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1'71

Report on concrete practice

PART TWO:

SITE

SUPERVISION

AND TESTING

48.004 First edition 1967 Price: J5p

Report issued by the Institution of Structural Engineers

in conjunction with the Cement and Concrete Association

Although the Cemenl and COllcrele Association does ils best 10 IIlsll/lthalllny IIIMII, recommendatioll or information it may gil'e is accurate, 110 liabilit), or II,Ip0ll,llhlllly of allY killd (illcluding liability for lIegligellce) is accepted ill this IIIpm by tM Associotion, its sen'ams or agents.

THIS PUBLICATION is prepared and issued jointly by the Institution r Structural Engineers and the Cement and Concrete Association, It is for the guidance of those who are concerned with the construction and supervision or concrete work and it is not intended to supersede by· laws, codes of practice or relevant specifications,

As in Part 1 of the report, the scope of the work is related to the Code CP 114, The stl'llcturaiuse of reiriforced concrete in building, and accordingly does not deal with the requirements specifically concerned with prestressed concrete, lightweight concrete, factory·made precast concrete or liquid·retaining struc· tures, In general, also, these recommendations are for work in temperate zones; the special requirements of tropical areas are not included,

Reference should be made to Part 1, Materials and workmanship, for the detailed reasoning behind the various recommendations given herein,

DRAFTING COMMITTEE

Walter C, Andrews, OBE, MICE, MIStructE, MConsE, MSocCE (France) (Chairman) N, E, Back, MBE, AMIStructE

G, A, Bettany, AMIStruetE

p, Gooding, O~E, MSc, AssocICE, MIStructE, PInstHE, MInstlnfSe A, W, Hill, BSc(Eng), DlC, ACGI, MICE, MIMunE, MIStructE

R, B, Hill, BSe, MICE, MIStruetE

Kenneth Severn, MC, MA, MICE, MIStructE, MlnstflE, PIArb B, W, Shacklock, MSe, AMICE, MlnstHE

D, R, Sharp, MBE, BSe, DipTP(London), MICE, MIMunE, MIStructE, MInstHE

CONTENTS

Section 1 Site supervision

I: MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE page 8

Cement

Aggregates

Water /I'om the mains

Water from allY other source

2: CONCRETE MIXES

Spec~cation by weight-batching by weight Spec~cation by volume-botching by weight Specification by volume-batching by volullie

3: HATCHING: 10

Plallt

Operations

4: MIXING

Plant Operations

Ready mixed concrefe

s: TRANSPORTING, PLACING AND COMPACTING 13 Segregation

Transporting

Placing

Compacting

Internal vibrators External vibrators Surface vibrators Table vibrators

COllstruction joillts

11

6: CONCRETING IN COLD WEATHER

18

Section 2 The testing of concrete and concreting materials

7: CURING

20

8: AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE

21

9: REINFORCEMENT

I: SAMPLING page 32
Cement
Aggregates
Concrete
2: TESTING CEMENTS 35
3: TESTING AGGREGATES 35
Cleanness
Organic impurities
Sieve analysis
Moisture content
Drying methods
Displacement methods
Other methods
Bulking of sand
Bulk density of aggregate
4: WATER 42
)": WORKABILITY OF FRESH CONCRETE 42
Compacting factor test
Slump test
Vebe consistometer test
6: AIR CONTENT OF FRESH CONCRETE 47
1: TESTING OF HARDENED CONCRETE 49
Compressive strength test cubes
Flexural strength test beams
Compressive strength test cores
Testing of strength specimens
Rebound tests
Covermeter 21

10: fORM WORK

22

11: fiNISHING

Patching Floor finishes

2S

12: PRECAST UNITS

26

APPENDIX I: EXAMPLE OF THE CALCULATION 27

OF BATCHING

APPENDIX 2: SUPERVISOR'S WEEKLY REPORTS 29

4

~

Th.I"g"p.llhere,.bouttOtom •• wa, lrom(h.w,lI,huresul(ejlrom(hlUII of tOO wet a mix which h~ formed I porou.l.yer It (hI (OP 01. hl(' ThHI poroUlI.y,"ue.eryso.cep(lbll(O(hl effemoiwmhering

"""',,",,',.J ''_ ""

The concr'(1 h. dl.int!gmld here because the laitance layer due to water lainfromth~conmttalre.ld1deposil~d wu not removed before the new (on· crettWllplaced

Figure I: DefeClive COllslrucliolijoilf/J ill cOlfcrele,

Section 1

Site supervision

The amount of supervision which can be maintained economically on site depends upon both the size and the type of job. Nevertheless, it must be borne in mind that possible defects can be as serious with a small job as with a large one.

The recommendations are based upon Part I of this report, to whi~h reference should be made for further details and reasons for the need for supervision.

The selection of materials and the concrete mixes to be used will have been decided upon before the start of site work and routine supervision. If, during the course of the work, it appears that the original cboice of materials or mixes was wrong, the engineer* should be informed.

Probably the most effective form of supervision is to obtain a personal knowledge of the tradesmen and labourers employed on the job, and their capabilities, The preservation of friendly relations with all concerned in the work nearly always leads to a better job.

*The word" engineer" has been used in this report to mean the supervising authority for the job.

I: Materials for concrete

Cement

Cement delivered to site is followed by test certificates from the cement manufacturers if requested. The certificates should be filed for future reference.

Different types of cement should be stored in separate silos or sheds. It is not sufficient to cover the cement with tarpaulins, even if the bags are kept on a raised floor.

Bagged cement should be stored on a raised floor in a weatherproof shed.

For preference the bags hould be stored in stacks not more than five high with the stacks close together to reduce air circulation. The cement should be stored in such a way that the cement is used in the same order as that in which the consignments were delivered. The practice of piling fresh supplies of cement on old stock and then using the cement from the top is to be avoided because the bags at the bottom might be left for many months before being used.

If cement requires testing, samples should be taken as detailed on page 32, sealed in a clean air-tight container and sent to the laboratory.

Aggregates

Once the source of supply of aggregates has been approved, samples (not less than 5 Ib for coarse aggregate and lib for fine aggregate) should be taken and kept for visual comparison with subsequent deliveries.

The storage area should if pos ible not be sited under trees and should be large enough to prevent the stockpiles of different aggregates from running into each other; dwarf walls can be used to reduce possible mixing of different types of aggregate. The base should be reasonably solid to prevent contamination of the aggregate and should have enough fall to drain the area without allowin, water used for washing out the mixer to drain onto the aggregate stocks. As it is frequently found preferable to allow fine aggregates to drain overnight, it is advisable to provide sufficient storage area for two stockpiles of fine aggregate which can be used in turn.

On delivery, aggregates should be checked to ee that:

they are delivered in the correct sizes and gradings, and that in a graded material, for example It to t in., all sizes of aggregate are uniformly distributed through the load;

they are clean and are not contaminated by lumps of clay or coating of clay on the particles;

the minimum amount of segregation occurs on discharge.

Aggregates should have as uruIorm a moisture coment as possible at the time of batching and it is preferable that the aggregate should be stocked at least

overnight. If the control of the water content is being maintained in the usual way by measuring the workability of the concrete, occasional checks of moisture content are advisable to see that the water/cement ratio of the concrete is being maintained satisfactorily. Alternatively, if the control of the water content of the concrete is being maintained by measuring and making allowance for the moisture content of the aggregates, then the moisture content should be measured at least twice a day, and whenever a new load of aggregate is delivered, and after rain.

The cleanness and grading of the aggregates (see pages 35 to 39) should be checked regularly to see that the quality does not change during the job. The frequency of testing depends upon the job, but tests should be made at least every week and whenever the source of supply is changed. If the proportion of any aggregate passing a particular sieve size changes by about 15% from that which would normally be expected, it may be advisable to alter the proportion of fine to coarse aggregate to ensure that a uniformly graded concrete is maintained (see Part 1, page 20). As excess fines, dirt and water tend to collect at the bottom of stockpiles, it is preferable, if practicable, not to batch the aggregate from the bottom one foot of the stockpile.

Water from the mains

Difficulty due to contaminated mixing water is rarely experienced in this country. The usual domestic supply should be used whenever practicable.

Water from any other source

If other supplies have to be used, the water should be tested (see page 42).

2: Concrete mixes

Concrete mixes may be designed to give a specified strength, standard mixes may be used in accordance with the newer editions of Codes of Practice or in a few cases the proportions may still be loosely specified on the basis of nominal volumes of materials. In all cases it will be necessary to check the proportions with the specification or with the proportions which have been determined from the results of trial mixes. The methods of specifying the concrete and batching the aggregate vary as follows.

Specification by we~ht-batching by weight

Whether designed or standard mixes are being used, the quantities of aggregate

are specified as the weights when the aggregate is dry. For batching, these weights are increased to allow for the average amounts of water contained. For example, in a batch of concrete containing 400 Ib of sand at an average moisture content of 5 % and 1,000 Ib of coarse aggregate at an average moisture content of 2 %, the batch weights would be

105 102 .

400 x 100 = 420 Ib and 1,000 x IoO = 1,020 Ib respeclively.

Specification of nominal mixes by volume-batching by weight

This method of specification is likely to disappear gradually with the general adoption of standard mixes. When used, the bulk densities of the dry aggregates are determined by the method described on page 41, that is, the" loose" bulk density as determined according to B.S. 812:1960. The bulk density of cement should be taken as 90 Iblft3 and the volume of a I cwt bag of cement as It ft3• The proportions by volume are then converted to proportions by weight as shown in the example in Appendix I. The weights of dry aggregate are then increased as before to allow for an average quantity of moisture in the aggregate.

