dar es Salaam


According to interview with all the institutions involved in the study, there are common problems
of sanitation in the city ranging from technical to social cultural. These are; leaking is common in
sewers that have old pipes, and have for a long time not being rehabilitated or replaced by the
new ones; over flooding occur in blocked sewers. In this case, when covers of chambers are not
there may be due to theft, solid waste fills sewers hence blocking them, finally over flooding
occur; the nature of settlements also determines the success or failure of sanitary facilities.
Unplanned areas (70%) of Dar es Salaam are difficult places to lay out waste pipes; they have no
areas for toilets and not organized at all. It is usual in these areas to find open pit latrines and
ignorance is perhaps a bigger problem. People who are borne in these areas think it is a normal
thing to live in such situation. Some don’t know the danger that is associated with poor sanitation

Image 10: Leaking sewerage systems in Buguruni area-Dar es Salaam

Source: Field survey 2005

25
3.5. Ongoing initiatives to improve water supply and sanitation services in Dar es Salaam

There are several initiatives underway to improve the water supply and sanitation in the city.
These are done by the government agency, DAWASA and DAWASCO; some are done by NGOs
like Water Aid, Plan International and Care International. The community also is in the move and
companies and private individuals. Since DAWASA is the major holding company, some of its
activities are funded both by the government in collaboration with the World Bank which also
funds DAWASCO for operation and maintenance activities.

Image 11:Improvement project in Dar es salaam funded by the World Bank

Source: Field survey 2005

3.5.1. The ministry of water budget for Dar es Salaam


In the 2005/2006 budget, 8.57 billion shilling is set for the rehabilitation of oxdation ponds and
sewerage pumps. Water infrastructure especially in the outskirt of the city will be expanded, and
it will cost 3.0 billion shillings.

As far as training in the water sector is concerned in the year 2004/2005, Rwegarulila Water
Resource Institute continued to train people to cater for the need of the municipalities in the city
and other institutions. A total number of 54 students graduated as technicians and 265 in the
course as technicians of lower levels. However, the institute ammended its curicular to suit the
need of the market.

It is expected that in this year, the institute will start using its new carricular and will award
diplomas in the fiels of water engineering, water exploration and digging of wells, and water
laboratory technology. The budget set for this programme is 400 million shillings.

26
3.5.2. Dar es Salaam Water Supply and Sanitation Project
The development objective of the project is to provide a reliable, affordable and sustainable water
supply service and improve the sewerage and sanitation in the "service area" of the Dar es Salaam
Water and Sewerage Authority (DAWASA) that includes Dar es Salaam and part o f the Coast
region. This will help improve public health and well being in a city prone to cholera outbreaks or
other water-borne diseases and support productive activities of the country's main economic
centre. There are five components to the project: 1) Rehabilitation and extension of the water
supply facilities: This component will be implemented under three separate programs: the priority
works program (PWP), the Non-Delegated Works Program (NDWP) and, the delegated works
program. 2) Rehabilitation and extension of the sewerage and waste water treatment facilities. 3)
Community water supply and sanitation facilities. 4) Institutional strengthening, All activities
associated with the improvement of the operations of the water supply and sanitation service.
Operating costs of the operator, equity contributions to the capital of the operator, technical
assistance, training, transitional expenses and maintenance contingency, technical assistance to
the Ruvu River/Wami Basin office. 5) Preparation of a medium term development program,
Water resource and supply assessment for the Dar es Salaam region, sanitation, national urban
water supply and sanitation strategy.**. The implementing agency is the Ministry of Water and
Livestock Development and DAWASA
Source:- Worldbank(Tanzania-projects and programmes) 2005

The running of the project is made possible through loan/credit from the World Bank and IDA as
shown in the table below.

Table. 7. Funds for the implementation of DAWAS projects in 2005(USD)


Financial
Main Loan/Credit # 37710
IBRD Commitment * 0
IDA Commitment * 61.5
IBRD + IDA Commitment * 61.5
Grant Amount * 0
Total Project Cost * 164.6
Product Line IBRD/IDA
Lending Instrument Specific Investment Loan
Source:- Worldbank(Tanzania-projects and programmes) 2005

3.6. Conclusion

If objectives are compared to results, there is a gape of about 70% in terms of water and about
40% in terms of sanitation. In this case then, the performance capacity of DAWASCO is less than
10% in supply of water and less than 10% in sanitation services delivery. In so doing it will never
reach targets set in MDGs, NPES and National Water Policy. Dar es Salaam has been relying on
wells, especially the poor community that comprises of more than 80% of the city’s population.
In actual fact, the capacity of all institutions in Dar es Salaam as far as result of programmes is
concerned is 41% (from table 3 of piped and table 6 of well water) water production. The rest is
covered by private wells dug in residential compounds. As if coverage is not enough, the city has
never witnessed safe water in its history. Unless water is boiled as insisted by the ministry of
health, it can not be consumed.

27
CHAPTER FOUR

THE CAPACITY OF INSTITUTIONS TO PROVIDE WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION


SERVICES

4.1. Introduction

The reasons for institution’s incapability to deliver services and attain their goals are probably
difficulty to establish since even the results of different researchers who happened to conduct
studies on the sector in the city are also different. This is a difficult environment to know the
magnitude of the problem.

The capacities of institutions to supply water and sanitation services are assessed based on three
criteria, which are “institutional resources, institutional performance and institutional
sustainability”. However, the emphasis is on the extent of their capacity. All the tables of
performance levels are based on interviews with 31 respondents from the 12 institutions involved
in the study.

4.2. Actors involved in water supply and sanitation

There are several actors that are involved in water supply and sanitation in the city. This follows
the failure of the government to deliver the service through its agency, DAWASA (Dar es Salaam
Water and Sewerage Authority). In this case, each actor has its own way of dealing with the issue.
Some of which are even not regulated by any law, some are bureaucratic, some has low capacity
to perform and some lack human resources and many more working environment. These actors
are Ministry of water, public agency like DAWASA and DAWASCO, private companies, CBOs,
NGOs, municipalities, academic institutions, religious organisations and informal operators.

i) Ministry of water
This is concerned with setting regulations, policies and standards of which other actors are to
follow in their daily activities. It is at this level where final decision making takes place. In this
case, this is the actor that can influence the performance other actors either positively or
negatively.

ii) Public Agency (DAWASA and DAWASCO)


These are important actors. DAWASA is the city’s water and sanitation utility holding agency
that owns all water and sanitation infrastructures in the city. This agency is responsible for
making sure that there is adequate water supply. The agency is also responsible for dissemination
of information regarding water conservation and health related aspects of water and sanitation.
Due to lack of capacity to deliver the services, activities of operation and maintenance were
leased to a private company, City Water Services.

City Water company was given a contract of 10 years to collect revenue, operation and
maintenance. Before it completed the contract, City Water Company is fired for failure.
Replacing the City Water Services, there is a newly established public corporation, DAWASCO
(Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation) to take the activities left by City Water.

28
iii) Community Based Organisations (CBO)
These are owned by the community in the areas they operate and they are managed by Water
committee. Their manpower is community members mostly unskilled without technical know
how. “They have wells/kiosks administered at ward level and are donor and government funded.
They also train the community in matters regarding water supply and sanitation. There is a clear
unregulated competition between community managed and private wells/boreholes (private
suppliers loosing customers), uneasy relationship between private versus community suppliers”
(Kombe, W.J. 2005). However, this kind of a situation reduces the capacity of these institutions to
deliver the services of water supply and sanitation.

iv) Non Governmental Organizations (NGO)


With regards to NGOs, they have a big role, not only on providing water supply and sanitation,
but also on reminding decision makers on their responsibilities. The most common NGOs in Dar
es Salaam are Water Aid, Care International and Plan International. These dig boreholes and
wells especially in the suburbs of the city. They have clear structure, build capacity of local
people; they do sensitize community on water supply and sanitation, technical assistance and
provide equipment and materials. Water Aid also executes projects in collaboration with residents
and water committees. Generally, NGOs work at the grass root level.

v) Municipalities (Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke)


In Dar es Salaam, Water supply and sanitation services are no longer the municipal activities and
they don’t have any department dealing with the issue. Their roles have been reduced to
identification of an area where water infrastructure can pass or a well to be dug. They also
support CBOs in terms of funds which are either from a municipal budget or sought from donors.
They are bureaucratic and considered to be corrupt, lack financial resources and autonomy.
Culturally, they have “uncertainty avoidance”

vii) Informal operators/vendors and private individuals


These are individuals who are not registered, no regulatory framework and their sources of water
are questionable. To them, water shortage is always advantageous since they make business. They
sometimes break water pipes in order to create shortage and do business. The shortage of water is
evident. They get their water from wells and piped water, but also from unknown sources which
may be streams, dirty canals and leaking pipes. Many people in the city depend on their services
especially poor people areas.

ix) Academic institutions


These play a big role in water supply and sanitation in the city. They provide expertise, training,
data collection and storage and consultancy. There are three institutions and all are in Dar es
Salaam. These are University of Dar es Salaam engineering faculty, University College of Lands
and Architectural Studies (UCLAS) through the department of environmental engineering and
urban planning department. The other one is the Rwegarulila Institute for Water Resources that
trains lower rank employees.

x) Religious organization (mosques)


These are also engaged in production of water in the city. They basically deal with wells which
are dug under the help of the Kuwait Fund. They are made for religious purposes but also they
save people for their domestic uses.

29
4.3. Institutional Resources

For any institution to work properly and yield better result, resources have to be available and
fully utilized. These are the determinants of failure or success of any institution apart from these
ones engaging in water supply and sanitation. There are four factors to be taken into account.
These are legal structure and governance, management systems and practices and finance.

