TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF

DATA COLLECTION

Shilpi Mishra Sharma, PGDHM 14th Bathch, 2010,

IIHMR, Jaipur
TYPE OF RESEARCH METHODS
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

 Quantitative
 Qualitative
Distinction Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods

Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods

Provide depth of understanding Measure level of confidence
Ask why? Ask "How many ?" "How often ?“

Study motivations/intentions/reasons Study action/manifested

behaviour
Are subjective
Are objective
Enable discovery
Provide proof
Are exploratory
Are definite
Allow insight into behaviour trends
and so on Interpret Measure level of actions, trends
and so on Describe
QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION
TECHNIQUES
 Focus Group Discussions
 Participant Observation

 Key Informant Interviews

 Case Studies

 Projective Techniques
PARTICIPATORY RAPID TECHNIQUES
 Mapping; Social Mapping, Body Mapping, Participatory
Mapping
 Seasonal Calendar

 Venn/Institutional Diagram

 Pie Chart/ Histogram

 Daily Routine Diagram

 Flow/causal Diagram

 Time Trends
 QUANTITATIVE METHODS

Methods of Survey/ information collection

Tool - Questionnaire/ Interview Schedule

METHODS OF SURVEY/ INFORMATION
COLLECTION
 Self Administered -

 Postal
 Electronic

 Advantage - More useful in sensitive issues

 Disadvantage - Dropout or non-response is much higher
SELF ADMINISTERED - POSTAL
 This method has a low cost.
 Survey participants can choose to remain anonymous.

 It is not labour intensive.

SELF ADMINISTERED - ELECTRONIC
 This method has a low cost, and on most surveys costs
nothing for the participants and little for the surveyors.
 Questionnaires can be conducted swiftly.

 Survey participants can choose to remain anonymous.

 It is not labour intensive.

 Questions can be more detailed, as opposed to the limits

of paper or telephones.
 This method works well if your survey contains several
branching questions.
 Sample may "self select" and thus not be representative
of the population.
METHODS OF SURVEY/ INFORMATION
COLLECTION - INTERVIEW
INTERVIEW - TELEPHONE
 Questionnaires can be conducted swiftly.
 Rapport with respondents

 High response rate

 Be careful that your sampling frame (i.e., where you get

the phone numbers from) doesn't skew your sample.
 For example - if you select the phone numbers from a phone
book, you are necessarily excluding people who only have a
mobile phone, those who requested an unpublished phone
number, and individuals who have recently moved to the area
because none of these people will be in the book.
PERSONALLY ADMINISTERED – FACE
TO FACE INTERVIEW
 Questions can be more detailed, as opposed to the limits
of paper or telephones.
 Rapport with respondents

 High response rate

 Usually a convenience (vs. a statistical) sample so you

cannot generalize your results.
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
 Highly Structured
 Open Ended

 The in-depth interview

TYPES OF QUESTIONS
 Contingency questions - A question that is answered
only if the respondent gives a particular response to a
previous question. This avoids asking questions of
people that do not apply to them
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
 Closed ended questions - Respondents’ answers are
limited to a fixed set of responses. Most scales are closed
ended. Other types of closed ended questions include:
 Yes/no questions - The respondent answers with a “yes” or a
“no”.
 Multiple choice - The respondent has several option from
which to choose.
 Scaled questions - Responses are graded on a continuum
(example : rate the appearance of the product on a scale from
1 to 10, with 10 being the most preferred appearance).
Examples of types of scales include the Likert scale,
semantic differential scale, and rank-order scale
ADVANTAGES OF CLOSED ENDED
QUESTIONS
 Time saving
 Easy comparison of responses of
 different
groups
 Same group over different period of time
RISK OF CLOSED QUESTIONS
 Possible answers might be disclosed to the respondents –
might introduce bias
EXAMPLES OF CLOSED-ENDED
QUESTIONS
 Do you get along with your supervisor?
 Is that a photograph of your children?

 Are you leaving right at 5:00 today?

 Are you awake?

