DC MOTOR CONTROL USING

MICPROPROCESSOR 8085
CONTENTS
1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

2. CERTIFICATE

3. PROJECT OUTLINE

4. MICROPROCESSOR 8085

5. DC MOTOR

6. PROGRAMMABLE PERIPHERAL INTERFACE

8255

7. DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER

DAC-0800

8. DPDT RELAY SWITCH

9. ULN2003 DARLINGTON ARRAY

10. CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND PROGRAMMING

11. REFERENCES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2
I would like to extend my heartfelt regards and thanks
to the entire department of electronics at Sri
Venkateshwara College for giving us their invaluable
support and encouragement during the course of our
project. It was due to their support that the project
was successful.

I would also like to extend a special note of thank you

to Dr. Neeru Kumar for lending her support as well in
the success of our project.

CERTIFICATE
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This is to certify, that the project entitled “DC motor
control using µ processor 8085” is the bonafide work
carried out by) student of BSc. Honours, Sri
Venkateswara College, New Delhi, during the year
2011, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of the Degree of Bachelor of Electronics
Honours and that the project has not formed the basis
for the award previously of any degree, diploma,
associateship, fellowship or any award previously of
any other similar title.

Place:

Date:

4
 PROJECT OUTLINE
Direct current (DC) motors have been widely used in many industrial
applications such as electric vehicles, steel rolling mills, electric
cranes, and robotic manipulators due to precise, wide, simple, and
continuous control characteristics.
Interfacing and controlling of a simple DC motor is an interested
subject to many hobbyists and engineers, many of them used DC
motor to move mechanical part, automated task, or just for fun and
learning. In this project, we have built an interfacing circuit to
control the speed and direction of any DC drive.
A permanent magnet DC motor responds to both voltage and current.
The steady state voltage across a motor determines the motor’s
running speed, and the current through its armature windings
determines the torque. Apply a voltage and the motor will start
running in one direction; reverse the polarity and the direction will be
reversed. If you apply a load to the motor shaft, it will draw more
current, if the power supply does not able to provide enough current,
the voltage will drop and the speed of the motor will be reduced.
However, if the power supply can maintain voltage while supplying
the current, the motor will run at the same speed. In general, you can
control the speed by applying the appropriate voltage, while torque is
controlled by current.

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

 Consider what happens when a voltage applied to a motor’s

windings is rapidly turned ON and OFF in such a way that the
frequency of the pulses produced remains constant, but the
width of the ON pulse is varied. This is known as Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM). Current only flows through the motor during
the ON portion of the PWM waveform. If the frequency of the
PWM input is high enough, the mechanical inertia of the motor
cannot react to the ripple wave; instead, the motor behaves as
if the current were the DC average of the ripple wave.
Therefore, by changing the width of pulse, we can control the
motor speed.
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  The PWM output can be easily obtained from the output of the
DAC interfaced to microprocessor 8085 by changing its input
b/w two levels for eg FFH and 00H continuously. By this way
we can obtain the output waveform of any manner (pulsed,
staircase, square, sinusoidal), simply by changing the delays
b/w two inputs or by changing the input itself. The DAC which is
being used in our project is DAC0800 which has maximum
output of 5v if its input is FFH and 0v if input is 00H but the max
output current of this 50 mA which is not sufficient enough to
drive the motor. Therefore, we have used IC ULN2003 in our
circuit which is nothing but Darlington arrays to provide the
output of DAC sufficient current gain to drive the motor.
 One important thing to note here is that the DAC output simply
without pulses or any variations can drive the motor if given
sufficient current gain but in that case we won’t have enough
flexibility in controlling the speed of motor, i.e. the range of
speed control is very large if we use pulsed output instead of
fixed DC voltage from the output of DAC.

DIRECTION CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

 We know that the direction in which motor is running reverses if

the polarity of voltage applied to it reverses. This is
accomplished very easily by using H-Bridge. An H bridge is
an electronic circuit , which enables a voltage to be applied
across a load in either direction. These circuits are often used
in robotics and other applications to allow DC motors to run
forwards and backwards.
 In our project we have made the h-bridge using 2 DPDT relay
switches and we are controlling these DPDT switches using
output ports of IC 8255.

WORKING OF H-BRIDGE

• In our circuit the motor is connected between the +5v supply

and Darlington pair output and if the polarity of these two terminals is
changed the motor reverses its direction, for doing so we connect the
motor b/w the common terminals of two DPDT switches as shown.

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• The +5v supply and the D.P output is connected to the 2
normally open points of the 1st relay switch and for 2nd
relay, it is connected in the same manner but with polarity
reversed.
• The triggering of the relays is done with the help of output
ports of IC 8255 by suitable programming. In our project
we have used IC-741 (op-amp) to provide sufficient
voltage gain because the voltage output of 8255 ports is
not sufficient enough to trigger the Relay’s we have used(
5V dc coil voltage).
• If none of the relay is triggered, there won’t be any motion
of the motor because the normally closed terminals of
both the relay switches are open
• and under no triggering condition the common
terminals( B/W which our motor is connected) are
connected to the normally closed switches.
• So when the first relay is triggered motor rotates in the
direction as shown

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• And when the second relay is triggered the motor rotates
in opposite direction as shown

• So with control of speed and direction of the D.C motor

we can easily form different movements of the D.C motor
as illustrated in our programs. Such movements of the DC
motor are of much importance in the field of robotics,
industrial applications, electric cranes etc.

• In our project we have implemented four different modes of

operation (or four different movements) of DC motor.
These are: -
MODE 1: CLOCKWISE MOTION (3 SEC.) – NO MOTION
(3 SEC.) – ANTI-CLOCKWISE MOTION (3 SEC)

MODE 2: CLOCKWISE MOTION (SLOW SPEED, 3SEC) –

NO MOTION (3SEC) – CLOCKWISE MOTION (FASTEST
SPEED, 3SEC)
MODE 3: CLOCKWISE MOTION (SLOWEST SPEED)
• MODE 4: CLOCKWISE MOTION (3SEC) – NO MOTION –
CLOCKWISE MOTION (3SEC) – NO MOTION – ANTI
CLOCKWISE MOTION (3SEC).

