Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
DYES
By
Mansoor Iqbal
M.Sc (Applied Chemistry)
Senior Research Associate, Textile
PCSIR Laboratories complex Karachi
Ministry of Science & Technology
Government of Pakistan.
Cover story: Original specimen of Mauvein, the first organic dye ever synthesized, made
by W.Perkin in 1856.Some yarn colored by this dye and ALIZARINE, another important
dye.courtesy of M.Holford of material in the science museum, London.
Dedicated to my
Father (Late)
Mr. Nabi Hussain
FOREWORDS
MANSOOR IQBAL
Senior Research Associate, Textile
E-mail: mansoorprocessing @ hotmail.com
Cell: 0344 - 3046460
O
||
CH3 – C – CH3 Acetone Colourless
O O
|| ||
CH3 – C – C – CH3 Biacetyl Yellow
O O
|| ||
CH3 – C – CH3 – C – CH3 Acetonyl Colourless
Acetone
H
|
–OH –OR –NH2 –N–R –NR2
Hydroxyl Alkoxy Amino Alkylated
Amines
H2
C6H5 – N = N – C6H5 C6H5 – NH – NH –C6H5
Azobenzene Hydrazobenzene
H2
Indigo Blue Indigo white (colourless)
Oxidation
5
H3 C H3 H3 C H3
H3 H3 H3 H3
C C
H2 C CCH=CHC=CHCH=CHC=CHCH=CHCH=CCH=CHCH=CCH=CHC H2
H2 C H
3 H3 CC H2
H2 H2
Β-CAROTENE
Benzene absorbs light at 2550 Å and is colourless. Aniline, which
absorbs light at about 3000 Å, is also colourless; nitrobenzene absorbing
light slightly above 4000 Å is pale yellow and p-nitro aniline absorbing
light at 4500 Å is a yellow compound.
Bathochromic effect:
In this case benzene ring may be considered to be chromophore,
while amino group and nitro group auxochromes. When they are
conjugated, the longer resonance system decreases the energy gap
between the ground state and excited state transitions, thus producing
visible colour. All these groups, which lengthen wavelength of
absorption, are bathochrome groups. Thus displacements (or shift) to
longer wavelength are known as bathochromic effects or bathochromic
shift and displacements to shorter wavelength are hypsochromic.
Hypsochromes are groups which decrease resonance. This is done by
forcing the pi (π) orbitals out of planarity. For example when alkayl
group on benzene ring is ortho to adjacent rings or chains, the molecule
is distorted out of planarity and resonance is decreased. As the number of
fused rings increases, the absorption in the visible region also increases
e.g. naphthacene absorbs in blue region and is yellow. Pentacene absorbs
in orange region and is blue. Graphite, which is a sheet of benzene rings
is black, it absorbs all colours almost completely.
6
History of Dyestuff 2
The historical development of the synthetic dyestuffs dates back to
1856, when eighteen year old, W.H. Perkin discovered the synthesis of
Mauveine, a basic dye, by accident, while he was engaged in the study of
the action of potassium dichromate on aniline sulphate. He successfully
converted the process he had developed in laboratory to a large-scale
production, and demonstrated the application of the dye on silk. The
intermediates nitrobenzene and aniline required in the production were
also made commercially by him. Nitrobenzene was earlier prepared by
Mansfield in 1847.
This historical discovery of the first synthetic dye was followed by
the syntheses of numerous dyestuffs made for the first time in their
laboratories by the individuals or the group of scientists putting in
constant efforts and getting due credit for their discoveries. Earlier
discoveries worth mentioning include the synthesis of Magenta, a basic
dye (Verguin, 1859), Aniline blue, a basic dye (Girard and de Laire,
1860), Aurine, a basic dye (Runge and then Kolbe and Schmitt, 1861),
Methyl Violet, a basic dye (Bardy, 1866), Induline, a basic dye (Dale and
Caro, 1863), Bismark Brown, an azo dye (Martius, 1863), Aniline Black,
an ingrain dye (Light foot, 1963) Alizarin, an anthraquinone dye (Graebe
and Libermann, 1868), Fluorescein, a basic dye (Bayer, 1871), Eosin, a
basic dye (Caro, 1871) Orange II and Orange IV, azo dyes, (Roussin,
1876,) Methylene Blue, a basic dye (Caro, 1876), Malachite Green, a
basic dye (O’Fischer, 1877), Indigo, an indigoid vat dye (Bayer, 1880),
Para red, an azo dye (Read, Holiday and Sons, 1880), Crystal Violet, a
basic dye (Kern, 1883), Auramine, a basic dye (Kern, 1883), Congo Red,
an azo dye (Boettiger, 1884), Tartrazine, an azo dye (Ziegler, 1884),
Indigo, an indigoid vat dye by newer syntheses (Heumann, 1890 and
Sandmeyer, 1899), Indanthrene blue, a vat dye (Bohn, 1901), Benzo fast
scarlet 4 BS, an azo dye (Israel and Kolthe, 1900), Indanthrene Dark
Blue BO, Green B, and Black BB, vat dyes (Bally and Isler, 1904),
Indanthrene Golden Orange G, a vat dye (Scholl, 1905), Indanthrene
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Brown GR, olive R and Khaki GG, vat dyes (MLB, 1908 to 1911),
Indanthrene violet RN, Red BN and Red Violet RRN, vat dyes (Ullmann
and coworkers, 1909 and 1910), Hydron Blue R, a sulphurised vat dye
(Hass, 1908), Naphtol AS, a coupling component for azoics (Grieshei-
Elektron,1912), Alizarin Direct Blue A, an anthraquinone dye (Herzberg
1913) and Brilliant take colours from basic dyes (BASF, 1913) and
Brilliant lake colours from basic dyes (BASF, 1913). All these
discoveries required requisite intermediates for the production as large-
scale ventures and the technology for the production of the intermediates
suitable for the dyes was naturally made available. These discoveries
were made before the First World War (1914 to 1918) and until about
1920, as the effect of the war, the progress of chemical industry became
stagnent.
All the discoveries made during the period mentioned above (1856
– 1914) came into picture as a result of certain other auxiliary discoveries
made and certain important theoretical suggestions initiated by pioneers
of organic chemistry. There is a likelihood that as an error, the invaluable
work of many individuals and organizations might not have been
recorded Griess discovered diazotisation in 1858 and the coupling of
diazonium salts subsequently in 1864 and his work is so valuable even
today, that based on his discoveries, the azo dyes were developed and
today they cover partically half the quantum of the total quantity of
dyestuffs under commercial use. All the chemists, including the colour
chemists are also indebted to the grand services rendered by Kekule in
the field of organic chemistry by suggesting his institutional benzene and
allied aromatic hydrocarbons. A large number of organic reactions were
investigated by various scientists during the period and nitration,
sulphonation, oxidation, reduction, alkylation, quaternization, alkali
fusion, thionation etc., were developed probably without the sufficient
background of the knowledge of organic chemistry since the exact nature
of an the action of variety of reagents was not well established. The study
of the correlation of colour and chemical nature of the compounds had
been attempted which no doubt helped many other scientists to choose
the right tracks. The discoveries of the organic compounds like
Bnaphthol H-acid J-acid, Primuline Base, various anthraquinone
derivatives, etc., worked as intermediates and led to the discoveries of
then novel dyestuffs which are popular even today.
8
During the First World War, Neolan colours (metal complex dyes)
were discovered by the Society of Chemical Industry at Basle (1915).
An important dyestuff intermediate phthalic anhydride was also
discovered by air oxidation of naphthalene using vanadium pentoxide as
catalhyst by Gibbs in 1917.
After the first world war, the major discoveries made were in the
anthraquinonoid vat dyes such as caledon Jade Green (Davas and
cowlorkers, 1920), Golden yellow GK (Kranzlein and coworkers 1922),
Indanthrene Navy Blue R (Wilke, 1931), etc. Thje azoic colours made by
the combination of diazonium salts from fast bases and coupling
components naphtols, picked up market since 1921 to early 1930s as a
result of the discoveries of other members of naphtol AS series and
naphtol ASG as well as a number of fast bases. Indigosols, which are the
soluble vat colours, and Cyanine dyes which are useful sensitisers for
photography and dyeing and printing were developed by the German
industry. With the discovery of man-made fibre cellulose acetate,
obtained by acetylation of the hydroxyl group present in natural fibre
(cotton), newer dyestuffs were searched and Ionamines (Green and
Saunders, 1922) and S.R.A. colours (Baddiley and Shepherdson, 1923)
making use of aqueous dispersons of the insoluble colours for dyeing of
cellulose acetate were developed. Light fast Chlorantine colours for
cotton with the use of Cynuric chloride intermediate were developed by
Ciba in 1924. ICI in 1934 developed a process of manufacture of copper
phthalocyanine as Monostral Fast Blue BS, which was actually observed
in 1928 by Dandridge as a surprise, during the manufacture of
phthalimide in an iron pan. The corresponding water-soluble dyes were
also marketed by ICI in 1947 and by IG which were sulphonated copper
phthalocyanines. The chlorination of copper phthalocyanine afforded
green pigment.
The Second World War, which broke out in 1939 once again,
disturbed the progress of the dyestuff industry. Until 1945, whatever
discoveries made during the World War II, were kept in dark or
unpublished. It was only after 1945, except German industries, the
dyestuff industries, in other developed countries started taking shape
with revival of interest in earlier discoveries. Many new organizations
came up and started establishing their products in the world market, for
9
which a lot of efforts were made to introduce newer products for
colouration of textile fibres. With the result, a great number of new
members in already established classes of dyes such as direct cotton
dyes, acid dyes, vat dyes, etc. were introduced. Newer series of dyes for
cellulose acetates fibre were also discovered. Pigment emulsion
techniques for printing of textile materials were developed. Optical
brighteners for whitening of textile fibres were introduced in the market
in 1940.
The first firm, Arlabs, manufacturing dyestuffs and allied products
in India, began in 1940 and various firms made further progress of
manufacturing various intermediates and dyes in India after the
independence.
With the discoveries and exploitation of newer synthetic fibres
such as polyester and polyamide, it became necessary to design new
structures of dyestuffs, which could suit the dyeing of these hydrophobic
fibres. There was a revival of interest to check the suitability of earlier
known dyes for these fibres also, for example, acid dyes were applicable
to the polyamide fibre and the series of metal complex dyes were brought
in the field. The dyestuffs suitable for cellulose acetate were found to be
applicable to polyester. However, they being inferior to this fibre due to
its compact structure, it was necessary to modify the original cellulose
acetate dyes from their fastness and dyeing character point of view.
Various newer techniques were developed in the application of the
dyestuffs on polyester and in one of such developments, the application
of the insoluble dyes in the form of microfine disperions called as
disperse dyes were brought into commercial practice which is being
followed even today.
The first reactive dye, the dye which reacts with the fibre during
dyeing process forming a chemical covalent bond with the fibre structure
as against the conventional dyes which are physically bound to the fibre
structure, was discovered by Rattee and coworkers of ICI in a sensational
way, while examining the dyeing character of certain dyes containing
active chlorine attached to triazine ring, and earlier known to give fast
dyeing especially to washing on cotton. A reactive dye after dyeing by a
suitable method remains attached to the fibre because of chemical
bondage and its washing fastness is of high standard. After a series of
triazinyl class of reactive dyes was introduced by ICI, many dyestuff
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firms concentrated their research and development investigating novel
systems for the production of reactive dyes. Dyestuffs containing several
groups of reactive systems were patented and few of them were
commercially exploited. Hoechst introduced B-sulphato ethyl sulphone
called as vinyl sulphone reactive dyes, which were superior in their
dyeing properties to triazine class.
The progress was constantly made in the fields of pigments,
fluorescent brighteners, and azo dyes from novel diazonium salts, etc, as
a result of the advancements in the chemistry of heterocyclic compounds.
The introduction of heterocyclic moities in the dyestuff structures
modifies their property in many ways. Smaller heterocyclic systems can
restrict the molecular weight of the dye changing its dyeing character,
certain heterocyclic systems effect the shift of the absorption maximum
of wavelength to higher wavelength in the visible range of spectrum,
generally most of the heterocyclic systems in dyestuff help to increase
the fastness properties such as sublimation fastness in disperse dyes. A
pouring number of patents were filed worldwide on the subject,
exploiting usage of many heterocyclic systems.
With the advances in newer analytical techniques such as visible,
ultra violet and infrared spectra, it became possible to detect the
properties of dyes. Newer tools in modern organic chemistry such as
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Mass Spectra surpassed all the
conventional methods of elucidating the structure of complex organic
molecules. Chromatographic methods helped to separate various
dyestuffs from their isomers, etc. These techniques and the overall
growth of the technology and chemical engineering sciences made it
possible for the colour chemists to broaden their ideas and grow fast.
With the advent in the polymer chemistry, newer polymers such as
plastic materials and fibres were put into the market. Polypropylene and
polyacrylic fibres are important discoveries for a colour chemist.
Polypropylene finds industrial and restricted domestic applications.
Polyacrylic commonly known as PAN Polyacrylonitrile fibre has
partially replaced wool because of the matching of its properties with
other synthetic fibres especially polyester required for obtaining the
blends. The dyestuffs were synthesised by examining the properties and
characteristic groupings or side chains is quite adament to known dyes
for the synthetic hydrophobic fibre polhyester, and therefore, special
11
dyes had to be searched. Cationic dyes which are similar to basic dyes
(both the classes carry a +ve charge on the main structure of the dye,)
were soon developed for polyacrylic fibre. It was suggested to modify
both these newer synthetic fibres by addition of certain metal additives
during their manufacture so as to increase the sites for dye attachments
on the fibres. Modacrylates came in the market, which were copolymers
of acrylonitrile and similar monome5rs having side chains present in the
other monomers after copolymerisation provided better sites for dye
attachment to the fibre. Astrazon class of dyes earlier developed were
found to be the most suitable for dyeing of polyacrylic fibres and
constitute even today an important class of cationic dyes. The optical
brighteners initially synthesised for brightening cotton, wool, etc. were
extended by suitably modifying the structures to brighten polyamide,
polyester, etc.
In the recent years a rapid growth of all the classes of dyestuffs is
being made, the technology is being innovated, short-cuts are being
followed, the basic raw materials are being newly examined and novel
intermediates are being searched in more systematic manner. The colour
and chemical constitution study based on the modern concepts has
helped to strike the right targets of researches in the field. It is, however,
possible to find several gaps and combinations of isolated facts in the
further addition to known types of dyes. Some of the discoveries made
recently were based on the logical thinking in appropriate direction based
on certain published or exploited facts elsewhere. For example, the
combination of disperses dyes and reactive dyes, suitable for polyamide
and they are better than acid dyes or disperse dyes in their dyeing
properties. The insertion reactions of the azides and carbenes in organic
chemistry are applied by introducing azido group in the dyestuff
molecule and applying them on polyester by insertion technique as a
reactive dye for polyester which of course has not been commercialised
as yet. Fluorescent dyestuffs could be said to be a bridge joining
fluorescent brighteners and dyestuffs.
Our country, in the present days has become almost self-sufficient
in the production of dyestuffs, though certain items are still being
imported. The earlier trend of importing many intermediates as well as
dyestuffs from developed countries have practically stopped because of
our restricted import policy. This policy was whole heartedly supported
12
by organised sectors as well as small scale industries which took a bold
step in making larger quantity and better quality of variety of products
which are direct requirements for dyestuff industries. The export market
possibilities in the recent years have also increased the horizon of many
ambitious dyestuff firms to enter in the worldwide competition in the
dyestuffs and intermediates.
The main threatening problem in the industrial world facing today
and applicable to dyestuff field is the pollution problem. The dyestuff
industrial waste in the form of atmospheric gases and wastewaters
pollutes the neighbouring area. The handling of hazardous chemicals like
solvents, cyanides, lead salts, mercury salts, etc, which are often required
in the dyestuffs and their intermediates production is posing problems.
The handling and production of carcinogenic intermediates regularly
involved in the production, such as benzidine and its derivatives, a- and
B-napthylamines, diphenylamine, etc., has created setbacks. For the
pollution control, newer techniques have been introduced and are further
being developed by absorbing the Industrial gases and giving appropriate
treatments to waste waters to minimise pollution. An exaustive study has
been made on careful handling of solvents, chyanides, etc. The processes
where lead salts, mercury salts, etc., were essential are abondoned or
replaced by new safer methods. These developments are notable from
ecology point of view. Benzidine and its derivatives are important for the
production of many dyestuffs consumed in huge quantities, however,
because of the carcinogenic nature of these intermediates they are being
banned all over the world and are being replaced by new comparatively
much safer diamines. The use of β-nahthylamine for making its
derivatives is no more in practice, the methods are abondoned or
modified by using a much safer sulphonic acid, Tobias acid (β-
naphthylamine – &-sulphonic acid). Many such examples can be cited in
the dyestuff chemistry.
It is rightly said that the development made in any field has to face
major setbacks. It is hoped that the future development of intermediates
and dyes to be exploited commercially will be thoroughly investigated
first from the point of view of ecology and safety of human beings and
animal as well as plant kingdom.