TYPES OF QUESTIONS
 Open ended questions - No options or predefined categories are
suggested. The respondent supplies their own answer without
being constrained by a fixed set of possible responses. Examples
of types of open ended questions include:
 Completely unstructured - For example, “What is your opinion of
questionnaires?”
 Word association - Words are presented and the respondent mentions
the first word that comes to mind.
 Sentence completion - Respondents complete an incomplete sentence.
For example, “The most important consideration in my decision to buy a
new house is . . .”
 Story completion - Respondents complete an incomplete story.
 Picture completion - Respondents fill in an empty conversation balloon.
 Thematic apperception test - Respondents explain a picture or make up
a story about what they think is happening in the picture
ADVANTAGES OF COMPLETELY OPEN
ENDED QUESTIONS
 Allows to probe more deeply
 New issues might be explored

 Information provided might be useful as an example

 Possibility of different interpretations

RISK OF OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS
 Focus might be loosed
 Less information might be collected

 Analysis – time consuming

PARTIALLY CATEGORIZED QUESTIONS
 If one has “others” category

 Advantages
 Quick recoding of answers
 Easy analysis

 Risks
 Loss of a lot of interesting and valuable information
 Interviews might try to get the response from the categories
 Interviewer might only receive one answer
 Interviewer might introduce the possible answer
 Very little space provided for recording the response
EXAMPLES OF OPEN-ENDED
QUESTIONS
 Tell me about your relationship with your supervisor.
 How do you see your future?

 Tell me about the children in this photograph.

 What is the purpose of government?

 Why did you choose that answer?

QUESTION SEQUENCE
 Questions should flow logically from one to the next.
 The researcher must ensure that the answer to a question is not
influenced by previous questions.
 Questions should flow from the more general to the more specific.

 Questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive.

 Questions should flow from factual and behavioural questions to

attitudinal and opinion questions.
 Questions should flow from unaided to aided questions.

 According to the three stage theory (also called the sandwich

theory), initial questions should be screening and rapport questions.
Then in the second stage you ask all the product specific questions.
In the last stage you ask demographic questions
ART OF ASKING QUESTIONS
 Opening Remarks
 Establishing Rapport

 Neutrality of Interviewers

 Closing the interview

 General guidelines about interview

QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION
ISSUES
 Knowing about
 how (and whether) one will use the results of research before
one start.
 for example, the results won't influence your decision or you
can't afford to implement the findings or the cost of the
research outweighs its usefulness, then save your time and
money; don't bother doing the research.
 The research objectives and frame of reference should be
defined beforehand, including the questionnaire's context
of time, budget, manpower, intrusion and privacy.
QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION
ISSUES
 The nature of the expected responses should be defined
and retained for interpretation of the responses, be it
preferences (of products or services), facts, beliefs,
feelings, descriptions of past behavior, or standards of
action.

 Unneeded questions are an expense to the researcher

QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION
ISSUES
 The topics should fit the respondents’ frame of reference.
 Their background may affect their interpretation of the
questions.
 Respondents should have enough information or expertise to
answer the questions truthfully.
 The type of scale or index to be used shall be
determined.
 The level of measurement – Important for Analysis

 The types of questions (closed, multiple-choice, open)

should fit the statistical data analysis techniques
available and your goals.
QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION
ISSUES
 Questions and prepared responses to choose from should be
neutral as to intended outcome. A biased question or
questionnaire encourages respondents to answer one way
rather than another. Even questions without bias may leave
respondents with expectations.
 The order or “natural” grouping of questions is often
relevant. Prior previous questions may bias later questions.
 The wording should be kept simple: no technical or
specialized words.
 The meaning should be clear. Ambiguous words, equivocal
sentence structures and negatives may cause
misunderstanding, possibly invalidating questionnaire
results. Double negatives should be reworded as positives.
QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION
ISSUES
 Care should be taken to ask one question at a time.
 The list of possible responses should be collectively
exhaustive.
 One might include “other” specify----------------
 The possible responses should also be mutually
exclusive.
 for example in both the “married” category and the “single”
category - there may be need for separate questions on
marital status and living situation.
QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION
ISSUES

 Conversational writing style

 Sequencing of the questions
 Correct skipping pattern
QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION
ISSUES
 Presentation of the questions on the page (or computer
screen) and use of white space, colors, pictures, charts,
or other graphics may affect respondent's interest or
distract from the questions.
 Numbering of questions may be helpful.