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 MICROPROCESSOR 8085
INTRODUCTION
The Intel 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1977.
It was binary-compatible with the more-famous Intel 8080 but
required less supporting hardware, thus allowing simpler and less
expensivemicrocomputer systems to be built.
The "5" in the model number came from the fact that the 8085
requires only a +5-volt (V) power supply rather than the +5V, -5V and
+12V supplies the 8080 needed.

DESCRIPTION
The 8085 is a conventional von Neumann design based on the Intel
8080. Unlike the 8080 it does not multiplex state signals onto the data
bus, but the 8-bit data bus was instead multiplexed with the lower part
of the 16-bit address bus to limit the number of pins to 40. Pin #40 is
used for the power supply (+5v) and pin #20 for ground. Pin #39 is
used as the hold pin. Pins #15 to #8 are generally used for address
buses. The processor was designed using nMOS circuitry and the
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later "H" versions were implemented in Intel's enhanced nMOS
process called HMOS, originally developed for fast static RAM
products. Only a 5 Volt supply is needed, like competing processors
and unlike the 8080. The 8085 uses approximately 6,500 transistors.
The 8085 incorporates the functions of the 8224 (clock generator)
and the 8228 (system controller), increasing the level of integration. A
downside compared to similar contemporary designs (such as the
Z80) was the fact that the buses required demultiplexing; however,
address latches in the Intel 8155, 8355, and 8755 memory chips
allowed a direct interface, so an 8085 along with these chips was
almost a complete system.
The 8085 has extensions to support new interrupts, with three
maskable interrupts (RST 7.5, RST 6.5 and RST 5.5), one non-
maskable interrupt (TRAP), and one externally serviced interrupt
(INTR). The RST n.5 interrupts refer to actual pins on the processor,
a feature which permitted simple systems to avoid the cost of a
separate interrupt controller.
Like the 8080, the 8085 can accommodate slower memories through
externally generated wait states (pin 35, READY), and has provisions
for Direct Memory Access (DMA) using HOLD and HLDA signals
(pins 39 and 38). An improvement over the 8080 was that the 8085
can itself drive a piezoelectric crystal directly connected to it, and a
built in clock generator generates the internal high amplitude two-
phase clock signals at half the crystal frequency (a 6.14 MHz crystal
would yield a 3.07 MHz clock, for instance).

PROGRAMMING MODEL
The 8085 is a binary compatible follow up on the 8080, using the
same basic instruction set as the 8008 (developed by Computer
Terminal Corporation). Only a few minor instructions were new to the
8085 above the 8080 set.

REGISTERS
The processor has seven 8-bit registers named A, B, C, D, E, H, and
L, where A is the 8-bit accumulator and the other six can be used as
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independent byte-registers or as three 16-bit register pairs, BC, DE,
and HL, depending on the particular instruction. Some instructions
use HL as a (limited) 16-bit accumulator. As in the 8080, the contents
of the memory address pointed to by HL could be accessed as
pseudo register M. It also has a 16-bit stack pointer to memory
(replacing the 8008's internal stack), and a 16-bit program counter.
HL pair is called the primary data pointers.

PINOUT DESCRIPTION

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COMMANDS/INSTRUCTIONS
As in many other 8-bit processors, all instructions are encoded in a
single byte (including register-numbers, but excluding immediate
data), for simplicity. Some of them are followed by one or two bytes of
data, which could be an immediate operand, a memory address, or a
port number. Like larger processors, it has CALL and RET
instructions for multi-level procedure calls and returns (which can be
conditionally executed, like jumps) and instructions to save and
restore any 16-bit register-pair on the machine stack. There are also
eight one-byte call instructions (RST) for subroutines located at the
fixed addresses 00h, 08h, 10h,...,38h. These were intended to be
supplied by external hardware in order to invoke a corresponding

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interrupt-service routine, but are also often employed as fast system
calls. The most sophisticated command was XTHL, which is used for
exchanging the register pair HL with the value stored at the address
indicated by the stack pointer.

8 BIT OPERATIONS
Most 8-bit operations work on the 8-bit accumulator (the A register).
For two operand 8-bit operations, the other operand can be either an
immediate value, another 8-bit register, or a memory cell addressed
by the 16-bit register pair HL. Direct copying is supported between
any two 8-bit registers and between any 8-bit register and a HL-
addressed memory cell. Due to the regular encoding of the MOV-
instruction (using a quarter of available opcode space) there are
redundant codes to copy a register into itself (MOV B,B, for instance),
which are of little use, except for delays. However, what would have
been a copy from the HL-addressed cell into itself (i.e., MOV M,M)
instead encodes the HLT instruction, halting execution until an
external reset or interrupt occurred.

16 BIT OPERATIONS
Although the 8085 is an 8-bit processor, it also has some 16-bit
operations. Any of the three 16-bit register pairs (BC, DE, HL) or SP
could be loaded with an immediate 16-bit value (using LXI),
incremented or decremented (using INX and DCX), or added to HL
(using DAD). LHLD loaded HL from directly-addressed memory and
SHLD stored HL likewise. The XCHG operation exchanges the
values of HL and DE. Adding HL to itself performs a 16-bit
arithmetical left shift with one instruction. The only 16 bit instruction
that affects any flag was DAD (adding HL to BC, DE, HL or SP),
which updates the carry flag to facilitate 24-bit or larger additions and
left shifts (for a floating point mantissa for instance). Adding the stack
pointer to HL is useful for indexing variables in (recursive) stack
frames. A stack frame can be allocated using DAD SP and SPHL,
and a branch to a computed pointer can be done with PCHL. These
abilities make it feasible to compile languages such as PL/M, Pascal,
or C with 16-bit variables and produce 8085 machine code.
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Subtraction and bitwise logical operations on 16 bits is done in 8-bit
steps. Operations that have to be implemented by program code
(subroutine libraries) included comparisons of signed integers as well
as multiply and divide.

