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1. INTRODUCTION TO HOLOGRAPHY
With its many applications holography is one of the most interesting developments in modern
optics. Its scientific importance is emphasized by awarding the 1971 Nobel Prize to its
inventor Denis Gabor. The term “holography” is a compound of the Greek words “holos =
complete” and “graphein = to write.” It denotes a procedure for three-dimensional recording
and displaying of images and information without the use of lenses. Therefore holography
opens up completely new possibilities in science, engineering, graphics and arts. Fields of
applications are interferometric measurement techniques, image processing, holographic
optical elements and memories as well as art holograms.
History of Holography
A lot of scientists were close to the invention of this method, few of them were G. Kirchhoff
(1824–1887), Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919), E. Abbe (1840–1905), G. Lippmann (1845–1921),
W.L. Bragg (1890–1971), M. Wolfke and H. Boersch.
But it took until 1948 when D. Gabor (1900–1979)
realized the basic ideas of holography. The origin of
holography was at first connected to problems in optics
of electrons. Gabor made his first groundbreaking
experiments using mercury vapour lamp. At the
beginning the holographic technique was of minor
importance and was forgotten for some time. It was not
until the coming up of laser technology when
developments in holography experienced a significant
upturn. So 23 years after his experiments Gabor was Fig 1.2 Hologram Artwork
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1971. in the MIT Museum
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2. FUNDAMENTAL OF GENERATION
2.1.2 PHOTOGRAPHY
The object wave appears as a very complex light field (Fig. 2.2) which results from the
superposition of all waves emerging from the individual object points. If this light field could
be recorded on a screen and displayed again, an observer (or a camera) would see an image
that is not discriminable from the object. If there is a photographic film at the position of the
screen, the object wave will cause a darkening distribution during the following processing of
the film. But only the light intensity is recorded; all information of the phase in the plane of
the screen is lost. This loss of phase also happens if the object is imaged onto a film by a lens.
Therefore the object wave can never be completely restored from a normal photographic
image. A two-dimensional image is the result.
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2.1.3 Holography
Holography uses the properties interference and diffraction of light which make it possible to
reconstruct the object wave completely. To be able to see these effects coherent laser light
has to be used. “Coherence” means that the light wave is constant and contiguous. The laser
on one hand illuminates the
object and the scattered light
hits the photographic film
(object wave) (Fig. 2.1). On
the other hand, the film is
illuminated directly with the
same laser (reference wave).
The object and the reference
waves interfere with each
other on the holographic
film. This generates
interference fringes in the
holographic layer as are
shown as a largely magnified
image in Fig. 2.4. The
distance of the fringes is in
the region of μm which is in
the order of magnitude of the
light wavelength. Fig 2.3 Principles of two stage imaging with Holography
The information of the object wave is contained in the modulation of the brightness of the
fringes and in the distance of the fringes. The photographic film is exposed and developed
resulting in the hologram. The first
step in holography, the recording, is
made. The second step, the
reconstruction or display of the
object wave, is shown in Fig. 2.3.
After developing the film the
hologram is illuminated with a light
wave that should resemble the
reference wave as best as possible.
Fig 2.4 Interference Fringes
This reconstruction wave is diffracted by the interference pattern of the hologram generating
the object wave. An observer looking at the hologram will see a three-dimensional image of
the object.
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The photographic plate is developed giving a complicated pattern which can be considered to
be made up of a diffraction pattern of varying spacing. When the plate is illuminated by the
reference beam alone, it is diffracted by the grating into different angles which depend on the
local spacing of the pattern on the plate. It can be shown that the net effect of this is to
reconstruct the object beam, so that it appears that light is coming from a point source behind
the plate, even when the source has been removed. The light emerging from the photographic
plate is identical to the light that emerged from the point source that used to be there. An
observer looking into the plate from the other side will "see" a point source of light whether
the original source of light is there or not.
This sort of hologram is effectively a concave lens, since it "converts" a plane wavefront into
a divergent wave-front. It will also increase the divergence of any wave which is incident on
it in exactly the same way as a normal lens does. Its focal length is the distance between the
point source and the plate.
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4. DIVISIONS OF HOLOGRAMS
In this chapter the properties of different hologram types are presented. One differentiates
between transmission and reflection holograms depending on whether the hologram is to be
viewed in transmitted or in reflected light. The geometrical setup during recording specifies
which type of hologram is realized.
It was referred several times to that hologram can be understood as a complicated diffraction
grating. After development the grating is formed by the opaque silver grains. During
reconstruction the light wave is diffracted and partially absorbed; hence these holograms are
called “amplitude holograms.” By using “bleaching baths” the silver can be converted into
translucent halide or even be removed completely from the emulsion. The diffraction grating
is then formed by areas of different index of refraction; a “phase hologram” is created.
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fall from above. When the rain drop hits the user’s palm, he feels tactile sensation created by
the ultrasound.
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AgBr + hf = Ag + Br
During exposure only single Ag seeds are produced inside the AgBr grains which act as a
catalytic centre. A so-called latent image is created. During the developing process the
exposed grain is then completely reduced to silver producing an “amplification” of a factor of
106. That way these emulsions are much more sensitive than others (Tab. 5.1). The reduced
silver absorbs light and the emulsion appears black. Due to this amplitude holograms are
created; these can be transformed into phase holograms by bleaching.