 Clear, detailed instructions for the interviewers

SCALING TECHNIQUES
 The basic principle of scaling is a part of everyday life.
 When one meets people for the first time we try to build
up a picture of them: we develop impressions of their
friendliness, intelligence, trustworthiness and so forth.
 These impressions rarely rely on one piece of
information but are a composite picture based on a
number of clues.
SCALING TECHNIQUES
 Differential Scales
 Summated Scales
 Likert Scale
LIKERT SCALE
 scale most frequently used in the study of attitudes
follows the pattern devised by Rensis Likert (1932) and
is referred to as a Likert type scale.
 In fact, most scales currently used in social science
research are Likert-type scales.
 In such a scale, the respondents are asked to respond to
each item in terms of several degrees of agreement or
disagreement:
 for example, (1) strongly approve. (2) approve, (3)
undecided, (4) disapprove, (5) strongly disapprove.
 Rating the Items.
The next step is to have a group of judges rate the items.
Usually you would use a 1-to-5 rating scale where:
 = strongly unfavorable to the concept

 = somewhat unfavorable to the concept

 = undecided

 = somewhat favorable to the concept

 = strongly favorable to the concept

Example: The Employment Self Esteem Scale
Here's an example of a ten-item Likert Scale that attempts to estimate the level of self esteem a person has
on the job. Notice that this instrument has no center or neutral point -- the respondent has to declare
whether he/she is in agreement or disagreement with the item.
INSTRUCTIONS: Please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with each of the
following statements by placing a check mark in the appropriate box.
Strongly Somewhat Somewhat 1. I feel good about my work on the job.
Strongly Agree
Disagree Disagree Agree

Strongly Somewhat Somewhat 2. On the whole, I get along well with others at work.
Strongly Agree
Disagree Disagree Agree

Strongly Somewhat Somewhat 3. I am proud of my ability to cope with difficulties at work.

Strongly Agree
Disagree Disagree Agree

Strongly Somewhat Somewhat 4. When I feel uncomfortable at work, I know how to handle it.
Strongly Agree
Disagree Disagree Agree

Strongly Somewhat Somewhat 5. I can tell that other people at work are glad to have me there.
Strongly Agree
Disagree Disagree Agree

Strongly Somewhat Somewhat 6. I know I'll be able to cope with work for as long as I want.
Strongly Agree
Disagree Disagree Agree

Strongly Somewhat Somewhat 7. I am proud of my relationship with my supervisor at work.

Strongly Agree
Disagree Disagree Agree

Strongly Somewhat Somewhat 8. I am confident that I can handle my job without constant assistance.
Strongly Agree
Disagree Disagree Agree

Strongly Somewhat Somewhat 9. I feel like I make a useful contribution at work.

Strongly Agree
Disagree Disagree Agree

Strongly Somewhat Somewhat 10. I can tell that my coworkers respect me.
Strongly Agree
Disagree Disagree Agree
QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUES
 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)
 A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a group discussion of 6-12 persons
guided by a facilitator, during which group members talk freely and
spontaneously about a certain topic.

FGDs are not used to test hypotheses or to produce research findings that
can be generalized
PURPOSE OF FGD
1.To focus research and develop relevant research hypotheses by exploring
in greater depth the problem to be investigated and its possible causes.
2.To generate new ideas. A group works best to build on the ideas generated.
3.To formulate appropriate questions for more structured, large-scale
surveys.
4.To supplement information on community knowledge, beliefs, attitudes,
and behaviour already available but are incomplete or unclear. For
example, reasons for low women's participation in development
programme can be understood by a focus group discussion among
women.
5.To develop appropriate messages for the education programme.
6.To explore controversial topics.
 Key Features of the FGD