INPUT/OUTPUT SCHEME
The 8085 supported up to 256 input/output (I/O) ports, accessed via
dedicated I/O instructions—taking port addresses as operands. This
I/O mapping scheme was regarded as an advantage, as it freed up
the processor's limited address space. Many CPU architectures
instead use a common address space without the need for dedicated
I/O instructions, although a drawback in such designs may be that
special hardware must be used to insert wait states as peripherals
are often slower than memory. However, in some simple 8080
computers, I/O was indeed addressed as if they were memory cells,
"memory mapped", leaving the I/O commands unused. I/O
addressing could also sometimes employ the fact that the processor
would output the same 8-bit port address to both the lower and the
higher address byte (i.e. IN 05h would put the address 0505h on the
16-bit address bus). Similar I/O-port schemes are used in the 8080-
compatible Zilog Z80 as well as the closely related x86 families of
microprocessors.

APPLICATIONS
For the extensive use of 8085 in various applications, the
microprocessor is provided with an instruction set which consists of
various instructions such as MOV, ADD, SUB, JMP etc. These
instructions are written in the form of a program which is used to
perform various operations such as branching, addition,
subtraction, bitwise logical and bit shift operations. More complex
operations and other arithmetic operations must be implemented in
software. For example, multiplication is implemented using
a multiplication algorithm.

DC MOTOR
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 The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC
power supplied to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary
permanent magnets, and rotating electrical magnets. Like all electric
motors or generators, torque is produced by the principle of Lorentz
force, which states that any current-carrying conductor placed within
an external magnetic field experiences a torque or force known as
Lorentz force. Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial
cost, high reliability, and simple control of motor speed.
Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high
intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the brushes
and springs which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or
replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for
transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning
wire windings of the rotor inside the motor.The following graphics
illustrate a simple, two-pole, brushed, DC motor.
DC Motor Rotation

A simple DC electric motor. The armature continues to When the armature becomes
When the coil is powered, a rotate. horizontally aligned, the
magnetic field is generated commutator reverses the
around the armature. The left direction of current through
side of the armature is pushed the coil, reversing the
away from the left magnet and magnetic field. The process
drawn toward the right, then repeats.
causing rotation.
When a current passes through the coil wound around a soft iron
core, the side of the positive pole is acted upon by an upwards force,
while the other side is acted upon by a downward force. According
to Fleming's left hand rule, the forces cause a turning effect on the
coil, making it rotate. To make the motor rotate in a constant

15
direction, "direct current" commutators make the current reverse in
direction every half a cycle (in a two-pole motor) thus causing the
motor to continue to rotate in the same direction.
DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL
Generally, the rotational speed of a DC motor is proportional to the
voltage applied to it, and the torque is proportional to the current.
Speed control can be achieved by variable battery tappings, variable
supply voltage, resistors or electronic controls. The direction of a
wound field DC motor can be changed by reversing either the field or
armature connections but not both. This is commonly done with a
special set of contactors (direction contactors).
The effective voltage can be varied by inserting a series resistor or by
an electronically controlled switching device made
of thyristors, transistors, or, formerly, mercury arc rectifiers.
In a circuit known as a chopper, the average voltage applied to the
motor is varied by switching the supply voltage very rapidly. As the
"on" to "off" ratio is varied to alter the average applied voltage, the
speed of the motor varies. The percentage "on" time multiplied by the
supply voltage gives the average voltage applied to the motor.
Therefore, with a 100 V supply and a 25% "on" time, the average
voltage at the motor will be 25 V. During the "off" time, the armature's
inductance causes the current to continue through a diode called a
"flyback diode", in parallel with the motor. At this point in the cycle,
the supply current will be zero, and therefore the average motor
current will always be higher than the supply current unless the
percentage "on" time is 100%. At 100% "on" time, the supply and
motor current are equal. The rapid switching wastes less energy than
series resistors. This method is also called pulse-width
modulation (PWM) and is often controlled by a microprocessor.

PROGRAMMABLE PERIPHERAL
INTERFACE PPI 8255

The Intel 8255 (or i8255) Programmable Peripheral Interface chip is

a peripheral chip originally developed for the Intel
8085 microprocessor, and as such is a member of a large array of
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such chips, known as the MCS-85 Family. This chip was later also
used with the Intel 8086 and its descendants. It was later made
(cloned) by many other manufacturers. It is made in DIP 40
and PLCC 44 pins encapsulated versions.
This chip is used to give the CPU access to programmable
parallel I/O, and is similar to other such chips like the Motorola 6520
PIA (Peripheral Interface Adapter) the MOS Technology
6522 (Versatile Interface Adapter) and the MOS Technology
CIA (Complex Interface Adapter) all developed for the 6502 family.
Other such chips are the 2655 Programmable Peripheral Interface
from the Signetics 2650 family of microprocessors, the 6820 PIO
(Peripheral Input/Output) from the Motorola 6800 family, the Western
Design Center WDC 65C21, an enhanced 6520, and many others.

FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM

The 8255 has 24 input/output pins in all. These are divided into three
8-bit ports. Port A and port B can be used as 8-bit input/output ports.
Port C can be used as an 8-bit input/output port or as two 4-bit
input/output ports or to produce handshake signals for ports A and B.
The three ports are further grouped as follows:

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 1. Group A consisting of port A and upper part of port C.
2. Group B consisting of port B and lower part of port C.