Specification of nominal mixes by volume-batching by volume

This method of specification applies only to very small jobs and to non· structural concrete such as site blindings or kerb backing. The bulk volumes refer to dry aggregates, and the volume of fine aggregate should be increased for batching to allow for bulking (see page 40 of this report).

3: Batching

Plant

The accuracy of weigh·batchers and water ·gauges on mixers should be checked at the beginning of a job, at least every week, whenever the batcher or mixer is moved, and whenever there is reason to suspect the accuracy of the equipment. Particular care should be taken to see that any three-way valves controlling the flow of water are checked, because a leaky valve can allow water direct into the drum. The weigh-batcher should be accurate to within ± 2 % of the indicated values and the water-gauge within ± 3 %.

If aggregates are batched by volume, the size of gauge boxes for aggregates should be checked and the boxes examined periodically to see that they remain in good condition. Cement should never be measured by volume but should always be measured by weight or by the whole bag.

Dispensers for liquid admixtures vary and include fully automatic devices

10

-_.. - 1 ".-

fitted to the mixer and coupled in such a way that a given amount of admixture is added to each batch of concrete. Other devices require manual operation to batch the admixtures. All these dispensers require careful maintenance to see that the correct quantity of material is batched and that they do not become clogged. During working it is important to see that the reservoir from which the admixture is batched does not become empty.

Where liquid admixtures are batched without the aid of mechanical devices and where powdered admixtures are required, dispensing is usually done by specially calibrated cans which should be kept clean and in good order.

If liquid admixtures require dilution on site this should only be done under careful supervision.

Operations

An example of the calculation of batch weights for aggregates and water is given in Appendix I on page 27. The quantity of water batched depends on the amount of moisture held within the aggregate and is controlled by either:

periodic measurements of the moisture content of the aggregate followed by calculations of the amount of water left to be added (for a particular concrete it is often useful to draw a graph of moisture content against the amount of water left to be added, as this avoids frequent calculations on site-see example in Appendix I on page 27), or

periodic measurement to maintain a constant workability, which indirectly controls the amount of water added (see pages 42 to 46).

In either case it is important to learn to recognize the appearance of acceptable concrete for each job, as this is often the quickest way of telling whether there has been an error.

Probably one of the most important aspects of controlling the quality of concrete is to employ reliable and intelligent mixer-drivers and to keep them regularly on the same job. Such men can detect very quickly any fault in the batching or mixing of concrete.

4: Mixing

Plant

Mixers must be maintained in good working condition, and regular inspection should be made to see that the mixer is mechanically sound, that the drum is revolving at the correct speed, that the interior of the drum is clean, and that all blades and baffles are clean and in the correct position. Pan mixers should also

11

- ":... ~ -

for ready mixed concrete, the provisions of which should be known to the engineer or site supervisor. The use of ready mixed concrete relieves the site supervisor of some responsibilities, but involves others including the following:

site access must be made for delivery vehicles which are heavy and might be bogged down on poor ground;

there must be room for delivery vehicles to turn;

provision must be made for concrete to be received quickly from the vehiclesmany firms charge waiting time for vehicles held up on site;

in some instances arrangements may have been made for the concrete materials to arrive unmixed in a truck mixer and the site supervisor may have to control the quantity of mixing water added to obtain the required workability;

when concrete is supplied to a guaranteed minimum strength specification, the quantity of mixing water will have been fixed by the concrete supplier and if further mixing water is added at the instructions of the site supervisor, then the extra water will probably have to be signed for and the guarantee of strength will lapse;

the concrete should be tested for strength, workability, air content or any other applicable test in the same way as for site-mixed concrete and, for concrete of guaranteed mlOimum strengths specified according to B.S. 1926: ' 1962, tests should be made at least once per day and at least every 50 loads, whichever i the more frequent;

under the provisions of B.S. 1926, the site supervisor may have to visit the ready mixed concrete plant to inspect materials, batching and mixing and to take samples for testing.

be checked to see that the blades make good contact with the base and sides of the pan and that all material is moved when mixing. Mixers should always be cleaned when a change from one type of cement to another is made.

Mixers should always be level, because uneven levels can result in inaccurate gauging of water and in inefficient mixing. Mixers should not be tilted in such a way as to speed up the discharge of the mixed concrete.

Operations

All concrete should be mixed in a mechanical mixer for the mixing time after all the material has entered the drum and until the mix is of uniform consistence and colour. Checks should be made periodically to ensure the specified mixing time is adhered to.

If the use of continuous mixers has been approved, care should be taken to ensure that materials are fed into and pass through the mixer at the correct rate.

Best results are obtained by introducing some of the mixing water first but, owing to the three-way valves fitted to most mixers, it is better in practice to put all the water in first. The sequence in which the coarse and fine aggregates and the cement enter the mixer depends upon the type of mixer and the method and sequence of batching; if the plant being used permits changes in the sequence in which the materials enter the mixer it may be worthwhile making a few trials to see which method produces the most uniform concrete. For example, some tilting-drum mixers do not mix the coarse aggregate uniformly through a batch if the coarse aggregate enters the mixer last and a change in the sequence might improve the uniformity of the concrete. A further example is that of many hopper-loaded medium-size mixers; on the assumption that three sizes of aggre· gate are being used, i to [m, t to,t in. and sand, the best result is often obtained by batching the t to 16- in. material first (this reduces the amount of sticking between fine materials and the hopper), then the sand, then the cement (so as to sandwich the cement between the aggregate and reduce wind losses) and finally the coarse aggregate. The fact that the coarse aggregate is on top of the other materials when the hopper is lifted then assists a clean discharge of all materials from the hopper into the mixer.

Where cement is weighed separately from the aggregate and is introduced into the mixer without going through the loading hopper, the cement should go in after some of the aggregate.

Variation between batches of concrete can be reduced by dischar~ng several batches of concrete into a hopper before transporting any to the placing site.

No water should be added to the concrete after it has been discharged from the mixer.

Where there is a hold·up on site and a high-speed mixer is being used, pro· longed mixing is liable to lead to excessive heating up of the concrete and it may be preferable to discharge the concrete.

Ready mixed concrete

Nowadays an increasing proportion of structural concrete is being supplied as ready mixed concrete, and in most circumstances the concrete will be supplied according to the relevant Code of Practice and to B.S. 1926:1962, Spec~cation

5: Transporting, placing and compacting

Segregation

It is most important to avoid segregation in transporting, placing and compacting concrete. The term segregation, when used with reference to handling concrete, means the separation of mortar from the coarse aggregate, and may be due to one or more factors. Mixes of high workability may segregate by the mortar tending to flow away from the coarse aggregate, perhap under the vibrating effect of the engine of a lorry, leaving the coarse aggregate as little

12

13

more than a pile of stones. Mixes of low sand content are more liable to thi form of segregation than are cohesive mixes. Mixes of unusually low workability can also often segregate by particles of coarse aggregate not sticking to the bulk of the concrete.

Segregation during compaction takes on a slightly different meaning and refers either to the sinking of coarse aggregate, leaving a thick layer of mortar at the top, or to the movement of coarse aggregate away from the source of vibration.

Any form of segregation should be avoided becau e it leads to difficulty in proper placing or compacting and the hardened concrete will vary in quality and appearance. The means of overcoming segregation depend upon the cause; a small adjustment of the water content or the proportion of sand in the mix is probably the most frequent remedy, though, if segregation persists, a change in the method of handling and placing the concrete should be considered whilst, in extreme cases, a change in the type of plant may be necessary. Care should be taken to see that any changes made to the mix do not impair the resulting quality of the concrete.

Concrete which has segregated slightly during transporting may be improved before placing by turning it over by hand. It is also possible after a long haul to tip concrete into a hopper which provides some re-mixing effect and from which the concrete can be taken to the point of placing.

Transporting

A number of troubles can arise in transporting concrete:

segregation due to the incorrect use of chutes, pneumatic placers, and pipe· lines and to long hauls in vehicles or conveyors;

10 s of mortar due to the use of vehicles with leaky bodywork;

premature stiffening of the concrete due to loss of water by rapid drying; contamination of the concrete due to oil from equipment, dirty equipment and wind-blown dust;

expo ure of concrete to heavy rain;

not transporting quickly enough to allow the concrete to be compacted correctly in the formwork, particularly in hot or windy weather.

Placing

In the placing of concrete the following terms should be noted.

Lijl: the vertical height of concrete placed in a wall or column in one continuous operation.

Layer: the depth of concrete spread and compacted before a further layer is spread.

Drop.' the vertical height through which concrete is allowed to fall from the transporting conveyor (e.g. chute, bucket, dumper or conveyor) into the formwork.

If concrete is allowed to segregate during placing, the subsequent compaction is likely to be made difficult or even impossible and areas of badly compacted or honeycombed concrete may result. For example, inclination of the top surface

14

of a lift in walls may lead to segregation whereas concrete placed in horizontal lifts is much less likely to segregate.

A correctly designed mix can be dropped through any height, provided it hits nothing on the way, although great care is always needed. Particular care should be taken when casting columns to full storey height as there is a risk of loss of mortar onto reinforcement and formwork and of displacing reinforcement and formwork; to offset loss of mortar, a richer, more cohesive mix may be placed first.

Compacting

Compacting is a most important operation and careful skilled 1V0rk is essential if good results are to be obtained. Concrete should also be compacted to obtain a dense homogeneous mass and to ensure that the concrete is thoroughly worked around reinforcement and other embedments and into the corners of the formwork, without causing segregation or bringing excessive laitance to the surface.

Concrete may be compacted by hand tamping or punning or by vibration.