Purpose Composition Process

 Research definition and  Advance selection by  Discussion guidelines
refinement random sampling or need to be pre-tested
alternative criteria
 Development of  More than one focus
hypotheses group must be held
 Homogeneous with
respect to major social
 Generation of  Moderator and note-
divisions
vocabularies taker require training
 Anonymity of
 Formulation of questions
participants
for interview schedules
Preferred
 Provision of
 Day, time and place
supplementary
determined in advance
information on community
beliefs, perceptions and
attitudes
Participant Guidelines Role of Role of Note-
Facilitator/Moderator taker/Recorder
 Focus group runs 90  Facilitates but does not  Maintains a written
minutes, tape dominate discussion record of the focus
recorded with group, including;
supplementary notes  Introduces new issues Community, date, time
for discussion (start and finish) and
 Speak clearly, one at a place held
time  Monitors participant
involvement and  Number and description
 Want everyone's interaction, encourages of participants
opinion - no active participation
right/wrong answers  Major issues covered in
 Keeps conversation focus group
 Courage of conviction flowing, Maintaining
focus but allowing  Group dynamics,
for flexibility including non- verbal
interaction

 Discussion details,
including Speaker
identity - supplements
tape

 Back-up to moderator
SPECIFIC COMPONENTS OF FGD
 Preparation
 Recruitment of Participants
 Physical Arrangements
 Preparation of FGD Guideline

 Conducting the session

 Moderator's Functions
 Recorder's Functions

 Number and Duration of Sessions

SPECIFIC COMPONENTS OF FOCUS
GROUP ORGANIZATIONS
 Methodological Issues
 Appear to reduce the chance of questions being
misunderstood by respondents, and to reduce socially-
desirable answers
 The informal atmosphere of the group also should encourage
participants to express views frankly and freely
 chances of introducing error in focus group research is
particularly high in cases where the interview is conducted in
the indigenous language and then translated.
 A major concern is the validity of conclusions from the focus
group session, where quality of data is so dependent on the
moderator whose individual skills are central to the quality
and quantity of the data obtained.
 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
 Involves establishing rapport in a new community
 There are five reasons as to why Participant Observation (PO) should be
insisted upon in the conduct of a scientific research about cultural
group:
1. PO is not a method of collecting just qualitative data. In fact, it is not
really a method at all. It is a Strategy, which facilitates data collection
in the field all kinds of data, both quantitative and qualitative.
2. PO reduces the problem of reactivity among respondents. Lower
reactivity means higher validity of data.
3. PO helps you formulate sensible questions in the native language.

4. PO gives you intuitive understanding of what is going on in a culture,

and allows you to speak with confidence about the meaning of data.
5. Many research problems cannot be addressed adequately by anything
except PO.
IMPORTANT SKILLS REQUIRED TO
BECOME AN EFFICIENT PARTICIPANT
OBSERVER
1. learning the native language

2. Building explicit awareness

3. Building memory

4. Maintaining naivete

5. Building writing skills

 Non participant observation:
The observer does not actively participate in the group
activities but observes the group from a distance and the
observer is fully aware that he/she is entirely apart from the
object of observation.

 Non-controlled observation:
The observation is done without managing, organising and
directing the normal activities /surroundings by any internal
force, it is called non-controlled observation. This type of
observation needs to be supplemented by structured
observation or schedules of information (see Goode & Hatt,
1952)
 KEY INFORMANTS (KI) INTERVIEW

 An important qualitative method, particularly in areas

where the entry has not yet been made
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF KI
INTERVIEWS
 Selection of KI
KI should;
 articulate,
 willing to participate,
 trustworthy and
 should have other personal attributes conducive to conducting
detailed interviews.
 Has unique position in the community

 Conducting Interviews
 The interview should be characterized by
 Silent Probe
 Phased assertion.
 CASE STUDIES
 A fairly exhaustive study of a person or group is called a
life or case history or case study. It deepens our
perception & give us clear insight into life. Because of
its aid in studying behaviour in specific, precise detail,
Burgess termed the case study method, `the social
microscopes' (Young, 1973)