Ever since primitive people could create, they have been
endeavoring to add color to the world around them. They used natural
13
matter to stain hides, decorate shells and feathers, and paint their story on
the walls of ancient caves. Scientists have been able to date the black,
white, yellow and reddish pigments made from ochre used by primitive
man in cave paintings to over 15,000 BCE. With the development of
fixed settlements and agriculture around 7,000-2,000 BCE man began to
produce and use textiles, and would therefore add color to them as well.
Although scientists have not yet been able to pinpoint an exact time
where adding color to fibers first came into practice, dye analysis on
textile fragments excavated from archaeological sites in Denmark have
placed the use of the blue dye woad along with an as yet unidentified red
dye in the first centuryCE.
In order to understand the art and history of dyeing, we must first
understand the process of dyeing itself. According to Webster’s
dictionary, dyeing is “the process of coloring fibers, yarns or fabrics by
using a liquid containing coloring matter for imparting a particular hue to
a substance.” There are three basic methods of “imparting a particular
hue” to a substance. The first is by staining an item, a temporary means
of coloration where the color is rubbed or soaked into an item without
the benefit of some sort of chemical fixative to preserve the color. The
next is the use of pigmentation, wherein the color is fixed to the surface
of an object by another adhesive medium. A true dye is when the color of
a substance is deposited on another substance in an insoluble form from a
solution containing the colorant.
Natural dyes can be broken down into two categories: substantive
and adjective. Substantive or direct dyes become chemically fixed to the
fiber without the aid of any other chemicals or additives, such as indigo
or certain lichens. Adjective dyes, or mordant dyes, require some sort of
substance, (usually a metal salt) to prevent the color from washing or
light bleaching out. Most natural dyes are adjective dyes, and do require
the application of a mordant (the metal salt) solution to the fibers at some
point in the dyeing process. Aluminum and iron salts were the most
common traditional mordants, with copper, tin and chrome coming into
use much later. In rural areas where these metals were not widely
available, plants were also used as mordants, especially those that have a
natural ability to extract such minerals from the earth, such as club moss.
Most ancient and medieval dyers mordanted their yarns and fabrics
before dyeing them. Alum and Iron were used as mordants in Egypt,
14
India and Assyria from early times, as there are many alum deposits in
the Mediterranean region. Medieval dyers used alum, copper and iron as
mordants, and cream of tartar and common salt were used as to assist in
the dyeing process.
Different fibers also have different tendencies to absorb natural
and synthetic dyes. Protein and cellulose fibers (the two main divisions
for fibers used historically in spinning and dyeing) need to be mordanted
differently because of their structural and chemical composition.
Mordants to cellulose fibers such as cotton and linen usually involve the
use of washing soda or tannins to create an alkaline dyebath. Tannins
(plantstuffs, such as oak galls containing tannic acid) are widely used in
dyeing cellulose fibers as they attach well to the plant fibers, thus
allowing the dyes to attach themselves to the tannins, whereas they might
not be able to adhere to the fibers themselves (Tannins are sometimes
classified as mordants in and of themselves, but are usually considered a
chemical to assist in the dyeing process.) Mordants for protein fibers,
like wool and silk, are usually applied in acidic dyebaths. Alum with the
assistance of cream or tartar is the most common mordant used to assist
the dyes in taking to the fibers.
Since the difference in mordanting different fibers has been
mentioned, it would be remiss not to spend a moment on the historic
nature of the fibers themselves. Wool, a protein-based fiber, has been
found in Europe dating back to 2000 BCE. It was a common medieval
fabric in both dyed and natural colors, and was processed by both
professional manufacturers and housewives. Silk, another protein-based
fiber, was imported from China to Persia as early as 400-600 BCE. It
became quite popular in the Late Middle Ages, and major silk
manufacturing centers were set up in France, Spain and Italy. These silk
production centers also became centers of dye technology, as most silk
was dyed and required the highest quality dyes available. Cotton was
considered a luxury fabric, as it was imported all the way from India and
usually dyed or painted before it was shipped. Cotton was also valued
because of the brightness and colorfastness of the dyes used to color it,
and also for its use in making candlewicks. Samples of cotton fabrics
have been found in India and Pakistan dating to 3000 BCE, but it did not
appear in Europe until the 4th century. Cotton waving establishments
were formed in Italy in the 13th & 14th centuries but they did not make a
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significant economic impact on the industry as they produced a coarser
quality of fabric than the imported fabric, and therefore had difficulty in
obtaining a good supply of cotton fiber.
Scientists are almost certain that dyeing was practiced throughout
the world, but it is difficult to obtain proof on this for two reasons. First,
not all cultures left written records of their practices. Second, because of
the wide variance of environmental conditions and degree of geological
disturbance, it is not easy to find well-preserved evidence of dyed textiles
in many archaeological sites. A Chinese text from 3,000 BCE lists dye
recipes to obtain red, black and yellow on silks. Ancient Indian texts
describe several different yellow dyestuffs, how to obtain reds from the
wood and bark of certain trees, and also notes the use of indigo to create
blues on cotton. In Central and South America they dyed bast fibers
(plant fibers) in shades of red and purple with the bodies of the cochineal
insects (Dactylopius coccus).
A Greek artifact known as the Stockholm Papyrus details
dyestuffs and techniques in almost a recipe fashion as it was practiced
Egypt in the third and fourth centuries CE. The great detail in which the
preparation of the fibers and the dyeing materials and the dyeing process
itself are recorded has led scholars to believe that it had to have been
practiced for thousands of years previously in order to raise the process
to such a science and art. It discusses mordanting the fibers using alum,
copper and iron oxides to darken or “sadden” the red, blue, green and
purple dyes, as well as the occasional use of tin and zinc. It describes
over ten different recipes for using alkanet (Anchusa tinctoria) root as a
dye employing camel and sheep urine, lentils, vinegar, wild cucumber
and barley malt among others as aids to producing color. It also gave
recipes on obtaining purple hues by overdyeing the alkanet with woad
(Isatis tinctoria), madder (Rubia tinctorum), kermes (made from the dried
bodies of the female shield louse or scale insect (Kermes ilicis)) and the
heliotrope plant (Heliotropium arborescens). Excavated coptic textiles
dating from the fourth to the sixth century CE show use of weld (Reseda
luteola) to produce yellow, madder and woad for dark purple, and blue
from indigo (Indigofera tinctoria). Scientists have been able to date a red
obtained from Egyptian madder root from the fourteenth century BCE.
In the Mediterranean before the advent of Christianity, a whole dyeing
industry arose around Tyrian purple. Tyrian purple is produced from the
16
mucous gland adjacent to the respiratory cavity within some species of
Purpura and Murex species of shellfish. The shells were crushed to
extract this fluid, which only turns purple once it has been applied to the
fiber and exposed to light and oxidation with the air. The Phoenicians,
skillful shipbuilders and sailors that they were, scoured the coastlines for
sight of these whelk shells, and established a dyeworks and trading
station wherever they found a plentiful population of these shellfish.
Coastal Indians of Mexico were also using shellfish, but their delicate
method involved blowing and tickling the shellfish to get them to spit out
the dye precursor directly onto the cotton fibers. Even Ireland can
produce archaeological evidence of dyeing with the native dog-whelk
shells in the seventh century CE. Both Discorides, the Greek physician
and Pliny the Elder, the Roman naturalist, mention in their first century
works the preparation and dyeing of wool with various shellfish to
produce colors of red, blue, purple and violet after first being mordanted
with soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), oxgall or alum. (Schetky, 4) Both
authors also mention the use of Indigo from the Orient to obtain blues,
and Herodotus describes its use in a 450 BCE text. Dioscorides also
mentions other dye plants of the ancient world, including madder, saffron
(Crocus sativus) and weld for yellow, and woad for blue. Walnut shells
(Juglans nigra), oak bark (Quercus sp.), pomegranate flowers (Punica
granatum) and broom (Genista tinctoria) were also used in conjunction
with various mordants; but galls formed on trees could mordant
themselves, being high in tannic acid.
In Europe the art of dyeing rose to new heights with the diversity
of climate, culture and migration/invasion waves. This was further
influenced by the direct impact of trade instigated by the Crusades and
furthered by the growing cultural awareness of the Renaissance period -
everyone in Europe wanted the exotic, colorful dyestuffs from the Orient,
and later from the Americas. Caravans of camels would cross the Gobi
desert for centuries bringing goods from China to the Mediterranean. By
the 12th century the two main trade routes for imported dyestuffs headed
through Damascus: the first led from Baghdad to Damascus to Jerusalem
and Cairo, the other went to Damascus to Mosul to the Black Sea to
Byzantium (Istanbul).
Venice was one of the major early centers for imported dyestuffs,
supplying Brazilwood (Caesalpinia sappan) from the East, lac (another
17
insect dye) and indigo from India from the fifteenth century CE onward.
Dyers of Italy soon became adept in their use; in 1429 the Venetian
dyer’s guild wrote a book for its members containing a number of
different dye recipes, including Brazilwood and lac. The Plictho de Larti
de Tentori by Venetian author Giovanni Ventur Rosetti (sp - also listed
as Giovanventura Rosetti) in the 1540s lists instructions for using both
lac and indigo, as well as 217 other recipes for dyeing cloth, linen, cotton
and silk with many varieties of dyestuffs. It would remain the best source
for dyeing instruction for the next 200 years.
From Venice the dyestuffs were traded by ship around the coast of
France to Flanders, Southampton and London; in the Mediterranean at
Florence, Pisa and Genoa; and northward on the continent to the
distribution centers of Basle and Frankfurt (Schetky, 6). Basle was a
noted center of trade for saffron, the expensive yellow obtained from
certain species of crocus. In later years crocus were grown in that area
directly, and the crop became such a vital part of the local economy that
they crocus was featured on the city’s coat of arms. Frankfurt housed
trade fairs from the twelfth to fourteenth centuries that dominated the
trade of many dyestuffs, but mainly that of locally grown woad, the only
blue dyestuff available to European dyers before the coming of indigo.
Many regions in Germany specialized in growing and processing the
woad through its complex fermentation process, and strict legislation was
placed on every aspect of the trade.
The government of Spain controlled the trade of cochineal, the red
dye from the bodies of the Cochineal bugs of Central America. In 1587
approximately 65 tons were shipped to Spain, and from there northward
throughout Europe. Italian dyers shunned cochineal in favor of the
already established dye kermes, made from the dried bodies of the
female shield louse or scale insect (Kermes ilicis) (Schetky, 4). It’s use
was first recorded in 1727 BCE and it was long the standard red dye for
silk, wool and leather, but the intense colorific value and relative
cheapness of cochineal soon eliminated most of the kermes use in
England, so Spain hung on to control of their lucrative monopoly.
European dyers reached their height of skill in the thirteenth
century, mainly due to the guild systems who vigilantly maintained a
high standard of quality. In many countries dyers were graded by the
guild system, the master dyers being allowed to use the major “fast” dyes
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while their lesser colleagues were restricted to the slower, “fugitive”
dyes. In some places it was forbidden to possess, let alone use, major
dyestuffs unless you were a member of a guild. In Germany, the dyers
and woad workers were regulated by the guilds, each grower having to
present his crop to a “sworn dyer” to determine its quality, weight and
condition before it could be sold. (Grierson, 8-9) English producers of
woad had fewer restrictions, mainly that of a proclamation in 1587 to
restrict growers to certain field size and ensure that no woad mills were
sited within three miles of a royal residence, market town or city because
of the highly offensive odor they emit. Even the local doctors in Venice
in 1413 city fathers to prohibit dyeing with either woad or ox-blood after
March first because of the “unhealthy smell.” France had developed an
extensive and efficient textile industry by the 13th century and also
increased the dyers craft by developing varied techniques to achieve
additional colors from the basic dyestuffs. At the end of the 16th century,
there were over 220 master dyers listed in Paris alone.
While the powerful guild system had numerous dyestuffs with
which to blend their color palates of fiber for the bluebloods and wealthy
merchants, dyeing in the lower classes was a bit more restrictive.
Without the money (or connetions) to buy indigo, cochineal and
turmeric, clothing in the country tended to natural colors – whites,
blacks, browns, grays, and tans of the natural colors of the fibers
themselves, with the reds, greens and yellows of local plants used for
both food, medicine and dyes. In short, home dyers used any plants they
could lay their hands on that would give a good color. Some colors were
even derived accidentally. Washing beehives in preparation for making
mead could yield yellows and golds. Blackberries and Bilberries that
stained the fingers of pickers could also be used to achieve pale blues
and purples, although these were not often color or lightfast. In England,
the multitudinous variety of lichens and mosses produced greens, grays
and browns.
By the seventeenth century a worldwide shipping and trading
network was in place, allowing dyestuffs from all parts of the world to be
brought to Europe. Legislation from earlier centuries to protect the
growers and users of specific dyestuffs was overturned in favor of new
demands and standards set by the growing consumer-focused society
who wanted more colors and better quality. In the eighteenth and
19
nineteenth centuries the practice of colonialism insured that there would
always be a supply of foreign dyestuffs, and the Industrial Revolution
met the demands of large-scale productions while finding new ways to
make the colors brighter and longer-lasting to wear and washing.
As textile weaving technology advanced with the advent of
machines to spin, design and weave fabric, dyers were forced to be able
to produce dyes with exact shades, matching color lots and most
importantly, ones that would stand “fast” to the new mechanical and
chemical processing. In addition, exporters wanted colors that would
stand up to tropical sunlight and still be exotic enough for foreign tastes.
Dyers in turn demanded from their supplier’s purer chemicals and
dyestuffs of consistent quality. Hand in hand, dyers, manufacturers,
chemists, and dyestuff producers worked hand in hand to keep up with
the progress of technology. Chemists in many countries had found a
means of extracting highly concentrated powders or pastes from
traditional dyestuffs that made stronger colors, such as cochineal carmine
and madder garancine. Other procedures were used to extract indigo that
gave us sulphonated indigo and Saxon blue. A few novel dyes
(precursors of future chemical dyes) such as the yellow obtained from
picric acid also made an appearance. With the tremendous rise in the
interest of Chemistry in the mid nineteenth century, several important
innovations in dyeing came about. W.H. Perkin, a student of celebrated
European scientist Wilhelm von Hoffman, accidentally discovered the
first synthetic dye in an attempt to synthesize quinine. The 18-year old
student’s purple precipitate, later called mauviene, was quickly put into
industrial application, allowing the young Perkin to start his own factory
in London to commercially produce his dyestuff. Two years letter a
synthetic red dye called magenta or fuchsine was patented in France, and
hardly a year passed until the end of the century without a new synthetic
dye being patented.
Eventually, the old natural dyes lost popularity in favor of the
newer synthetic ones. By the end of the nineteenth century a few Scottish
tweed producers were the only ones still using natural dyes, and now the
use of natural dyes on a commercial scale barely exists, mainly in remote
areas where people have either little access to synthetic dyes or a vested
interest in retaining their ancient dyeing customs. Use of natural dyes is
gaining popularity again with the renaissance in hand crafting, most
20
notably in the fields of spinning and weaving, basketry, papermaking and
leather craft. There is also renewed scientific and historic interest in
natural dyeing, both to help identify dyestuffs in recently discovered
archaeological finds and to preserve the dyed textiles housed in museums
and private collections.
As Su Grierson says in her book Dyeing and Dyestuffs, “Whilst
the dyeing industry of today keeps pace with modern science, the future
use of natural dyes will also follow a new path, but one firmly.
21
Classification of Dyes 3
Dyes may be classified in two ways. The organic chemist
classifies them according to a common parent structure (Chemical
Classification). The dyer, who is only interested in fixing the dye to the
fibre, classifies them according to the method of application.
OH OH
OH
O2N HO3S
NO2 NO2 NO2
NO2
NO2 NO2
PICRIC ACID MARITUS YELLOW NAPHTHOL YELLOW S
A PRIMARY A DIAZONIUM
AROMATIC AMINE COMPOUND
+
N2Cl - + H NH3 N=N NH2 + HCl
BENZENEDIAZONIUM
CHLORIDE ANILINE YELLOW
(P-aminoazobenzene)
Aniline yellow is used as a dye for oils and lacquers, and is also an
intermediate for other dyes.
23
(b) Butter Yellow: It is p-N, N-dimethylaminoazobenzene.
Butter yellow is obtained by coupling benzenediazonium
chloride with N, N-dimethylaniline.
+ - CH3 CH3
N2Cl + H N N=N N
CH3 CH3
Benzenediazonium N,N-Dimethylaniline Butter Yellow
Chloride (p-N,N-dimethylaminoazobenzene)
Butter yellow has been used for colouring butter, margarine and oils.
+ -
N2Cl + H NH2 N =N NH2 + HCl
+ - CH3
HO3S N2Cl + H N
CH3
Diazotised sulphanilic acid
N,N-methylaniline
CH3
HO3S N=N N NaOH
CH3
Helianthine
CH3
NaO3S N=N N
CH3
Methyl Orange
24
Methyl orange is not a satisfactory dye for textiles because it is
sensitive to acids. It is used as an indicator in acid-base titrations. It is
yellow in basic solutions (above pH 4.4), while red in acidic solutions
(below pH 3.1). This change in the colour is attributed to change in the
structure of its ion. Under alkaline conditions the ion contains the azo
chromophore, while under acidic conditions it contains p-quinoid
chromophore.