When compacting by hand it is important that the concrete is laid and compacted in thin layers-not more than 6 in.-and that each layer is thoroughly tamped until the top surface of the concrete is closed by mortar and until mortar makes good contact with the forms.

A mix which has been correctly designed for compaction by vibration will not segregate when vibrated. However, if a higher workability than is strictly necesary from the point of view of the vibrators (for example, to ensure a higher rate of placing) has to be used, then particular care is necessary because pro: longed vibration may cause segregation and should therefore be avoided

Vibrator should not be left on, idling, unattended or in one position too long and for that reason they should not be left when in contact with the concrete. The correct time of vibration depends upon many factors, including the workability of the concrete, the size of the section being cast, the type and power of the vibrator and the rate of placing concrete. Vibration should continue until the expulsion of air bubbles to the surface of the concrete has practically ceased.

At the top of lifts where there is little or no pressure due to overlying concrete, additional compactive effort may be needed to remove air pockets which would result in an unsatisfactory surface. When internal vibrators are used for the hulk of the work, additional compactive effort can be provided, in the form of external vibrators or by slicing.

There will always be a few positions into which an internal vibrator cannot reach and two different types of vibrator may be necessary, one internal and the other external; alternatively, where slight changes in the colour of the final concrete are acceptable, the engineer could be asked if a concrete of higher workability may be used in these zones; if this is permitted, the concrete should be made slightly richer in cement to avoid any increase in water/cement ratio.

When a high lift is being placed and compacted in several layers, it is sometimes advisable to make the top layer with a concrete which has a slightly lower workability than the rest. This reduces the chance of building up a thick layer of laitance at the top surface.

The breakdown or inefficiency of vibrating equipment is a frequent cause or

15

incomplete compaction and stand-by plant should be provided to ensure continuity of work. Good maintenance of vibrators clearly reduces the chance of interruptions to the work.

Many forms of vibration are available and are described in some detail in the report, The vibration 0/ cOllcrete, issued jointly by the Institution of Civil Engineers and the Institution of Structural Engineers in 1956. The general groups are:

internal or immersion vibrators;

external or clamp-on vibrators, including pneumatic and electric hammers applied to but not clamped to formwork;

surface vibrators including beam vibrators or compactors and pan vibrators; table vibrators.

SURFACE VIBRATORS

Surface vibrators are used for most floor and paving construction and require particular care in use because when incorrectly used the surface of the concrete can give the impression of full compaction when the lower part of the slab is still honeycombed.

When beam vibrators or compactors which span the forms are used, little compactive effort is applied to the concrete when the beam is actually resting on the forms. The concrete must be spread to a uniform surcharge above the level of the forms, usually about one-fifth of the thickness of the slab, and the beam must be lifted on to the top of the concrete and allowed to settle under its own weight, thus pushing the concrete downwards into place. The beam should then be lifted and moved forward about 2 in. and the process repeated. When this has been done over a length of about 10 to 15 ft the beam should be brought back to the beginning and dragged along the forms to remove surplus concrete. If no surplus comes off then the original surcharge was inadequate and further concrete should be placed and compacted. The surface of the finished concrete should be dense and, if the concrete is to remain a wearing finish, should be accurate in level to within t in. under a 10 ft straight-edge. Where slabs are thicker than 6 to 8 in. the concrete should be compacted in two layers.

Pan vibrators can be used for compacting concrete in awkwardly shaped bays in layers generally not more than 6 in. thick. Pan vibrators cannot be used as the sole means of compaction where an accurate surface tolerance is required.

Vibrating rollers and heavy compacting machines for concrete roads require special considerations not included here.

INTER AL VIBRATORS

Internal vibrators should be operated by skilled men and, in view of tbe very large number of types of equipment available, the following method of operation should be adopted. The vibrator should be inserted vertically at intervals such that the whole mass of concrete is ultimately affected. This will be found in practice to b~ normally at points about 18 in. apart.

The vibrator should be allowed to penetrate of its own accord and remain in position until air bubbles no longer come to the surface within its radius of action and the surface of the concrete exhibits an even, glistening appearance. The vibrator should then be removed quite slowly (i.e. at about 3 inls) while still running, so as to allow the redistribution of concrete in its wake and avoid the formation of either a hole or a column of mortar.

Internal vibrators should not be allowed to touch reinforcement where part of that reinforcement is embedded in concrete which has stiffened but is not yet one day old, because the vibration is likely to lead to 9reaking of bond between the reinforcement and the" green" concrete.

TABLE VIBRATORS

Table vibrators are used mainly in the casting of small precast concrete products and not usually used on construction sites. Moulds should be clamped to the table if the maximum efficiency of the table is to be obtained.

Construction joints

The position of construction joints should be agreed with the engineer; the following points require particular attention.

I Unless the previous lift of concrete has been treated before hardening by spraying or wire-brushing to expose the aggregate, it should be swept clean with water and, if the specification requires, hacked before any fresh material is placed; cleaning water should be removed before fresh concrete is placed. The early stripping of vertical joints eases the preparation of the face of the joint. Spraying is both easy and efficient provided the timing of the operation is correct. Hacking in the presence of much reinforcement is more difficult.

Joints should generally be either horizontal or vertical and true to line; special arrangements may be necessary with raking or curved members.

More compactive effort is required to get full compaction when new concrete is being placed against hardened concrete or water-stops.

4 Any water-stops or joint-filling material in an expansion joint must be kept in the correct position during concreting.

EXTERNAL VIBRATORS

External vibrators should be rigidly clamped to formwork, which must be more robustly constructed than when internal vibrators are used. Formwork has therefore to be designed to fix the vibrators at particular points. During construction, vibrators are moved from one fixing point to another as the work proceeds and the time at which they are moved must be judged from the state of the compaction of the concrete, keeping in mind the need for full compaction.

lf, as a result of the vibration, air is pumped between the shutter and the concrete and is producing patches of honeycombing, then this should be remedied by stiffening the form work, moving the vibrator, or sealing the gaps in the shuttering through which the air is passing.

Vibrating hammers are often held to the outside of shuttering to assist internal vibrators in compacting the surface of the concrete. This arrangement can often provide good results but it is important to remember that the main compactive effort usually comes from the internal vibrator and too much reliance should not be placed on the vibrating hammer.

16

17

Specifications mayor may not require the use of grout or mortar direct on to the hardened concrete to assist in obtaining adhesion between the two sections of concrete [(a) and (b) below] and to assist in obtaining full compaction of the fresh concrete [(a) below]. Points to observe are as follows. (a) Mortor or grout of cement, salld alld water The mortar should be composed of the same materials as the new concrete and the proportion of sand to cement and water should not exceed those of the new concrete. The thickness of the layer of the mortar should be about t to * in., but no thicker because the mortar is likely to produce a porous and unsightly layer. New concrete should be placed within 30 minutes.

(b) Grollt of cemellt alld water The grout should be brushed thinly and uniformly over the freshly prepared face of the joint and the new concrete placed immediately, because a thin layer will dry out quickly, resulting in a weak joint.

(c) Welling down but withollt 1II0rtar or grout Where no mortar or grout is used the surface of the hardened concrete should be cleaned shortly before concreting and wetted with sufficient water to take up most of the absorption of the hardened concrete. The concrete should be almost saturated but there should be no free-standing water.

(d) No 1II0rtar, grail! or water Occasionally new concrete is required to be placed directly against freshly cleaned concrete which has to be left in a relatively dry condition. The object is to obtain good adhesion by some of the water and fine material in the new concrete being absorbed into the surface of the hardened concrete. Experience has shown that particular attention has to be paid to the compaction of new concrete against the face of the joint.

Joints in water-retaining structures require rather more detailed treatment and are not covered here. Reference should be made to CP 2007, Design and cOllstruction of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures for the storage of water and other aqueous liquids.

6: Concreting in cold weather

Special precautions are needed when it is proposed to work below 36°F (2°C) on a falling thermometer, and, in order to know the extent of precautions needed, a daily record of maximum and minimum air temperatures should be kept. The minimum precautions to be taken are to ensure:

that the concrete, wben deposited, has a temperature of at least 40°F WC);

18

that the concrete is protected against loss of heat and moisture immediately after compacting and is maintained at as high a temperature thereafter as may be practicable, and in any case above WF (2°C), until it has thoroughly hardened.

During frosty weather, when the air temperature rises above 3ZoF (O°C) by day, it will often be found sufficient firstly to use an extra-rapid-hardening cement or a rapid-hardening cement with an addition of calcium chloride at the rate of not more than 2 % by weight and, secondly, to protect the concrete against loss of heat or moisture. If calcium chloride is used, it must be completely dissolved in water before being put into the mixer. Timber form work not less than Ii in. thick gives good insulation against an occasional frost.

The use of calcium chloride or proprietary materials based on calcium chloride is not in itself a safeguard against frost damage and should never be relied upon below freezing point. To ensure tbat concrete is at least at 40°F WC) when placed, the temperature of the concrete on mixing should be not less than 60°F (I6°C). This is usually achieved by heating the mixing water to a temperature which must not exceed 180°F (82°C) and, if necessary, by heating the aggregates with steam. Snow and frost must be removed from the aggregates, the formwork, the reinforcement and the base to ground slabs. The application of free steam is the usual means of applying heat though it is important to see that condensed water is not allowed to accumulate or to freeze before the concrete is placed. Also, excessive quantities of condensed water, if allowed to run down recently finished work, might cause surface blemishes.

At temperatures down to about 20°F (- 7°C), timber formll'ork not less than 1t in. thick will usually provide adequate insulation, though steel formwork and the upper surface of freshly laid concrete require special insulation. At temperatures belolV about 200P (- 7°C), heating or further insulation will probably be required and calculations of heat loss should be made to determine the extent of further precautions.