Eight data lines (D0 - D7) are available (with an 8-bit data buffer) to
read/write data into the ports or control register under the status of
the " RD" (pin 5) and WR" (pin 36), which are active low signals for
read and write operations respectively. The address lines A1 and A0
allow to successively access any one of the ports or the control
register as listed below:

A1 A0 Function

0 0 port A

0 1 port B

1 0 port C

1 1 control register

The control signal "' CS" (pin 6) is used to enable the 8255 chip. It
is an active low signal, i.e., when CS = '0' , the 8255 is enabled.
The RESET input (pin 35) is connected to a system (like 8085, 8086,
etc. ) reset line so that when the system is reset, all the ports are
initialised as input lines. This is done to prevent 8255 and/or any
peripheral connected to it, from being destroyed due to mismatch of
ports. This is explained as follows. Suppose an input device is
connected to 8255 at port A. If from the previous operation, port A is
initialised as an output port and if 8255 is not reset before using the
current configuration, then there is a possibility of damage of either
the input device connected or 8255 or both since both 8255 and the
device connected will be sending out data.
The control register or the control logic or the command word register
is an 8-bit register used to select the modes of operation and
input/output designation of the ports.

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OPERATION MODES OF 8255
There are two main operational modes of 8255:

1. Input/output mode
2. Bit set/reset mode

1. Input/output mode
There are three types of the input/output mode that are as follows:
Mode 0
In this mode, the ports can be used for simple input/output operations
without handshaking. If both port A and B are initialized in mode 0,
the two halves of port C can be either used together as an additional
8-bit port, or they can be used as individual 4-bit ports. Since the two
halves of port C are independent, they may be used such that one-
half is initialized as an input port while the other half is initialized as
an output port. The input/output features in mode 0 are as follows:

1. O/p are latched.

2. I/p are buffered not latched.
3. Port do not have handshake or interrupt capability.

Mode 1
When we wish to use port A or port B for handshake (strobed) input
or output operation, we initialise that port in mode 1 (port A and port B
can be initilalised to operate in different modes, i.e., for e.g., port A
can operate in mode 0 and port B in mode 1). Some of the pins of
port C function as handshake lines.
For port B in this mode (irrespective of whether is acting as an input
port or output port), PC0, PC1 and PC2 pins function as handshake
lines.
If port A is initialised as mode 1 input port, then, PC3, PC4 and PC5
function as handshake signals. Pins PC6 and PC7 are available for
use as input/output lines.

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The mode 1 which supports handshaking has following features:

1. Two ports i.e. port A and B can be use as 8-bit i/o port.
2. Each port uses three lines of port c as handshake signal
and remaining two signals can be function as i/o port.
3. Interrupt logic is supported.
4. Input and Output data are latched.

Mode 2
Only group A can be initialised in this mode. Port A can be used
for bidirectional handshake data transfer. This means that data can
be input or output on the same eight lines (PA0 - PA7). Pins PC3 -
PC7 are used as handshake lines for port A. The remaining pins of
port C (PC0 - PC2) can be used as input/output lines if group B is
initialised in mode 0. In this mode, the 8255 may be used to extend
the system bus to a slave microprocessor or to transfer data bytes to
and from a floppy disk controller.

2. Bit set/reset (BSR) mode

In this mode only port B can be used (as an output port). Each line of
port C (PC0 - PC7) can be set/reset by suitably loading the command
word register.no effect occurs in input-output mode. The individual
bits of port c can be set or reset by sending the signal OUT
instruction to the control register.

CONTROL WORD
Input/output mode format

 The figure shows the control word format in the input/output

mode. This mode is selected by making D7 = '1' .

 D0, D1, D3, D4 are for lower port C, port B, upper port C and
port A respectively. When D0 or D1 or D3 or D4 are"SET", the
corresponding ports act as input ports. For e.g., if D0 = D4 = '1',
then lower port C and port A act as input ports. If these bits
are "RESET", then the corresponding ports act as output ports.

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 For e.g., if D1 = D3 = '0', then port B and upper port C act as
output ports.

 D2 is used for mode selection for group B (Port B and Lower

Port C). When D2 = '0', mode 0 is selected and when D2 = '1',
mode 1 is selected.

 D5, D6 are used for mode selection for group A (Upper Port C
and Port A). The format is as follows:

D6 D5 mode

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 x 2

Example: If port B and upper port C have to be initialised as input

ports and lower port C and port A as ouput ports (all in mode 0), what
is the control word?
1. Since it is an input/ouput mode, D7 = '1'.
2. Mode selection bits, D2, D5, D6 are all '0' for mode 0
operation.
3. Port B should operate as input port, hence, D1 = '1'.
4. Upper port C should also be an input port, hence, D3 = '1'.
5. Port A has to operate output port, hence, D4 = '0'.
6. Lower port C should also operate as output port, hence, D0 =
'0'.
Applying the corresponding values to the format in input/output
mode, we get the control word as "8A (hex)"
BSR mode format

 The figure shows the control word format in BSR mode.

This mode is selected by making D7='0'.

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 

 D0 is used for bit set/reset. When D0= '1', the port C bit
selected (selection of a port C bit is shown in the next point)
is SET, when D0 = '0', the port C bit is RESET.

 D1, D2, D3 are used to select a particular port C bit

whose value may be altered using D0 bit as mentioned above.
The selection of the port C bits are done as follows:

D3 D2 D1 Bit/pin of port C selected

0 0 0 PC0

0 0 1 PC1

0 1 0 PC2

0 1 1 PC3

1 0 0 PC4

1 0 1 PC5

1 1 0 PC6

1 1 1 PC7

 D4, D5, D6 are not used.

Example: If the 5th bit (PC5) of port C has to be "SET", then

what is the control word?
1. Since it is BSR mode, D7 = '0'.
2. Since D4, D5, D6 are not used, assume them to be '0'.
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 3. PC5 has to be selected, hence, D3 = '1', D2 = '0', D1 = '1'.
4. PC5 has to be set, hence, D0 = '1'.
Applying the above values to the format for BSR mode, we get the
control word as "0B (hex)".

The following is an illustrative diagram of the control word format.