Azo p-Quinoid
Compound Chromophore
CH3 H+ +
N=N
N CH3
N -
-
O3S NH N
CH3 OH CH3
Red
Yellow
Acidic Solution
(Alkaline Solution)
HO3S
+ -
N2Cl + H HO3S N=N + HCl
HO
Diazotised OH
Sulphanilic Acid Orange 2
-Naphthol
+ -
O2N N2Cl + H O2N N=N + HCl
-Nitobenzene OH OH
diazonium Chloride Para Red
-Naphthol
25
(g) Resorcin Yellow: It is made by coupling diazotised
sulphanilic acid with resorcinol.
OH
+ -
HO3S N2Cl +H OH
OH
Diazolised Reaoroinol
Sulphanilic acid HO3S N=N OH + HCl
Reaoroinol Yellow
Resorcin yellow is used for dyeing silk.
(h) Disperse Red 1: It is obtained by coupling p-
nitrobenzenediazonium chloride with N-ethyl-N- (β-hydroxyethyl)
aniline in acidic medium.
+ - CH2CH3
O2N N2Cl + H N
CH2CH2OH
-Nitrobenzenediazonium N-Ethyl-N-( -hydroxyethyl)aniline
Chloride
CH2CH3
O2N N=N N + HCl
CH2CH2OH
Disperse Red 1
(i) Congo Red. It is a diazo dye, that is, it contains two azo
groups. Congo red is made by coupling tetrazotised benzidine with two
molecules of naphthionic acid.
NH2 NH2
H
H
-+
+ Cl N2 + -
N2Cl +
NH2 NH2
N= N N=N
+2HCl
Congo Red
SO3H SO3H
ZnCl2
(CH3)2 C N (CH3)2+ NH4Cl
MICHLERS KETONE
+
NH3
(CH3)2N C N(CH3)2
Cl-
AURAMINE O
Auramine O is used to dye wool, silk, silk, nylon, rayon and paper.
O
Triphenylmethane dyes are not fast to light or washing, however,
except when applied to acrylic fibres. They are used in large quantities
27
for colouring paper, and typewriter ribbons where fastness to light is not
so important.
H
H N (CH 3)2 H
C==O N (CH 3)2
H N (CH 3)2 C
N (CH 3)2
Benzaldehyde N,N-Dimethyle aniline Leuco base Melachite green
+
N(CH3)2 N(CH3)2
HCl -
C c Cl
N(CH3)2 N(CH3)2
MALACHITE GREEN
Malachite green takes its name from the fact that it has a deep
blue-green colour resembling that a malachite (Copper ore). It is used as
a dye for acrylic fibres, leather, paper, and lacquers.
28
H
H NH2 OH NH2
3[O]
H2N C H + H2N C
H NH2 -2H2O NH2
H
Aniline Colourless carbinol
p-toludine
HCl NH2
-
H2N C Cl
-H2O
NH2
PARAROSANILINE
H
H NH2 OH NH2
3[O]
H2N C H + H2N C
H NH2 -2H2O NH2
H
Colourless carbinol CH3
p-toludine CH3
O-Toluidine
+
HCl NH2
-
H2N C Cl
-H2O
NH2
CH3
PARAROSANILINE
29
Rosaniline has a greenish metallic lustre. It dissolves in water to
give a deep-red colour. Rosaniline is used for dyeing cotton, silk and
wool. Addition of sulphur dioxide to the dye solution produces the
colourless Schiff’s reagent, which is used to test the presence of
aldehydes.
(d) Crystal Violet: It is obtained by condensing Michler’s ketone
with N, N-dimethylaniline in the presence of phosphorous oxichloride
(POCl3) or phosgene (COCl2). If phosgene is used, then crystal violet can
be prepared directly by heating phosgene and N, N-dimethylaniline, since
these two react to give Michler’s keton.
POCl3
(CH3)2N C O + H (NCH3)2
or COCl2
N,N-DIMETHYLE ANALINE
N(CH3)2 +
MICHLERS KETONE
c N(CH3)2 -
Cl
CRYSTAL VIOLET
Crystal violet has a greenish-brown metallic lustre. It dissolves in water
to give a deep-blue colour. Crystal violet is used in the manufacture of
inks, stamping pads, and typewriter ribbons. It is also used as an
indicator for the determination of hydrogen-ion concentration of
solutions.
(5) Xanthene Dyes:
Xanthene dyes can be identified by a common structural feature
shown below. They are obtained by condensing phenols with phthalic
anhydride in the presence of zinc chloride, sulphuric acid, or anhydrous
oxalic acid. Examples of this class are fluorescein, eosin, and rhodamine B.
O
O
30
(a) Fluorescene. It is prepared by heating resorcinol (2
molecules) and phthalic anhydridge (1 molecule) with zinc chloride at
190oC
HO
O OH
HO
OH OH OH
C NaOH
ZnCl2
O
H H O
O 2H2O C
CH2
C O
FLUORESCEIN
PATHALIC ANHYDRIDE
OH O O
COONa+
URANINE
31
HO Br
O OH Br
Br2 HO O OH NaOH
C
O
CH3COOH Br C Br
C o O
C o
FLUORESCEIN
Tetrabromofluricine
Br
Br
Nao O O
Br Br
COONa+
Eosin is a EOISNE
red solid, which is soluble in water. Alkaline solutions of eosin show a
yellow-green fluorescence. Eosin is used for dyeing wool, silk, and
paper; for making red ink and as the colouring matter in lipsticks and nail
polishes.
(c) Rhodamine B: It is prepared by condensing phthalic
anhydride with N,N-diethyl-m-aminophenol in the presence of zinc
chloride, and treating the product with hydrochloric acid.
----
(C2H6)2N OH H-O N(C2H6)2 (C2H6)2N
+ O N(C2H6)2
HO H HCl
ZnCl2 C
C O O
C=O
C=O - 2H2O
+
PATHALIC ANHYDRIDE
(C2H6)2N N(C2H6)2
-
Cl
C
COOH
RHODAMINE B
Sodium Salt
Phenolphthalein (Red)
(Colourless)
-
H+ OH
+
NaO- - +
ONa
OH
O
+
COONa
Trisodium Salt
(Colourless)
33
Because of the colour changes shown above, phenolphthalein is
used as an indicator in acid-base titrations.
Phenolphthalein is an extremely powerful laxative, and this
accounts for its widespread use as a denaturant for laboratory alchohol.
34
Preparation of Indigo. It may be obtained:
(1) By Heumann’s First Indigo Synthesis (1890). This involves
the condensation of aniline with chloroacetic acid to give N-
phenylglycine. The phenylglycine is then fused with sodium hydroxide
and sodamide at 250oC to form indoxyl, which on oxidation by air yields
the dye.
O
HO HO O
H C O C
C HaOH + NaNH2
+ H
CH2 CH2
+
H CH2 N
N
Cl N Indoxyl
Aniline Chloro Acetic Acid O2 H
H
H
N-Phenylolycine
H
O
C N
C C
N C
O
H
Indigo
(Indigotin)
H C + NaHSO3
H H C H
Formaldehyde Sodium
Bisulphite -
SO3Na+
An Addition
Product
- + - +
SO3Na SO3Na
+ 50 70OC NaCN
N H HO C H CH2 -Na2SO3
N
H H
H
HO O
C N C
H+
CH2 H2O CH2
N N
H H
N-Phenylglycine
35
(2) By Heumann’s Second Indigo Synthesis (1896): This
involves the condensation of anthranilic acid with chloroacetic acid to
form N-phenyl-o-carboxylic acid. This is then fused with sodium
hydroxide and sodamide to produce unstable indoxylic acid, which
decarboxyhlates to give indoxyl. Oxidation of indoxyl by air yields the
dye.
OH
OH
C O
C
CH2 COOH O
+ CH2 COOH
Cl
N H
Chloroacetic acid N
H H
Anthranilic Acid N-Phenylglycine-o-carboxylic acid
OH
O
-H2O C CO2 C
O2
NaOH, NaNH2, C CH2 Indigo
N COOH N
H H
Indoxylic acid Indoxyl
(unstable) (2 molecules)
-
CH2 ONa+
C -ONa
+
CH2 (1) 300 OC C OH
N- (2) 240 OC CH H2O
Na+ N CH
N
Indoxyl
Sodium Salt of indoxyl H
H (Enol form)
36
O
C
CH2 Indigo
N
H
Indoxyl
(Keto form) Indigo is a dark-
o
blue crystalline compound, mp 390-2 . It is insoluble in water and most
organic solvents, but soluble in aniline, nitrobenzene, and chloroform. It
can be sublimed under reduced pressure to deep red vapours, which on
cooling yield prismatic crystals. Indigo is used very extensively for
dyeing cotton by the Vat Process, and in printing inks.
C OH
Indigo NaOH
NH2
Anthranilic Acid
3. Oxidation of indigo with nitric acid yields only two molecules
of isatin. This indicates that the indigo molecule contains two identical
units joined together, and that each unit on oxidation produces a
molecule of isatin.
2[O] C=O
INDIGO
C=O
N
H
Isatin
37
The following two possible structures of indigo meet this
requirement.
O O
C C C C
C C C C
N N N O O N
H H H H
(A) (B)
H H H
INDOXYL INDIGO
From above, it follows that (A) represents the structure of indigo. This
has been confirmed by the following synthesis by Baeyer (1872).
O O O
C C C
PCl5
C C C
N O N OH N Cl
H
Isatin Isatin chloride
Isatin (Enol form)
(Keto form)
Zn CH3COOH
OO O
C C C
O2
C C CH2
N N N
Indigo
H H H
Indoxyl
Two geometrical isomers are possible for (A) (Two Molecules)
H
O O O
C C C N
C =C C =C
N N N C
O
H H H
Cis-form Trans-form
38
X-Ray analysis shows that mostly indigo exist in the more stable trans-
form. However, derivatives of both are known.
O
Anthraqluinoid dyes are used for dyeing wool, silk, nylon, cotton,
leather and paper. The most important dye in this group is alizarin.
Alizarin. It is 1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone. Alizarin derives its
name from the fact that it was first obtained from the roots of the madder
plant (Fr. Alizari, madder). It is now prepared from phthalic anhydride by
the following six steps.
Step 1. Phthalic anhydride is treated with benzene in the presence
of AlCl3 to give o-benzoylbenzloic acid. (Friedel-Crafts Reaction)
o O
c
C
o AlCl3
c OH
C
o
O
O-Benzoyl-Benzoic Acid
Step 2. O-Benzoylbenzoic acid is cyclized by treatment with
concentrated sulphuric acid to form anthraquinone.
O O
C
H2SO4
OH
C
H
O
O Anthraquinone
Step 3. Anthraquinone is heated with fuming sulphuric acid at
o
180 C to give anthraquinone-2-sulphonic acid.
40
O O
SO3H
+ H2SO4
Fuming
O O
Anthraquinone Anthraquinone
Anthraquinone-2-sulphonic acid
Step 4. Anthraquinone-2-sulphonic acid is converted into its
sodium salt by treatment with sodium hydroxide.
O
O
SO3H
SO3Na
NaOH
O
Anthraquinone O
Anthraquinone-2-sulphonic acid Sodium salt of
anthraquinone-2-sulphonic acid
Step 5. Sodium salt of anthraquinone-2-sulphonic acid is fused
with sodium hydroxide in the presence of potassium chlorate at 200oC
under pressure to give sodium salt of 1, 2-dihydroxyanthraquinone. The
purpose of potassium chlorate is to provide oxygen for the oxidation of
the carbon atom at C-1.
- +
O O ONa
8 9 - + +
-ONa
7 SO3Na
2
+ Na2SO4
6 3
5 10 4 + 2H2O
O O
Sodium salt of
1, 2-dihydroxyanthraquinone
Step 6. Sodium salt of 1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone is treated with
sulphuric acid to yield 1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone (Alizarin).
O ONa
O OH
ONa
OH
H+
O
O
Alizarin
(1, 2-dihydroxyanthraquinone)
Alizarin can also be made by condensing phathalic anhydride with
catechol in the presence of sulphuric acid at 180oC (See Below).
41
Alizarin forms ruby red crystals, mp 290oC. It is insoluble in water
and ethanol. It dissolves in alkalis to give purple solutions. Alizarin is
used to dye cotton and wool. It is also used for making printing inks.
Structure of Alizarin:
The structure of Alizarin has been deduced as follows:
The above facts limit our choice to two structural formula for alizarin.
O OH O
OH OH
OH
O
O
(A) (B)
42
5. Alizarin on nitration yields two isomeric mononitro derivatives,
both of which on oxidation give phthalic acid. This shows that in
each of these derivatives, the – NO2 group is substituted on the
hydroxylated benzene ring.
Let us now write down the possible mononitro derivatives from
(A) and (B).
Mononitro derivatives from (A):
O OH O OH
OH OH
NO2
O O NO2
DIFFERENT
O
O NO2
OH
OH
OH
OH
O NO2
O
IDENTICAL
Since only formula (A) permits the formation of two isomeric
mononitro derivatives, it represents the structure of alizarin.
1) Direct Dyes:
These contain acidic or basic groups and combine with polar
groups in the fibre. Such dyes colour a fabric directly when the
fibre is immersed in a hot aqueous solution of the dye. Direct dyes
are used to dye wool and silk. Two examples of this class are
Naphthol Yellow S and Martius Yellow. Both compounds are
acids and combine with the free amino groups present in wool and
silk fibres. Synthetic polyamide fibres (Nylon) can also be dyed by
this method.
2) Mordant Dyes:
This class of dyes requires a pretreatment of the fibre with a
mordant material designed to bind the dye. The mordant becomes
attached to the fibre and then combines with the dye to form an
insoluble coloured complex. This complex is called a lake.
Commonly used mordant are the oxides of aluminium, iron and
chromium. Mordant dyes may be used to dye wool, silk and
cotton. Alizarin is an example of a mordant dye. It gives different
colours when used with different mordants. It gives a red colour
with aluminium and tin salts, brownish red tones with a chromium
mordant, and black-violets with an iron mordant.
44
fibre
O OH o
o
Al
OH O OH
Al3 + fibre
+
dyes have been used for many centuries. They have lost their
original importance because their use is no longer necessary.
Equal or superior results can be obtained with other classes of
dyes at less expense in time and labour.
3) Vat Dyes:
These dyes are insoluble in water, but on reductin with sodium
hydrosulphite yield alkali soluble forms (Leuco-compounds)
which may be colourless. It is in this form they are introduced
into the fabric. The reducing operation was ormerly carried out in
wooden vats, giving rise to the name ‘Vat Dyes’. After the
reduced dye has been absorbed in the fibre, the original insoluble
coloured dye is reformed by oxidation with air or chemicals. Vat
dyes are used to dye cotton, and very fast because of their
insolubility in water. Indigo is an example of a vat dye.
O H OH H
C N C N
Reduction
C C
C C
Oxidation N C
N C
OH
O H
H INDIGO COLORLESS
INDIGO BLUE WATER INSOLUBLE WATER SOLUBLE
4) Ingrain Deys:
These dyes are synthesised within the fa bric, and may be applied
to any type of fibre. The azo dyes are good examples of ingrain
dyes. The cloth to be dyed is first soaked in an alkaline solution
45
of a phenol (usually naphthol) and dried. It is then immersed in a
cold alkaline solution of a diazonium salt. Coupling reaction takes
place within the fabric. Since these dyes are insoluble in water,
they are very fast.
5) Disperse Dyes:
These are insoluble in water, but are capable of dissolving certain
synthetic fibres. Disperse dyes are usually applied in the form of a
dispersion of finely divided dye in a soap solution in the presence
of some solublising agent such as phenol, cresol, or benzoic acid.
The absorption into the fibre is carried out at high temperatures
and pressures. Disperse dyes are used to dye acetate rayons,
Dacron, Nylon and other synthetic fibres. Celliton Fast Pink B (1-
amino-4-hydroxyanthraquinone) and Celliton Fast Blue B (1,4-N,
N’ –dimethylaminoanthraquinone) are examples of disperse dyes.
NH2 H
O
o N-CH3
O OH
CELLITON FAST PINK B o N-CH3
H
CELLITON FAST BLUE B
46
Dyes & Fibre Polymer System 4
Wool Fibres:
The wool fibre is composed of the protein keratin, which consists
of long polypeptide chains built from eighteen different amino acids.