4.3.1. Legal structure and governance


In Dar es Salaam, institutions operate on individual base, and a good number of them are legal.
Vendors and many private operators don’t operate legally. An interview with vendors show that
they are not registered. A vendor at Makumbusho area in Kinondoni municipality says, “How can
I be registered, so far we are in constant conflict with DAWASA because they think we break
their pipes to create water shortage so that we can do business, but this not true at all.” Bulky
operators, those with lorry tankers said they don’t have licences but they would like to have it so
that they can do business without problems. But bureaucracy has hindered them from acquiring
one. All the nine institutions interviewed said they have a good support from the government
since it encourages participation in the sector.

Laws that are used are considered to be a hindrance of institutional performance. This is revealed
by some researchers who have done studies. Kyessi A. 2002 argues that “In Tanzania and in Dar
es Salaam in particular, there are several specific pieces of legislation (national laws, by-laws and
ordinances) dealing with infrastructure provision and services. Some of these are outdated and or
not realistic from the point of view of local culture and practices and the changing social
economic and political context”. These legislations are like Local Government (Urban
Authorities) Act No. 8 of 1982 which is outdated and has no provision of private investment
participation in urban infrastructure; Local Government Finance Act 1982 is outdated and states
that collection and expenditure of revenue should be centralised. There are other legislations that
affect the provision of water supply and sanitation services like Town and Country Planning
Ordinance(CAP 378) of 1956 as revised in 1961 and 1993, Land Ordinance Act(CAP 113)of
1923(very outdated). The National Water Policy of 2002 is a bit recent, but the environment in
which it operates is terribly outdated to such and extent that achieving goals is difficult. This is
because; institutions dealing with water supply and sanitation have to abide to these legislations
to be able to operate.

As regards to governance, experts consider this is a big problem in almost all institutions. An
expert from UCLAS is pessimistic about institutions meeting targets since transparency is
missing. He says “it is difficult to predict the future in terms of politics. Engagement of City
Water was closed, but firing is made public aiming at gaining political support for the ruling
party”.

Water Aid’s respondent complained about time taken to finish a work in public institutions. “Too
much bureaucracy in the government, it takes a long time to get a permission to build a well
which is basically to help people. If you are lucky, you can take at least six months, this
encourages corruption. We find also difficult to work with the ministry of water due to same
reason. She continues to argue that, the use of resources is even worse; they use a lot of resources
and yield very little to the public. I wonder how this happens”.

30
Table. 8 Capacity of institutions as regards to legal structure and governance
CRITERIA INDICATORS INSTITUTIONS

of

PLAN,WATER

municipalities
AID&CARE
DAWASCO

institutions
DAWASA

Academic
Ministry

vendors
Private
water

CBO
Legal -registered 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 0
structure -have license 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 0
supported by national 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1
authorities
governance -participation 1 1 1 3 3 2 0 0 0
-strategic vision 3 2 2 3 1 3 3 3 1
-effectiveness 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 3 3
-rule of law 1 1 1 0 2 2 3 0 0
-transparency 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 0 0
-efficiency 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 3 2
-responsiveness 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 3
-consesus orientation 1 1 1 3 3 2 1 1 0
-accountability 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 0
Bureaucratic rules 3 3 3 1 1 3 2 1 0
norms are conducive for 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 3 3
performance
-equity building 2 2 1 2 3 3 0 0 0

Average score 1.7 1.6 1.5 2.4 2 1.8 1.6 1.5 0.8
Source: Field survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

All the institutions involved in the research said they don’t have regular reporting to the public,
unless there is an emergence. In practice, each organization is accountable to the organization that
put it in existence and not to those they serve. Customers have no voice to say to Institutions
however mess they do. At least CBOs are responsible to people they serve. This is because the
community own them, employees are part of the society the CBO operates as opposed to other
institutions that do not belong to customers directly.

The municipalities are governed through elected mayors and councillors who are in charge of the
well being of the city and its dwellers. The opposite is true to DAWASA and DAWASCO where
technocrats are recruited by the ministry of water, hence being more responsible to the employer
than the people they serve.

4.3.2. Human resources


At the ministry level, shortage of staff as regards to water supply and sanitation can rarely be felt
according to official reports. There are always enough and qualified staff. As per human
resources director in DAWASA, they have enough and qualified staff, always going for training
but lowly paid. DAWASCO admits shortage of staffs though they are qualified enough to
undertake their duties. A respondent from the office said they have shortage of workers, both at
higher degree and technicians. The biggest problem here is that their salaries are very low. A
qualified engineer receives about Tshs. 150,000 to 250,000(USD 150 to 250) a month and low

31
incentives. Though they have permanent jobs, they lack morale to work, they need to be
motivated. All international NGOs, i.e. Plan International, Water Aid and WATSANET (Water
and Sanitation Network in Tanzania) admitted to have fewer employees since they needed them
not for operation, but for monitoring purposes. Respondent from Water Aid said NGOs need not
to have many workers because they need them only for monitoring and partnership. “We have
few staffs, only to support partnership. We have one Engineer and one community development
officer to help the community since it lacks experience”. As regards to payment, she said they are
more paid compared to public officials.

Table. 9 Capacity of institutions as regards to human resources


CRITERIA INDICATORS INSTITUTIONS

of

PLAN,WATER

municipalities
AID&CARE
DAWASCO

institutions
DAWASA

Academic
Ministry

vendors
Private
water

CBO
Human - qualified personnel 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 0
resources
-training 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 0
-level of salaries 1 1 1 3 0 1 2 1 0
-level of morale 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 3 3
incentives 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 0
-level of education 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 1
-level of staff utilization 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 3 3
record-keeping 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 0
-employment security 3 3 3 1 1 3 3 1 0
Average score 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.8 1 1.8 2.6 1.4 0.8
Source: Field survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

With regards to academic institutions, these are the think tanks of the city and the country as a
whole. Though not enough in number, they do a good job in terms of research, consultancy and
training. They all have qualified staff, but since these are not directly engaged in production of
water supply and sanitation, their research findings are hardly put into practice, and normally
consultants from outside the country are hired raising the costs of projects and lowering services
delivery.

The Institute for Water Resources of Rwegarulila produces lower rank staff-technicians who are
never enough since they are needed by institutions not only in Dar es Salaam, but national wide.
The University of Dar es Salaam offer master degree in water resources management and UCLAS
trains staff in the area of environmental engineering both at degree and masters level. According
to experts interviewed in this case, institutions produce staff in lower number than the market
requires, yet they are hardly employed. So shortage of trained staff in the public sector is not only
due to lack of trained people, but also low level of recruitment and redundancies in the course of
fulfilling donor conditions.

Community Based organization are characterized by staffs who have no formal training in the
issue of water supply and sanitation as noted by Kombe 2005. They receive informal training
from the municipalities and NGOs. Plan International has sensitization programmes about the

32
sector in Ilala so does Water Aid in Temeke and Care International in Kinondoni. The three
municipalities of Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke have no urban water supply and sanitation
departments; rather, they have rural water sections with lowly paid staff. They mainly engage in
digging of wells.

4.3.3. Management systems and practices


The common practice of management in the city as far as water supply and sanitation is
concerned is contract management. As a means to raise productivity, efficiency and transparency,
almost all the activities are contracted out whereby a tender for certain activity is announced and
bidding processes takes place. A good example in this case is the lease contract that was reached
between the government through DAWASA and a private company City Water Services in
august 2003 (see Annex 2). The company was assigned to run operation and maintenance for 10
years though it failed even before completing two years and it was fired in May 2005 for not
reaching its targets (see Annex 3). Contract management is also common to NGOs.

However, contracting processes are not clear to some of people in the city sometimes used for the
purpose other than serving people. An expert at UCLAS accused the government for being not
open in contracting out of some activities; it makes high voice when problems occur. This is well
exemplified in the case contract between DAWASA and City Water Services. The expert says,
“This is a big problem with our institutions. Almost all contracts made here are difficult to
understand. For instance, the engagement of City Water Services was closed, but firing it is made
open for political support”.

A respondent in Kinondoni municipality admits difficulties in managing public institutions. The


argument is that, Public institutions now are difficult to control, everybody wants to use office for
personal gain and they do what they want instead of following regulations. People go to work as
they like and stay in office for few hours. This is a challenge if effectiveness in services delivery
is to be achieved. According to that respondent, the municipality has relatively good plans, but
who cares. The government is moving from the public engagement in production to private
operation. Contracting out of activities aims at improving services through companies that are
mostly owned by local people. The practice is different; people are using the system for personal
gain

Budgets are project oriented in many institutions including DAWASA and DAWASCO, but they
never reach their goals. For instance, the ministry of water budget for 2005/2006 focuses more on
rehabilitation of oxidation ponds and sewerage pumps forgetting other things.

Though the focus of institutions now are on private sector style of management practices, the
practice shows more public oriented operation especially for the main actors in the sector-
DAWASA and DAWASCO. So there is a gap between the focus and the actual practices of
management. Political interference is high, politicians insist on transparency while the opposite is
true when it comes to practice. Another important feature of management of institutions in the
city is cost of administration is normally higher than actual cost of real projects. This was
revealed by DAWASCO treasurer.