5.3 RESOLUTION
For volume holograms the grating constant dg inside the holographic layer can be calculated
from the Bragg condition:
𝜆𝑛
dg =
2 sin (𝛿 2 )
Where δ denotes the angle between the object and reference wave inside the layer whilst λn =
λ/n denotes the wavelength in the emulsion with refraction index n. For example, this yields
for typical transmission holograms with δ = 60◦, λ = 633 nm, and n = 1.64 a spatial frequency
of σ = 1/λn = 2590 lines/mm. For white light reflection holograms with δ = 180◦ the spatial
frequency with σ = 5180 lines/mm is twice as high. Common photographic layers cannot be
used for holography due to their low resolution (σ = 40 to 600 lines/mm). The carrier
frequency for special holographic layers is around 5000 lines/mm (see Table 5.1). Some of
the new emulsions shown in Table 5.2 are still in the process of development [28–30].
Therefore within few years the properties of available holographic materials may change.
Today the Genet material has the highest resolution. As a consequence the exposure is
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comparatively high. Very much used in holographic laboratories are Slavich PFG-01 and Fuji
F-HL. Hypersensitisation using TEA is always necessary.
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bleaching process of amplitude holograms to transform them into phase holograms the
diffraction efficiency increases but so does the noise.
6. APPLICATIONS OF
HOLOGRAPHY
6.1 SECURITY
Security holograms are very difficult to forge because
they are replicated from a master hologram which
requires expensive, specialized and technologically advanced equipment. They are used
widely in many currencies such as the Brazilian real 20 note, British pound 5/10/20
notes, Canadian Fig 6.1 Master Card
Fig 6.2 20 £ Note
dollar 5/10/20/50/100 notes, Euro 5/10/20/50/100/200/500 notes, South Korean
Won 5000/10000/50000 notes, Yen 5000/10000 notes, etc. They are also used in credit and
bank cards as well as passports, books, DVDs, and sports equipment.
In 1983 MasterCard International, Inc. became the first to use hologram technology in bank
card security.
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In 2006 a large number of surplus Holography Quality Green Lasers (Coherent C315)
became available and put Dichromate Gelatin (DCG) within the reach of the amateur
holographers. The holography community was surprised at the amazing sensitivity of DCG to
green light. It had been assumed that the sensitivity would be nonexistent. Jeff Blythe
responded with the G307 formulation of DCG to increase the speed and sensitivity to these
new lasers.
Many film suppliers have come and gone from the silver halide market. While more film
manufactures have filled in the voids, many amateurs are now making their own film. The
favorite formulations are Dichromate Gelatin, Methylene Blue Sensitized Dichromatic
Gelatin and Diffusion Method Silver Halide preparations. Jeff Blythe has published very
accurate methods for making film in a small lab or garage.
A small group of amateurs are even constructing their own pulsed lasers to make holograms
of moving object.
6.4 HOLOGRAPHIC
INTERFEROMETRY
Holographic interferometry is a technique
which enables static and dynamic
displacements of objects with optically
rough surfaces to be measured to optical
interferometric precision (i.e. to fractions of
a wavelength of light). It can also be used
to detect optical path length variations in
transparent media, which enables, for example, fluid flow to be visualized and analyzed. It
can also be used to generate contours representing the form of the surface. It has been widely
used to measure stress, strain, and vibration in engineering structures.
Fig 6.7 Interferometric Hologram
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7. CONCLUSIONS
Holography is one of the most recent developments in the field of science and technology.
Although it’s full potential has not been established but its increasing popularity and variety
of uses is amazing. The production cost of holograms and holographic images is the main
factor which is restraining its growth. With the use holography a very realistic picture can be
produced i.e., the 3-D images.
Its use in the field of security purpose helps us to protect important documents.
Holograms are used to give guarantee on not only electronic product and documents but also
currencies. Its use in the field of medical sciences has helped the doctors to detect diseases
more accurately.
Holography helps us to store a data much securely and for a prolonged period of time
as holograms are not easily destroyed. With the development of HVD i.e. holographic
versatile disc, a whopping 3.9 Terabytes (Tb) of data can be stored in a single disc. It will
also have a data transfer rate of 1Gbps i.e. 1 Gigabytes per second. When fully developed and
marketed the holographic optical storage devices, which HVD is a part of will definitely be
the very best.
FUTURE SCOPE
Dell monitoring advancements in optical technology and expects the cost and performance of
CD-RW drives become more competitive with the magnetic formats. Dell plan to offer CD-
RW/DVD ROM Combo Drives when reasonably priced. Reliable devices become available.
These devices should eventually replace current CD-RW drive and offer convenience, large
storage capacity that are backward compatible with previous CD formats, and DVD ROM
readability. Dell expects DVD-RAM systems to be adopted by high end users initially.
Rambo systems when available are expected to provide another system in a evolution to a
universal RMSD providing a larger capacity drive capable of reading and writing to the most
popular CD, DVD format.
HVD is still in the late stages of development, nothing is written in stone; but you've
probably noticed that the projected introductory price for an HVD is a bit steep. An initial
price of about $120 per disc will probably be a big obstacle to consumers. However, this
price might not be so insurmountable to businesses, which are HVD developers' initial target
audience. Opt-ware and its competitors will market HVD's storage capacity and transfer
speed as ideal for archival applications, with commercial systems available as soon as late
2006. Consumer devices could hit the market around this year.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
WEB:
1. http://www.enteleky.com/holography/index.html
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BOOKS:
1. Holography - A Practical Approach - G. Ackermann, J. Eichler (Wiley-VCH, 2007) WW.
2. Recording Materials for Holography and their Processing. Berlin: Springer, 1998.
3. Kasper, J.E.; Feller, S.A. The Complete Book of Holograms. New York: Dover, 2001.
4. Hariharan, P. Basics of Holography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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