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 DIGITAL TO ANALOG
CONVERTER DAC 0800
FEATURES
Fast settling output current: 100 ns
 Full scale error: ±1 LSB
 Nonlinearity over temperature: ±0.1%
 Full scale current drift: ±10 ppm/°C
 High output compliance: -10V to +18V
 Complementary current outputs
 Interface directly with TTL, CMOS,
PMOS
and others
 2 quadrant wide range multiplying
capability
 Wide power supply range
: ±4.5V to ±18V
 Low power consumption:
33 mW at ±5V
 Low cost

24
DESCRIPTION
The DAC0800 series are monolithic 8-bit high-speed current-output
digital-to-analog converters (DAC) featuring typical settling times of
100 ns. When used as a multiplying DAC, monotonic performance
over a 40 to 1 reference current range is possible. The DAC0800
series also features high compliance complementary current outputs
to allow differential output voltages of 20 Vp-p with simple resistor
loads. The reference-to-full-scale current matching of better than ±1
LSB eliminates the need for full-scale trims in most applications, while
the nonlinearities of better than ±0.1% over temperature minimizes
system error accumulations.

The noise immune inputs will accept a variety of logic levels. The
performance and characteristics of the device are essentially
unchanged over the ±4.5V to ±18V power supply range and power
consumption at only 33 mW with ±5V supplies is independent of logic
input levels.

OUTPUT EQUATION:

25
 DPDT RELAY SWITCH
A relay is an electrically active voltage operated switch. Many relays
use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism
mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal
(with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled
circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding

a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for
magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of
contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged
to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving
contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-
energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition,
one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the
other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of
contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has
a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of
the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the
circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is
soldered to the PCB.
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When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates
a magnetic field that attracts the armature, and the consequent
movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If
the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then
the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and
vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is
switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half
as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this
force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate
quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high
voltage or current application it reduces arcing.
Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also
applied to relays. A relay will switch one or more poles, each of
whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in one of three
ways:

 Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay

is activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It
is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact. NO contacts
can also be distinguished as "early-make" or NOEM, which means
that the contacts will close before the button or switch is fully
engaged.
 Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the
relay is activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is
inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break"
contact. NC contacts can also be distinguished as "late-break"
or NCLB, which means that the contacts will stay closed until the
button or switch is fully disengaged.
 Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two
circuits: one normally-open contact and one normally-closed
contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C contact
or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact
utilizes a "make before break" functionality, then it is called a Form
D contact.

The following designations are commonly encountered:

27
  SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals
which can be connected or disconnected. Including two for the
coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is ambiguous
whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The
terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the
ambiguity.
 SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal
connects to either of two others. Including two for the coil, such a
relay has five terminals in total.
 DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of
terminals. Equivalent to two SPST switches or relays actuated by
a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six
terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of
each).
 DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of
change-over terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays
actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals,
including the coil.

The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple

switches connected to a single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates
a four pole double throw relay (with 14 terminals).
EN 50005 are among applicable standards for relay terminal
numbering; a typical EN 50005-compliant SPDT relay's terminals
would be numbered 11, 12, 14, A1 and A2 for the C, NC, NO, and
coil connections, respectively.

28
 BLOCK DIAGRAM
ULN2003 DARLINGTON ARRAY
IC
ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS
Symbol Parameter Value Unit
Vo Output Voltage 50 V
Vin Input Voltage (for ULN2002A/D - 2003A/D - 2004A/D) 30 V
Ic Continuous Collector Current 500 mA
Ib Continuous Base Current 25 mA
Tamb Operating Ambient Temperature Range – 20 to 85 °C
Tstg Storage Temperature Range – 55 to 150 °C
Tj Junction Temperature 150 °C

29
The ULN2003 is a high voltage, high current darlington array
containing seven open collector darlington pairs with common
emitters. Each channel rated at 500mA and can withstand peak
currents of 600mA. Suppression diodes are included for inductive
load driving and the inputs are pinned opposite the outputs to simplify
board layout. It is a versatile device useful for driving a wide range of
loads including solenoids, relays DC motors, LED displays filament
lamps, thermal print heads and high power buffers.
The ULN2003 is supplied in 16 pin plastic DIP packages with a
copper lead frame to reduce thermal resistance.

ULN2003 PINOUT

30
 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND
PROGRAMMING

The heart of our project is the microprocessor 8085, which is used to

control the digital to analog converter and the peripheral interfaces
8255.
The programming takes care of which device to trigger and when.
The use of appropriate delays makes it possible for us to see the
motion control in real time.

31
The DAC is also another important part which is used to produce the
pulses necessary for pulse width modulation and hence speed
variation in the operation of the dc motor.

The DC motor used is a 6V (minimum 150mA current) motor and

hence since the maximum output capability of the DAC is 5V and
current sourcing is 50mA, therefore we have used a darlington array
IC which is the ULN2003. This IC provides a large current gain due to
the presence of darlington pairs and also a high voltage gain. The
output of the DAC is used to drive the motor. The output of the DAC
is varied and hence the speed variations are produced.

The motion control is achieved by what is known as an H-bridge,

which is made using relays.
An H bridge is an electronic circuit, which enables a voltage to be
applied across a load in either direction. H bridges are available
as integrated circuits, or can be built from discrete components
The term H bridge is derived from the typical graphical representation
of such a circuit. An H bridge is built with four switches (solid-state or
mechanical). When the switches S1 and S4 (according to the first
figure) are closed (and S2 and S3 are open) a positive voltage will be
applied across the motor. By opening S1 and S4 switches and
closing S2 and S3 switches, this voltage is reversed, allowing reverse
operation of the motor. Using the nomenclature above, the switches
S1 and S2 should never be closed at the same time, as this would
cause a short circuit on the input voltage source. The same applies to
the switches S3 and S4. This condition is known as shoot-through.