33
Table. 10 Capacity of institutions according to Management systems and practices
CRITERIA INDICATORS INSTITUTIONS

of

PLAN,WATER

municipalities
AID&CARE
DAWASCO

institutions
DAWASA

Academic
Ministry

vendors
Private
water

CBO
Management -program evaluation 2 1 1 3 1 1 3 3 0
systems and
practices -client orientation 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 3
utilizing information, 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 2
changing and improving organization 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 0
Sufficient internal control mechanisms. 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 3 3
-use of contracts 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 0
The management is able to face 3 1 1 3 1 3 1 3 2
problems, make necessary decisions, and
convert them to action.
-discipline in resource use 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 3 3
-monitoring 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 0
-decentralization 1 1 1 3 0 1 1 0 0
-competion in production 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
-quality management 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
identifying needs, 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3
setting objectives, 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 0
adherence to schedules, 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 0
coordination of activities 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 0 0
communicating feedback to stakeholders 1 0 0 2 3 1 1 0 0
Average 1.5 1.2 1.2 2.7 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.7 0.9
score
Source: Field survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

4.3.4. Financial resources


This is considered to be the major hindrance in the supply of water and sanitation services in the
city in all institutions involved in the study. DAWASCO admits that their spending/expenditure is
always more than they can collect or their revenue.

As regards to sources of revenue, donors play a big role. All institutions in the city receive funds
from donors either as grants in case of CBOs and loan in case of DAWASA and DAWASCO.
Main donors in the city of Dar es Salaam are World Bank, IMF and IDA. User charges are
common source of revenue for public and private institutions. NGOs and CBOs fully depend on
donors as their main source of revenue. (Refer Table 8. where World Bank is funding a project)

Budgets for public institutions like DAWASA and DAWASCO are always in deficit, expenditure
exceeding revenue. DAWASCO has a plan to use 100% revenue from user charges from the year
2005 onwards though it also says that 50% of Dar es Salaam inhabitants steel water and don’t pay
revenue. One can wonder how that 100% dependence on user charges can be achieved.

34
Table 11: Capacity of institutions in terms of finance
CRITERIA INDICATORS INSTITUTIONS

of

PLAN,WATER

municipalities
AID&CARE
DAWASCO

institutions
DAWASA

Academic
Ministry

vendors
Private
water

CBO
Financial - budget dependency 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 0 0
resources
Sufficient budget 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
-financial control 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 3
-ICT application 1 1 1 3 0 1 2 0 0
-cost recovery 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 3 3
-good spending habits 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 2
-increasing revenue 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 3
-reducing expenditure 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 3
-financial information updating 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 0
-database foundation 1 1 1 3 0 1 2 0 0
-clearity of tariffs and taxes 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
-clearity of budgets to customers 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0

-ability to produce clear financial 1 1 1 1 3 1 0 0 0


information to users
-priority stting 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 0 0
Stability of income 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
-high level of tariffs 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 3 3
Average score 1 1 1.1 1.7 1.2 0.8 0.9 1.4 1
Source: Field survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

Budget deficit is also shown in the research done by Kyessi in 2002 and he observed that,
“DAWASA records show that the annual deficit grew from Tsh 74 million in 1985 to Tsh. 2728
million in 1995. During the same period, the accumulated deficit was Tsh. 14,606 million in
1995. This is a result of high operation costs and poor revenue collection, accumulating arrears,
poor information about water consumers, unregistered connections and leakage”

As regards to cost recovery, Kyessi 2002 argues that, “the services cost recovery mechanisms has
never been efficient within parastatal organizations and the local authorities”. There has been an
absence of realistic cost recovery systems the rich and the poor have been treated equally
(Lugalla 1995). Dar es Salaam city residents, mostly the rich, have capitalized in this inefficiency
by not paying for the service charges. User charges for water supply are often based on an
elaborate system of central government subsidies and based on a flat rate with no meters for
control, therefore, in strictly economic sense; the systems run at loss (URT 1997)

NGOs are also not self sufficient in finance, this revealed by Water Aid respondent who points
out that, “We don’t have sufficient budget; we cover the deficit by adding more money. In this
year’s (2005/2006) budget, Water Aid has to add 30% of annual budget. Also in all our activities,
the community has to contribute 5% of the budget, not only by cash, but also in kind”

35
Report from DAWASCO shows that, during the era of City Water Systems in 2003-2005,
information system for financial control was effective. Information was computerized and
networked. Since DAWASCO has taken over the activities of City Water services, information
systems is checked and there is a clear move again to go back to the roots-the old systems of files.
DAWASCO admits that during City Water, ICT was very effective. Information was
computerized and networked. The situation is very different today when files are in use again and
it is difficult to have better financial control

According to interview with public officials, public institutions have the tendency of spending
more money on allowances and salaries instead of actual projects. The study shows that if
allowances (overtime and others) are not paid, employee’s morale is reduced hence affecting the
delivery of services. The money spent on salaries and wages in DAWASA, DAWASCO and the
municipalities is more than 80%, and the rest is left for investment in actual projects.

4.3.5 Summary of institutional resources


In this aspect of institutional capacity, financial resources is a major problem, scoring very poorly
and this is mainly caused by poor financial control, budget dependency, poor cost recovery, poor
ICT application and poor spending habits especially in public institutions.

Table. 12. Summary of institutional capacity – institutional resources


Institution
Criteria for assesment Minist DA DAW PLAN, CB munici Academic Private vendor
ry of WA ASCO WATER O palitie institutions s
water SA AID&C s
ARE
Institutional Legal structure and 1.7 1.6 1.5 2.4 2 1.8 1.6 1.5 0.8
Resources governance
Human resources 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.8 1 1.8 2.6 1.4 0.8

Management 1.5 1.2 1.2 2.7 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.7 0.9
systems and
practices
Financial resources 1 1 1.1 1.7 1.2 0.8 0.9 1.4 1
Total average score 1.5 1.4 1.4 2.4 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.5 0.8
Source: Field Survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

4.4. Institutional Performance

This is an important component of institutional capacity. It is at this stage when an institution can
be considered capable of delivering services just by looking at the level of services delivered.
Assessment of performance has to take into account of the needs of the residents of the city of
Dar es Salaam, the targets of policies and the actual delivery of services. Factors to be taken into
account in this category are programme results, networking and external relations, application of
technical knowledge and constituency empowerment.

4.4.1. Program results


Since 1981 to 2005, all water and sanitation programmes never met targets in the city of Dar es
Salaam. For example, the National Urban Water Authority (NUWA) from 1981 to 1996 supplied
water up to 43%, DAWASA from 1997 to 2003 supplied water up to 26.6%, City Water Systems
from 2003 to May 2005 supplied 32% so does the newly established DAWASCO in 2005. Up to

36
the moment, there are about 98,000 direct DAWASCO connected customers out of an
approximately 500,000 houses in Dar es Salaam which is only 19.6% of all houses. A recent
research done in July 2005 by the Institute for Statistics of Dar es Salaam show that only 8% of
city dwellers have direct connection to DAWASCO piped systems about 25.7% get water within
400 metres. The rest have to walk long distances in search for water and wasting time. As regards
to sanitation, only 10% of Dar es Salaam residents are connected to sewer systems, the rest
depend on offsite, onsite sanitation and other means best known to them especially in squatters.
Water Aid says it only serves less than 10% of Temeke population in its deep well water supply
so does Plan International in Ilala and Care International in Kinondoni.

Table. 13 Capacity of institutions in terms of services delivery


CRITERIA INDICATORS INSTITUTIONS

of

PLAN,WATER

municipalities
AID&CARE
DAWASCO

institutions
DAWASA

Academic
Ministry

vendors
Private
water

CBO
Program results needs met 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
financial allocations 1 1 1 3 3 2 3 3 3
program completion rates 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 0 0
Delivery of services 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1
Necessary buildings, vehicles etc. 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 0

Production and/or communication 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1


tools and equipment are adequate
Work produced complies with 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 0 0
national quality standards.
The institution delivers its 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1
“products” with reasonable costs.
number of people served 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Average score 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.8 1 1.3 1.7 0.8 0.8
Source: Field survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

Since it started its activities ten years ago in Temeke, Water Aid has managed to supply water
from 10 wells that it has dug and covered around 10% of the population. Water Aid water
engineer says, “the number of users in Temeke are 300 people per well, served since 1998 to now
is 72,000 and Temeke population is 700,000, so population served is about 10% only.

4.4.2. Networking and external relations


The trend of water supply and sanitation in Dar es Salaam show that one organization or
institution can not deliver the required services. What is needed is to organize the capacity of
institutions, i.e. enlist all actors concerned with water supply and sanitation, have one clear
strategy and develop and implement a policy designed to respond to fundamental developments
and create conditions for sustainable development.

Interview with all NGOs in the study area show that actors lack coordination. They expect that
the Dar es Salaam city council and the three municipalities of Ilala, Temeke and Kinondoni take
coordination responsibility, but that is not the case.

37
In Dar es Salaam, the practice is each organization working independent of the other, have
different strategy and different regulations to follow. Prime minister in 1997 (quoted by Kyessi
2002) said:-
“They, (public utility agencies) have never been together at any time on a common area
(settlement) to supply public services. Instead, whenever an institution has implemented its bit,
another would come in and overhaul whatever was already in place in order to justify its action.
It is no wonder therefore that when the DCC is implementing its decisions to demolish road
kiosks or structure of people living in hazard lands, TANESCO and NUWA are busy supplying
the same people with electricity and water. Likewise people acquiring plots in the city have
usually taken the initiatives at exorbitant costs, to secure the services for water, electricity, etc on
individual bases”

Table. 14 Capacity in terms of networking


CRITERIA INDICATORS INSTITUTIONS

of

PLAN,WATER

municipalities
AID&CARE
DAWASCO

institutions
DAWASA

Academic
Ministry

vendors
Private
water

CBO
Networking and A stable group of donors provide 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 0 0
external predictable support.
relations coordination 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
linkage to relevant national and/or 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
international partners
Ability to manage competitors or 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3
rivals well.
Average score 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.7 0.7
Source: Field survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

Each institution has own donor agent and works to achieve its own goals. Each institution has
own partnership either with donor agent or with implementing agent. For instance, DAWASA
receives its funds from the World Bank, and it entered into a lease contract with City Water
System in august 2003. Most of organizations like Water Aid, Plan International, Care
International and CBOs enter into contracting out type of partnership with organizations they
think they are worthwhile collaborating.