Before concreting starts, adequate covers must be available and they should be placed over the finished concrete at the earliest possible moment. Notes should be made of the position of any concrete which is not hardening normally and no formwork or props should be removed until it is certain that the concrete has attained adequate strength. (See page 24.)

The method of curing adopted for concrete placed in cold weather should be one which retains the moisture within the concrete; for example, covering with waterproof paper or plastic film is preferable to wet hessian or wet sand. In addition to this moisture barrier, the temperature of the concrete must be kept above freezing point. This can be done by placing a suitable insulating material between two layers of waterproof paper or plastic film.

In order to resist later frosts without damage, concrete must have attained adequate maturity (a function of the temperature and the age of the concrete) and must not be saturated with water. For most structural concretes, adequate maturity would probably be obtained in 4 to 5 days at 40°F WC) or 6 to 7 days at 35°F (Z°C).

19

7: Curing

To ensure that concrete reaches the required strength, it is important to cure the concrete correctly. Curing involves keeping the concrete moist, above freezing-point, and at a temperature which will permit stripping of formwork in an economically acceptable time.

Arrangem~nts should be made for a particular person within the contractor's staff to be responsible for curing. The man should be carefully briefed on the importance and method of curing to be used on the job. Befor,e any concreting starts, adequate curing facilities should be made available on site.

The curing of horizontal surfaces exposed to the sun or to drying winds must begin immediately the concrete has been placed and finished, particularly in hot weather, in order to prevent the evaporation of moisture and the consequent formation of cracks in the surface. A method of protection which is both positive and effective and does not require further attention is to spray the surface with a membrane curing compound which prevents excessive evaporation. Some of these materials contain a dye and care should be taken to ensure that the finished surface is not marred. Naturally, this method is not suitable on floors where other materials such as screeds have to be bonded to the surface. Tenting, arranged on frames and provided with sealed ends to prevent wind blowing under the tenting, can be erected over the work to protect it from the sun. Alternatively, waterproof paper or plastic sheeting may be used to cover the freshly placed concrete. These, however, tend to mark the surface if allowed to touch, or to blow away if not weighted down.

When the sun is not strong and winds are light, curing may often be postponed until the concrete has stiffened. Then waterproof paper or plastic sheeting may be used and weighted down on to the surface. Alternatively, matting, hessian or sand, all of which must be kept damp, may be used for a period of at least 7 days. If tenting is used until the concrete has stiffened, it should then be replaced by a waterproof covering or damp material. Waterproof paper or plastic film is recommended for curing coloured concrete surfaces.

Curing vertical surfaces may be achieved by leaving forms in place, by hanging wet canvas or hessian over the completed work, or by covering it with plastic sheeting.

Special arrangements are necessary for concrete made with high alumina or super-sulphated cement and the manufacturer's instructlons should be followed.

Concrete should be protected from damage by construction traffic and by loading at least until the end of the curing period and until the concrete has adequate strength to withstand the loading.

20

- ......

8: Air-entrained concrete

Where air entrainment is specified, it is important on site to ensure that the correct quantity of air-entraining agent is dispensed into each batch of concrete. The method of dispensing will vary according to the nature of the work and the type of agent used (e.g. liquid or solid). Whatever the method, careful checks should be made and any dilution of liquid admixture should be done under adequate supervision.

The entrainment of about 5 % of air in the form of minute bubbles, few of which can be seen by eye, improves the resistance of concrete to frost attack and it is therefore sometimes specified for particular jobs where frost attack is likely. It should be noted that air entrainment does not protect concrete against frost until the concrete has fully hardened.

The quantity of air entrained in the concrete requires checking (see page 47) at regular intervals. Generally the air content should be measured at least twice a day for each mixer in use.

9: Reinforcement

Reinforcement forms a vital part of most concrete structures and it is important to ensure that the steel is delivered in a satisfactory condition and is correctly used at all stages of construction. The main precautions to be taken to avoid possible difficulty are as follows.

1 When fixed in the work, all reinforcing steel should be free from loose millscale, loose rust, oil and grease and other harmful material.

Reinforcement should be slored in such a way that it dee not become contaminated with harmful materials such as mud, paint and concrete droppings. For this reason, it is advisable to keep bars on racks well above ground level and for mesh reinforcement to be stacked Aat on closely spaced timbers about I ft above ground level.

21

~------------------~----------~.~. ..~.~~--~~~I

siderably depending upon, among other factors, the height of lift, rate of placing, and temperature. If formwork to slabs or beams is to be removed and the props are to be left for a longer period, the props must be designed to remain in position throughout the stripping operation without temporarily being removed; alternatively, props should be d€signed so that a few can be taken away at a time and replaced almost immediately.

The following points are of particular importance.

Formwork must be properly handled, carefully stored, maintained in a clean condition and, in fact, treated with the respect it deserves; forms which have been damaged, split or bent should be rejected.

Unless the surface of the finished concrete is to be painted, plastered or tiled, the formwork should be lightly coated with a good mould oil; the best of these is the water-in-oil emulsion, usually a white cream. The mould oil should be used sparingly and exactly as supplied; no dilution of the oil should be necessary on site. Forms should be oiled several hours before erection and protected from dust, dirt and other debris until they are required; it should not be necessary to re-oil the formwork after fixing and this is to be avoided in any case because surplus oil may discolour the concrete and may reduce bond of reinforcement and key at joints.

The positioning, fixing and rigidity of formwork, including support from the ground or other structures, should be checked before concreting begins. All joints should be as tight as possible to prevent grout loss or bleeding, and where some deflexion of the form at a joint is inevitable, foamed plastic sealing strips, compressed within the joint itself, should be used to minimize this problem. Small defects should be made good with a plastic filler. Leakage at a joint will darken the surrounding concrete, causing an unsightly blemish and in more serious cases may expose the sand or aggregate and weaken the structure. Where slender vertical sections such as columns and walls are being cast and where such fixings as holding-down bolt-holes are placed in the concrete, it is advisable to re-check all setting-out immediately after placing. If any significant displacement has occurred, it may then be possible to correct it.

When a section of formwork is being prepared for concreting, a check should be made to see that all dirt, cut ends of tying wire and other debris have been removed from the bottom and corners of the section. (Odd nails and cut ends of tying wire left on shutters will lead to rust staining which i almost impossible to eliminate.) This may be done by brushing or, more effectively, by a hand-hose working on compressed air. Sections of formlVork should, if possible, be omitted initially, to facilitate cleaning, but care is required to ensure that such panels are ultimately properly oiled, set true and that all joints are tight.

Where retarders are to be applied to the formwork to delay the setting of the concrete surface, it is important that these retarders are spread uniformly at the recommended rate of coverage. Variation in the distribution of the

Different sizes of bar or mesh reinforcement should be kept apart and should be clearly marked.

The cutting and bending of reinforcement should be checked for accuracy against drawings and bent bars should be carefully separated by type and marked for later use. Mild-steel bars may be heated to a cherry-red heat for bending but they must not be quenched in water to cool them. High-yield bars must be bent cold and never heated.

If it is necessary to take mesh reinforcement across a site, it should be carried and not, for example, be dragged behind a tractor as this would almost certainly lead to bending of the fabric and possibly to br€aking of welds.

The fixing of reinforcement should be checked before and during concreting. Steel should be supported sufficiently rigidly to avoid movement during plaCing of the concrete when the reinforcement may be affected or touched by vibrators. The rigid fixing of steel is particularly important in cantilever sections.

All reinforcement should be fixed to ensure that the required cover is obtained and in such a way that accidental displacement during the form-fixing or concreting operatIons cannot occur. Spacers should be sufficiently imperVIOUS to prevent mOIsture penetrating to the reinforcement, they should not lead to any marking of the surface of the finished concrete and, if made of other than mortar or concrete, they should be compatible with the strength of the structure.

Once fixed in place, steel should, whenever possible, not be bent out of positon to. ease the placing of concrete. If any steel has to be bent it is important that mIld steel should be bent to a radius of not less than 4 times the diameter of the bars and high-yield bars to a radius of not less than 6 times the diameter and that all bars are correctly bent back before being finally immersed in concrete.

10: Formwork

Formwork must be designed and constructed to resist excessive deformation while concrete is being placed and compacted. All panels and boards must be fitted together carefully in order to prevent leakage of water or grout; it should be remembered that the formwork is subjected to severe vibration and high pressures simultaneously. The pressure exerted by the concrete can vary con-

23

22

retarder will produce equivalent differences in the degree of interference with the concrete. It is difficult to spread retarders on forms which have been previously coated with certain mould oils and it may first be necessary to scrub the surface with detergent. The retarding action diminishes rapidly as soon as the forms are eased from the concrete and it is important that surface treatment should start immediately afterwards. Forms where retarders have been used must be cleaned thoroughly after use and before re-use without retarders.

In general, formwork should not be struck until the concrete reaches a cube strength of at least twice the stress to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of stripping, including any stresses due to loading of the concrete. Subject to the requirements of the specification, the periods given in Table I may be taken as a guide for the removal of the formwork. See also Part I, page 50.

TAB LEI: Number of days which should elapse before removal of formwork in normal weather [about 60°F WC)]

3 7 7 16

Ordinary Rapid-hardening

Portland cement Portland cemenl

concrete concrete

Slab (props left under)

Beam soffits (props left under) Removal of props to slabs Removal of props to beams

Formwork to vertical surfaces such as sides of beams, walls and columns may be removed after 12 hours when the temperature is about 60°F (16°C).