32
 PROGRAMMING
START

FLOWCHARTS
SET UP MEMORY POINTER FOR
SELECTING DIFFERENT MODES OF
OPERATION

TRANSFER THE CONTENTS OF

MEMORY TO ACCUMULATOR

IS MODE YES JUMP TO

1 MODE 1
SELECTE (ADDRESS
D? 2020)

NO

JUMP TO
IS MODE YES
2 MODE 2
SELECTE (ADDRESS
MAIN PROGRAM D? 2020)

NO

IS MODE YES JUMP TO MODE

3
3 (ADDRESS
SELECTE
D? 2020)

NO
IS MODE YES JUMP TO
4 MODE 4
SELECTE (ADDRESS
D? 2020)
33

STOP
 NO

START

FFH: MAXIMUM SPEED

LOAD ACCUMULATOR WITH 00H: NO MOTION
60H: MINIMUM SPEED
DATA 99H

OUT THE CONTENTS OF

ACCUMULATOR AT THE INPUT PORT
OF THE DAC (PORT ADDRESS OAH )

LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR WITH CONTROL

WORD (80H)
FOR INTIALISING ALL
OUT THE CONTROL WORD IN THE CONTROL THE PORTS AS OUTPUT
PORTS OF 8255 II
REG. OF 8255 II

OUT FFH AT PORT A TO TURN

RELAY 2 ON

DELAY
(3SEC.)

OUT 00H AT PORT A TO TURN RELAY

2 OFF
MODE 1
DELAY
(3SEC.)

LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR WITH CONTROL

WORD (80H)
FOR INTIALISING ALL
OUT THE CONTROL WORD IN THE CONTROL PORTS AS OUTPUT
PORTS OF 8255 I
REG. OF 8255 I

OUT THE CONTROL WORD IN THE CONTROL

REG. OF 8255 I

OUT FFH AT PORT A TO TURN

RELAY 1 ON

DELAY
(3SEC.)

OUT 00H AT PORT A TO TURN RELAY

1 OFF
34
DELAY
(3SEC.)
 START

FFH: MAXIMUM SPEED

LOAD ACCUMULATOR WITH 00H: NO MOTION
60H: MINIMUM SPEED
DATA 99H

OUT THE CONTENTS OF

ACCUMULATOR AT THE INPUT PORT
OF THE DAC (PORT ADDRESS OAH )

LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR WITH CONTROL

WORD (80H)
FOR INTIALISING ALL
OUT THE CONTROL WORD IN THE CONTROL THE PORTS AS OUTPUT
PORTS OF 8255 II
REG. OF 8255 II

OUT FFH AT PORT A TO TURN

RELAY 2 ON

DELAY
(3SEC.)

OUT 00H AT PORT A TO TURN RELAY

2 OFF
MODE 1
DELAY
(3SEC.)

LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR WITH CONTROL

WORD (80H)
FOR INTIALISING ALL
OUT THE CONTROL WORD IN THE CONTROL PORTS AS OUTPUT
PORTS OF 8255 I
REG. OF 8255 I

OUT THE CONTROL WORD IN THE CONTROL

REG. OF 8255 I

OUT FFH AT PORT A TO TURN

RELAY 1 ON

DELAY
(3SEC.)

OUT 00H AT PORT A TO TURN RELAY

1 OFF
35
DELAY
(3SEC.)
 START

FFH: MAXIMUM SPEED

LOAD ACCUMULATOR WITH 00H: NO MOTION
60H: MINIMUM SPEED
DATA 99H

OUT THE CONTENTS OF

ACCUMULATOR AT THE INPUT PORT
OF THE DAC (PORT ADDRESS OAH )

LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR WITH CONTROL

WORD (80H)
FOR INTIALISING ALL
OUT THE CONTROL WORD IN THE CONTROL THE PORTS AS OUTPUT
PORTS OF 8255 II
REG. OF 8255 II

OUT FFH AT PORT A TO TURN

RELAY 2 ON

DELAY
(3SEC.)

OUT 00H AT PORT A TO TURN RELAY

2 OFF
MODE 1
DELAY
(3SEC.)

LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR WITH CONTROL

WORD (80H)
FOR INTIALISING ALL
OUT THE CONTROL WORD IN THE CONTROL PORTS AS OUTPUT
PORTS OF 8255 I
REG. OF 8255 I

OUT THE CONTROL WORD IN THE CONTROL

REG. OF 8255 I

OUT FFH AT PORT A TO TURN

RELAY 1 ON

DELAY
(3SEC.)

OUT 00H AT PORT A TO TURN RELAY

1 OFF

DELAY
36
(3SEC.)
 START

FFH: MAXIMUM SPEED

LOAD ACCUMULATOR WITH 00H: NO MOTION
60H: MINIMUM SPEED
DATA 70H

OUT THE CONTENTS OF

ACCUMULATOR AT THE INPUT PORT
OF THE DAC (PORT ADDRESS OAH)

LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR WITH CONTROL

WORD (80H)
FOR INTIALISING ALL
OUT THE CONTROL WORD IN THE CONTROL THE PORTS AS OUTPUT
PORTS OF 8255 II
REG. OF 8255 II

OUT FFH AT PORT A TO TURN

RELAY 2 ON

DELAY
(3SEC.)

OUT 00H AT PORT A TO TURN RELAY

2 OFF

DELAY
(3SEC.)
OUT FFH AT PORT A TO TURN
RELAY 2 ON

DELAY
MODE 4 (3SEC.)

OUT 00H AT PORT A TO TURN RELAY

2 OFF

DELAY
(3SEC.)
LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR WITH CONTROL
WORD (80H)
FOR INTIALISING ALL
OUT THE CONTROL WORD IN THE CONTROL PORTS AS OUTPUT
PORTS OF 8255 I
REG. OF 8255 I

OUT THE CONTROL WORD IN THE CONTROL

REG. OF 8255 I

OUT FFH AT PORT A TO TURN

RELAY 1 ON

DELAY
37
(3SEC.)
 DELAY
(3SEC.)