Most of these acids have the general formula H2N.CHR.COOH, in which
R is a side chain of varying character. The chain structure is of the type:
H
R2
H
NH CO
CO C C
NH NH CO
C
H
R3
R1
And at intervals bridges derived from the amino acid cystine connect the
chains. Some of the side chains end in amino groups and others in
carboxyl groups; internal salts are therefore formed and the
H2N COOH
CH2 CH
CH CH2 S S
NH2
HOOC
Silk Fibres:
Cultivated silk is a natural fibre produced by larvae of the
silkworm Bombyxmori, and wild silk is produced similarly by
silkdworms of various species. Raw silk consists of the protein fibroin
surrounded by silk gum (sericin), and the latter is removed in the process
48
of de-gumming or ‘boiling off’ which precedes dyeing. Fibroin consists
of long parallel chain containing about 400 amino acid residues with a
structure of the general type
R
CO NH CH CO NH CH CO
NH CH
. R
The residues are derived mainly from the amino acids glycine (R
= H), alanine (R = CH3), serine (R=CH2OH) and tyrosine (R= --CH2---
OH), but there are numerous others in small quantities. Fibroin differs
from keratin in that it contains no sulphur. Its chemical properties are
similar to those of keratin, but it is more sensitive to acids than the latter
and less sensitive to milk alkalis. Silk can be dyed with dyes of almost
every class, but some restrictions arise from the common practice of
weighting the fibre with tin salts, which is carried out in order to improve
handling properties and reduce cost.
So far as azo dyes are concerned the main classes applied to silk
are the acid dyes and pre-metallised dyes already described as wool dyes,
the direct dyes described in Chapter and the reactive dyes described in
Chapter. Mordant dyes applied to silk are mainly of the anthraquinone
type. It has never been necessary to develop dyes especially for silk.
Cellulosic Fibres:
The earliest cellulosic fibres were lines and cotton, both of which
have been used since remote antiquity. Linen, or flax, is derived from
‘bast’ fibres of plants of the Linum family, especially Linum
usitatissimum. After removal of glutinous and pectinous matter the fibre
has cellulose content of 82 – 83%. Cotton, which is fine hair attached to
seeds of various species of plants of the Gossypium genus, has a
cellulose content which may reach 96%. Cellulose is a polymer of high
molecular weight consisting of long chains of D-glucose units connected
by B-1, 4- glucosidic bonds, and its structure may be represented as
follows:
49
Each glucose unit contains three alcoholic hydroxyl groups, of which
two are secondary and one is primary. The degree of polymerisation of
cellulose varies from a few hundred to 3500 or more.
Regenerated cellulose fibres were introduced during the last two
decades of the 19th century. The first process was that Chardonnet
(1884), who produced a fibre by spinning a solution of nitrocellulose in a
mixture of alcohol and ether and subsequently removing nitro groups.
The cuprammonium process followed (1890), and in 1891 Cross and
Bevan introduced the viscose process whereby wood pulp cellulose is
treated with caustic soda and carbon disulphide to form sodium cellulose
xanthate, which, after a ‘ripening’ stage, is spun into an acid coagulating
bath. The nitrocellulose process is now obsolete, but the cuprammonium
process, which has the advantage of giving an exceptionally fine
filament, is still used. The viscose process is of much greater importance,
but it is declining in consequence of the development of the newer
synthetic fibres.
The dyeing properties of the various cellulosic fibres are broadly
similar, but application conditions are affected by differences in
physically properties. Thus lines, which has a harder structure than
cotton, is less readily penetrated by dyes. There are also differences in
dyeing properties between the several types of regenerated cellulose
fibres; cuprammonium rayon, for example, having fine filaments, is more
easily dyed than viscose.
Dyes of many chemical classes are applied to cellulosic fibres.
Azo dyes, which predominate numerically, are described here, and others
are dealt with in the appropriate chapters.
The first substantive or ‘direct’ dyes discovered in 1884 were
diazo dyes obtained from tetrazotised benzidine, but other structure have
since been found to confer affinity for cellulose. The azo group itself
favours substantivity but for adequate effect either a second azao group
or another favourable group must also be present in the dye molecule.
50
The structures which are chiefly important in substantive dyes are as
follows:
CONH
N= N
NaO3S
NH2
CH=CH
STILBENE HO
J-ACID
NaO3S
S
HC
CH
CH
NH2 N
HO THAIZOLE
GAMMA ACID
All of the other groupings listed find used in conjunction with the azo
chromophore to give a great variety of dyes for cellulosic fibres. Others
of smaller importance, such as the residues of pyrazol-5-one, resorcinol
and m-phenylenedianine, also confer a measure of cellulose affinity.
Apart from the presence of one or more of the favourable components
there are other structure requirements for substantivity.
Typical substantive azo dyes of the various chemical classes are
now described.
Monoazso Dyes:
About 35 monoazo direct dyes are in use, most of them containing
either a thiazole or a J acid residue. Examples are CI Direct Yellow 8
(CI 13920), CI Direct Brown 30 (CI 17630) and CI Direct Red 118 (CI
17780) (diazotised and developed on the fibre with B-naphtol or 3-
methy-1-phenylpyrazol-5-one), with the structures shown:
51
NaO3S
HO
H3C
S C-CH3
C N=N-C
N CONHPh
CI DIRECT YELLOW 8
NaO3S
H3C
NaO3S
S
S
C C
N N=N NHPh
N
HO
CI DIRECT BROWN 30
NH2
NaO3S NHCO
N Temperature
Cl Cl
N
Stage 2
(Dye 1) NH N
Cl
N
N
Cl
(Dye 1) NH N
Moderate
+ (Dye 2) NH2
N Temperature NH (Dye 2)
Cl N
(Dye 1) NH N
N
Cl
Stage 3
NH (Dye 2)
N
(Dye 1) NH N
N
NH (Dye 3)
In the resulting product each dye residue contributes its own absorption
characteristics; by combining yellow and blue components, green dyes
can therefore be obtained that are much brighter than normal polyazo
greens. Dyes containing three inde; pendent chromophoric system is of
limited interest and the third condensation is often carried out with a
suitably reactive colourless compound such as aniline or phenol.
53
An example of a commercial dye containing two electronically
insulated chromophores is Chlorantine Fast Green BLL (CIBA) (CI
Direct Green 26; CI 34045); it gives bluish green hue on cellulosic
fibres. One of the aminoazo dye residues. A commercial dye containing
both azo and anthraquinone residues is Chlorantine Fast 5 GLL (CIBA)
(CI Direct Green 28; CI 14155), which has the structure (2) and gives
bright yellowish green shades on cellulosic fibres.
NaO3S
OH NHPh
OMe COONa
N N
N N NH NH N N OH
N
NaO3S Me
(1)
NHPh
O O SO3Na
COONa
N N
H2N NH HN NH- -N=N- OH
N
S
O3
Na
(2)
H OAc
CH2
H H O
o OAc H
H
OAc H
H
O
H O H
H n
OAc
CH2
OAc
54
The triacetate is soluble in chloroform, and a fibre known as
Lustron was spun from chloroform solution in early small-scale
American manufacture (1914-1924). If the triacetate is partially
hydrolysed to give a mixture with an average of 2 ½ acetyl groups per
glucose residue the product loses solubility in chloroform, but becomes
soluble in acetone. A different product, which is insoluble in acetone, is
obtained by direct introduction of 2 ½ acetyl groups; presumably the less
accessible hydroxyl groups are the last to be acetylated and the last to be
re-formed on hydrolysis.
During the First World War incompletely acetylated cellulose was
produced on a large scale for use as a dope for aircraft fabric. After the
war efforts to find a new use for it led to the production of cellulose
acetate fibre by British Celanese Corporation. The commercial product
contains an average of 2-3 acetyl groups per glucose residue, and is
known as secondary acetate, or simply ‘acetate’. It is spun from acetone
solution. In spite of an inconveniently low melting-point acetate fibre
attained great success and is still extensively used, but in recent years it
has been partly superseded by other synthetic fibres.
It was appreciated in the early days that the dyeing of acetae differs
from that of the natural fibres and viscose in that fibre serves as a solvent
for the dye. In 1923 work on dyes in the form of aqueous dispersions was
carried out independently by British Celanese Corporation and British
Dyestuffs Corporation. The SRA colours of British Celanese Corporation
were dispersions of aminoazo or hydroxyazo dyes obtained by means of the
surface-active agent sulphated ricinoleic acid. Other dispersing agents used
included alkyl sulphates, alkaryl sulphonates and fatty alcohol-ethylene
oxide condensates (a long alkyl chain being usually present in the
molecule), and the dispersions obtained by applying them with various
milling techniques were often so fine as to be easily mistaken for true
solutions. British Dyestuffs Corporation marketed dispersed aminoazo and
hydroxyazo dyes in their Dispersol range, and this is still maintained by ICI
(formed in 1926 by a union of British dye stuffs Corporation with other
firms). The Duranol range is a parallel range of dispersed dyes of the
anthraquinone series.
Dyes of these types are now produced by many manufactures.
Whereas the dyes were formerly supplied only as aqueous dispersions
55
they are now usually marketed in the form of re-dispersible powders
which yield suitable dispersions on stirring with water.
Hydroxyalkylamino groups impart a small degree of water-
solubility and assist dispersibility; coupling components such as N-ethyl-
N- B-hydroxyethylaniline or N, N-di (B-hydroxyethyl) aniline are
therefore commonly used. Many of the earlier yellow and orange dyes
proved to be phototropic, but it was found that this groublesome
characteristic can be largely avoided by introducing nitro or other
negative groups into the dye molecule; these substituents restrain trans
cis isomerizatrion. Since dye molecules must be fairly small in order that
they dissolve readily in the fibre monoazo dyes are commonly used, but
a few disazo dyes are included in commercial ranges. Blacks are
obtained by diazotising aminoazo dyes on the fibre and developing with
a solution of 3-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid.
In 1936 a range of water-soluble dyes for acetate was marketed by
ICI under the name Solacet. Their solubility was due to the presence of a
sulphuric ester group (-- OSO3Na), usually introduced by sulphation of a
B-hydroxyethlamino group, which did not seriously impair affinity for
the fibre. The unsuitability of conventional water-soluble dyes for acetate
fibres is apparently due to the presence of highly ionised – SO3-Na+
groups rather than their solubility in water. In consequence of the of the
development of dispersed dyes with improved dyeing and fastness
properties the Solacet range has now been superseded.
Many dyes developed for acetate have now been applied to the
newer synthetic fibres, and the manufactured ranges have been extended
specially for these outlets. The term ‘Acetate dyes’ has therefore, been
discarded in favour of ‘Disperse dyes’ so that all applications may be
included. Disperse dyes for fibres other than acetate are described later.
Examples of azo disperse dyes applied to acetate are shown in Table 4.6;
violet and blue dyes are included, but disperse dyes of these shades are
derived mainly from the anthraquinone series.
Poyamide Fibres:
Nylon 6,6 and Nylon 6 can be dyed by many disperse, acid and
direct dyes. Since many suitable dyes are available, commercial ranges
are usually selected from products already manufactured for other
purposes, and (apart from the reactive dyes discussed later) new
structures have not been required. It has proved very difficult to
manufacture nylon with uniform dyeing properties, and for this reason
dyes with good leveling properties are necessary. In this respect disperse
dyes have a great advantage in that they conceal fibre irregularities. For
high wet-fastness acid dyes are preferred, but very careful application is
necessary in order to secure level dying. These dyes often show better
wet-fastness properties on nylon than on wool because of the
hydrophobic character of the former. Fastness to light, however, is often
slightly lower on nylon than on wool. The affinity of acid dyes for Nylon
6 is higher than that for other types because polycaprolactam fibres
contain a higher proportion of free amino groups Ranges of acid dyes for
nylon are classified by the makiers so that users may select dyes with
good leveling or good wet-fastness properties according to their
requirements, there are also ranges with intermediate properties and
others specially designed for fabric printing.
57
Polyester Fibres:
In the course of the exploratory work that led to the development
of nylon W.H. Carothers examined aliphatic polyesters but abandoned
them in favour of the more promising polyamides. Subsequently,
however, the late J.R. Whinfield and J.T. Dickson of The Calico Printers’
Association re-examined polyesters for the purpose. They extended the
work to aromatic compounds and obtained a polymer with excellent
fibre-forming properties from terephthalic acid and ethyleneglycol. This
has the structure (3). The important fibre ‘Terylene’ was based on this
HO OC CO.O.H2C.CH2.O H
n
Work, and was first prepared in the laboratory in 1941. Development
and production of the fibre were carried out by ICI, and this fibre is now
manufactured under various names on a very large scale in many parts of
the world. Dimethyl terephthalate is now commonly used in place of the
free acid so that the terminal carboxlic acid group is esterified. Since n
has a value of about 80 the properties of the fibre are not greatly affected.
The ester is preferred as starting material because it is more easily
purified, and purity is essential in the manufacture of high polymers.
‘Terylene’ fibre is highly hydrophobic, withstands attack by
bacteria, moulds, months, acid and alkali, has high strength even in wet
conditions, is superior to nylon in resistance to light, can be heat-set and
has glood di-electric properties. It is largely used for manufacture of net
curtains, in blends with wool for suitings and other outerwer,k and for
many industrial purposes.
The hydrophobic nature of ‘Terylene’, its tightly packed
molecular structure and its lack of reactive groups all render it
unreceptive to dye molecules. Certain disperse dyes can be applied, but
under normal conditions adsorption is slow and only pale shades are
58
obtained. Much better penetration is obtained by dyeing at about 12oC
under pressure, and the special dyeing machinery required is now in
general use. Since diffusion is slow in conditions of normal use, dyeings
obtained in this way have good wet-fastness properties. Suitable dyes
must be selected for this process since not all will withstand the high
temperature without change of shade. Disperse dyes can also be applied
at temperatures below 100oC by the aid of ‘carriers’ added to the
dyebath. These agents are supplied under various brand names, such as
‘Tumescal’ (ICI), and usually consist of compounds such as o- or p-
hydroxydiphenyl. Their presence greatly facilitates the dyeing process,
but the mode of action is not fully understood. This process enables
dyeing to be carried out in standard machines, but it is somewhat
expensive and has disadvantages in that the carriers are often difficult to
remove completely; their presence may cause a noticeable odour and
sometimes impairment of light-fastness.
Polyester fibres can be dyed by the Thermosol process (DuPont),
which consists in padding with disperse dye and a thickening agent, then
drying and heating at 175o – 200oC for about one minute. Under such
conditions the dye is absorbed rapidly; after scouring to remove loose
colour the dyed material is finished in the usual way.
Polypropylene Fibres:
Polyethylene has many applications in the plastic industry, but its
low melting-pointrenders it unsuitable for fibre formation. Its homologure
polypropylene exists in various forms according to the disposition of the
substituent methyl groups; the isotactic polymers, in which these groups
are all attached on the same side of the main carbon chain, can be spun
and drawn into fibres. Catalysts promoting formation of isolactic
polymers were discovered by Zeigler, and the process was further
developed by Natta and others Polyproplene fibres and hydrophobic and
resist chemical attack, but they are not readily dyed. Certain disperse
dyes can be applied, but only pale and medium shades are obtainable.
Many methods have been described in the paten literature whereby the
fibre may be modified to confer affinity for acid or basic dyes. Side
chains carrying polar groups may be grafted to the main polymer chain,
or basic substances may be included in the melt from which the fibre is
spun. Much attention has been paid to a method whereby a compound of
59
a polyvalent metal such as nickel, zinc or aluminium is incorporated in
the fibre, which can then be dyed with metalisable dyes.
Polyurethane Fibres:
Several elastomeric fibres developed in America are based on
polymeric structures containing urethane (--NHCOO--) linkages. Full
details of the processes used are not available but complex cross-linked
polymers with rubber-like properties are obtained from polyesters or
polyethers containing terminal hydroxyl groups by means of a series of
reactions involving di-isocyanantes and diamines. Typical examples of
such fibres are Lycra (Du Pont) and Vyrene (U.S. Rubber Co.), which
are extensively used for foundation garments and swimsuits. These fibres
have advantages over rubber in strength, resistance to oxidation,
perspiration and cosmetic oils, also in whiteness and affinity for dyes.
They are readily dyed by acid, basic and disperse dyes, but fastness
properties are in general rather low.
Polyacrylonitrile Fibres:
The simplest, polyacrylonitrile fibres are straight polymers of
CH2-CH-
CN
n
acrylonitrile with structure where n varies from
600 to 2000. The first commercial fibre of this type was Orlon,
introduced by DuPont in 1948. It can be dyed by basic dyes or by acid
dyes in presence of copper sulphate. Various modified acrylic fibres
(often called ‘modacrylic’ fibres) are now obtained by copolymerising
acfrylonitrile with other substances, and dyeing properties are thereby
improved; Orlon as now manufactured is a copolymer, but the identity of
the second component has not been disclosed. Acrilan (Chemstrand
Corporation), Dynel (Union Carbide Corporation) and courtelle
(Courtaulds Ltd.) are other modified acrylic fibres. In general acid,
disperse, basic and vat dyes can be applied to these fibres, but acid dyes
are not recommended for Courtelle.
60
The older basic dyes often show better light fastness on acrylic
fibres than on natural fibres, but new basic dyes have been developed
with fastness properties on polyacrylonitrile that are fully compatible
with modern standards.
62
Reactive Dyes 5
A reactive dye, according to a useful definition by Rys and
Zollinger, is a coloured compound which has a suitable group enable of
forming a covalent bond between a carbon atom of a hydroxy, an amino
or a mercapto group respectively of the substrate. They point out that this
definition excludes mordant dyes and 1: 1 chromium azo dye complexes,
which are used in dyeing protein fibres, may form covalent bonds
between metal ion and nucleophilic groups of the fibre.