In cold weather, times must be increased according to the reduced rate of hardening. For example, it would be appropriate to add half a day for each day on which the temperature was below 45°F (7'C) and a whole day for each day on which the temperature was below 35°F (2·C).

If cubes are cast in order to obtain some indication of a suitable time for stripping formwork, these cubes will have to be stored moist, close to the job, to reduce temperature effects. It is most important, however, that the results of these cube tests should not be used for specification purposes to assess concrete quality or for statistical purposes to assist site control.

24

I I: Finishing

All exposed concrete surfaces should be cleaned down on completion, in such a way as to maintain the intended finish. Any projecting fins of mortar at formwork joints should be carefully removed. Particular care should be taken to see that arrisses are not damaged. Surface grinding can, where appropriate, be used to clean surfaces but it must be kept in mind that, if the surface skin of the concrete is removed, the aggregate will be exposed; the resulting change in the texture of the surface may be objectionable.

Any filling of holes (whether patching or bolt-holes) in the finished concrete should be carried out with a well-compacted mortar consisting of I part of cement to I or I t parts of sand from the same source as used in the main concreting. A proportion of white cement can be used in the mortar to maintain the same colour as that of the main concrete more easily. Excess material should be wiped off.

Any superficial making good, known in the trade as " bagging in '', hould be carried out as soon as possible after the shutters are stripped.

Patching

Patching should only be done when it is really necessary, for example, because of honeycombing, as it is very difficult to conceal and is not likely to enhance the appearance of the work. After the faulty work has been seen by the inspector and patching decided upon, it should be done as follows and without further delay:

the edges of the patch are cut back at right-angles to the surface to a depth of at least I in.-this can be done by means of a saw with diamond-tipped blades;

the patching concrete or mortar is carefully batched with the same and as for the main concreting and the required amount of grey and white cement to maintain the same colour as in the structure;

the patching concrete or mortar is fully compacted and correctly finished; the pa tch is cured.

Floor finishes

The satisfactory construction of floor finishes requires considerable skill and careful supervision and is usually done by especially experienced operatives and is not considered here.

Structural concrete, however, is often required to be finished as a wearing surface without any further treatment. In this instance, special care needs to be taken on several points:

25

forms must be laid accurately enough to enable the floor to be laid to the specified tolerance, usually about t in. in 10ft;

the concrete must be of consistent quality, to ensure that the finished floor has a uniform appearance;

the preparation of the final surface texture, whether obtained by steel trowelling, wood floating or brushing, should be carried out at the correct time after laying and should preferably be done by one operative, who is likely to get more consistent results than several men;

particular care should be taken to ensure proper curing as it affects the wearing resistance of floors and, if inadequately carried out is likely to lead

to dusting; ,

the floor should be protected against damage during later work by a suitable covering of boards or sand or, if there is only light traffic by hessian or

building paper. '

12: Precast units

Precast concrete units must not be damaged in any way likely to lead to a weakening of the unit or to the spoiling of its appearance. This is important when lifting off delivery vehicles, stacking, or lifting into place. Units should be lifted by the eye-bolts or other devices provided; they should be lifted the right way up, particularly in the case of prestressed beams; cables fitted round a unit should be suitably padded by timber or sacking to prevent damage to the edges' the precast units should be suitably placed on timber bearers with, if necessary: timber bearers or other soft material between units. If units have special surface finishes and are likely to be stacked for a considerable time, they should be stacked In such a way that their weight is uniformly distributed, that they cannot become stained and that they are subject to even weathering.

26

:'.1 -Ir ....... ,

Appendix I:

Example of the calculation of hatching

Determine the batch weights for weigh-batching all materials, with I cwt of cement per batch, for a mix with cement: sand: t to fo in. coarse aggregate in the proportions I : 2 : 4 by volume and a water/cement ratio of 0·55 by weight.

Measured bulk densities of aggregate

Sand (dry)

t to fo in. coarse aggregate (dry)

= 1051b/ft3 = 100 Ib/ft3

Moisture content of aggregate

Moisture content of sand varies but is assumed to have an average of 6 %.

Moisture content of coarse aggregate varies but is assumed to be constant at 2%.

Calculations to be done once at the beginning of the job

batch weight of cement = I cwt (i.e. Ii ft3)

batch weight of dry sand = 2 x 105 x It = 262 Ib

262 x (100 + 6)

batch weight of damp sand 100 = 280 Ib

batch weight of dry coarse aggregate = 4 x 100 X It = 500 Ib

batch w~ight of damp coarse aggregate 500 X (100 + 2) = 510 Ib

100

Batch weight of water = total water requirement (i.e. weight of cement times water/cement ratio) minus the water contained in the and and minus the water contained in the coarse aggregate.

. m 2

That IS: 112 x 0·55 - 262 x - - 500 x - or 51·6 - 2·62m Ib

100 100'

where III = measured moisture content of the sand(%).

To simplify the use of this formula, batch quantities can be calculated for /II = 0 and III = 10 to give batch weights of water of 51·6 and 26·4 Ib respectively, and plotted in a graph (see overleaf).

Calculation to be done on measuring moisture content of sand Measured moisture content of sand = 4t %

Batch weight of water from graph = 40 Ib = 4 gal.

27

f-

~ 6 60

r

w

U

u,

o I-

~

U

ct 50

w

..

ct w

X

l:

I

. "

Appendix 2:

Supervisor's weekly reports

w Ol

The layout of a supervisor's weekly report will depend upon the type of work being carried out and often upon the printed form on which he is required to submit his account of progress on site. In the absence of such a printed form, matters for which information concerning concrete work could usefully be recorded are listed below.

Progress

Operations started and finished and percentage of each operation in progress completed in relation to formwork, reinforcement, concreting, etc.

Volume of each quality of concrete laid daily.

Stoppages due to freezing conditions, inclement weather other than frost, breakdown of plant, shortage of materials and supervisor's restrictions to enforce the specification.

Materials and plant

Quantities of cement and aggregate delivered and used. Changes in sources of aggregate and cement.

Changes in types and numbers of pieces of plant used.

Reports of tests (as Appendices)

Aggregate tests including information on the origin and type of aggregate, cleanness, organic impurities, grading analysis and moisture content.

Slump, compacting factor or other workability tests, including a record of the type of concrete being tested and where the batches of concrete tested were placed in the structure.

Cubes made, including a record of the type of tbe concrete being tested, the reference numbers of the cubes and where the batches of concrete tested were placed in the structure.

Cube test results, including the reference numbers of the cubes.

Any other tests carried out on site, for example, measurements of the air content in air-entrained concrete.

Any samples sent to a laboratory for more detailed tests.

Miscellaneous information

Maximum and minimum day and night temperatures.

Difficulties encountered during concreting operations, for example, segregation.

Appearance of the concrete on stripping of formwork.

Reports regarding unusual operations should accompany the weekly report and may have to be entered on special printed forms set out to a standard pattern. They would include such items as driven or bored piles, and concrete core tests.

w I I-

~ 4 40 - - - - - - - - -

o

w

o o <

o

I- J

f{

w

I-

<

~

30

u.

o

>l-

IZ < J o

10'---"'__ 1_....L1_.1_..J1L..-_.I..- I_..I.I _ ___J~

o ro

12

MOISTURE CONTENT OF SAND - %

28

29

Section 2

The testing of concrete and concreting materials

The tests for concrete and concreting materials usually per-

form one of two functions.

Tests used to assist in deciding whether particular sources of material are suitable for concrete and, if so, in what proportions they should be used. These tests are usually carried out by experienced staff in a laboratory. With materials of known good quality (for example, they may be known to comply with the requirements of the relevant British Standard) tests may be omitted for many concreting jobs of a routine nature but not in jobs where special qualities such as very high strength are required.

Tests carried out on site, firstly to supplement laboratory tests and secondly to ensure that the quality of the concrete is both acceptable and reasonably uniform throughout the job. All the methods of test used on sites can be and usually are carried out in the laboratory also. The tests are reasonably simple and do not require specially skilled staff.

This report concentrates on the site tests though a few references are made to laboratory tests which may on occasion be used in the field. Some preliminary remarks must, however, be made on the sampling of materials intended for test.

Whilst most of the tests described comply with current British Standards, some tests have not yet been standardized; in these instances a test procedure has been suggested but it should be kept in mind that some of the procedures may require altering in the light of the proposed revision of B.S. 1881, Methods of testing concrete. This applies particularly to the air content and Vebe consistometer tests.

31

I: Sampling

Cement

A sample of cement taken for testing must be representative of the consign·

ment and be taken within one week of delivery. It should be a mixture of at least 12 equal sub·samples taken from evenly spaced portions throughout the consignment. For cement in bags or other packages, it should be a mixture of equal quantities taken from at least 12 bags, or from each bag when there are fewer than 12 bags. Sub·samples of bulk cement should be taken from the bulk container, or containers, during filling or emptying. The sample should weigh at least ISlb and be sealed in a clean air-light container, with relevant particulars clearly marked on the outside, and sent to a suitably equipped laboratory. Testing should be completed within four weeks of the delivery of the cement

to the site.

Aggregates

Details of amp ling aggregates are given in Section I of B.S. 812:1960.

Great care is needed in taking samples because, unless they truly represent the bulk of the aggregates, the results of the tests will be false.

When sampling under favourable conditions, such as exist when the materials do not vary greatly from point to point in the mass, a main sample should be obtained from at least ten small portions or increments. The main samples of each type or size of aggregate to be tested should be of at least the quantities

given in Table 2.

TAB L.E 2: Minimum weights for sampling

Maximum size of aggregate (in.)

Note: Larger samples may be required if testing for bulk density or if trial mixes are

to be carried out.