OUT 00H AT PORT A TO TURN RELAY 1 OFF

DELAY
(3SEC.)

JUMP TO THE STARTING OF THE PROGRAM

DELAY

LOAD REG. B WITH DATA 06H

PRELOADED DELAY IN
SUBROUTINE DELAY MICROPROCESSOR OF .5
SEC
DELAY (3SEC.) (3SEC.)

DECREMENT THE CONTENTS OF REG. B

IS REG.
B 0?

RET

38
Entering 01, 02, 03 or 04 at address 2200H can select the different
modes of operation of motor.
PROGRAM

ADDRESS MNEMONICS OPCODE COMMENTS

2000 LXI H, 2200 21 SET UP MEMORY POINTER
00 FOR SELECTING MODE
22

2003 MOV A,M 7E TRANSFER THE CONTENTS

OF MEMORY TO
ACCUMULATOR

2004 CPI 01 FE COMPARE THE CONTENTS

01 OF ACCUMULATOR WITH
DATA 01H

2005 JZ 2020 CA JUMP TO THE SPECIFIED

20 ADDRESS IF MODE 1 IS
20 SELECTED

2009 CPI 02 FE COMPARE THE CONTENTS

02 OF ACCUMULATOR WITH
DATA 02H

200B JZ 2060 CA JUMP TO THE SPECIFIED

60 ADDRESS IF MODE 2 IS
20 SELECTED

200E CPI 03 FE COMPARE THE CONTENTS

03 OF ACCUMULATOR WITH
DATA 03H

2010 JZ 2090 CA JUMP TO THE SPECIFIED

90 ADDRESS IF MODE 3 IS
20 SELECTED

2014 CPI 04 FE COMPARE THE CONTENTS

04 OF ACCUMULATOR WITH

39
 DATA 04H

2016 JZ 20B0 CA
B0 JUMP TO THE SPECIFIED
20 ADDRESS IF MODE 4 IS
SELECTED
2019 RST 5 EF

MODE 1
MODE 1: CLOCKWISE MOTION (3 SEC.) – NO MOTION (3 SEC.) –
ANTI-CLOCKWISE MOTION (3 SEC)

ADDRESS MNEMONIC OPCODE COMMENTS

2020 MVI A,99 3E LOAD THE ACCUMLATOR
99 WITH 99H VALUE

2022 OUT A0 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

AO ACCUMULATOR AT THE
INPUT PORT OF DAC
( THIS IS FOR CONTROLLING
THE SPEED OF MOTOR, FFH :
MAXIMUM SPEED & 00 H : NO
MOTION)

2024 MVI A,80 3E CONTROL WORD FOR

80 INTIALIZING THE PORT S OF
8255-II

2026 OUT 0B D3 OUT THE CONTROL WORD

0B AT CONTROL REG. OF 8255-II

2028 MVI A,FF 3E LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR

FF WITH DATA FF

202A OUT 08 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

08 ACC. AT PORT A TO TURN
RELAY 2 ON

202C CALL DELAY CD CALL THE SUBROUTINE

00 DELAY
30

202F MVI A,00 3E LOAD THE ACC. WITH DATA

40
 00 00

2031 OUT 08 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

08 ACC. AT PORT A TO TURN
RELAY 2 OFF

2033 CALL DELAY CD CALL THE SUBROUTINE

00 DELAY
30

2036 MVI A,80 3E CONTROL WORD FOR

80 INTIALISING PORTS OF 8255

2038 OUT 03 D3 OUT THE CONTROL WORD

03 AT CONTROL REG. OF 8255-I

203A MVI A,FF 3E LOAD THE ACC. WITH DATA

FF FF

203C OUT 00 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

00 ACC. AT PORT A TO TURN
RELAY 1 ON

203E CALL DELAY CD CALL THE SUBROUTINE

00 DELAY
30

2041 MVI A,00 3E LOAD THE ACC. WITH DATA

00 00

2043 OUT 00 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

00 ACC. AT PORT A TO TURN
RELAY 1 OFF

2045 CALL DELAY CD CALL THE SUBROUTINE

00 DELAY
30

2048 JMP START C3 UNCONDITIONALLY JUMP

20 TO THE STARTING OF
20 PROGRAM

41
MODE 2
MODE 2: CLOCKWISE MOTION (SLOW SPEED, 3SEC) – NO
MOTION (3SEC) – CLOCKWISE MOTION (FASTEST SPEED, 3SEC)

ADDRESS MNEMONIC OPCODE COMMENTS

2060 MVI A, 66 3E LOAD THE ACCUMLATOR WITH
66 66H VALUE

2062 OUT A0 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

A0 ACCUMULATOR AT INPUT PORT
OF DAC ( THE OUTPUT OF DAC
IN THIS CASE IS SUCH THAT
LEADS TO SOWEST SPEED OF
THE MOTOR)

2064 MVI A,80 3E CONTROL WORD FOR

80 INTIALIZING THE PORT S OF
8255-II

2066 OUT 0B D3 OUT THE CONTROL WORD AT

08 CONTROL REG. OF 8255-II

2068 MVI A,FF 3E LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR

FF WITH DATA FF
206A OUT 08 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF ACC. AT
08 PORT A TO TURN RELAY 2 ON

206C CALL DELAY CD CAL THE SUBROUTINE DELAY

00
30

206F MVI A,00 3E LOAD THE ACC. WITH DATA 00

00

2071 OUT 08 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF ACC. AT

08 PORT A TO TURN RELAY 2 OFF

2073 CALL DELAY CD CALL THE SUBROUTINE DELAY

00
30

2076 MVI A,FF 3E LOAD THE ACC. WITH DATA FF

FF

42
2078 OUT A0 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF
A0 ACCUMULATOR AT INPUT PORT
OF DAC ( THE OUTPUT OF DAC
IN THIS CASE IS SUCH THAT
LEADS TO FASTEST SPEED OF
THE MOTOR)