The idea that the establishment of a covalent bond between dye
and substrate would result in improved wash fastness compared with that
of ordinary dye-substrate systems where weaker forces were operative is
an old one. Attempts were made by various dye firm s from about 1906
onwards to achieve this aim but it was not until 1956 that the first
successful reactive dyes, the Procions, were introduced by ICI for the
dyeing and printing of cellulose fibres, following the work of Rattee and
Stephen from 1954 onwards. The invention consisted in the synthesis of
dyes containing a reactive group, the 2,4,6-dichlorotriazinylamino group
which has two labile chlorine atoms activated by the electron-
withdrawing action of the three N atoms, and the
Cl
C
H2N N
Dye N C CCl
H N
RO-
or
HO-
OR OR OH
C C C
H2N N H2N N H2N N
R=Cellulose residue
63
Devising of dyebath conditions, which, while bringing about the
formation of a covalent bond, were mild enough to avoid serious damage
to the fibre. The dyeings were carried out at ordinary temperatures,
‘fixation’ being brought about by the addition of sodium bicarbonate,
thus raising the pH. The reaction with cellulose may be represented as
nucleophilic substitution by the attaching species RO- or HO- where R =
cellulose moiety. Attach by HO-, derived from the water of the dyebath,
occurs simultaneously, but that of cellulose onion predominates since the
dye is absorbed by the cellulose fibres and dye-substrate reaction is
therefore facilitated. It is necessary to remove hydrolysed unfixed dye by
through soaping and washing otherwise inferior fastness to wet treatment
results. An example of a Procion M dye is the following:
Cl
C
N
SO3Na
OH HN C CCl
N=N N
NaO3S SO3Na
64
Cl
C
N
SO3Na
OH HN C CNH2
N=N N
NaO3S SO3Na
N N NaO3S SO3Na
C.
Cl
As the 1: 2 chromium complex, is claimed in B.P. 938 125 (ICI) to dye
cotton dark-green of excellent all round fastness. An example of a copper
phthalocyanine dichlorotriazinyl dhye is afforded by:
SO2.NMe
CuPC= (SO3H)2
SO2.NH
N
NH. C C . Cl
N N
C.
Cl
Which, according to B.P. 948 256 (ICI), dyes cotton a bright greenish-
blue of excellent fastness to wet treatments.
The blue monochlorotriazinyl dye.
O
SO3Na
HN
O
H N
NaO3S NC C OPh
N N
C.
Cl
66
B.P. 1230 722 (CGY) is said to have good light fastness and outstanding wet
fastness. Dyes stemming from sulphonyl chloride derivatives of copper
phthalocyanine by reaction with N- (β-hydroxyethyl) ethylenediamine,
followed by condensation with 2,4-dichloro-6-methoxy-3-triazine are
described in B.P. 1 227 538 (ICI).
It should be noted that improved fixation can be obtained by
introducing a second monochlorotriazinyl group into the reactive dye
molecule. Such dyes from the basis of the Procion Supra range of ICI.
Trichloropyrimidine dyes:
These are derived from tetrachloropyrimidine:
Cl
.
C4
N3 5 C.Cl
6
Cl .C 2 1 C.Cl
N
The electron-withdrawing properties of the two nitrogen atoms render
the chlorine atoms in position 2,4 and 6 labile; that in position 5 is
unreactive. The trichloropyrimidine dyes do not equal the
dichlorotriazines in reactivity and their fixation on the fibre requires
temperatures. The dyes themselves are stated to be less sensitive to
hydrolysis. Trichloropyrimidine dyes are marketed as Drimarenes
(S) and Reactones (Gy) and are the general structure.
67
The chloropyridazine systems:
O
Dye N C Cl
H SOLIDAZOL(FRAN)
Cl N
N
O
Cl
Dye N C
H N REATEX(FRAN)
N
Cl
Quinoxaline derivatives:
The use of various qu8inoxaline derivatives is covfred by B.P. 995
796 (Fby):
N
.X
=C
C .X
N=
SO3H SO3H
Cl.C
N
The acid chloride of the quinoxaline is condensed with the free amino
group at position 6 in the monoazo copper at 40oC and pH 6.5-7-0 under
which conditions neither chlorine atom undergoes hydrolysis. This class
of reactive dyes is marketed as the Levafix E range (Fby).
68
Chloroacetyl and bromoacetyl derivatives:
The Drimalan (S) dyes employ a – halogenoacetyl groups as
reactive centre and this group occures (along with monochlorotriazinyl
dyes) in the Cibalan Brilliant dyes (CIBA). In both cases the main
application is in wool dyeing. The principal has been applied to disperse
dyes as in B.P. 977 222 (S):
O O
NH2 NH2
Br2 in O - dichlorobenzene
NH NH
O O
CO.Me CO.CH2.Br
OH N=N
NH2 NH.CO
Br
HO3S SO3H
Vinylsulphone dyes:
The Removal (FH) dyes employ the vinylsulphone group as in
Dye.SO2 CH=CH2 or compounds giving the vinyl group on treatment
with alkali, i.e. under dyeing conditions:
Dye.SO2CH2.CH2OSO3Na+NaOH►Dye.SO2CH=CH2+Na2SO4+H2O
Or
Dye SO2 CH2 Cl+NaOH ► Dye.SO2CH=CH2+Na2.Cl+H2O
. . .
Acrylamide dyes:
The Primazin (BASF) dyes embody the acrylamide group –
. .
NH CO CH=CH2 or a precursor such as –NH.CO.CH2CH2OSO3Na. As with
the vinyl sulphones mechnism is primarily concerned with nucleophilic
addition. The Procilan dyes for wool (ICI) embody the acryloylamino group
attached to a 1: 2 nickel or cobalt azo complex. The Lanasol dyes (CGY)
have as reactive centre the a – bromoacryloylamino group – NHCOC=CH2.
71
COMMERCIAL POPULAR REACTIVE DYES
COLD DYEING BRANDS
72
HOT DYEING BRANDS
73
BIFUNCTIONAL DYES (SUMITOMO CHEMICALS JAPAN)
74
SUMITOMO CHEMICALS (OSAKA, JAPAN):
BI-FUNCTIONAL DYES:
1. SUMIFIX SUPRA YELLOW 3RF
2. SUMIFIX SUPRA RED 3BF
3. SUMIFIX SUPRA BLUE BRF
4. SUMIFIX SUPRA YELLOW EXF
5. SUMIFIX SUPRA RED EXF
6. SUMIFIX SUPRA BLUE EXF
7. SUMIFIX SUPRA YELLOW 3RS
8. SUMIFIX SUPRA RED 3BS
9. SUMIFIX SUPRA NAVY BLUE BS
10. SUMIFIX SUPRA NAVY BLUE BF
11. SUMIFIX SUPRA NAVY BLUE EXF
12. SUMIFIX SUPRA RED 2GF 125%
13. SUMIFIX SUPRA RED 3GF 150%
14. SUMIFIX SUPRA NAVY BLUE 3GF
15. SUMIFIX SUPRA RED BB 150%
16. SUMIFIX SUPRA YELLOW GN 150%
17. SUMIFIX SUPRA YELLOW GR 150%
18. SUMIFIX SUPRA YELLOW GL 150%
1. SUMIFIX HF YELLOW 3R
2. SUMIFIX HF RED 2B
3. SUMIFIX HF BLUE BG
4. SUMIFIX HF NAVY 2G
SUMIFIX VS DYES:
76
REFAFIX DYESTUFFS (KOREA) :
P.T.SINAR (INDONESIA):
77
MEGHMANI DYES & INTERMIDIATES (AHMEDABAD
INDIA):
1. REACTOBOND YELLOW XL
2. REACTOBOND RED XL
3. REACTOBOND RED XL3B
4. REACTOBOND BLUE XL
5. REACTOBOND NAVY BLUE XL
6. REACTOBOND BLACK XL
DYESTAR (GERMANY)
REMAZOL
1. GOLDEN YELLOW RGB
2. GOLDEN YELLOW RNL GRAIN 150%
3. RED RB GRAIN 133%
4. TURQ BLUE G 133%
5. BLACK B GRAIN 133%
6. DEEP BLACK N GRAIN 150%
7. BRILLIANT BLUE R SPL
8. YELLOW 3RS GRAIN 133%
9. NAVY GG GRAIN 133%
10. NAVY RGB GRAIN 150%
11. BRILLIANT BLUE RN GRAIN
12. BRILLIANT ORANGE 3R GRAIN
13. BRILLIANT RED 3BS GRAIN
14. BRILL VIOLET 5R
15. BRILL YELLOW GL GRAIN
16. RED RGB
17. DEEP RED RGB
18. YELLOW 3RS-A 150%
82
19. BRILL RED 3BS-A 150%
20. BLACK GSA
LEVAFIX:
1. ORANGE E3GA
2. BRILL RED E4BA GRAIN
3. BRILL YELLOW E3G GRAIN
4. YELLOW CA GRAIN
5. RED CA GRAIN
6. BLUE CA GRAIN
7. NAVY CA GRAIN
8. RUBINE CA GRAIN
EVERZOL ED-RANGE :
1. EVERZOL YELLOW ED
2. EVERZOL YELLOW EDR
3. EVERZOL YELLOW ED-2G
4. EVERZOL RED ED
5. EVERZOL RED ED 2B
6. EVERZOL RED ED-3B
7. EVERZOL BLUE ED
8. EVERZOL BLUE ED-G
9. EVERZOL NAVY ED
10. EVERZOL BLACK ED
11. EVERZOL BLACK ED-2R
12. EVERZOL RUBINE ED
13. EVERZOL ORANGE ED-2R
84
EVRZOL BF/VS DYES:
NEW RANGE:
K-DYES :
1. DRIMEREN RED K4BL
2. DRIMEREN BLUE K2RL
3. DRIMEREN TURQ BLUE K2B
4. DRIMEREN NAVY KGRL
5. DRIMEREN GOLDEN YELLOW K2RL
6. DRIMEREN ORANGE KGL
7. DRIMEREN ORANGE K3R
8. DRIMEREN ORANGE KR
9. DRIMEREN VIOLET K2R
10. DRIMEREN BLACK K3B
11. DRIMEREN YELLOW K2GLK 200%
12. DRIMEREN GREEN K5BL
CL-DYES:
1. REACTIVE YELLOW CL3G
2. REACTIVE YELLOW CL2R
3. REACTIVE ORANGE CL3B
4. REACTIVE RED CL5B
5. REACTIVE CL3BL
6. REACTIVE BLUE CLRL
7. REACTIVE TURQ BLUE CLB
8. REACTIVE BLUE CLR
86
Direct Dyes 6
The direct dyes, also known as the substantive colours, differ from
the basic and acid dyes because cellulosic fibres have a strong affinity for
them. Many of them will also dye the protein fibres and, as was
explained in the previous chapter, the majority is sulphonated azo
compounds very similar to the acid dyes in constitution, there being no
clear demarcation between the two classes. Selected substantive dyes can
be used to give solid shades on wool and cotton mixtures.
This was the first direct dye, and its discovery was quickly
followed by the preparation of many similar colours, opening a new era
in cotton dyeing. Before 1884 cellulosic fibres could only be dyed on a
mordant or by means of indigo and a limited number of other naturally
occurring vat dyes. Both of these methods were troublesome and
expensive. Cotton was made in large quantities in the last century for
markets where cheapness was a most important consideration. The direct
dyes were inexpensive and easy to apply and, although of indifferent
wet-fastness, their use spread with great rapidity because they fulfilled an
outstanding demand. New members with improved fastness are still
being added to this class.
SO3Na NaO3S
87
Was a bisazo compound prepared by coupling benzidine diazotized at
both amino groups with 2 molecules of naphthionic acid Diazo Brown
3RNA.CF (C.I. DIRECT BROWN 138), formula (3)
NH2 NH2
NH2
H2 N N N N N N N NH2
SO3Na
is a trisazo direct dye of comparatively simple structure and a polyazo or
tetrakis azo member of the class is Chlorazol Brown GM (C.I. DIRECT
BROWN 44), formula (4)
CH N=N- OH
CH
CH CH N=N- OH
NaO3S
(5) (6)
In 1887 Green prepared Primuline, formula (7), which was the fast of the
Thiazole direct dyes.
NaO3S
S
CH3 S NH2
C C
N
N
(7)
88
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO DYEING BEHAVIOUR
89
Class A
Dyes, which are self-levelling, i.e. dyes of good migration or
leveling properties.
Class B
Dyes which are not self-levelling, but which can be controlled by
addition of salt to give level results; they are described as salt
controllable.
Class C
Dyes which are not self-levelling and which are highly sensitive to
salt; the exhaustion of these dyes cannot adequately be controlled
by addition of salt alone and they require additonal control by
temperature; they are described as temperature controllable.
91
Disperse Dyes 7
Disperse dyes include water insoluble dyes which could applied
on synthetic fibres. The first disperse dyes were reported for cellulose
acetate rayon by British Celanese Corpn. in 1920. None of the other
classes of dyes had been good for dyeing cellulose acetate.
Some dyes were reported which did not possess the solubilizing
groups like SO3Na. These had been found to dye the cellulose acetate
from a water dispersion. Green and Sanders in 1923 prepared
temporarily solubilized dyes having –N–CH2SO3Na groups. These dyes
were sold as ionamines e.g., ionamine orange CB
C2H5
O2N N=N N
CH2SO3Na
This dye got hydrolysed in the dye-bath giving a finely divided
insoluble dye, which got dissolved in the fibre yielding a solid-sold
solution. These dyes lost the solubilising CH2SO3Na group on
hydrolysis. Several ionamine dyes had been marketed.
These dyes were later replaced by acetate dyes which were
aqueous disperse ions of insoluble dyes in a finely divided state (I to 4 u)
and could be able to dye the fibre from aqueous dispersion.
Several dye manufacturers produced these dyes, which were
named, disperse dyes by C.M. Whittaker in 1953. These dyes had been
dispersed by several techniques such as precipitation, milling with
surface-active agent, or milling with special kind of sand or glass. The
disperse dyes should possess a slight solubility in water for proper
dyeing. Dispersing agents are added to the dye to disallow aggregation
but to enhance solubility. Several kinds of dispersing agents like alkyl
sulphates, alkylaryl sulphonates. Fatty alcohol or amine+ethylene oxide
condensation products, naphthalene sulphonic acid+formaldehyde
condensation products, lignin sulphonate, etc. have been used with
disperse dyes.
92
Some of these dyes get sublimed during ironing. Hence a
sublimation fastness rating has to be introduced. Some of these dyes with
NH2, N-alkyl group are influenced by traces of nitrogen oxides in the
city atmosphere resulting in change of shade. Fastness to burnt gas
fumes provides rating of this capacity.
With the introduction of polyester fibres in 1950 there occurs the
rapid development in this field to make dyes suitable for polyester fibres
and several modifications have been carried out.
The dyeing could be carried out at about 100oC in presence of
emulsified aromatic compounds like biphenyl, o-phenylphenol, di and tri
chlorobenzene etc. The dyeing could be carried out of 130o in pressure
vessels. Some new methods evolved are thermofixation, solvent dyeing
and transfer printing. The chemical constitution of many of the disperse
dyes is unknown. However, most of the disperse dyes belong to azo and
anthraquine one class which will be described in the following pages.
Azo Dyes:
The monoazo disperse dyes have been reported to give almost a
complete range of shades. These dyes are largely used for cellulose
acetate (CA) and polyester (PE) fibres and their blends with cotton,
polyamides (PA), polyacrylonitriles (PAN) and cellulose triacetate
(CTA).
The CA dyes were mostly dyed red and yellow shades. They possess
simple structures e.g. cibacet yellow GBA, C.I. disperse yellow 3, 11855.
HO
H3CCOHN N=N
CH3
C2H5
O2N N=N N
C2H4OH
93
This dye is having lightfastness 5 but possesses poor sublimation
fastness. Its chloro derivative possesses higher light fastness.
Cibacet diazo black B disperse black 2, 11255 is having following
structure. It is applied to CA, then diazotised on the fibre coupled with 2,
3 hydroxy naphthaote to yield a good black:
H3C
OCH3
Manhy of these dyes are obtained from 4-aminophenylazobenzene
substituted in various positions. The substitution of Br, Cl, NO2 and CN
provides bathochromic shift i.e., the colour of dye moves from red to
blue end of spectrum. It is possible to intensify colours by substitution
on the nucleus as well as on the nitrogen. In the following example
substitution of R1, R2 and R3 by electron withdrawing groups causes
batho-chromic shift:
R3
C2H5
R2 N=N N
C2H4OCOC2H5
R1
The dye BP 1351382 has been a bluish green dye for PE. Its structure is
as follows:
NO2 OCH3
N=N N
S
H3CCO C2H6OCOC2H6
H3CCOHN
94
Another example of blue dye for PE is RP 1370034 whose structure is as
follows:
CN
CH3CH2OCH3
O2N N=N N
CH3CH2OCH3
BrH3CCOHN
For polyester fibres most of the cellulose acetate dyes could not be used
due to poor fastness to sublimation. As the PE dyes are fixed at high
temperatures, these dyes get sublimed to a large extent. Structural
variations are being made to make more complex dye molecules having
improved fastness for PE fibres. The following example provides the
structure of a dye molecule and effect of some substitutents of fastness
properties:
CH2CH2R1
O2N N=N N
CH2CH2R2
Cl
R1= H H OH OCOCH3 CN
R2 = OH H CN CN CN
Light
fastness 3 3.5 4.5 7 7
thermo
fixation 2.5 1.5 4 4 4.5
fastness
The cyanoethyl group tends to improve both light and thermo fixation
fastness properties. The sublimation fastness has been improved by
introducing acetylamino group in 3-position of coupling component.