The well known network in this case is that between DAWASA and DAWASCO and the World
Bank and the Central government. In this case, DAWASA and DAWASCO receives fund from
the World Bank and the Central government. Another strong network is between NGOs and
CBOs.

38
Figure. 3: Actors and their network in the sector of water supply and sanitation in Dar es Salaam
World Bank, Central
IMF government
DAWASA
DAWASCO

NGO Private and


individuals

Water Supply and


Sanitation
CBOs Religious
organisation

Vendors Municipalities

Source: Field survey 2005

4.4.3. Application of technical knowledge


Technical knowledge implies the technical skills that staffs of an organization have, the way they
are used to deliver services. Technical knowledge has a big role to play in either bringing
development or retarding it

Table. 15; Capacity of institutions in terms of application of technical knowledge


CRITERIA INDICATORS INSTITUTIONS
of

PLAN,WATER

municipalities
AID&CARE
DAWASCO
DAWASA

Academic
Ministry

vendors
Private
water

CBO

Application of -utilization of staff 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 3 3


technical
knowledge -political interference 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 0 0
-pesonnel use their skills effectively 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 0 0
Avalability of technical facilities 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 0 0
Average score 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.5 2. 0.7 0.7
Source: Field Survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

In the city of Dar es Salaam, NGOs are considered to be utilizing technical knowledge that
employees have. Water Aid interviewee said, “You are really used, and you use your knowledge
to a great extent. There is no room for laziness, otherwise you lose a job” Academic institutions
as the think tank of the city have their research findings in use though under capacity.

Public institutions are the ones considered not utilizing fully the technical skills employees have.
They in most cases do duties not trained for, depending on whatever hot issue is there in the
organization. They normally do so because of some known factors like lack of facilities. For
instance, Ilala municipality GIS coordinator says “We have enough trained staff in GIS, but you
can imagine there is only one computer with the programme. So how can we manage all the

39
municipal data in such a way, as if that is not enough, we don’t have GIS lab.” Likewise in
Temeke, interview show that they implement what politicians want so that they can fulfil their
promise to people and win vote in the election.

4.4.4. Constituency empowerment


Kyessi 2002 noted that “Target communities have rarely been involved in the planning,
implementation and maintenance of infrastructure projects. Normally after completion of the
projects the residents have little or no interest in the operation and maintenance of the projects
that they perceive as belonging to the government”. This shows that decision making in all
institutions except CBOs is top down. People or consumers are rarely involved in deciding what
type of services and how much they would get from the institutions. Employees are appointed or
recruited by higher levels of government. Decentralization is not to a great extent exercised as it
is preached by politicians.

Table.16; Capacity of institutions in terms of constituency empowerment


CRITERIA INDICATORS INSTITUTIONS

of

PLAN,WATER

municipalities
AID&CARE
DAWASCO

institutions
DAWASA

Academic
Ministry

vendors
Private
water

CBO
Constituency There is a strong sense of 2 2 2 3 3 1 1 3 3
empowerment ownership among staff
Local stakeholders take active 0 0 0 3 3 1 0 0 0
part in planning and
implementing activities.
The institution is perceived as a 0 0 0 2 3 1 0 0 0
local asset.
The public has a formal role as 0 0 0 2 3 1 0 0 0
stakeholder, i.e., as constituency
or through cost-recovery
schemes.
Average score 0.5 0.5 0.5 2.5 3 1 0.3 0.7 0.7
Source: Field survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

Tabata Development Fund, a CBO operating in Tabata in Ilala municipality is said to be


perceived as community assets. This was noted in an interview with the CBO coordinator who
said, “This is our organization, all the members are from this area. We plan and do things here
together. We get technical assistance from Plan International and the municipality of Ilala”.

Water and Sanitation Advisor for Plan International, said: “we plan with the people, especially
when it is about prioritizing of what is the pressing issue as regards to water supply. People have
proved to know more of their problems than we think. That has helped us to easily implement our
water and sanitation programmes because we are accepted by the community”.

Further, NGOs have created awareness through training. Water Aid for instance has trained the
Tungi CBO in Temeke municipality to decide on their destiny as far as water supply and
sanitation is concerned. Plan International has extensive programmes in some parts of Ilala
municipality about the water and sanitation services and the implication of their deficiency in the
society.

40
4.4.5 Organisational culture
The culture of an organisation is an amalgamation of the values and beliefs of the people in an
organisation. Each institution has own set of values and beliefs that it has evolved over the course
of operation through education, experiences and upbringing. Experts argue that the degree of
equality and how power is distributed in public institutions is characterised by some getting more
privileges than others. For instance, high ranked officials in the ministry of water, DAWASA and
DAWASCO have housing allowance, transport while others don’t have. In theory, this called
high power distance. The system is authoritarian since in practice employees in these
organisations receive orders. Respondents from NGOs revealed that employees are fairly treated
in terms of privileges as they all have benefits like housing and transport allowance regardless of
their rank.

Uncertainty avoidance, which measures the degree of acceptance of unclear, ambiguous


situations, is evident in Dar es Salaam institutions. This is lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the
need for formal rules. This dimensions measures the extent to which people in the organization
feel threatened by and try to avoid ambiguous situations. They may do this by establishing more
formal rules, rejecting deviant ideas and behaviors, and accepting the possibility of absolute
truths and the attainment of unchallengeable expertise. It took the researcher three weeks to
manage to talk with some officials in the ministry of water and DAWASA, yet they were hesitant
to say about the water and sanitation situation in the city since they were not spokespersons and
they were of the opinion that the researcher waits for permanent secretary to say or appoint
someone to say ministry matters.

Table.17; Capacity of institutions in terms of organisational culture


CRITERIA INDICATORS INSTITUTIONS
AID
of

municipalitie
PLAN,WAT
DAWASCO

institutions
DAWASA

Academic
Ministry

vendors
,CARE

Private
water

CBO
ER

Organisational Low power distance 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 0 0


culture Uncertainty avoidance 3 3 3 2 2 3 1 0 0
individualism/collectivism 3 3 3 2 1 3 2 3 3
Treatment of customers 1 1 1 3 3 1 2 3 3
Informal relationship 3 3 3 1 2 3 3 0 0
Formal relationship 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 2 0
Average score 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2 2. 1.8 1.3 1
Source: Field Survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

Individualism of institutions is a clear culture in the city. All respondents in the study admitted
that they (institutions) are not participative in their operations. Each institution works
independently. This reduces the capacity to deliver services.

However, experts noted that informal relationship of people in public institutions is stronger than
in NGOs and private companies. They said decisions are made not in official ways, but it depends
on ones influence and how one is related to the other. If organizations are to do well in services
delivery in the city of Dar es Salaam, informal relationship has to be well known and taken into
account when planning and implementing activities. Experts continued to say customers are not a

41
priority in public institutions as they (institutions) are not accountable to them and not customer
oriented. To them, a customer is not a “king”.

4.4.6. Summary of institutional performance


the poor performance of institutions is a result of lack of governance, constituency empowerment,
technical skills are not fully applied and poor networking. The privates and vendors are the
weakest institutions while NGOs are better off.

Table. 18. Summary of institutional capacity – institutional performance


Institution
Criteria for assesment

Ministry of

municipaliti
AID&CAR
PLAN,WA

institutions
DAWASA

DAWASC

Academic

vendors
Private
water

CBO
TER

es
O

E
Institutional Program results 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.8 1 1.3 1.7 0.8 0.8
Performance
Networking and 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.7 0.7
external relations

Application of 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.5 2. 0.7 0.7


technical
knowledge
Constituency 0.5 0.5 0.5 2.5 3 1 0.3 0.7 0.7
empowerment
Culture 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2 2. 1.8 1.3 1
Average score 1.3 1.3 1.3 2 1.6 1.2 1.3 1 1
Source: Field Survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

4.5. Institutional Sustainability

Whether these institutions can continue to operate effectively or not depends on number of factors
currently prevailing in an organisation. These factors are like organizational autonomy, leadership
and organizational learning

4.5.1. Organizational autonomy


DAWASA and DAWASCO are semi autonomous organizations. They can decide their matters
up to a certain level where approval is sought from higher levels of government. Apart from
seeking approval from higher levels, they are also supposed to seek permission from other
organizations like municipalities, to give permission on where to lay pipes. The sustainability of
these organizations depends much on the relationship among themselves. Treasurer of
DAWASCO said they need approval from funding agencies. The only money they can use on
their own is money from user charges that is meant for day to day operations.

According to reports from NGOs, they also seek approval for the performance of any
project on land from local authorities, while CBOs seek approval from both international
organizations and the municipalities. This kind of approval seeking delays
implementation of projects. In the case of Ilala, Temeke and Kinondoni, they are key to
the sustainability of other organizations since their approval makes these organizations
work in the areas they operate.