Minimum weight of sample for testing (Ib)

224 112 56 28 14 7

2 or 2t lor Ii i

t i

t or smaller

32

f t

Sampling is best carried out when aggregate is being loaded or unloaded from vehicles, or when it is being discharged from a conveyor belt. In each case the increments should be taken at fairly regular intervals during the movement of

the quantity being sampled.

When sampling in difficult conditions, a greater number of increments will be

required to obtain a larger sample than the minimum weights ~ven in Table 2. An example of difficult sampling is from vehicles which have been" sandwich· loaded" (a most undesirable practice) with different sizes loaded one after another from overhead bins. In such cases the sampler should use his experience and discretion to ensure that a representative sample is obtained.

The reduction in size of a sample must be carried out with care to ensure that the small sample is representative of the larger. A riffle·box may be used when the aggregate is surface·dry. A riffle·box is designed so that material poured in the top is approximately equally split and diverted to two sides; material to one side of the box is discarded and the remainder tested or split to a smaller sample ( ee Figure 2). The method known as quartering is more frequently used (see Figure 3). The aggregate should be damp and thoroughly mixed and piled into a heap which is then flattened to an even layer 3 to 4 in. thick. It is then divided into four equal quadrants and two diagonally opposite quarters discarded. The remaining quadrants are well mixed together and the process repeated until the desired size of sample remains.

Where samples are to be sent to a laboratory they should be packed securely

to prevent damage in transit in containers which will prevent loss of fine dust.

Figure 2: A typical riffle·box beillg IIsed to divide a sample of aggregate.

33

Figllre 3: The redllc/ion of a sample of coarse aggregate by meO/~ of qllar/erillg.

Concrete

Correct sampling of concrete is essential if the test results are to be repre· sentative of the bulk of the concrete. Samples should be not less than 1 ftl and should be composed of a mixture of portions from different points in the batch. With continuous mixers, the discharge during one minute should be regarded as a batch.

Samples may be taken during discharge of the concrete from the mixer or ready·mixed concrete agitating truck; in this instance, at least three apprc» imately equal sample increments (part·samples) should be taken at equal intervals during the discharge.

Alternatively, samples may be taken at the point of placing during discharge from a non·agitating truck or a dumper or samples may be taken after discharge; in these instances, the sample should be composed of at least five approximately equal sample increments from well distributed positions, the edge of the mass of the concrete where segregation may have occurred being avoided.

After collection, the sample should be mixed on a non·absorbent base by hand to ensure uniformity and the tests carried out immediately. Samples should be protected from the weather.

Where the point of mixing and the point of placing are some distance apart there is the choice of taking samples at either place. Generally, sampling and testing at the mixer has the advantage of enabling adjustments to the mix to be undertaken more quickly, whereas workability tests at the point of placing can be more easily related to the placing conditions. On some large jobs it is useful to carry out a few tests at both places so as to ascertain, for example, the cbange in workability during hot weather.

34

2: Testing cements

The testing of cement must be carried out according to the relevant B.S. under carefully controlled conditions; for this reason it is rarely possible to carry out the tests on site. For example, when making strength test specimens: the air of the mixing room must be kept between 64°F and WP (mOC and 2WC); the temperature of air in the immediate vicinity of the specimens during the first 24 h of storage must be 66 ± 2°F (18·9 ± I'I°C) and at least at 90% relative humidity; and the temperature of the curing water must be 66 ± 2°P (18'9 ± I·IOC).

The B.S. tests specified for cements are those for fineness, chemical compo· sition, strength, setting time and soundness; limits for these tests are given.

3: Testing aggregates

,

In controlling the quality of aggregates, it is important to ensure that the aggregate is clean and does not contain any organic impurities which might retard or prevent the setting of the cement and that the proportions of the different sizes of particles within a graded material remain uniform.

Cleanness

Accurate tests for determining the proportion of dust, silt, clay or other fine particles are given in clauses 13 and 14 of B.S. 812:1960 but these tests are suitable only for the laboratory. On site, cleanness can be assessed visually though for natural sands the" field settling test" will give an approximate guide

to the amount of clay or fine silt. ,

Details of the field settling test are given in clause 15 of B.S. 812,1960. The test consists of placing about 50, ml (millilitres) of a 1 % solution of common salt in water (roughly one teaspoonful per pint) in a 250 ml measuring cylinder. Sand, as received, is then added gradually until the level of the top of the sand is at the 100 ml mark and more solution is added to bring the liquid level to the 150 ml mark. The cylinder is shaken vigorously, and the contents allowed to settle for three hours. The thickness of the silt layer is then measured and expressed as a percentage of the height of the sand below the layer. ~ of clay and silt in the sand may.,be considered acceptable if it does not exceed

~

35

,. ••• ---_ oW-

If a measuring cylinder is not available, a jam jar filled to a depth of 2 in. with sand and to a total depth of 3 in. with the solution will give comparable results if the contents are allowed to settle for three hours. The thickness of the silt layer in tb~ case should not be more than t in. (see Figure 4).

Since the field settling test gives only an approximate guide, sands containing more than 8 % of clay or fine silt cannot be regarded as having failed to comply with the specification and further laboratory tests to assess their suitability must be carried out.

There is no suitable site test for the cleanne~s of crushed-rock fine, coarse or all-in aggregates and reliance is usually placed upon the grading analysis (see later) to show if there is an excess of fine dust in the material.

Similarly, there is no suitable site test for the cleanness of a gravel coarse aggregate. It is important to ensure that aggregate particles are not coated with clay and that lumps of clay are not mixed in with the aggregate (see Figure 5). These are indications that the aggregate has not been adequately washed before delivery or that the aggregate has subsequently become contaminated.

Figure 4: The silt test made in a lib jam jar.

36

figure 5: The inspectioll of "!'fi1'm~~Wlv.)j a delivery of coarse aggregate for cleanness.

Organic impurities

Coarse aggregates from any source and crushed rock fine aggregates are un-

likely to contain organic impurities though natural sands may. A method of test is described in clause 28 of B.S. 812:1960. This simple test is to fill a medicine bottle to the 4t oz mark with sand as delivered and then to add a 3 % solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) in water until the level of the liquid after shaking is 7 oz. A solution of this strength may be purchased from local chemists. The bottle is then stoppered, shaken vigorously and allowed to stand for 24 hours. If, at the end of that time, the colour of the solution above the sand is darker than tbe standard colour given in B.S. 812, laboratory tests should be made to determine whether the sand is acceptable.

Sieve analysis

The grading of an aggregate is found by passing a representative sample of

dry aggregate through a series of sieves, starting with the largest. If the sieving is carried out by hand, each sieve is shaken separately over a clean tray for not less than 2 min; if machine sieving is used, a nest of sieves should be shaken for at least 15 min. The material retained on each sieve, together with any material cleaned from the mesh, is weighed and recorded. The percentage by weight passing each sieve is then calculated, as shown in Table 3. Sieving will not be accurate if there is too much material left on any mesh after shaking, the maximum weights of aggregate to be retained on a sieve to avoid over-loading are given in Table 6 ofB.S. 812.

37

39

The size of the sample tested depends on the maximum size of the aggregate.

For It in. aggregate the sample should weigh at least 351b, for t in. aggregate at least Sib, for t in. aggregate at least lib, and for fine aggregate at least t lb.

British weights have been used in the example, but the metric system is often preferred.

TABLE 3: Example of method for recording sieve analysis of aggregate (weight of sample = 5 Ib 4 oz)

Weight retained on each sieve (oz)

Total weight passing each sieve (oz)

Percentage passing each sieve

B.S. sieve

I'

tin. i in. kin.

sieve pan

2 48 30 4

82 34 4

98 40 5

1/ / / /1

70 t--t--t-n'f-+ /--r1-+--+-r-iI-~+_~1

Zone 1 /~ I, : ,

o fineaUrelm ..... 'tf--- f..I' I I

~ 10 t--t--t-+f----t-i,~-+-_+_h_~+__1

~

< ,

~ , I

~ 50 t---t--t--rIt--If---I--t--Ij-fL-I-+~

~ ,/ , I,' I t V ;;;.I~::ed

u iO t---t--t+t'-ti--+--I--t--L..JI1'f--I-+-

~ , II I I

~ I ! I

30 t--+--j;----t-7t--t--t--t--'~--j~-+-_1

/1// ,/1

10 r---t-I-ft-t-t--f---+--f-1-j/L,+- I-I_+----j

" ",' !~/

10' iL!_

/1 ~ / I

/ ~I V'

o No.IOO No.51 No.25 No. Ii No.7 fr in. I in. I in. Ipn. 3 In.

B.S. SIEVE SIZE

Figure 6: B.S. grading limils for Zone 2 fille aggregale alld t ill. graded aggregale over which are plolled the gradillg of Iypical materials delivered 10 sile.

38

Ii

I:

Ii

The results are usually pioued on a chart similar to that shown in Figure 6 so that the specified gradings and the sample gradings can be more easily compared; the B.S. 882: 1965 grading limits for Zone 2 sand and t to i in. coarse aggregate are shown as an example. Four grading zones for fine aggregate are given in B.S. 882 to assist in deciding the best way to use any particular fine aggregate. The coarsest of sands are in Zone I, whereas those in Zone 2 are slightly finer and are often described as " sharp" or concreting sands. Zone 3 sands are a little finer still and those in Zone 4 are very fine and are often described as " soft" or " builder's" sand.

It should be noted that, in plotting grading curves, the points representing the percentage of material passing the various sieve sizes are joined by straight lines and not by curves.