The disazo dyes find use in dyeing CTA and PE fibres. The
following examples are from patents BP 1171803 Orange PE, and B.P.
1805326 Navy, P. E.
95
N=N N=N-C-C-CH3
CN
B.P.1171803 ORANGE PE OH
OCH3
C2H4OCOCH3
NO2 N=N N=N N
C2H4OCOCH3
Cl OCH3
NHSO3CH3
B.P.1805326 NAVY PE
OCH3
O HO O NH2
DURANOL RED 2B
CELLITON FAST PINK FF 3B
OCH3
O O
NHCH3CH2OH N
H CH2CH2OH
O NHCH3CH2OH
OH
1, 3, 5, 8-tetra anthraquinone is also a CA dye Disperse Blue 1 60710.
This 4-amino dye on partial methylation with methanol and sulphuric
acid provides Celliton Blue Extra C. I. Disperse Blue 31.
Many other anthraquinone dyes for PE fibres have been developed. For
example, F.P. 1345377.
H
H2N O O
OR
R=H , ALKYL
NH2 or COCH3
O O
O NH2
C=X
X=O or NH
N-R
R= ALKYLE,ALKYL ARYL
HYDROXY ALKYLE or cyano
C=X alkyle group
O NH2
97
By introducing phenoxy and other derivatives in 2-position of 1-amino 4-
hydroxyanthraquinone, it becomes possible to improve thermofixation
fastness.
O NH2
R could be O OH
O O
H
OH
OCH2CH2OCH3
O O O Cl
O SO3NHCH2CH2OC2H5
O SCH3 ,
NO2
CH2CH2CH3
NH SO2 N
CH2CH2CH3
98
Methine or Styryl Dyes:
Methine dyes provide yellow shades e.g., Celliton Fast Yellow 76,
C.I. Disperse Yellow 31, 48000. It has excellent fastness properties. It is
obtained by condensing 4-(N-n-butyl-N-chloroethyl amino)-benzaldehyde
with ethylcyanoacetate.
COOC2H5 COOC2H5
C2H4Cl C2H4Cl
N CHO+CH2CN N CH=C-CN
n-H9C4 n-H9C4
HC
N
C
Cl
O
Cl
SO2C6H5
OH O
C
N
C
O
Naphthostyril dyes provide yellow orange shades. They are obtained
from naphtho-styril by condensing with aniline derivatives e.g.,
99
HN CO
HN C N NO2
Coumarin Dyes:
These dyes are used for polyester fibres and give flurescent yellow
shade. A dye is obtained by condensing N, N-diethylamino-2-hydroxy-
benzaldehyde and 2-cyanomethyl benzothiazole in a mixture of acetic
acid and dimethy formamide.
CHO N
24 HOURS
+ H2C-C
C2H5 25 C
S
OH NC
N
C2H5
N
C5H2
S
N NH
C5H2
FORMAZINE DYES
These give blue disperse dyes which are suitable for nylon
O O
Ni
N C
N N
C
Benzene ring has substituents such as
CN NHCOCH3,SO2R,SO2NR1,R2
100
Vat Dyes 8
The term vat dyes relates to dyes of any chemical class that are
applied by the vat process. The dyes are insoluble in water and cannot be
used directly for dyeing, but on reduction to a leuco form they become
soluble in presence of an alkali and acquire affinity for cellulosic fibres;
a solution of a leuco compound can be applied by dyeing or printing and
on reoxidation (usually be exposure to air) the original insoluble dye is
formed witghin the structure of the fibre. A final treatment with hot soap
or other detergent brings about aggregation or crystallization so that the
particles of pigment become firmly fixed and the shade is fully
developed.
One of the earliest vat dyes was indigo, which has been used in
India from time immemorial. Another was Tyrian purple, obtained in
Mediterranean countries from certain shell-fish, and known at the time of
Moses. It may be conjectured that the vat process was developed as a
result of observation of the effect of accidental fermentation on these
natural dyes, the colour being destroyed by reduction during the process
but restored on exposure to air. The name leuco compound (Greek ------
White) is somewhat misleading, since although indigoid reduction
products are usually colourless they are applied as sodium salts which
are yellow, and in the anthraquinone series the reduction products are
coloured (but usually differing in hue from the oxidised dyes). All vat
dyes contain a quinonoid system based on carbonyl groups, and in the
vatting operation these are reduced to C-OH; since an alkaline
medium is used salts of the type C- O Na are formed. On reduction
anthraquinone forms a series of products, and vat dyes containing several
anthraquinone residuces give rise to still more complex series. In the
preparation of a vat reduction proceeds only to the hydroquinone stage,
and in complex dyes it may be unnecessary to reduce all of the keto
groups present.
All vat dyes can be applied to cellulosic fibres, and some of them
also to wool, silk, nylon and acetate fibres. The need for alkaline
101
application restricts their use on wool and acetate fibres, and in the case
of many anthraquinjone dyes the necessary conditions are unduly severe.
Protective agents such as glue are customarily used to minimise damage
to wool. Most vat dyes have low affinity for nylon, and on that fibre their
fastness to light is often lower than on wool. Dye of high molecular
weight cannot usually be applied satisfactorily to acetate fibre. Air
oxidation of leuco compounds is sometimes augmented by the used of
acid dichromate, especially if the goods are in the form of loose cotton,
cops, cheeses or pieces dyed on a ‘jigger’, when access of air is
restricted. An aftertreatment with soap or another detergent is necessary
for removal of loose pigment and promotion of crystallinity; it often
results in a marked change in shade and improvement in fastness
properties.
Some important vat dyes representing the chief chemical classes
will now be described.
Indigoid Dyes:
Indigo
Many plants of the genus Indigofera have been cultivated for
production of indigo in India, China, Japan, Central America, West
Indies, Brazil, South and Central Africa, Madagascar, Java and the
Philippine Islands. The colouring principle is present as a glucoside of
indoxyl known as indican, and this was hydrolysed to free indoxyl by
enzyme action; indigo (also known as indigotin) was obtained by
oxidation of indoxyl:
O H
O
C C N
CH2 + O2 C=C + 2 H2O
N C
N O
H H
INDOXYL INDIGO
NaOH +H2O
O
C fusion with
CH2
NaNH2 + NaOH+KOH NHCH2COONa + NH3
N
H
OXIDATION
O H
C N
C= C
N C
H O
INDIGO
H
C N
C-C
N C
H
NaO3SO
104
under the name Indigosol O; equivalents are now made by many other
firms and sold under different names. Indigosol O was originally
obtained by treating leuco indigo in pyridine solution with
chlorosulphonic acid, and converting the disulphuric ester into its
disodium salt. An improved process was later discovered by Morton
Sundour Fabrics Ltd., whereby unreduced vat dyues, including indigo
and its derivatives, are treated with sulphur trioxide, chlorosulphonic
acid or methyl chlorosulphonate in presence of pyridine and a metal such
as copper, iron or zinc; an intermediate compound of the type
C OSO3 Cu.C5H5N
is formed, and on reaction with caustic soda the disodium salt of the
disulphuric Easter is obtained.
Indigosol O is readily soluble in water, has affinity for cellulose
and can be rapidly and quantitatively oxidised on the fibre with
formation of indigo. Since the affinity is somewhat low and the cost
relatively high this product is used mainly for pale shades; it is also
especially suitable for wool since it has good affinity for that fibre and
can be applied from a weakly acid bath. Development of dyed cellulose
or wool is carried out either by means of sodium nitrite (often added to
the dyebath) followed by acid treatment, or by an aftertreatment with
acid dichromate. Indigosol O can be applied to acetate fibre from a
strongly acid bath and developed by the nitrite method.
Although indigo has only moderately good fastness to light
(approximately grade 4 on cotton, or 4–5 on wool) it has a great
advantage over many other dyes in that as fading proceeds there is little
or no change in hue.
105
Thioindigoid Dyes:
Thioindigoid dye is analogues of indigo and its derivatives in
which the two – NH – groups are replaced by sulphur atoms. The first of
these, Thioindigo Red, was discovered by Friedlander in 1906.
C S
C=C
S C
O
As indicated by its name, this dye gives bluish red shades. Derivatives
with a very much wider range of shades than those available in the
indigoid series can be obtained by suitable substitution. The effect of
substituents may be either hypsochromic or bathochromic, and examples
quoted later included dyes giving orange, red, violet and brown shades.
The dyes have good fasgtness properties, and on account of their
versatility they have surpassed those of the indigoid class (except indigo
itself) in importnce. It will be seen from the following account of their
manufacture, however, that the processes required are somewhat
complex, and the resulting high cost has caused these dyes to lose favour
as cheaper products with comparable fastness properties have been
introduced.
It is not practicable to include a full account of the chemistry of
the thioindigoid dyes here, but the following examples illustrate two of
the more important industrial processes.
Example of such dyes is illustrated below. CI Vat Blue 8 (CI
73800) gives blue or heavy shades, and is applied to cellulosic fibres, silk
and wool.
Me
O O
C Cl
=C
N
H
OMe
CI VAT BLUE 8
106
CI Vat Red 45 (CI 738690) gives bright scarlet shades, and is applied to
cellulosic fibres, also to wool.
O
C
C =C
S
CO
CI VAT RED 45
Indanthren Printing Black B (FH) (CI Vat Black 2; CI 73830) is
manufactured by a condensation of a different type. Isatin a-anilide
reacts with 4-hydroxy-10-methylbenzo [a ] carbazole in presence of
acetic anhydride and formic acid with elimination of aniline to yield the
dye with structure (98). It is applied to cellulosic fibres by printing
processes to give bluish gray or bluish black shades. This dye is of little
interest for application by dyeing methods.
N O O
C
H
Me C
N
H
O
NH
NH O
Indanthren (the name being derived from Indigo and anthracene), and
later it was marketed by BASF as Indanthren Blue R. It will be seen that
the dye is a dihydrodianthraquinlonylazine, and it was later given the
chemical name indanthrone, thereby avoiding the trade name and at the
same time indicating the quinonoid structure.
The excellent fastness properties of Indanthren blue R encouraged
further research, and many other vat dyes were developed and sold as
108
memebers of the Indanthren range. Other makers have marketed
comparable products under their own brand names; these include the
Algol (Fby), Alizanthrene (ICI) (British Alizarine Co., later ICI), Calcoid
(ACY), and Caledon (ICI, Carbanthrene (NAC), Cibanone (CIBA),
Paradone (LBH), Ponsol (DuP), Sandothrene (S), and Tinon (Gy) ranges
of vat dyes
109
Sulphur Dyes 9
Although dyes of the sulphur class are used in substantial
quantities, there appears to be no justification for providing more than a
brief description here. In spite of their long history little known about the
chemical structure of these dyes. In recent years their importance has
declined, and little needs to be added to the excellent years their
importance has declined, and little needs to be added to be added to the
excellent accounts published during the period 1950 – 1958.
The first commercial sulphur dye was made in France by
Croissant and Bretonniere in 1873. These workers prepared brown dyes
for cotton by heating a variety of organic materials of animal or
vegetable origin with aqueous sodium sulphide or polysulphide. They
also used slightly more complex processes in which the initial products
were baked at temperatures above 200oC; the shade obtained could often
be varied by adjusting the temperature and duration heating. Of the many
dyes examined the only one that attained importance was Cachou de
Laval, obtained by heating sawdust with sodium sulphide. It was
manufactured by several firms for many years, and is still included in the
Color Index (CI Sulphur Brown 1; CI 53000). It may be applied to cotton
from a sodium sulphide bath and fixed on the fibre by aftertreatment with
aqueous potassium dichromate; the resulting shades vary from yellowish
brown to brownish olive.
It was not until 1893 that a sulphur dye was made from
intermediates of known structure. The sulphurisation process was then
applied by Vidal to a great variety of organic substances, and dyes were
obtained that could be fixed on cotton by oxidation. The most important
of these was Vidal Black (CI Sulphur Black 3; CI 53180), obtained from
p-aminophenol or p-phenylenediamine by means of a sullphur melt. In
1897 a better black sulphur dye was manufactured by heating 4-gydroxy-
2’,4. –dinitrodiphenylamine with sodium polysulphide, and this was
marketed by Cassella as Immedial Black V (CI sulphur Black 9; CI
53230). Two years later a further improvement was obtained sulphurisation
110
of the cheap intermediate 2,4-dinitrophenol, and the resulting dye was
produced by AGFA as Sulophur Black T (CI Sulphur Black 1;CI 53185).
Many equivalent products were made by other firms, and the dye is still
of importance. It gives blacks of good fastness to washing and light.
During the years 1897-1902 a great deal of experimental work was
carried out on sulphur dyes, and every available intermediate was
subjected to sulphurisatic. This work led to an extensive patent literature
and the manufacture of many competing ranges of dyes. An almost
complete range of shades was produced, lacking a true red, however.
After 1902 the rate of expansion of this field slackened, but the
occasional introduction of new dyes continued until in 1950s. Table 9.1
gives details of some of the more important sulphur dyes.
Since so little is known of their structures, sulphur dyes are
usually classified according to the chemistry of their starting materials.
The manufacturing processes are chiefly of three types:
111
N S
N
N
S S
1
2
3
N O
113
Ready-reduced and Solubilised Sulphur Dyes:
Many sulphur dyes have been manufactured in a reduced or partly
reduced from and supplied either as solutions or powders, which easily
dissolve in the dyebath with a small amount of sodium sulphide.
Sulphur dyes are also solubilised in the unreduced state by
introducing thisulphonic acid groups, and the resulting derivatives give
clear stable aqueous solutions. They lack substantivity for cellulose until
they have been reduced, but show advantages in freedom from insoluble
matter (especially important in package dyeing), By application of such
products to the fibre from a sodium sulphide bath and exposure to air
dyeings are obtained with the same properties are those of the
corresponding conventional sulphur dyes.
Recent Developments
The Inthion (FH) and Dykolite (Southern Dyestuff Co.) ranges are
sometimes regarded as sulphur dyes, but as their properties differ in
several respects from those of sulphur dyes they are treated separately.
114
Table 9.1 : Examples of Important Commercial Sulphur Dyes
CI Generic CI Consti- Commerci Intermediates Outline of
tution No. al Name Manjufracturing
Process
CI Sulphur CI 53120 Eclipse N,N – Heat with
Yellow 2 Yellow G Diformyl-m- sulphur at 140o
(Gy) tolylene- – 150o C and
diamine rise during 15
+benezidine hr. to 218o –
220o C (ref. 3)
CI Sulphur CI 53160 Immedial 2-(p-Amino- Heat with
Yellow 4 Yellow pheny)-6 sulphur at 190o
GG met6hylbenz – 220o C then
(Cassella) o- thiazole + reflux with aq.
benezidine NaOH and
oxidise with air.
(ref.4)
CI Sulphur CI 53050 Immedial m-Tolylene- Heat with
Orange 1 Orange C diamine sulphur at 215o-
Extra 220o C then
(Cassella) treat with NaOH
(ref. 5)
CI Sulphur CI 53720 Immedial 3-Amino-2- Heat with
Red 6 Red methyl-6- sodium
Brown hydroxy- polysulphide at
3B Extra phonazine 115o – 116o C
(Cassella) (ref. 6)
CI Sulphur CI 53440 Immedial 4-Amino-4 – Heat with aq.
Blue 7 Indone hydroxy-3- Sodium poly-
RR Extra methyldi- sulphide at106o
(Cassella) phenylamine – 112o C, then
oxidise with air
(ref. 7)
CI Sulphur CI 53570 Thional 8- Reflux with aq.
Green 3 Brilliant Phenylamino Sodium poly-
Green 3G - 5-p- sulphide in
(S) hydroxy- presence of
115
phenylamino CuSO4, then
-naphthalene- oxidise with air
1-sulphonic (ref. 8)
acid
CI Sulphur CI 53055 Immedial m-Tolyene- Heat with
Brown 10 Yellow diamine sulphur at 210o
Brown G rising to 250oC.
(Cassella) Dissolve the
product in eq.
Na2S + NaOH,
heat at 240o and
evaporate (ref.
9)
CI Sulphur CI 53185 Immedial 2,4- Heat with eq.