42
Table.19; Capacity of institutions in terms of organizational autonomy
CRITERIA INDICATORS INSTITUTIONS

Ministry of water

PLAN,WATER

municipalities
AID&CARE
DAWASCO

institutions
DAWASA

Academic

vendors
Private
CBO
Organizational Financial autonomy 3 1 1 3 3 2 2 3 3
autonomy
Take decision without 3 1 1 3 2 2 2 3 3
interferance
Has legal personality 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 0

Decision on the structure of 3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 0


the organisation
Interventional autonomy- 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 0 0
organisation is subject to
audit
Take decision without 3 1 1 3 3 1 2 3 3
consultation of the
government
Average score 3 1.6 1.6 3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2 1.5
Source: Field survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

4.5.2. Leadership
Institutions in the city of Dar es Salaam lack leadership and coordination. A respondent from one
of the three municipalities in the city says “People have a culture of laziness; they don’t have a
good language to customers, just violating work ethics. Leadership should be able to ensure tasks
are done in practice and not just wait for reports to be brought”

In their operations, no any institution takes the charge of assuming leadership as each goes on its
own. Leadership in the city is unique to every organisation, and it follows organisational culture
and other environment that are special to it. This sometimes needs to be harmonised and be able
to mix many organisations and work together, and then assume one leadership in the sector of
water supply and sanitation.

Table.20; Capacity of institutions in terms of leadership


CRITERIA INDICATORS INSTITUTIONS
of

PLAN,WATER

municipalities
DAWASCO

institutions
DAWASA

Academic
Ministry

vendors
Private
water

CBO

Leadership managing culture 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 3


setting direction 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
supporting resource development 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 0 0
ensuring tasks are done 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 3 3
Average score 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Source: Field survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

43
4.5.3. Organizational learning
Experts interviewed showed there is individualism in institutions in the city of Dar es Salaam.
They argued that, in their course of pursuing activities, organizations have to learn from each
other. In practice in Dar es Salaam, organizations hardly learn from local people. They think they
know better the problems of people than the people themselves. The challenge in this case is to
build learning organizations. Sustainability can easily be compromised if learning is not taken
seriously. Interview with all NGOs involved in the study show that they have an NGO forum
where they also share information, but not with public institutions.

Table.21 Capacity of institutions in terms of organizational learning


CRITERIA INDICATORS INSTITUTIONS

of

PLAN,WATER

municipalities
AID&CARE
DAWASCO

institutions
DAWASA

Academic
Ministry

vendors
Private
water

CBO
Organizationa Selection of issues 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 2 1
l learning Analysis of issues 2 2 2 3 1 2 3 0 0
Exploration of issues 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 0 0
Responses to people’s reactions 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 3
Information sharing 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 0 0
Feedback accomodation 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 0
Average score 1.5 1.5 1.5 3 1.8 1.5 2 1 0.6
Source: Field survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

All respondents admitted that they set goals, but they hardly reflect to what they have done so that
they can have a corrective action. Goals are never revised even if they prove failure. Evaluation is
also not a culture of public agencies while NGOs do to their extent.

“DAWASA and DAWASCO have no tendency of learning how people feel about their services.
They don’t have feedback systems. They are not ready to be stimulated by problems; it is
questionable whether they select, analyse, explore and respond to problems accordingly”, this is
according to one expert from UCLAS. And if they do, it is always a temporary solution. This is
well exemplified by the permanent cholera in the city which is mainly due to shortage and unsafe
water in some parts of the city especially in squatters. People and organizations complain about
this problem, but it keeps on repeating every year. Had these organizations learned from other
organizations, probably they could have gotten a solution for these problems.

4.5.4. Summary of Sustainability


the study shows that there are opportunities for institutions to be sustainable since policy
environment supports them, there is political support and donors are willing to fund projects. The
problems of organisations are poor learning, lack of autonomy and poor leadership. However,
leadership and poor governance show big weakness that threatens the future well being services
in the city.

44
Table 22. Summary of institutional capacity – institutional Sustainability
Institution
Criteria for assesment

of

PLAN,WATER

municipalities
AID&CARE
DAWASCO

institutions
DAWASA

Academic
Ministry

vendors
Private
water

CBO
Institutional Organizational 3 1.6 1.6 3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2 1.5
Sustainability autonomy

Leadership 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Organizational 1.5 1.5 1.5 3 1.8 1.5 2 1 0.6


learning
Average score 2 1.5 1.5 2.5 1.9 1.8 2 1.5 1.2
Source: Field survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

4.6. Conclusion

In actual fact as per data shown above, theories about institutional capacity developed by Jery van
Sant and others are applicable in the city of Dar es Salaam. Institutional resources, institutional
performance and institutional sustainability are characterised by low capacity as revealed in the
interview with all respondents in the study. The assessement shows that as regards to institutions,
NGOs are better off since they are above average compared to public institutions while vendors
and private institutions are the weakest.

Table. 23. Summary of institutional capacity


Institution
Criteria for Ministry DAW DAW PLAN,WA CBO mun Aca Private vendors
assesment of water ASA ASCO TER icip dem
AID&CAR aliti ic
E es insti
tuti
ons
Institutional 1.5 1.4 1.4 2.4 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.5 0.8
Resources

Institutional 1.3 1.3 1.3 2 1.6 1.2 1.3 1 1


Performance

Institutional 2 1.5 1.5 3 1.9 1.8 2 1.5 1.2


Sustainability

Average score 1.6 1.4 1.4 2.4 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.3 1
per institution
Source: Field survey 2005
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

However, in terms of resources, performance and sustainability, all institutions are below average
indicating that they can not reach goals. Institutional performance is the worst while sustainability
is a bit promissing due to acceptance of institutions by the public, political support and other
factors explained in this chapter.

45
CHAPTER FIVE

FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1. Introduction

The findings, recommendations and conclusions are drawn from the relationship between theory,
actual situation of water supply and sanitation and institutional capacity. In theory, institutional
capacity, as proved by different scholars is affected by a number of factors such as culture,
political environment, human resources, organising capacity, leadership, organisational structure,
poor information and finance to mention a few. Delivering of required services is subject to three
aspects which are institutional resources, institutional performance practices and sustainability of
a given organisation.

In Dar es Salaam, theories on measuring capacity are applicable. All institutions involved in the
study are lacking resources, have poor performance and not expected to be sustainable if serious
measures are not taken to rectify the situation.(Annex 5 shows general and specific findings and
recommendations)

5.2. Findings

According to assessment based on the theory, and the three criteria of institutional
resources, institutional performance and institutional sustainability, all institutions have
their capacity low which means that there is no way they can deliver water supply and
sanitation services to the required standard.

Institutional performance is terribly poor. Institutions have never met targets set in NPES,
MDGs and National Water Policy. They have poor financial allocations, programmes are
slowly completed, absence of coordination, lack of technical skills application and lack of
customer empowerment. Each institution works in isolation without knowing what the
other institution is doing at the other side leading to conflict of interests.

The capacity in terms of institutional resources is low. This is due to poor governance,
lack of finance and poor management practices. In terms of human resources, public
institutions have qualified staffs who are lowly motivated due to low salaries and lack of
incentives. Legal framework is another strength institutions have. With an exceptional of
vendors and individual private operators, other institutions operate legally and recognised
by law. This is a big tool that is not utilised to enable institutions deliver services.

Though under capacity, study show that institutional sustainability is possible with all the
institutions in the city. Available donor support like World Bank, IDA, and the
government assures continuity of services provision. All the policies regarding water
supply and sanitation such as National Water Policy and National Poverty Eradication
give good environment for all institutions to do well. There is also good political support
though not predictable as it can turn against any institution that seems not fulfilling their
interest.

46
Table. 24. Summary of average institutional capacity
Institution Average
Criteria for Ministry DAW DAW PLAN CBO municipa Acade Privat vendors score
assesment of water ASA ASCO ,WAT lities mic e per
ER institut assessme
AID& ions nt
CARE criteria
Institutional 1.5 1.4 1.4 2.4 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.5 0.8 1.4
Resources

Institutional 1.3 1.3 1.3 2 1.6 1.2 1.3 1 1 1.3


Performance

Institutional 2 1.5 1.5 2.5 1.9 1.8 2 1.5 1.2 1.7


Sustainability

Average score 1.6 1.4 1.4 2.3 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.3 1
per institution
Source: Field survey 2005 (see section 4)
Key.0 = Not applicable; 1 = poor; 2 = average and 3 = good

5.3. Recommendations

Service delivery can improve only if there is serious capacity building for key institutions
engaged in the issue of water supply and sanitation in the city. All aspects of institutional
capacity need to be improved. But aspects like performance, heavy investment and
special attention is required. Investment should be directed to build the capacity of
institutions in terms of governance, coordination, networking and culture.

Governance is the key aspect to be given weight in the improvement process if


institutions are to perform well. Institutions may have funds, enough human resources
and other important resources, but if there is lack of accountability, transparency,
participation and rule of law to mention a few, programmes will always end in vein and
shortage of water supply and poor sanitation services will continue.

The private sector is the weakest, so it needs to be enabled and this is possible through
improvement in governance. The private sector needs to be prepared before they are
given tasks and since they lack capital; and they have to be given full support to be able
to deliver water supply and sanitation services. When the private sector improves, it can
fully participate in the services delivery that has been publicly dominated for a long time.

Improvement in services delivery in the city can also be attained if attention is given to
attract huge private capital to invest in water supply and sanitation services. This can be
done by “city marketing” to show investors what potentials the city has that can enable
service delivery by private companies. When marketing, investors have to be assured of
their capital that it cannot be lost anyhow.

47
Institutions in the city of Dar es Salaam need to organise their capacity, i.e. they have to
come together, set one goal, combine resources and different strengths and deliver the
service of water supply and sanitation. As per interview with all respondents, they are
ready to form a network that can work as one thing. In order for the network to work
properly, they need strong coordination. The question here comes, who will assume the
responsibility of coordination? NGOs cited the city council to take initiatives and be the
coordinator. This will harmonise their working environment and produce a better result.