207A MVI A,FF 3E LOAD THE ACC. WITH DATA FF

FF

207C OUT 08 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF ACC. AT

08 PORT A TO TURN RELAY 2 ON

207E CALL DELAY CD CALL THE SUBROUTINE DELAY

00
30

2081 MVI A,00 3E LOAD THE ACC. WITH DATA 00

00

2083 OUT 08 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF ACC. AT

08 PORT A TO TURN RELAY 2 OFF

2085 CALL DELAY CD CALL THE SUBROUTINE DELAY

00
30

2088 JMP START C3 UNCONDITIONALLY JUMP TO

60 THE STARTING OF THE
20 PROGRAM

43
MODE 3
MODE 3: CLOCKWISE MOTION (SLOWEST SPEED)

ADDRESS MNEMONIC OPCODE COMMENTS

2090 MVI A,80 3E CONTROL WORD FOR
80 INTIALIZING THE PORT S OF
8255-II

2092 OUT 0B D3 OUT THE CONTROL WORD

0B AT CONTROL REG. OF 8255-II

2094 MVI A,FF 3E LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR

FF WITH DATA FF

2096 OUT 08 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

08 ACC. AT PORT A TO TURN
RELAY 2 ON

2098 MVI A, 60 3E LOAD THE ACCUMLATOR

60 WITH 60
VALUE
209A OUT A0 D3
A0 OUT THE CONTENTS OF
ACCUMULATOR AT INPUT
209C MVI B,88 06 PORT OF DAC
88

209E DCB B 05

209F JNZ 2096 C2 DELAY 1

96
20

20A2 MVI A,00 3E LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR

00 WITH 00 VALUE

20A4 OUT AO D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

A0 ACCUMULATOR AT INPUT
PORT OF DAC

44
20A6 MVI B,FF 06
FF

20A7 DCR B 05
DELAY 2
20A8 JNZ 20A0 C2
A0
20

20AB JMP 2098 C3 JUMP UNCONDITIONALLY

98 TO THE SPECIFIES
20 ADDRESS

MODE 4
MODE 4: CLOCKWISE MOTION (3SEC) – NO MOTION –
CLOCKWISE MOTION (3SEC) – NO MOTION – ANTI CLOCKWISE
MOTION (3SEC).

ADDRESS MNEMONIC OPCODE COMMENTS

20B0 MVI A, 66 3E LOAD THE ACCUMLATOR
70 WITH 70H VALUE

20B2 OUT A0 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

A0 ACCUMULATOR AT INPUT
PORT OF DAC ( THE OUTPUT
OF DAC IN THIS CASE IS
SUCH THAT LEADS TO
SOWEST SPEED OF THE
MOTOR)

20B4 MVI A,80 3E CONTROL WORD FOR

80 INTIALIZING THE PORT S OF
8255-II

20B6 OUT 0B D3 OUT THE CONTROL WORD

08 AT CONTROL REG. OF 8255-II

20B8 MVI A,FF 3E LOAD THE ACCUMULATOR

FF WITH DATA FF

20BA OUT 08 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

ACC. AT PORT A TO TURN
08 RELAY 2 ON
45
20BC CALL DELAY CD CAL THE SUBROUTINE
00 DELAY
30

20BF MVI A,00 3E LOAD THE ACC. WITH DATA

00 00

20C1 OUT 08 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

08 ACC. AT PORT A TO TURN
RELAY 2 OFF

20C3 CALL DELAY CD CALL THE SUBROUTINE

00 DELAY
30

20C6 MVI A,FF 3E LOAD THE ACC. WITH DATA

FF FF

20C8 OUT 08 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

08 ACC. AT PORT A TO TURN
RELAY 2 ON

20CA CALL DELAY CD CAL THE SUBROUTINE

00 DELAY
30

20CD MVI A,00 3E LOAD THE ACC. WITH DATA

00 00

20CF OUT 08 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

08 ACC. AT PORT A TO TURN
RELAY 2 OFF

20D1 CALL DELAY CD CALL THE SUBROUTINE

00 DELAY
30

20D4 MVI A,80 3E CONTROL WORD FOR

80 INTIALISING PORTS OF 8255-
I

20D6 OUT 03 D3 OUT THE CONTROL WORD

03 AT CONTROL REG. OF 8255-I

20D8 MVI A,FF 3E LOAD THE ACC. WITH DATA

FF FF

46
20DA OUT 00 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF
00 ACC. AT PORT A TO TURN
RELAY 1 ON

20DC CALL DELAY CD CALL THE SUBROUTINE

00 DELAY
30

20DF MVI A,00 3E LOAD THE ACC. WITH DATA

00 00

20E1 OUT 00 D3 OUT THE CONTENTS OF

00 ACC. AT PORT A TO TURN
RELAY 1 OFF

20E3 CALL DELAY CD CALL THE SUBROUTINE

00 DELAY
30

20E6 JMP START C3 UNCONDITIONALLY JUMP

20 TO THE STARTING OF
B0 PROGRAM

The first block is the main program which decides as to which

mode to run. Depending on the data entered at 2200H, that
particular mode is run and delay program is used as subroutine
to use delays as when necessary.

SUBROUTINE: DELAY (3SEC)

ADDRESS MNEMONIC OPCODE COMMENTS

3000 MVIB, 06 06 SET THE COUNTER
06 REGISTER

3002 CALL DELAY CD CALL THE DELAY

BC PROGRAM
03

3005 DCR B 05 DECREASE THE COUNTER

3006 JNZ 2092 C2 JUMP TO ADDRESS 3002, IF

92 ZERO FLAG IS NOT SET
20

3009 RET C9 RETURN

47
 REFERENCES
1. www.google.com
2. www.wikipedia.com
3. www.nationalseminconductor.com
4. www.getgyan.com/show/8/DC_Motors_Using_H_Bridge
5. www.instructables.com/id/How-to-make-an-H-bridge/step4/About-our-circuit/

48