Black 1 Black AT Dinitropheno Sodium poly-
(Cassella) l or 2,4- sulphide under
and many dichloronitro reflux (110o –
other -benzene 120o C), dillute
brands and oxidise with
air (ref. 10)
116
Acid (Anionic) Dyes
10
The most common fiber types to be dyed with acid dyes are
polyamide, wool, silk, modified acrylic, and polypropylene fibres as well
as blends of the aforementioned fibres with other fibres, such as cotton,
rayon, polyester, regular acrylic, etc. Approximately 80-85% of all acid
dyes sold to the U.S. textile industry are used for dyeing nylon, 10-15%
for wool and the balance for those fibres mentioned above. Acid dyes are
organic sulfonic acids; the commercially available forms are usually their
sodium salts, which exhibit good water solubility.
According to their structure, acid dyes belong to the following
chemical groups: azo; anthraquinone; triphenylmethane; pyrazolone;
azine; nitro; and quinoline. Azo dyes represent the largest and most
important group and are followed by antraquinone and traylmethane
dyes. Of the other dye groups, very few products are of any commercial
value.
(2) These are the neutral-dyeing acid dyestuffs. They are also
monosulfonated and are very similar in their leveling, migration,
and coverage of barre properties to group 1; however, because of
117
their chemical structure (larger molecular size), these dyes exhibit
superior wetfastness properties. Since these dyestuffs have
excellent neutral affinity and good build up properties, they are
suited especially for dyeing of medium to heavy shades. CI Acid
Yellow 159 and CI Acid Red 299 are typical dyes of this class.
(3) These are the milling type acid dyes. They are disulfonated dyes
and provide dyeing with highest wetfastness properties. The
leveling and migration properties of these products are much
inferior than those of the monosulfonated dyes in groups 1 and2.
Coverage of barre is also very poor. CI Acid Yellow 79 is an
example of this groups. It is obvious that there are no acid dyes
that combine all desirable properties. Those which offer the
excellent dyeing characteristics such as good leveling, migration
and coverage of barre, have only marginal wetfastness properties;
those that provide high wetfastness do not level very well. The
dyes in group 2 represent the best compromise. When the fabric is
aftertreated with a synthetic aftertreating agent, wetfastness – in
most instances – will be equal or similar to dyeings obtained from
milling dyes.
(4) These are the premetallized dyes which also include mono-and
disulfonated types. Premetallized dyes exhibit are rather high
dyeing strike rate even at pH values of 7-8 and, therefore, are
extremely difficult to dye level. Their wetfastness properties are
either comparable or superior to milling-type acid dyes. CI Acid
Yellow 151 is a representative of this group.
Dyeing Process:
The two major polyamide types commercially available today are
nylon 6 and nylon 66. Nylon 6 represents a polycondensate of
caprolactam, and nylon 66 is a polycondensation product of two
individual components, adipic acid and hexamethylendiamine. Both fibre
types are very receptive to acid dyes under certain conditions.
(a) Dyes are selected according to the intended use of the fabric to be
dyed. The needed fastness properties and / or dyeing characteristics
determine whether mono or disulfonated acid dyes are used. It is
not advisable to mix these two dyestuff types in a given
formulation, especially not in medium to heavy shades. The
monosulfonated dyes exhaust more rapidly and block the
disulfonated dye from exhausting into the fibre, especially if the
depth of shade is close to the saturation point of the fibre. At
tention also has to be paid to the K value of the individual dyes
within a combination. K values give the dyer an indication of the
sequence in which the dyes of a combination will exhaust onto the
fibre. Since it is most desirable to use on-tone exhausting
combination, the K value of acid dyes in a formulation should not
differ by more than + 0.5-1.0 unit.
(b) When a polyamide is dyed with acid dyes, dyeing assistants are
usually employed. They can fulfill three functions: increase the
leveling and migration properties of acid dyes, help to cover barre,
and improve the compatibility of acid dyes in combinations.
Anionic products show a relatively high affinity for the nylon fibre
at temperatures below the boil and temporarily block dyesites, slowing
down the exhaustion of the dyes and thereby helping to achieve a level
dyeing.
119
Nonionic anionic auxiliaries not only show affinity for the fibre,
but also form complexes with dyes. In this way, they slow down the
exhaustion process and also achieve level dyeing by affecting the
compatibility of the dyes. By proper use of such auxiliaries, normally
incompatible combinations (dyes with substantially different K values)
can become compatible (similar K values, i.e., compatible in presence of
the auxiliary).
(d) The dyeing temperature for dyeing polyamide fibres with acid
dyes should be as close to the boil as possible. The higher the final
temperature is, the better are the chances of obtaining a good
dyeing, since the temperature has a great influence on the leveling
and migration properties of acid dyes. Best results in leveling out
fault lots are obtained if the goods are treated at elevated
temperatures of 105-110o C.
120
(e) The dyeing time represents a considerable cost factor in any
process and should be as short as possible without jeopardizing the
quality of the dyeing. Common practice is to sample after 40-45
min at the boil. If dyed under optimum conditions, the dyeing
time at the boil is reduced to 10-20 min.
(1) When dyeing raw stock or top the levelness of dyeing is of minor
importance, but the highest possible wetfastness properties for
further processing are required. This does not mean than unlevel
dyeings will be accepted, but that a certain shade variation in the
dyeings can be counter balanced during the blending processes.
According to the requirements for the manufacturing processes,
dye classes with highest wet-fastness premetallized and milling
colours.
(2) For yarn dyeing, the dye selection is governed mainly by the end –
use of the material. However, the subsequent manufacturing
processes influence the selection of dyes as far as fastness
properties are concerned.
(3) For dyeing on piece goods, the performance of the dyes in the
dyebath is very important because a level-dyed piece of fabric is
required above all other aspects. The dye selection for piece
dyeing is, therefore, based on the performance of the dyes as well
as on the fastness requirements for the specific end-uses.
123
Basic (Cationic Dyes)
11
The first basic dye, mauve, was synthesized by Perkins in 1856;
and shortly afterward fuchsine, methyl violet, aniline blue, and other
classical basic dyes were developed. For years these dyestuffs were
primarily used for dyeing brilliant shades on silk and cellulosic fibres
that had been treated with a mordant; however, usage of cationic dyes for
these fibres was limited due to very poor washfastness and lightfastness.
Basic dyes did not achieve prominence until the polyacrylonitrile fibres
were introduced in the early 1950s. Initially, acrylic fibres were very
difficult to dye and, until acidic groups were incorporated as dye sites in
the fiber, basic dyestuffs were of little interest. Cationic dyes are
currently used in large quantities to dye acrylics (Orlon, Acrilan, Creslan,
Zefran) and modified acrylics (Verel). Subsequent developments led to
the introduction of acidic groups to polyester and polyamide fibres,
further increasing the market for these dyes.
126
Banned Amines
12
Q.1 What are banned amines?
Banned amines are the chemicals which are released from some of the
azo dyes on reductive clevage.
The Government has also evolved eco standards for the eco labeling
of the textile items in consultation with the Indian Textile Trade and
Industry. The criteria for the environmentally friendly textiles including
Cotton, Woolen, Man-made, Jute and Silk products were notified in the
Gazette on October 8, 1996 by Ministry of Environment and Forests. The
eco labeling of textiles notified in the Gazette is a voluntary scheme.
This scheme aims at distinguishing through the agency of Eco-Mark, any
product which is made, used or disposed of in a way that significantly
reduces the adverse effect; it would otherwise have on the environment.
The Earthen Pot is being used as the logo of this scheme.
129
S.# Eco Parameter Criteria/Norms stipulated in ppm
M.S.T OTN Clean Steil- COMIT- Indian
100 Fashion mann EXTIL Eco
Label
Formaldehyde 20 20 50 20 20
(i) Baby Clothing 20 75 75 300 75 75
(ii) Close to skin 75 300 300 500 300 300
(iii) Outer wear 300
131
Q5. State the list of dyes banned by Government?
133
6 Acid Red 114 23635
7 Acid Red 115 27200
8 Acid Red 116 26660
9 Acid Red 128 24125
10 Acid Red 148 26665
11 Acid Red 150 27190
12 Acid Red 158 20530
13 Acid Red 167 --
14 Acid Red 264 18133
15 Acid Red 265 18129
16 Acid Red 420 --
17 Acid Voilet 12 18075
18 Acid Brown 415 --
19 Acid Black 131 --
20 Acid Black 132 --
21 Acid Black 209 --
22 Basic Red 111 --
23 Basic Red 42 --
24 Basic Brown 4 21010
25 Developer 14 = Oxidation Base 20 76035
26 Direct Yellow 48 23660
27 Direct Orange 6 23375
28 Direct Orange 7 23380
29 Direct Orange 10 23370
30 Direct Orange 108 29173
31 Direct Red 2 23500
32 Direct Red 7 24100
33 Direct Red 21 23560
34 Direct Red 22 23565
35 Direct Red 24 29185
36 Direct Red 26 29190
37 Direct Red 39 23630
38 Direct Red 46 23050
39 Direct Red 62 29175
40 Direct Red 67 23505
134
41 Direct Red 72 29200
42 Direct Violet 21 23520
43 Direct Blue 1 24410
44 Direct Blue 3 23705
45 Direct Blue 8 24140
46 Direct Blue 9 24155
47 Direct Blue 10 24340
48 Direct Blue 14 23850
49 Direct Blue 15 24400
50 Direct Blue 22 24280
51 Direct Blue 25 23790
52 Direct Blue 35 24145
53 Direct Blue 53 23860
54 Direct Blue 76 24411
55 Direct Blue 151 24175
56 Direct Blue 160 --
57 Direct Blue 173 --
58 Direct Blue 192 --
59 Direct Blue 201 --
60 Direct Blue 215 24115
61 Direct Blue 295 23820
62 Direct Green 85 30387
63 Direct Blue 222 30368
64 Direct Black 91 30400
65 Direct Black 154 --
66 Disperse Yellow 7 26090
67 Disperse Yellow 23 26070
68 Disperse Yellow 56 --
69 Disperse Orange 149 --
70 Disperse Red 151 26130
135
ECOMARK CRITERIA FOR TEXTILES
1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS:
1.1 The entire textile products manufactured shall meet relevant
standards of Bureau of Indian Standards.
1.2 The product manufacturer must produce the consent clearance
as per the provisions of Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act 1974 and Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act 1981, Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 respectively, along with the
authorisation, if required under Environment (Protection) Act,
1986 and the rules made thereunder to BIS while applying for
Ecomark. Additionally, the manufacturer shall produce
documentary evidence on compliance of the provisions related
to noise level and occupational health under the provisions of
Factories Act, 1948 and Rules made thereunder.
1.3 The product packaging may display in brief the criteria based
on which the product has been labelled environment friendly.
1.4 The material used for product packaging shall be reusable or
made from recyclable or biodegradable materials.
1.5 Polyhalogenated based phenolic fire retardants shall not be
used.
*** The list of Coupled Amines released from Azo dyes is appended as
Appendix-B.
137
B. JUTE AND JUTE PRODUCTS
S. # Parameters* Max. Limit, mg/kg
Home Hessians &
Textiles Sockings
&
Clothing
1 2 3 4
1. Free and Releasable
Formaldehyde
Close to skin 75 NA
Outer Fabrics 300 NA
2. Extractable artificial
sweat/salvia
Heavy Metals
Mercury 0.1 NA
Chromium III 0.1 NA
Chromium VI Nil NA
(Below
detectable
limit)
Sum parameters(as lead) 10.0 NA
3. Non-halogenated NA 3%
Hydrocarbon
4. Fatty esters based oil 2% NA
5. Pesticides (Sum 1.0 1.0
Parameter)**
Banned Pesticides Nil Nil
(Below
detectable
limit)
6. PH of aqueous extract 6.0-7.0 6.0-7.0
7. Coupled amines released 50 50
from Azo-dyes (Sum (Detectable
parameters)*** limit using
GC-MS)
138
* The methods of tests for Eco-parameters are being developed by BIS
and Textiles Committee. Till the methods of test are standardised, the
manufacturer shall declare conformance taking into consideration the
chemicals, auxiliaries and dyes used.
* BIS and Textiles Committee are developing the methods of tests for
Eco-parameters. Till the methods of test are standardised, the
manufacturer shall declare conformance taking into consideration the
chemicals, auxiliaries and dyes used.
*** The list of Coupled Amines released from Azo dyes is appended as
Appendix-B.
APPENDIX-A
Herbicides:
Alachlor, Diuron, Fluchlosalin, Monosodium methanearsonate
(MSMA), Paraquat Dichloride, Trifluralin.
Fungicides:
Carbendazim, Cuprous oxide, Streptomycin & Oxytetracycline,
Thiram.
Insecticides:
Acephate, BHC, Carbaryl, Carbofuran, Chlorpyriphos, Cypermethrin,
Decamethrin, Dicofol, Diflubenzuron, Dimenthoate, Endosulfan,
Fenitrothion, Fenthion, Fenvalerate, Fluvalinate, Lindane,
140
Malathion, Methyl parathion, Monocrotophos, Nicotine sulphate,
Oxydemeton methyl, Permethrin, Phenthoate, Phorate, Phosalone,
Phosphamidon, Pyrethrum, Quinalphos, Alphamethrin, Methomyl,
Triazophos, Cartap hydrochloride, Neem based products,
Carbosulfan (for cotton seed), Fenpropathrin, Bacillus
thuringensis.
HERBICIDES: Dalapon
FUNGICIDES: Carbendazim
INSECTICIDES: Dichlorvos
FUNGICIDES: Carbendazim
DITHIANON:
Extract from list of pesticides not approved, restricted use,
withdrawn or banned in the country as on 10.04.1992.
APPENDIX-B
Coupled Amines released from Azo dyes
1. 4-Aminodiphenyl
2. 2-Amino-1-nitrotoluene
3. Benzidine
4. 4-Chloro-o-toluidine
5. 2-Naphthylamine
6. O-Aminoazotoluene
7. p-Chloraniline
8. 2, 4’-Diaminoanisole
9. 4, 4’-Diaminodiphenylmethane
10. 3, 3’-Dichlorobenzidine
11. 3, 3’-Dimethoxy-benzidine
12. 3, 3’-Dimethylbenzidine
13. 3, 3’-Dimethyl-4, 4’-diaminodiphenylmethane
14. P-kresidin (2-Methoxy 5-methylaniline)
15. 4, 4’-Methylene-bis-(2-chloraniline)
16. 4, 4’-Oxydianiline
17. 4, 4’-Thiodianiline
18. 0-Toluidine
19. 2, 4-Toluyendiamine
20. 2, 4, 5-Trimethylaniline
21. p-Amino-azobenzene
22. 2-Methoxyaniline
142
Fastnes Properties of Dyes
13
In an age of consumer activism and increasing international trade,
test methods and procedures assume more and more importance.
Generally accepted tests, instruments, and standards provide a
common basis for the evaluation of quality aspects of dyed textiles.
In the development of text methods, an attempt is made to make
them broad in scope and related to actual process in use. Such tests are
generally of an accelerated nature, i.e., they reveal the fastness properties
exhibited by the material over a lengthy period of time in a test of short
duration.
Fastness of dyed textiles is evaluated in regard to natural
destructive agents, such as daylight, weather, and atmospheric gases, as
well as to various treatments the material is likely to undergo, such as
washing, drycleaning, ironing, steaming, etc.
The international body active in test method development is the
ISO (International Standards Organization). Fastness tests for dyed
textiles fall under the jurisdiction of ISO Technical Committee 38
Textiles / Subcommittee 1 “Tests for Coloured Textiles and Colorants.”
The United States is represented in ISO through the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). In the field of interest here, ANSI relies on
the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colourists (AATCC)
for test development and expert guidance. The AATCC currently has 15
active research committees concerned with colourfastness properties.
The purpose of these Organizations in this area is solely to provide
useful test methods. The setting of specifications on the basis of such test
methods is a matter to be resolved between buyer and seller.
COLOURFASTNESS:
Described below are the essential features of generally accepted
tests (from the AATCC 1976 Technical Manual) used in evaluating
fastness proper;ties of dyed, printed or otherwise colored textiles. For
143
complete details and for sources of the specialized materials and
equipment used in some of these test procedures, reference should be
made to the current AATCC Technical Manual.
Procedure:
Acid tests: (1) The coloured material is spotted with hydrochloric
acid solution (100 ml 35 wt % HCI soin) at 21o C and allowed to
dry at room temperature without rinsing; and (2) The coloured
material is spotted 56% acetic acid and allowed to dry at room
temperature without rinsing.
144
Colourfastness to Bleaching with Chlorine (AATCC 3-1975) ANSI L
14.57-1973/R 1963):
This test method is used to determine the effect of sodium
hypochlorite containing up to 0.3% available chlorine on dyed or printed
cotton or linen textiles.
Procedure:
The specimens are washed in sodium hypochlorite solutions under
controlled conditions at pH 11-0 = 0.2 and temperatures of 27+-3o C for
60 min.
Test I I III IV
Available chlorine, 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.3
%
Controls:
The correct test performance is checked with the aid of two
control dyeings: Control 1 is a dyeing on cotton cloth of 4% of Vat
Violet VN [4424-87-7] (CI Vat Violet 13), 10% paste`; and Control 2 is
a dyeing on cotton of 40% Vat Brilliant Violet RK [3076-87-7] (CI Vat
Violet 17), 10% paste.