Institutional restructuring is required especially in public institutions like DAWASA and


DAWASCO, which are the main actors in water supply and sanitation services in the city. They
have to be output oriented, reduce bureaucracy and be responsive to customer demands and day-
to-day problems.

5.4. Conclusions

To achieve the Millennium Development Goals in 2015 in Dar es Salaam is not possible.
The capacity of institutions in terms of resources, performance and sustainability is
extremely low. This situation suggests that poverty in relation to water supply and
sanitation will increase instead of being reduced. Institutions are now the agents of
worsening the situation. The state of water supply and sanitation in the city of Dar es
Salaam should be treated as emergency case that needs a special attention to serve
residents. People have to drink safe and clean water and access sanitary facilities to a
required standard.

Achieving MDGs need strong institutions in all aspects of resources, performance and
sustainability. It seem in this case the MDGs targets are too ambitious and did not take
into account of capacities of different local situations, as a result, objectives are just there
for evaluation and not solve people’s problems like poverty.

48
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50
ANNEXES

Annex 1. Institutional Capacity Assessment Models


The authors have determined these composite clusters and the organization of the characteristics
of the selected models into the particular clusters of the matrix. References and additional
information on the institutional capacity models are as follows:

"ISR" (Institutional Self Reliance). 6 In this framework, originally prepared for the UNDP,
assessment categories are clustered by Institutional Formation (institutional stock, human
resources, and financial resources), Institutional Function (management, environmental mastery,
program delivery) and Institutional Condition (Character, Leadership). Each assessment category
is further defined by a set of indicators measuring the related attributes. The concept of
"institutional stock" in this framework refers to the physical, technical, and structural resources
possessed by, controlled by or otherwise available to the institution. These resources, along with
human and financial resources, comprise the systemic assets of an organization that are then
converted into functional outputs and impact.

"OCAT" 7(Organizational Assessment Capacity Tool). There are the following subheadings:
Governance (Board, Mission/Goal, Constituency, Leadership, Legal Status); Management
Practices (Organizational Structure, Information Systems, Administrative Procedures, Personnel,
Planning, Program Development, Program Reporting); Human Resources (Human Resources
Development, Staff Roles, Work Organization, Diversity Issues, Supervisory Practices, Salary
and Benefits); Financial Resources (Accounting, Budgeting, Financial/Inventory controls,
Financial Reporting); Service Delivery (Sectoral Expertise, Constituency Ownership, Impact
Assessment), External Relations (Constituency Relations, Inter-NGO Collaboration, Government
Collaboration, Donor Collaboration, Public Relations, Local Resources, Media); Sustainability
(Program/Benefit Sustainability, Organizational Sustainability, Financial Sustainability, Resource
Base Sustainability). OCAT categorizes NGOs into four distinct stages of development according
to their competence in the seven OCAT components of organizational effectiveness. OCAT
defines these stages as nascent, emerging, expanding, and mature. An NGO is not necessarily at
the same stage of development on all the components.

"DOCA" 8 is based on "New Directions in Organizational Capacity Building". DOCA was


designed to be used by a PVO’s (Private Voluntary Organizations) own "capacity team" working
alongside a trained facilitator. The assessment process itself should model the organizational
change it is designed to promote. Uniquely in DOCA, assessment is keyed to group discussion of
"critical incidents that are "closely connected to the organization’s ability to promote significant
and lasting change." DOCA provides two kinds of measures: a capacity score (perceptions of
strengths and weaknesses) and a consensus score (degree of agreement among assessment team).
There is no clustering in the DOCA framework but the six "capacity areas" in the DOCA
framework each serves as a category for a number of related attributes that are the basis for
measurement. Its creators see DOCA as a "process tool" for capacity building, not a static

6
Institutional Self Reliance: A Framework for Assessment" by Jerry VanSant (Center for International
Development Working Paper, Research Triangle Institute, 1991).
7
Organizational Assessment Capacity Tool: A Handbook on Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation"
(PACT, 1996)
8
"New Directions in Organizational Capacity Building" (1998 DOCA Workshop Report, PACT and EDC,
1998).

51
assessment tool. It can be "redesigned" each time by the particular community using it; that is, the
categories are guidelines, not fixes parameters.

"TTAP" 9 is based on "Training and Technical Assistance Plan". TTAP is a process-oriented


approach in which each capacity component is used as the basis for a participatory workshop
session. The six components in the TTAP framework and their related subheadings are Financial
Sustainability (Funding Sources, Fundraising, Financial Management); Governance
(Mission/Objectives, Governing Body/Board, Process of Decision Making); Products and
Services (Customers, Feedback, Product Promotion); Human Resources (Staff, Members,
Volunteers); Management (Administration, Information Systems, Reporting); Interaction with the
Environment (Public Relations, Business Relations, Mass Media). For each of these, TTAP
provides indicators representing "productive activity" and "needs urgent attention" as a basis for
discussion.

"ISA" 10 is the "Institutional Strength Assessment". A particular feature of ISA is its identification
of "use and management of technical knowledge and skills" as a category separate from
management skills of human resources. This seems appropriate for service delivery organizations
(health services in the case of the organizations for which ISA is being developed). ISA is being
designed to support participatory self-assessment that CSTS has determined is preferred by most
NGO to external assessment of institutional capacity.

"IDF" 11 refers to the Institutional Development Framework developed by Management Systems


International (MSI). It is part of a broader toolkit that also includes an Institutional Development
Profile (a graphic representation of an organization’s rank on each assessment component) and an
Institutional Development Calculation sheet (a table format for tracking progress on each
component). Together these are designed to help an organization determine where it stands on a
variety of organizational components, identify priority areas of improvement, set targets, and
measure progress over time. IDF identifies five capacity areas, largely focused on organizational
resources. These include Oversight/Vision (board, mission, autonomy, Management Resources,
Human Resources, Financial Resources, and External Resources (ability to work with
communities, government, other NGOs).

"OCI" 12 is the "Organizational Capacity Indicator". It is not intended as a standardized


methodology but rather a framework within which an organization can create its own capacity
monitoring tool through a process of sharing experiences related to each component of capacity.
The objective is for each organization to be able to measure itself against its own vision for the
future. There is no clustering in the OCI framework. CRWRC (Christian Reformed World Relief
Committee), however, offers a separate set of attributes of effective partnership: practice
appreciation, contextualize everything, think organically, emphasize learning, and create systems
for mutual accountability.

9
Training and Technical Assistance Plan" (Counterpart International, 1999).
10
Institutional Strength Assessment" Methodology developed under the USDAID/PVC-supported Child
Survival Technical Support Project (CSTS) implemented by Macro International, Inc. ISA is itself a
compilation of common areas of institutional capacity based on a review of sixteen instruments developed
in the 1995-1999 period (including DOSA, OCAT, and OCI).
11
refers to the Institutional Development Framework developed by Management Systems International
(MSI).
12
is the "Organizational Capacity Indicator" scale of the Christian Reformed World Relief Committee
(CRWRC) drawn from "Partnering to Build and Measure Organizational Capacity" (CRWRC, 1997)

52
"Fisher" 13 is based on Non governments: NGOs and the Political Development of the Third
world, by Julie Fisher (Kumarian Press, 1997). The attributes noted in the matrix are not
presented as an organizational capacity framework as such. Rather they are described as the keys
to organizational autonomy which Ms. Fisher believes is the most important attribute for NGOs
to be effective in their local context. Because Fisher’s study is probably the most rigorously
research-based of any of the capacity frameworks discussed here, it is worth including. Several
attributes are unique to her presentation such as an organization’s basic commitment to
autonomy, its ability to use research-based social and managerial knowledge to undergird policy
advocacy, and its field-based experience training government workers (particularly relevant to
developing policy influence).

Also worthy of note is the "NGO Sustainability Index" 14. This index differs from the
organizational assessment tools above in two major respects. First, it measure’s the collective
strength of the NGO sector in a country or region. Second, it measures not only organizational
attributes but also recognizes the importance of factors in the environment that affect NGO
development and sustainability. Factors in the NGO Sustainability Index include: The
Legal Environment, Organizational Capacity, Financial Viability, The Political and Advocacy
Environment, NGO Public Image and Service Provision Effectiveness

13
Is based on Non governments: NGOs and the Political Development of the Third world, by Julie Fisher
(Kumarian Press, 1997).
14
Developed by the Office of Democracy and Governance of USAID’s Bureau for Europe and Eurasia.

53
Annex 2. The Contract between the government and City Water Services in 2003
DAWASA HANDS OVER PROVISION OF WATER AND SEWERAGE SERVICES TO CITY
WATER SERVICES

Today the Government represented by Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Authority (DAWASA)
has handed over the management and day to day provision of water and sewerage services to a
private sector operator, City Water Services Limited. This is the final milestone in the divestiture
of DAWASA and marks the successful conclusion and end of the transaction process.

From now onwards DAWASA will transform itself and shape its activities as an asset holding
authority. This will entail monitoring the Water and Sewerage Lease Contract it has entered into
with City Water Services, ensuring compliance and overseeing the performance of the operator as
well as supervising the implementation of the capital investment programme. Under the contract
City Water Services Limited will act as the Operator and will manage and run the DAWASA
network to provide water and sewerage services.

City Water Services Limited is a company registered in Tanzania by the winning bidder, Biwater
International of UK, in joint venture with Gauff Ingenieure of Germany as its majority shareholder
together with Superdoll Trailer Manufacturer Co (T) Ltd of Tanzania as its minority shareholder.