 A case study explores the social process while statistical

technique reveals the extent & degree of association
THE MAJOR CRITERIA FOR LIFE
HISTORY STUDY
 Behaviour of an individual must be viewed as a response
to definite social stimulations.
 The subject (he/she) must be viewed as a member of a
cultural group/community.
 The continuous related character of experience from
childhood through adulthood should be stressed.
 The social situation must be studied to understand the
degree of social pressures, social participation exercised
by the subject
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE
In a projective test, an individual supplies structure to
unstructured stimuli in a manner consistent with the
individual’s own unique pattern of conscious and
unconscious needs, fears, desires, impulses, conflicts,
and ways of perceiving and responding

 Projective methods were initially used by psychologists

and psychiatrists for the diagnosis and treatment of
emotionally disordered patients
ASSUMPTIONS
 The more ambiguous the stimuli, the more examinees
reveal about their personality.
 Projection is greater to stimulus material that is similar
to the examinee.
 Every response provides meaning for personality
analysis.
 There is an “unconscious.”

 Subjects are unaware of what they disclose.

EXAMPLE - BODY MAPPING
 It is a projective technique in which respondents draw
maps of human body (see Ulinetal, 2002).
 This method is useful to study people’s perceptions
about human physiology, reproductive health issues.
 It is a comfortable means of expression for those
respondents who feel shy to speak about reproduction
and sexuality.
 In this method respondents are asked to sketch
reproductive organs or to label body parts and explain
the functions, researchers thus can identify gaps that
could be addressed through interventions.
IMPORTANCE OF COMBINING
DIFFERENT DATA COLLECTION
TECHNIQUES
 Mix of Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Techniques
 Reduction in chances of bias

 More comprehensive understaing of study topic

BIAS IN INFORMATION COLLECTION
 Defective Instruments
 Observers Bias

 Effect of the interview on thr informant

 Information Bias
 These affect the validity and Reliability of the study
PRETESTING AND PILOT STUDIES
 Pre-test helps in
 evaluating the different questions,
 the language,
 questionnaire format and
 Interview process.

It can also be used to familiarise interviewers with the

questionnaire or schedule.
IN THE PROCESS OF PRE-TESTING
 The questionnaire is checked for clarity and
understanding and the prospective respondents are
informed about the same.
 After this is established, interviewer can ask the
respondent what came to his mind when the question
was put forward.
 Respondent's answer helps the researcher in
understanding whether the question evokes what it was
supposed to evoke or not.
 If it does not, then the wording of the question ought to
change. In this way, confusing words and phrases can be
avoided.
IN THE PROCESS OF PRE-TESTING
 When a respondent hesitates to answer or is unable to understand
a question, additional questions intended to overcome hesitancy
or misunderstanding help in modifying the questionnaire.
 The researcher who developed the questionnaire should
himself/herself conduct some of the pre-test interviews as it helps
in evaluating the responses and determining whether changes
should be made or not. Pre-testing should also be conducted in a
population, which is very similar to the study population.
 Twenty-five to fifty pre-test interviews are usually sufficient to
check the quality of the questionnaire. However, their number
depends upon the purpose and availability of time and money. If
pre-test is used for training the interviewers, then more
interviews, can be conducted. The data obtained from the pre-test
are not to be included in the final study.
PILOT SURVEY
A series of small pre-tests can be conducted on the
isolated problems of the design, and after establishing a
broad plan of enquiry, it may take the form of a pilot
survey, "a small replica of the main survey - a dress
rehearsal".
- Moser and Kalton
THE IMPORTANCE OF PRE-TESTS AND
PILOT SURVEYS LIES IN -
 Determining the adequacy of the for a study sampling frame :
High hospital records are to be used, pre-test may be done to see
their completeness, adequacy, up-to-dateness and convenience in
obtaining such records.

 Finding variability within the population, which is important to

know for determining the sample design and size : If the
variability is more, a bigger sample would be required, but if the
variability is not much, even a smaller sample will be adequate.