Moisture content

The purpose of measuring the moisture content of aggregate is to enable an estimate to be made of the quantity of water within batched aggregates, so that proportionately less water is added at the mixer. Changes in the moisture content of the aggregate do not justify making adjustments to the weight of aggregate in each batch of concrete though a batch weight of dry aggregate should be adjusted at the beginning of a job to allow for an average moisture content.

DRYING MBTHODS

Methods involving the drying of representative samples of aggregate are often used. The source of heat usually used when drying aggregates to a saturated surface-dry condition is the open frying pan. The aggregate is first weighed (WI)' then dried, and re-weighed (W2). The moisture content is calculated as

WI - Wz x 100%

Wz 0

The size of the sample is usually about 21b for coarse aggregate and about t lb for fine aggregate.

The moisture conteu used on site should be the" saturated surface-dry" moisture content; that is, it takes into account water on the surface of all particles of aggregate, but does not include water absorbed into the pores of the aggregate!. Coarse aggregates should be dried until surface moisture has evaporated (this is often accompanied by a slight change in colour of the aggregate) but any further heating should be avoided. Fine aggregate should be dried until it just does not adhere to a glass rod when stirred.

; As an alternative to the saturated surface-dry moisture content, the" total" moisture content which includes water absorbed into the pores of the aggregate particles may be used. When using the total moisture contcnt, the aggregate should be dried thoroughly and it is often necessary to oven-heat the aggregate at 100 to IOSOC overnight. An important point to note is that a saturated surface-dry moisture content must be used in conjunction with a saturated surface-dry water/cement ratio and, similarly, with a total moisture content, a total water/cement ratio must be used.

,

41

If an open source of heat is used it is important not to overheat the aggregate to the extent that the aggregate particles break up and spit out of the pan.

lt is satisfactory for site work to heat the aggregate slowly and gently and to re-weigh imm~diately.

DISPLACEMENT METHODS

The moisture content of aggregates can also be determined by one of the displacement methods such as a siphon can 11,21, steelyard or a measuring cylinder(3). For all these methods of test, it is necessary to" calibrate" the particular size and type of aggregate for which the moisture content is required before the moisture content itself can be determined. This is because the moisture content is determined from the difference in weight of a particular volume of dry and wet aggregate or, conversely, the difference in volume of a particular weight of

dry and wet aggregate. . . .

The advantage of the displacement methods IS that, once the cahbratJon for a particular aggregate is known, the moisture content can be determined within a few minutes. It is therefore possible to make allowance for the mostare III the aggregate before concreting starts. Samples can be taken from the batched aggregate and tested for the final adjustment of the water content III the mired concrete.

I:

Ii

OTHER METHODS

There are other methods of determining moisture content of aggregates. Most are proprietary methods and instructions for carrying out the test are supplied with the apparatus.

In the calcium carbide method, a sample of fine aggregate is mixed with an excess of calcium carbide in a sealed metal flask. The pressure produced by the acetylene liberated is related to the moisture content, which can be read off a dial. Like the displacement methods, this test is very quick, but the SIZe of sample is small and two or three tests may be advisable to get an accurate measure of the average moisture content in a stockpile of aggregate.

I ~

II!

Bulking of sand

Whenever volume batching of aggregate is adopted, an allowance for the bulking of sand is necessary because the volume of a ~ven weight of sand is greater when that sand is damp than when it is either dry or inundated wIth water. The volume when inundated is the same as when dry.

The bulk density of damp sand varies widely according to the amount of incidental or deliberate compaction given to it; it also depends to some extent on the size of the sample used. Therefore, to obtain a realistic test result, about I ftl of damp sand should be put into a watertight container in as nearly as possible the same manner as the gauge boxes will be filled in practice. Fivegallon oil drums with vertical sides and one end removed are sUItable for thiS purpose.

40

The internal height of the container (L1) is measured, the container filled with damp sand and the surface struck off level. The sand must 1I0t be tamped down. The sand should then be tipped out of the container on to a clean surface. The container is then about one-third filled with water and the sand is put back. During the replacement of the sand, the water level must be kept ~bove the sand level. When all the sand has been replaced, the surface,which will be below the water level should be made approximately level. The difference in height (L2) between the sand level and the top of the container is then measured. The bulking is normally expressed to within about 5 % and is:

.h: x 100% L1 - L2

Smaller-scale bulking tests are often adopted in the laboratory for comparative purposes but, as stated above, the site-scale test is more appropriate to

practical conditions. ." .

By repeating bulking tests at different mOisture contents, It IS possIble to plot a graph of bulking against moisture content; the moisture content can then be used to assist in the control of the quantity of fine aggregate batched. Alternatively, the amount of bulking at a typical moisture content is used throughout the job. Typical values of bulking would be about 20% for a coarse sand up to about 40% for fine sand.

Bulk density of aggregate

Laboratory methods of measuring the bulk density of aggregates are given in B.S. 812:1960. It is made clear, however, that the methods given are not generally suitable for use as a basis for quoting mix design conversion factors and that, for this purpose, an appropriate practical test should be employed. Despite this statement, the two tests for loose bulk density and rodded bulk density given in the Standard are often used. The appropriate value for use on the majority of construction sites is likely to lie between the two alternatrves In the Standard, though in the absence of practical site tests it is recommended that the loose bulk density should be adopted.

The apparatus includes a cylindrical metal measure of * , t or [ ftl capacity for aggregate sizes under to in., between to and It in. and over [! in. respectively. The metal measure is first calibrated by determining its actual volume: the weight of water in pounds required to fill the measure with no meniscus above the rim is divided by the weight of a cubic foot of water (62-4 Ib) to gIve the volume in cubic feet.

The measure should be filled to overflowing by means of a shovel or scoop, the aggregate being discharged from a height of not more than 2 in. above the top of the measure. Care should be taken to keep segregation of different sizes to a minimum and the surface should be levelled with a straIght-edge. The weight of the aggregates in the measur~ should then be determined _in pou~ds and divided by the volume of the container to grve the bulk denSIty III Iblft to the nearest t [b/ftl.

4: Water

. B.s. 3148, Tests for water for making concrete, gives details of how the properties of concrete made with any particular sample of water may be compared with those of an otherwise similar concrete made with distilled water.

The tests are in effect those for initial setting time and compressive strength given in the appropriate British Standard for the type of cement being used. The Standard does not specify limits for those tests, though some guidance is

given on the interpretation of the results.

5: Workability of fresh concrete

The measurement of the workability of fresh concrete is of importance in assessing the practicability of compacting the mix and also in maintaining a consistent workability throughout the job. Apart from this, workability tests are often used to check indirectly the water content and therefore the waterlcement ratio of the concrete. In this instance, the relation between waterlcement ratio and workability is established in the laboratory or early in the site work; by maintaining the correct proportions of cement and aggregate at a constant workability, the waterlcement ratio is known and controlled; periodic measurements of moisture are then made to provide a check that the mix proportions are

correct.

Compacting factor test

The compacting factor test is a more sensitive method of measuring the work-

ability of concrete than the slump test and enables values to be obtained for mixes which are too dry to give measurable slump. The apparatus, shown in Figure 7, consists of two conical hoppers and a cylindrical container mounted vertically. In making the tests, the top hopper is filled with a sample of concrete without compacting it. A hinged door at the bottom is released and the concrete allowed to fall into the second hopper; the concrete is similarly released from the second hopper and falls into the cylindrical container'. The concrete in the

'Cohesive mixes have a tendency to stick in one or both of the hoppers. If this happens, the concrete may be helped through by pushing a rod gently into the concrete from

the top.

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Figure 7: Tile compacting factor apparatus slioll'il/g COl/crete wliich has been

dropped from tlie first iI/to the second •

hopper blllllot yet into the cytinder.

cylindrical container above the level of the rim is cut off by simultaneously working two steel trowels from the outside to the centre. The weight of concrete in the cylinder is found and is referred to as the" partially compacted weight". The corresponding" weight of fully compacted concrete" is then found by refilling the cylinder in layers approximately 2 in. deep, each layer being compacted by hand-ramming or vibration, and trowelling off lever with the rim. The compacting factor is the ratio of the partially compacted weight to the fully

compacted weight.

To ensure a representative result for the workability of a particular batch,

such as a trial mix, it is advisable to take the average of the values obtained from

three tests.

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Slump test

The slump test is a practical means of measuring the consistence of most concrete. Since changes in the values of slump obtained during a job may indicate material changes in the water content or the proportions of the mix, it is useful in controlling the quality of the concrete produced.

The apparatus consists of a mould 4 in. in diameter at the top, 8 in. in diameter at the bottom and 12 in. high, and a steel tamping rod i in. diameter and 2 ft long, rounded at one end. The inside of the mould should be cleaned before each test and the mould placed on a hard flat impervious surface. The mould should be filled in four layers of approximately equal depth. Each layer is rodded with 25 strokes of the tamping rod (see Figure 8), and after the top layer has been rodded the surface of the concrete is struck off level with the top of the mould with a trowel or the rod. Any leakage is cleaned away from around the base of the mould and the mould is then lifted vertically from the concrete. The slump is the difference between the height of the concrete before and the greatest height after the removal of the mould (see Figure 9). If any specimen collapses or shears off laterally, the test should be repeated with another sample of the same concrete and if, in the repeat test, the specimen should shear, the slump should be recorded together with the fact that the specimen sheared. If, after the slump measurement has been completed, the side of the concrete is tapped with a rod, a well.proportioned cohesive mix will gradually slump further but a harsh uncohesive mix is likely to collapse.

Figure 8: Tile roddillg of cOllcrete illto a slump test cOile.

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Figure 9: Measuring tile slllmp.