Since signing the Lease Contract in February 2003 a number of key activities have been completed
to enable City Water Services to take over the operations from DAWASA. PSRC, DAWASA and
City Water Services have worked together in the past months to ensure a smooth handover of
leased assets, staff and responsibilities from DAWASA to City Water Services Limited. The
Government has also finalised the financing arrangements for the capital investment programme
with the World Bank.

The Biwater Group has a wealth of experience as an operator in the water sector worldwide,
having operations in South Africa, Indonesia, Mexico, Philippines, Chile, Belize and the UK.
Gauff Ingenieure is a firm of consulting engineers and has worked extensively in East Africa with
offices in Dar es Salaam. It also operates the Malindi water supply system in Kenya under a
management contract.

The Biwater/Gauff JV consortium was selected as the winning bidder and awarded the Lease
Contract after a competitive tendering process.

----------------------
-------------------------- --
Mr. John C. Rubambe Mr. A.
EXECUTIVE CHAIRMAN Mutalemwa
PSRC Mr. Graham Gorrod CEO, DAWASA
Ag. CEO City Water
Services Ltd

1st August, 2003


Source: PSRC 2003 (http://www.psrctz.com/Press%20Releases/010803-
Dawasa%20Handed%20Over.htm) 20/7/2005

54
Annex 3. Termination of contract with City Water Services
City Water gets final termination notice

2005-05-26 08:33:43
By Guardian Reporter

The government yesterday issued a final official notice to terminate its contract with City
Water Services Limited (CWS), The Guardian has reliably learnt.

Impeccable sources in the government said in Dar es Salaam that the contract was
terminated effective yesterday morning and that the CWS management had already
been served with the notice.

It was further revealed that the notice was issued seven days from the date of the first
notice (cure notice) as the contract between Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage
Authority (Dawasa) and CWS required.

Issuing of the cure notice prior to the final notice was meant to give CWS a chance to
read through articles of the contract, the information said.

According to one of the sources, notice was also intended to give the water firm seven
days to make any objections or necessary amendments in the breach of contract terms.

\'The fact that they have failed to make any amendments within the stipulated seven
days, allows us to issue the final notice of termination of the contract,' the source said.

Regarding the formation of Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation (Dawasco),
the source said that the new company is a public entity therefore it would not be
necessary to register it with Business Registration and Licensing Agency (Brela).

The government made public its decision to terminate the contract with City Water, a
private company charged with supplying water in Dar es Salaam, on May 13.

Water and Livestock Development Minister Edward Lowassa made the announcement
through the press after a Cabinet meeting chaired by President Benjamin Mkapa upheld
the decision to terminate the contract upon being satisfied that the water firm had
breached lease terms.

However, a few days later, the CWS management expressed disagreement with the
decision and said it would take legal action. It also claimed that the government misled it
right from the bidding stage and as a result the company incurred losses.

The government leased the responsibility of supplying water in Dar es Salaam to City
Water for a period of 10 years on August 1, 2003.

• SOURCE: GUARDIAN

55
Annex 4. Complaints about water shortage in the city

Water-starved people seek help from God

2005-06-05 08:39:42 by Simon Kivamwo

Over 300,000 residents of Kimara Mwisho, Baruti, Kibo Kona, Msewe, Rombo and Ubungo in
Dar es Salaam, are suffering silently from an acute shortage of water that has persistently hit the
areas for over two consecutive years.

Under normal circumstances, the residents were supposed to be among the city?s population
enjoying important services such as water, electricity and others since their houses are located
along the Morogoro road highway and the major water pipeline connecting upper Ruvu water
pump and the city centre.

However, that has not been the case, according to follow-ups by the Sunday Observer. Residents
interviewed by this reporter complained that they are perennially prone to epidemics such as
cholera, bilharzia and typhoid, and, in tones full of resignation, said they had surrendered their
fate to God’s intervention. They said they constantly pray to Him to open up the skies so that they
get clean and safe water. Their point is that, the concerned water authorities, and the government
in general, seem to have completely ignored them. Delivery of safe water is now guaranteed only
through rain, they said, pointing out that the other alternative is buying the vital liquid from water
vendors who peddle the product in unhygienic containers.

A three-day follow-up by the Sunday Observer has established that residents of the areas in
question embracing middle and low income earners are facing critical hardships in the wake of
the water scarcity. Ms Vailet Kengero, who resides near Mavurunza Primary School, made a
shocking revelation: 'For quite long time we have been using for domestic use, impure water from
a butchery. She added: we use the water for washing clothes, cleaning premises and utensils. In
case of drinking we are forced to hunt for the boys (water vendors). They charge us up to 200/=
(0.2US$) per container. Ms Kengero said the situation has persisted for some three years. Our
survival lies in the hands of God, she remarked. Gaspar Uiso, a resident of Kona, some 15
kilometres from the city centre, said had it not rained two weeks ago, I would have been currently
talking a different story. The water my family is using comes from my water reservoirs? Thanks
to the recent heavy downpour in Dar es Salaam. We harvested a lot of water. Uiso, who has lived
at the area for 28 years, wonders why the Dar es Salaam water supply authorities seem to have
ignored the residents. 'It puzzles every resident of the area. It is disappointing for us to live in the
water scarcity environment despite the fact that the major water pipeline passes under our houses
or plots,' he lamented. Previously, we didn't have this problem.

Water was flowing everyday and life was simple, remarked Uiso, noting that, 'the bad era started
some two or three years when each and everything collapsed. He pointed an accusing finger at
water supply authorities for ignoring their plight. If it is not raining, he said, one has to dip into
his/her constantly empty pocket to buy water from street vendors, most of who are not trustful
and can source their water from anywhere, including ditches and other contaminated places.

Uiso said he buys 20 buckets of 20 litres per day. This translates into 4,000/= (4 US$) per day. 'At
least I can raise this amount from my activities, but think about fellow residents whose income is
pitifully low'. Echoing the problem, Mathias Ndaigwa, the leader of cell No. 6, Msewe locality,
wondered if the government really cared for its people. ? Sometimes, I do feel that we have been
left to die silently from various epidemics, he remarked. Ndaigwa, who is in his 50s, expressed

56
bitter misgivings against the city's presumed water suppliers for their indifference. 'Our problem
was clearly known by the just kicked out City Water Services, our MP and the government at
large, but to the surprise of everyone here, we have continued to be ignored,' Ndaigwa lamented
further.

According to Ndaigwa, the 'bad era' in his area started when the city water suppliers introduced a
rationing scheme some four years ago. They introduced a scheme under which we were supposed
to get water once a month? We didn’t complain.

However, things got worse after it was arranged by the same authority that we should receive
water at two-month intervals.’ The scheme, however, did not last long. It collapsed and we are no
longer getting tap water,’ he said. Ndaigwa appealed to the newly introduced Dar es Salaam
Water and Sewerage Corporation (DAWASCO) to rush to their rescue. Manyusi Nyahunga of
Kibo told this paper the water scarcity the area was experiencing, had prompted women to
abandon income generating activities and embark on 'water hunting' expeditions. An anonymous
staff at the Kimara’s DAWASCO office attributed the water problems to mismanagement. She
said, for instance, the just kicked-out City Water Services (CWS), pursued discriminatory policies
that lowered the morale of some workers. 'We hope that with the new management, our morale
will be boosted so that we can work more efficiently to relieve the public of the water shortage
burden,' she said. On his part, the newly installed DAWASCO?s Chief Executive Officer, Alex
Kaaya ,said on Friday that his organization would give priority to water leakages, improvement of
the billing system and an effective dialogue with the public. He said that although there were
many other issues that needed their attention, they would initially concentrate on the core issue
affecting delivery of water to the city residents. He pointed out that water leakages had become a
nuisance within the city.'The situation is so bad that even if new machinery is installed to supply
more water, it will not make much difference unless the rampant leakages are dealt with,' said the
CEO. On the water situation in general, Kaaya said the existing infrastructure could not cope with
the city demands. The population in the city, he said, far outnumbered the existing capacity. The
infrastructure that was constructed some 54 years ago to cater for hardly 2,500 city residents is
now supposed to cater for more than 3 million people.

SOURCE: SUNDAY OBSERVER

57
Annex 5. Institutions and their capacities to supply water and sanitation services in
Dar es salaam
Institution
Criteria for assesment Ministry of DAWASA DAWASCO PLAN,WATER
water AID&CARE
Institutional Legal structure -central -government -government -legal NGOs
Resources and governance governement agency agency -medium
-low -lack -lack transparency
accountability transparency transparency -medium
-low -lack -lack accountability
transparency accountability accountability
Human resources -enough experts -enough experts -Shortage of -enough
-well trained -well trained experts -well trained
-low salaries -low salaries -low paid -high salaries
-low morale -low morale -low morale -high morale
-underutilized -underutilized
-
Management -contract -lease contract -contracting out -contract
systems and management -poor evaluation -poor follow up management
practices -lease contract -poor monitoring -poor distribution -better follow up
-poor monitoring of services -small coverage
Financial -donor -donor -donor -donor
resources dependency dependency dependency dependency
-budget planned -budget planned -budget planned -budget planned
by experts by experts by experts by experts
-budget not well -budget not well -budget not well -budget not well
known known known known
-deficit budget -deficit budget -deficit budget -not enough
-poor IT -poor IT -poor IT budget
-poor financial -poor financial -poor financial -good IT
control control control -good financial
-80% allowance -80% allowance -80% allowance control
15
Institutional Program results ? -about 10% -about 10% -about 10%
Performance success success success
16
Networking and 33% 33% 33% 22%
external relations collaboration collaboration collaboration collaboration
-strong with -strong with -strong with -strong with
donors donors donors donors
-vertical network -strong with
receipients
Application of -underutilized -underutilized -underutilized -fully utilized
technical -high political -high political -high political -less political
knowledge interference interference interference interference
Constituency low no no -high
empowerment participation
Institutional Organizational high low low low
Sustainability autonomy

Leadership Poor Poor Poor good

Organizational Poor Poor Poor good


learning
Cost recovery Poor Poor Poor no
Source: Author 2005

15
based on the 2005 household survey done by statistical institute in dare s salaam
16
based on number of actors collaborating out of the total actors in the case study.