Test I I III IV
Classification 4 4-3 3 3-2
145
Procedure
A test specimen is placed between two 10.2 x 3.8 cm white test
cloths, one of which is made of the same fabric as the specimen
and the other of which varies as follows: If the first piece is wool,
silk, linen, or rayon, the second piece should be cotton or
multifiber fabric, if the first piece is cotton, or acetate, the second
piece should be viscose rayon or multifiber fabric.
The coloured swatch is placed between the two white cloths and
sewn on all four sides, then subjected to the required test is rolled
loosely and place in a test tube with the appropriate solution for
the indicated time. In test IV, the swatch is placed in saturated
steam (99-101o C) for 1 hour.
TABLE: 3
CONDITIONS IN TESTING FOR COLOURFASTNESS TO
BLEACHING AND PEROXIDE
Test Conditions Wool, I Silk, II Cotton, III Cotton, IV
35% hydrogen 15.4 8.8 8.8 8.8
peroxide, (17.5g) (10.Og) (10.Og) (10.Og)
a
mL / L H2O
Sodium silicate; 1.41 5.1 4.2 7.0
sp gr (7.2g) (6.Og) (10.Og)
o a
(42 Be) mL / L H2O
Sodium 0.5
pyrophosphate,
g / L H2Oa
146
Table 3 Cont.
Procedure:
Four specimens of worsted test cloth (containing 12-effect floats
of accetate, Acrilan 36, Arnel, cotton, Creslan 61, Dacron 54,
Dacron 64, nylon 66, Orlon 75, silk, Verel A and viscose) are
dyed. One is kept for comparison, and each of the other three is
stirred and squeezed for 10 min at 24oC in 100 ml of sulfuric acid
solution (50% g/L, or 6o Twad). The specimens are wrung to
allow 60-80% pickup, dried at 80% pickup, dried at 80o C for 15
min, and then baked for 15 min at 110o C.
Standards:
Standards for Classes 1,3, and 5 are dyed with the following dyes:
Class 1.2% Alizarine Red S (topchrome) [130-22-3] (CI 58005); class
3.2% Acid Cyanine (dyed acid) [6488-97-1] (CI 50230); and Class 5.2%
Alizarine Irisol R (dyed acid) [4430-18-6] (CI 60730).
Procedure:
The test specimen is placed on the base of the Crockmeter and a
square of white test cloth is rubbed on the coloured specimen by
means of the Crockmeter finger (dry test cloth for dry crocking;
test cloth wet out in distilled water for wet test; wet pickup 65+-
5%). The sample is rubbed twenty times; after this the staining of
the white cloth is determined.
148
Degumming (AATCC 7-1975) (ANSI L 14.4-1973):
This test is applicable to dyed silk yarn which may be subjected to
a degumming operation (boil-off in soap solution) during manufacture.
Procedure:
The dyed yarn in braided with undyed gum-silk yarn and boiled
for 2 h in 0.5% soap solution at a constant 100: 1 liquor ratio, then
rinsed cold, and air dried.
Standards:
The standards are dyed as follows: Class 3.5% Indigo MLB/6B
Power [6417-56-7] (CI 73075). Class 5.5% Indigo MLK / 4B Powder
[2475-31-2] (CI 73065).
Procedures:
Samples (10 cm X 4 cm) are placed in a 10 cm X 10 cm bag of
undyed cotton twill fabric together with 12 stainless steel disks
30+ 2 mm diameter and 3 + 0.5 mm thickness. Samples are run
with 200 ml. Percloroethylene for 30 min at 30 + 20o C, after
which they are blotted and air-dried.
149
Fulling (AATCC 2-1975):
Fulling is a finishing process for woolen cloth involving the effect
of heat, moisture, soap, and mechanical pounding. The purpose of this
process is to shrink the cloth by felting action and thus make it firmer
and thicker. The fulling test is devised for evaluating the colourfastness
of dyed wool fabrics or yarns to mill fulling.
Procedure:
Two gram dyed wool and two-gram white test cloth are formed
into a bag, dyed sample inside. Then 6.3 mm steel balls are placed
inside the bag. Tests are carried out under controlled conditions as
shown in Table 4, in the Launder-Ometer using 20-cm steel tubes
and 8 ml of solution. Yarns may be braided with white wool or
other yarn.
TABLE: 4
TEST CONDITION IN THE FULLING TEST
Standards:
Class1. 1% Alizarine Sky Blue B [6424-75-5] (CI 62105). Class
3.2% Brilliant Milling Blue B [5863-46-7] (CI 42645), and Class 5.2%
Eriochrome Azurole B [1796-92-5] (CI 43830).
150
Dry Heat (Excluding hot Pressing) (AATCC 117-1976) (Based On
ISO R 105/IV Part 2):
This method assesses the resistance of the colour of textiles of all
kinds and forms to the action of dry heat, but excludes hot pressing.
Procedure:
The material under test is standwiched between a piece of undyed
material of the same type as the test sample and a piece of
multifiber test fabric No.10A. The composite test sample is
exposed for 30s to one of the temperature conditions listed in
Table 5 in a heating device such as the Scorch Tester.
Procedure:
A 12 cm x 4 cm piece of material is exposed in a Scorch Tester.
The bottom plate of the heating device is covered with asbestos
sheeting, wool flannel, and dry, undyed cotton fabric. In case of
dry pressing, the dry sample is placed on top of the cotton fabric.
The top plate of the deveice is lowered for 15 at either 110 + 2o C,
150 + 2o C. In damp pressing, the sample is covered with a piece
of undyed cotton fabric that has been soaked in distilled water and
squeezed to contain its own weight of water. In wet pressing, both
the test sample and a piece of undyed cotton are soaked in distilled
water and squeezed to contain their own weight in water. The wet
test sample is placed on top of the dry cotton cloth and covered
with the wet cotton cloth.
151
TABLE: 5
TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS FOR COMPOSITE TEST
SAMPLE
Test Temperature, o C
AATCC
I 149 + 2
II 163 + 2
III 177 + 2
IV 191 + 2
V 205 + 2
VI 219 + 2
ISO
I 150 + 2
II 180 + 2
III 210 + 2
Lightfastness:
The 1976 edition of The AATCC Technical Manual lists six tests
for lightfastness: sunlight, daylight; carbon arc, alternate light and
darkness; water-cooled xenon arc, continuous; and alternate light and
darkness for both carbon arc and xenon arc.
152
CLASSIFICATION AND EVALUATION:
Samples can be evaluated by three methods:
CLASSIFICATION BY LIGHTFASTNESS
Colour change
Less Equal More than Class
than
L2 1
L2 L3 2
12 L3 2-3
L3 L4 3
L3 L4 3-4
L4 L5 4
L4 L5 4-5
L5 L6 5
L5 L6 5-6
L6 L7 6
L6 L7 6-7
L7 L8 7
L7 L8 7-8
153
L8 L9 8
L8 L9 8-9
L9 9
Either the single step or the two step method can be used. In the
single step method, the sample is faded to a step 4 break of the Gray
Scale. In the two-step-method, a preliminary judgement is made when a
step 4 break is obtained, then the sample is exposed further until step 3
break is obtained. If the two result differ, both are reported.
EXPOSURE CABINET:
The exposure cabinet for sunlight or daylight tests is constructed
so as to face due sought in the Northern Hemisphere, and due north in
the Southern Hemisphere, with a slant approximately equal to the degree
of latitude at which the cabinet is located. It allows free access of air to
the samples and is covered with window glass at least 8 cm above the
exposure area.
Black-Panel Thermometer:
The unit consists of bimetallic diatype thermometer mounted on a
suitable frame with the face (plate) of the frame and stem of the
thermometer sprayed with a head resistant black enamel.
Lightfastness Standards:
Eight lightfastness L2 through L9 are available from AATCC.
These standards are prepared by blending very proportions of wool dyed
with a very fugitive colour, Eriochrome Azural B (1796-92-5] (CI
43830), and wool dyed with a fast colour. Indigosol Blue AGG [4086-
05-9] [CI 173801], in such a manner that each numbered standard is
approximately twice as fast the preceding numbered standard.
Xenon-Arc Lamp:
The apparatus uses a 1quartz-xenon burner tube which is water-
cooled, with an inner Pyrex (Corning Glass Works) filter glass and an
outer filter of clear glass. Samples are mounted at the required distance
from the arc and are supported on a frame which revolves about the arc 2
+ 1 times per minute. Testing temperatures are measured by the black-
panel thermometer, and moisture is added by controlled methods.
156
Procedure:
A 6 cm X 15 cm specimen is exposed for twenty Standard Fading
Units and is followed by a Wash IIIA.
EVALUATION:
The effect on the colour is greater and expressed by comparison
with the Gray Scale for Evaluating Change in Colour.
157
Procedure:
A specimen 10 cm x 6 cm and a swatch of Control No.109, are
suspended in a exposure chamber at 18-28o C with rh <65%.
Ozone should be present in concentrations that produce one cycle
of fading 1.5-6 h of test. Samples are exposed for the number of
cycles necessary to cause a change of shade. A cycle is considered
complete when the control matches the Standard for Fading.
Usually two cycles will cause a change in an ozone-sensitive dye.
Procedure:
Test specimens (5 cm X 10 cm) are exposed together with a strip
of Control Sample, No.1, in a gas-fading apparatus, until the
control sample shows a change in colour corresponding to that of
the standard of fading. The gas-fading apparatus contains an open
flame from combustion of illuminating gas or butane.
EVALUATION:
After each exposure cycle the specimens are compared with
unexposed samples. The effect, if any, is classified with the aid of the
Gray Scale for Evaluating Change in Colour. The class number and the
number of exposure cycles are reporte.
158
Washfastness:
Washing, Domestic and Laundering, Commercial: Accelerated
(AATCC 61-1975) (ANSI L 14.81-1973): These accelerated laundering
tests are designed for evaluating the washfastness of textiles. One 45 min
test approximates the colour loss and/or abrasive action of five average
hand, commercial, or home launderings.
The conditions of the four different tests are given in Table-7.
Procedure:
Samples (5 cm X 10 cm (Test IA) or 5 cm X 15 cm (all other
tests)) to which a 5 cm X 5 cm piece of multifiber fabric has been
seen or stapled along one side are filled one each into 7.5 cm X
12.5 cm or 9 cm X 20 cm stainless-steel cylinders. The wash
liquor and the steel balls as per Table 7 are added. The detergent
used is AATCC Standard Detergent WOB. The containers are
closed and subjected for 45 min at the required temperature in a
Launder Ometer (Atlas Electric Devices Inc.). At the end of the
cycle, the containers are removed and the samples rinsed twice in
100 ml of water for 1 min at 40o C. They are scoured in 100 ml of
0.014% soln of acetic acid for 1 min at 27o C and rinsed again for
1 min at 27o C in water. The sample are then hydroextractred and
dried by pressing with an iron at 135-150o C.
TABLE: 7
TEST CONDITIONS
159
EVALUATION:
Test IA conforms to five careful hand launderings at 40o C. Test
IIA conforms to five commercial launderings at 38o C or five home-
machine launderings at medium or warm temperature setting. Test IIA
conforms to five commercial launderings at 49o C or five home launderings
at 60o C. Test IVA conforms to five commercial launderings at 71o C or
five home launderings at 60-66o with chlorine present. Samples are
evaluated for change in colour with the corresponding Gray Scale and for
staining with the aid of the AATCC Chromatic Transference Scale or the
Gray Scale for Evaluating Staining.
MISCELLANEOUS FASTNESS PROPERTIES
Procedure:
A 5.7 cm x 5.7 cm swatch backed with No.10 multifiber test cloth
is immersed in the test solution for15-30 min and squeezed to 2-2
½ times its original weight. The samples are placed between glass
or plastic plates and stacked in the AATCC. Prespiration Tester or
in Prespirometer. A 3.63 kg weight is added to the Prespiration
Tester or 69-kPa (10 psi) pressure is adjusted on the Prespirometer.
The loaded specimen unit is heated in an oven at 38 + 1o C > 6 h.
160
Steam Pleating (AATCC 131-1974):
This test is applicable to textile intended to be used in pleated
clothing. It is designed to measure the change in shade of dyed textiles
that are subjected to a steam treatment, as in pleating.
Procedure:
A 4 cm X 5 cm specimen is placed between two 4 cm X 5 cm
pieces of undyed scoured fabric of the same type of fiber used in
the test specimen and sewn along one side. The specimen is then
mounted on a special Specimen Holder and steamed under one of
the following three conditions:
After exposure the samples are air dried below 60oC and
conditioned for 4 h at 20 + 2o C and 65 + 2% rh.
EVALUATION:
The change in colour of test specimen is evaluated with the Gray
Scale for Evaluating Colour Change. The staining of the undyed fabric
pieces is evaluated with the Gray Scale for Evaluating Staining. The type
of test and the ratings figures are reported:
Procedure:
The dyed yarn is braided with undyed wool and undyed silk,
soaked in 0.5% soap, hung in a bell jar with an excess amount of
161
burning sulfur dioxide fumes for 16.h. After through rinsing in
cold water and extraction, the sample is dried and evaluated.
Standards:
Dyed on worsted wool yarn: Class 1. 1% Alizaring yellow R
(2243-76-7] (CI 14030): Class 3. 1% Naphthochrome Violet R [7452-
51-9](43565); and Class 5.1% Acid Alizarine Violet N [2092-55-9](CI
15670).
Water Tests (AATCC 105-1975, ANSI L14.149-1973; AATCC
106-1975, ANSI L 14.150-1973; AATCC 107-1975, ANSI L14.151-
1973): Tests in fresh, sea, and chlorinated pool water are designed to
measure the resistance in each of dyed printed, or otherwise coloured
textile yarns and fabrics of all kinds.
Procedure:
Distilled or demineralized water are artificial seawater are used
because of the variables encountered in tap water or natural
seawater. Seawater solution is made up of 30 g sodium chloride
and 5 g magnesium chloride pool water solution is made up of 5
parts of 1% soln of available chlorine per 10.000 parts of distilled
2water (5ppm), adjusted to pH 8 with either sodium bicarbonate or
acetic acid. Specimens for each type of water test are backed with
multifiber test cloth.
For freshwater and seawater tests, the specimens are wet out in the
suitable solution for 15 min, placed in the AATCC Prespiration Tester or
Perspirometer at 69 kPa (10psi) and placed in an oven at 38oC for 18h,
after which the specimens are removed and dried at room temperature
without pressing.
162
Specimens for chlorinated-pool-water-tests are kept in 200 mL of
solution at 27o C in a closed jar for 4 h, during, which time they are
occasionally gently agitated. They are then placed in the Perspirometer
and kept at 38o for 2 h.
APPLICATION PROPERTIES:
Recently the AATCC has initiated a research program to develop
test methods for the evaluation of application properties of dyes in
dyeing processes. So far, three such test methods have been published
and others are to follow shortly.
Procedure:
The compatibility is determined is a so-called dip test where the
dye under test is exhausted on several pieces of acrylic material in
separate combinations with five basic dyes of established
163
compatibility value. There are separate yellow and blue scales
(AATCC) of five standard dyes each.
EVALUATION:
The compatibility value of the dye under test is that of the
standard dye with which is produces on-tone dyeings throughout the
sequence of dyeings. The compatibility value C ranges from 1 to 5 with
half steps.
Procedure:
Dye powder (2g of standard and sample) is pasted with 180ml
water at 43-49o C. The pH is adjusted as shown in Table 8 and the
volume brought to 200 ml. The dispersion is heated to 71o C and
filtered it in warmed Buchner funeral through filter paper (as
indicated in Table 9), under vacuum. The time it takes for the
dispersion to pass through the filter is recorded. The filter paper is
dried for evaluation.
EVALUATION:
The residue on the filter paper is evaluated visually against the
Filter Residue Scale from 5 to 1 (AATCC).
The results are rated according to filtering time as follows:
164
The type of test, the filtering-time class and the residue class are
reported.
TABLE: 8
SELECTION OF APPLICABLE TEST
Tes Whatman Application of pH of
t Filter dyes dispersion
combination
I # 2 over # 4 Package dyeing of 4.5-5.0
polyester
II # 4 over # 4 Beck dyeing of 4.5-5.0
polyester
III # 4 over # 4 Dyeing of nylon 7.0-10.0
carpet and apparel
Procedure:
The dye under test alone or together with auxiliaries is padded in a
concentration desired on a 5 cm X 30 cm swatch of fabric. The
swatch is immediately placed on a horizontal glass plate. A 9 cm
dia watch glass is place on a portion of the fabric. The fabric is
dried at room temperature and watch glass is removed.
EVALUATION:
The degree of particular migration is estimated by comparison of
the dye concentration in the area of fabric, which was covered by the
watch glass to the dye concentration in the rest of the fabric. Three
methods of evaluation are possible: (1) visual, by reference to the Gray
Scale for Evaluating Change in Colour; (2) by reflectance measurement
and calculation of colour difference; and (3) by quantitative extraction of
the dye from disks of fabric of equal size from the covered and
uncovered areas. Percent particulate migration (Mp) is calculated as
follows:
165
(1 – AA)
M p = 100 ------------------
ABB
166
REFERENCE
1. Technical manual of American Associatio0n of Textile Chemist &
Colourist (AATCC).