 Estimating the non-response rates : Through pilot surveys one

can estimate the refusal and non-contact rate and accordingly
decide upon the appropriate technique of data collection. One can
also evaluate the strain on and efficiency of interviewers.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PRE-TESTS AND
PILOT SURVEYS LIES IN -
 To determine the usefulness of questionnaire : The adequacy of questions, their
placement, language, unambiguity of words, clarity of definitions and use of technical
terms. If the questions are unable to convey what they are intended to, there is a need to
make the necessary changes. For example, a heavy concentration of responses at one
extreme may be indicative of a leading question, which has suggested some stereotyped
answers. Similarly, a large number of `don't know' replies suggests a vague question. If
a large number of people refuse to answer a particular question, probably there is a need
to remove it or change its language or place. The difficulties encountered during pilot
surveys and pre-tests help in improving the questionnaire for the main study.
  To determine the adequacy of instructions to the interviewers, codes chosen for pre-
coded questions, and efficiency of the field organisation staff : Pre-tests and pilot
surveys are effective instruments in checking whether the interviewers are able to
follow the instructions properly or they misunderstand something; whether the codes
allocated for different answers are adequate or not or is there a need to convert an open
question to a structured question or vice-versa.
  Through pilot surveys one may also get some idea of the estimated cost of the main
survey and consider the areas where economies can be made : Pilot surveys not only
help in improving upon the questionnaire, but also give an insight in to the researcher
whether there is really a need to carry out the main survey or not. The size and design
of pilot survey is a matter of convenience, time and money.
THE VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT/
TOOL
 Basic questions must be asked about any measuring
instrument
 What does it measure?
 Are the data it provides relevant to the characteristic in which
one is interested?
 Do the differences in scores represent the differences on the
characteristic one is trying to measure, or do they reflect also
the influence of other factors?
WAYS TO EVALUATE THE VALIDITY OF
THE INSTRUMENT
 Face Validity
 Concurrent Validity

 Predictive Validity

 Construct Validity
FACE VALIDITY
 Face validity is evaluated by a group of judges, sometimes experts,
who read or look at a measuring technique and decide whether in their
opinion it measures what its name suggests.
 Evaluating the face validity is a subjective process, but we could
calculate the validity figures by computing the amount of agreement
between judges.
 The higher the percent who says it measures what it claims to
measure, the higher the face validity.
 Every instrument must pass the face validity test either formally or
informally.
 Every researcher who chooses an instrument is a judge who has
decided that the test measures the concept he or she wishes to study.
Without such minimal face validity, an instrument would not be used.
  
CONCURRENT VALIDITY
 Concurrent validity is the ability of a measuring instrument
to distinguish between individuals who are known to
differ.
 Thus, if a scale were being devised for the purpose of
measuring religiosity, the questions could be tested by
administering them to one group known to be religious, to
be active in religious activities and otherwise to give
evidence of high religiosity. T
 hese answers would then be compared with those from a
group known not to be very religious and also known to
oppose religious behaviour in other ways. If the test failed
to discriminate between the two groups, it could not be
considered to measure religiosity with validity.
PREDICTIVE VALIDITY
 Predictive validity is the ability of a measuring
instrument to identify future differences.
 For instance, the predictive validity of a scale measuring
attitude towards birth control is the ability of the scale to
identify who will eventually adopt contraception and
who will not practise contraception.
 Predictive validity is an evaluation of a measure's
practical worth in foreseeing the future.
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
 Construct validity is an evaluation of the extent to which
an instrument measures the theoretical construct the
investigator wishes to measure.
 Unlike face validity, construct validity requires more
than expert opinion. It requires a demonstration that the
construct in question exists, that it is distinct from other
constructs, and that the instrument measures that
particular construct and no other.
THE RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
/INSTRUMENT
 scores on measuring instruments usually reflect not only
the characteristics, which the instrument is attempting to
measure, but a variety of constant and random errors.
 The evaluation of the reliability of any measurement
procedure consists of determining how much of the
variation in scores among individuals is due to
inconsistencies in measurement.
 When independent and comparable measures of the same
thing are obtained, they will yield the same results to the
extent that the measurements are free from random or
variable errors.
 The reliability of a measuring instrument should be
determined before it is used in a study