58
Institution
Criteria for assesment CBO municipalities Academic Private vendors
institutions
Institutional Legal structure -legal CBOs -local authority -government -sole propriater -sole propriater
Resources and governance -medium -low agency -no -no
transparency accountability -good accountability accountability
-medium -rule of law accountability -no transparency -no transparency
accountability -rule of law
Human -not trained -enough experts -not enough -education not -education not
resources -volunteer -well trained experts necessary necessary(low
-receive -low salaries -well trained -high morale education)
allowance -low morale -low salaries -high morale
-underutilized -low morale
-underutilized

Management -contract -lease contract -lease contract -own operation -own operation
systems and -water -poor evaluation -poor evaluation
practices committees -poor -poor
-elected workers monitoring monitoring
Financial -donor -revenue -donor -individual -individual
resources dependency dependency dependency budget budget
-budget planned -budget planned -budget planned -no IT -no IT
by community by experts by experts -poor financial -poor financial
members -budget well -budget not well control control
-budget well known known
known -deficit budget -deficit budget
-deficit budget -poor IT -good IT
-poor IT -poor financial -poor financial
-poor financial control control
control -80% allowance -80% allowance

Institutional Program results 10% Below 10% no More than 80% 10%
Performance
Networking and 22% -no network No network no no
external collaboration
relations -strong with
donors
-strong with
receipients
Application of poor -underutilized -well utilized low no
technical -high political -low political
knowledge interference interference
Constituency high low low no no
empowerment
Institutional Organizational low medium medium high high
Sustainability autonomy

Leadership poor better better no no

Organizational poor poor better good good


learning
Cost recovery poor poor no good good
Source: Author 2005

59
Annex 6. Specific findings and recommendations

Findings
General findings
• Policy environment is conducive to every institution to do well in the sector. The
National Water Policy of 2002 allows any institution to engage in the sector. It gives
power to use the available opportunities of resources to improve the provision of water
supply and sanitation services
• There is a good political support that encourages private sector participation in the issue
of water supply and sanitation. This is revealed by the privatization of some activities
formerly done by DAWASA to City Water Services company though the contract was
terminated soon
• Qualified personnel are not a big problem as all institutions except vendors have higher
education concerning the issue. The ministry of water, DAWASA and DAWASCO, the
municipalities and higher learning institutions enjoy very qualified staff. The problem is
that there is underutilization of these staff, and the situation is very severe in public
institutions.
• All institutions have budget deficits. This leads to donor dependency syndrome which is a
threat in case donors stop funding.
• All institutions involved in the study faces the problem of cost recovery due to poor
billing system, low rate of revenue collection. This is more evident in DAWASCO where
only about 23% of all registered customers pay their bills
• All institutions lack good governance. They have poor participation practices, less
effective and they don’t have a good system of information dissemination and sharing.
Customers are hardly involved in planning of projects and decision making.
• There is lack of coordination as revealed by all respondents in the study.
• Data about supply not clear, so many researchers, different data about one thing, some
show there is no problem of water and sanitation in the city

Specific findings
i) Public institutions
• Too low compensations of employees. In this case, salaries, incentives and wages are too
low to support workers lives. This reduces morale to work and encourages corruptions
and absenteeism in offices whereby people have to find some alternatives to cover the
gap left by employers.
• They hardly adhere to schedules.
• Expenditures always are more than they rise as revenue. This is more evident since the
central government has to cover the deficit for instance by paying salaries which takes
about 80% of all the total spending of public institutions
• All the institutions in this category are well knowledgeable about contract management.
In this case, almost all activities are done in a contract bases. A well example in this case
is that of DAWASA entering a lease contract with a private company, City Water
Services.
• Lack of internal control as revealed in the interview with officials in Ilala municipality.
The study shows that employees go wild do whatever they think is okay; go to work at
their convenient time without any proper control.
• ICT application is very limited; there are educated people but sometimes lack facilities to
use. Chief Human Resources Officer with DAWASCO noted that they used to be better
during City Water Services where information was computerised and networked, unlike
the situation now where the use of files is rampant.

60
• They hardly make sure that tasks are done, difficult to set directions according to the
technicality of issues, but set directions according to political directions and decisions

ii) NGOs
• Compensation is high; it encourages and increases the morale of workers. This was
proved right in all NGOs involved in the study. They have incentives like housing
allowances.
• There is full utilization of workers as also noted throughout the interview with Plan
International, Care International, WATSANET and Water Aid Tanzania. This is because
they recruit according to available resources.
• ICT is highly applied with these institutions hence having reliable database and good
financial control compared to their counterparts, the public institutions. This was also
noted in all interviews and observation by the researcher who saw almost every employee
having a computer on the table.

iii) CBOs
• These have high level of involvement of stakeholders from the level of project design to
implementation level. The CBOs involved in the study which are Tungi and Tabata
Development Fund (TDF) have the communities around trust them and consider them as
their property. The coordinator for TDF noted that they involve stakeholders from the
beginning to the end since even the coordinator is part of the community around there.
• They lack ICT and record keeping is an issues. This was observed during the interview
where the researcher saw old files, no computers and even the workers lack skills to use
computers.

iv) Private individuals


• Lack capital to invest in such a big and demanding sector. What they do is to engage in
bulky supplies and deep wells. Lorry tankers available at every corner of the city shows
that they can only manage to distribute to the needy at higher prices and empty toilets
from individuals.
• They work hard in their activities to gain more profit. All respondents in this category
said they take water from DAWASA systems and send around the city, especially in the
outskirts of the city.

v) Vendors
• Their sources of water are questionable as they don’t only draw water from DAWASCO
tapes or well known wells, but also they take water from river streams and canals which
are polluted. This was observed during the study by the researcher who saw a good
number of vendors drawing water from the river Msimbazi which is considered to be one
of the most polluted streams in the city.

61
Recommendations
Recommendations made here are in the form of the three criteria for measuring institutional
capacity which are institutional resources, institutional performance and institutional
sustainability. The focus in this case is to encourage the use of strengths available to improve on
the weakness, hence improve the services in water supply and sanitation.

Institutional resources
• Improve revenue collection to improve cost recovery. This is possible since people are
willing to pay, only that they need to know the real taxes and be involved in the sector in
planning and implementation
• Organise capacity to solicit more funds from different stakeholders. This is because
DAWASA and DAWASCO alone can not manage to deliver the services required in the
city
• Improve the use of ICT to improve financial control, manage database and have good
record system. All the municipalities can make use of qualified staff they have to
improve services.
• Unnecessary spending should be reduced especially in public institutions so that large
amount of money be invested in real projects
• Improve governance, i.e. reduce bureaucracy in public institutions, have regular reporting
on the development of activities so that people are aware of the situation and find ways to
mitigate the problems as they occur, involve people in the process of decision making
and be accountable to the people they give services instead of only being accountable to
employers. Rule of law is an important component that should be taken into account.
• Improve compensation to workers to motivate them improve effectiveness. Salaries,
allowances and incentives are key to factors seen in the study which affects services
delivery and encourage corruption if they are not good enough.

Institutional performance
• Make efficient use of available resources like funds from donors which are readily
available to reach targets. The World Bank and other donors are always the biggest
funders of water and sanitation projects in the city of Dar es Salaam
• Improve productive efficiency, i.e. improve production in exchange for expenditure and
capital invested in a project. Normally institutions here spend more input for less output.
• Improve allocative efficiency, i.e. institutions should reflect the preferences of the
citizens or their representatives. In this case, organisation should allocate more money to
serve the poor area and unplanned ones instead of concentrating to areas already well
served.
• Improve linkage among institutions, work together as one team. One body should be
formed for the purpose. In this case, all the funds available should be directed to that
body instead of going to different organisations, and each actor will be assigned a project
to do
• The Dar es Salaam city council and the three municipalities of Ilala, Temeke and
Kinondoni should take the role of coordination of different stakeholders instead of the
current practice of each actor doing its job. In this case, the city council has to contact
different institutions to organise their capacity and improve services delivery.
• Increase the rate of customer involvement in all stages of project development, i.e. from
project planning to implementation
• Institutions also should set SMART objectives to be able to meet them. Objectives set in
the MDGs and NPES perhaps are too ambitious to achieve and the city council should

62
have its own water policy instead of using the national water policy since the city is too
unique to miss a policy.

Sustainability
• Cost recovery should be given more priority among all activities in DAWASCO so that
they can have more money to invest. The current rate of revenue collection is
discouraging, 23% of all registered customers cannot guarantee good performance in the
future.
• Use the loophole provided in the water policy since it provides a good environment for
partnership, private sector participation and many more
• Affordability should be considered in setting tariffs especially to serve the poor. The
current situation is not affordable to poor who pays more for less water compared to the
rich who pay less for more water. This encourages illegal connection and corruption.
• Information sharing should be improved. This will help gain different experiences from
different organisations, and manage to get solution for problems that would be difficult to
be solved easily.
• Institutions should be “learning organisations”. They should be able to learn from each
other, listen to people’s opinions and use them whenever possible. Complaints about
water shortage in the city of Dar es Salaam are like a national anthem where everybody
can sing it. But institutions like DAWASCO react very slowly.

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