TABLE 4: Workability for different purposes

Purpose Compacting Slump Vebe
factor (in.) (degrees)
Very high·strength concrete for prestressed 0·70-0·78 0 over 20
concrete sections compacted by heavy
vibration
High·strength concrete sections, pavings 0-1 7-20
and ma s concrete compacted by vibration 0·78-0·85
Normally reinforced concrete sections 0·85-0·92
compacted by vibration. Hand·compacted 1-2 3-7
mass concrete
Heavily reinforced concrete sections 0·92-0·95 2-4 1-3
compacted by vibration. Hand·compacted
concrete in normally reinforced slabs,
beams, columns and walls
Heavily reinforced concrete sections 4-6 0-1
compacted without vibration, and work over 0·95
where compaction is particularly difficult 45

Vebe consistometer test

The Vebe consistometer is a satisfactory method of test for measuring the workability of concretes which are suitable for compaction by vibration. It was first developed in Sweden and is being accepted in this country for use in the laboratory but is equally useful in the field provided a suitable 3·phase power supply is available.

Essentially the test comprises two parts. Firstly, a slump test is carried out inside a hollow cylinder on the top of a vibrating table (not switched on) (see Figure 10). Secondly, a transparent plate, which can just fit within the cylinder and which can drop vertically under its own weight, is placed gently on top of the slumped cOJlcrete; the vibrating table is then switched on and, under the action of the vibration, its own weight and the weight of the transparent plate, the concrete remoulds itself into the shape of the cylinder. As soon as the con. crete is c~mpletely remoulded, as can be seen through the transparent plate, the power is switched off (see Figure 11). The time taken in seconds for the concrete to be remoulded is a measure of the workability of the concrete, known as Vebe degrees, and a greater time indicates lower workability.

An approximate guide to compacting factors, slump and Vebe degrees for concrete for different purposes is ~ven in Table 4.

Figure 10: The Vebe consistometer ready for beginning a test.

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Figure 11: The Vebe consistometer as it would appear at the end 0/ a test.

6: Air content of fresh concrete

When using an air-entrained concrete, the air content of the fresh concrete should be determined in an apparatus approved by the engineer and should be used in a manner approved by him and in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. The air meter should be of the type in which the air content is read off whilst the concrete is under pressure, usually 14 or 15Ib/in1• The meter should have a capacity of at least 0·2 ftl (see Figure 12).

The cylinder of the meter should be filled with concrete in layers about 2 in. deep, each layer being fully compacted by hand-ramming with a steel bar 15 in. long with a ramming face 1 in. square and weighing 41b, or by vibration. The object of ramming or vibrating the concrete is to attain the state of full com. paction without removing an appreciable proportion of any deliberately entrained air. The concrete should be worked just until mortar makes good contact with all sides of the container, and prolonged working should be avoided. Provided entrained air has been correctly entrained the amount of air removed by excessive compaction is not likely to be large.

47

Figure 12: The app/icaiion of pressure to an air meter used for measuring the air content of fresh air· entrained concrete.

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49

7: Testing of hardened concrete

The" quality" of hardened concrete is usually assessed by the strength of specimens which are tested in compression and sometimes in flexure. This is because the majority of the desirable properties of concrete are improved by an increase in strength.

Compressive strength test cubes

The usual test for concrete with a maximum size of aggregate of up to It in. is the 6 in. cube tested in compression. For aggregate with a maximum size of t in. or less, 4 in. cubes may be used. Details of making and curing compression test cubes in the field are given in Part 7 of B.S. 1881 :1952 and details of the testing are given in Part 8 of the same Standard. The following is a summary of the procedure on site. It should be emphasized, however, that cubes should always be cast by men with previous experience of the work and that it is preferable that the same men should make all the cubes throughout the job.

The moulds for test cubes should be made of steel or cast iron with the inner surfaces parallel to each other and machine-faced (Figure 13). Timber moulds should not be used. Each mould should have a metal base-plate with a true surface to support the mould and prevent leakage. It is essential to keep the mould and base-plate clean and both should be oiled lightly to prevent the concrete sticking to the sides. No undue force should be used when the faces are screwed together.

It is essential that the concrete in the cubes should be ftilly compacted and, to assist in ensuring this, a 6 in. cube mould should be filled in three layers and a 4 in. cube in two layers. When compaction is by hand (Figure 13) each layer should be rammed at least 35 times for 6 in. cubes and 25 times for 4 in. cubes (often many more) with a steel bar 15 in. long having a ramming face of I inl and weighing 41b. The ramming of the concrete should be carried out methodically, the strokes being evenly distributed over the surface of the concrete in a regular pattern and not concentrated in one particular spot. Alternatively the concrete may be compacted by vibration, using either an electric or a pneumatic hammer or a suitable table vibrator (see Figure 14). The surface of the concrete should then be trowelled.

The test specimens should be stored for 24 hours under damp sacks in a place freefrom vibration at a temperature between 40°F we) and 70'F (21 'c). They should be marked, removed from the moulds and stored in water until they are sent to the testing laboratory. When being removed from their moulds, the specimens should be carefully handled to ensure that the arrisses are not broken. Any damage should be reported.

Test specimens should be kept on the site until they are strong enough to be transported to the laboratory, where they should arrive not less than 24 hours before testing. The storage temperature should not fall below 50'F (lO'C) nor

,

.'

Figure 13: Halld-tampillg cOllcrete illto a 6 ill. cube /IIould. Note that the base plates are clamped to the moulds.

rise above 70°F (21 °e), and it is advisable to keep a record of the daily maximum and minimum storage temperatures during the time the specimens remain on the site.

Specimens should be sent to the laboratory packed in damp sand and carefully crated to avoid damage during transit and should reach the laboratory at least 24 hours before the test; there they should be stored in water at a temperature of 5(}"70°F (I(}"21 0c) until tested. A note should be enclosed in the box giving the identification number of the specimens and the date when the test should be made. The note should be written in waterproof ink and enclosed in a stiff envelope, because the note is liable to become defaced when packed with damp sand.

It is useful to advise the testing laboratory of the minimum strength required of the specimen and to ask that the broken specimen should be kept for inspection if its strength is less than this minimum.

See pages 55 and 56 for site testing.

50

Figure 14: The compactioll 0/ cOllcrete illto a cube mOlild by vibratioll.

51

The beams should be cured in the same way as the cubes but it is even more important that the beams should be carefully cured and not allowed to dry out at any time before they are tested.

The compressive strength of the concrete can often be measured by using the broken parts of a beam tested in flexure; however, this does not affect the way in which the beams are made.

Compressive strength test cores

Core tests are a valuable means of assessing the quality of hardened concrete (see Figures 16 and 17). Not only can a measure of the compressive strength of the concrete be assessed, but a description of the aggregate, including maximum size, shape, surface texture and type can also be obtained. The size, position, spacing and cover of reinforcement can often be checked though it is, of course, not permissible to cut through main steel in structural members. The compaction of the concrete, its porosity and whether there has been honeycombing or segregation can also be assessed.

Figure 15: A freshly cast flexural strellgtli test beam.

Flexural strength test beams

The making and testing of flexural test specimens (see Figure 15) is given in Parts 10 and II of B.S. 1881 for use in laboratories. Specimens may, however, be made on site though it is necessary to comply with the laboratory requirements as closely as is reasonable.

Beams 6 x 6 x 28 in. are for concretes with a maximum size of aggregate up to It in. and beams 4 x 4 x 20 in. for concretes with aggregate' of i in. ,maximum size. The filling of the moulds and the compacting of the concrete are carried out in the same manner as for cubes, by hand or by vibration; when compacting by hand, however, at least 175 strokes of the tamper per layer are needed for 6 in. beams and at least 100 for the 4 in. beams.

After the top layer has been compacted, the surface of the concrete shou Id be finished level with the top of the mould by means of a trowel. Finally, two steel plates machined plane and oiled on their lower surfaces should be placed on to the surface of the concrete. On 6 in. beams, the centre of the plates should be lOin. from the ends of the beam so that the centres of the plates are 8 in. apart. On 4 in. beams the centres of the plates should be 7t in. from the ends and 5i in. apart. When the plates are put on the concrete, they must make good contact with the top of the sides of the moulds and the concrete should make good contact with the underside of the plates. The plates, which should be removed at the same time as the beams are stripped from the moulds, are required to make a smooth surface for the roilers of the testing machine.

Figure 16: CUllilig a core in a coucrete pavemellt.

52

53

Figure 17: A concrete core and the cutting head. Note how the concrete can be examined for compaction and for distribution of aggregate.

54

101


/ /'
./ V
/ V
V
V V
,/ 0·98 ~

o

~

U 0·96 (

~

6 0·94 ~

U

~ on

~ o

U 0.9

0·88

0·86

I ,., H Il H loS 16 \07 J.8 19

HEIGHT/DIAMETER RATIO

Figure 18: Correction factor for height/diameter ratio of a core.

It should be noted that the strength of a core of any particular concrete is dependent upon the height/diameter ratio of the core, which should be between I and 2. Core strengths are therefore adjusted by the use of Figure 18 to the strength of cylinders which have a height/diameter ratio of 2. The cylinder strength of any particular concrete is lower than the cube strength and therefore the cylinder st.rength should be multiplied by t to give the" equivalent cube strength ".

Testing of strength specimens

Details for the testing of cubes, beams and cores are given in B.S. 1881: 1952.

Specimens will usually be sent to a testing laboratory for inspection and testing. When testing facilities are available on site, reference should be made to the Standard for full details of both the testing machine requirements and the testing procedure. Some of the important points relating to testing procedure for moulded cubes can, however, be summarized as follows.

The cube should be stored in water and tested immediately on removal from the water. Surface water, grit and projecting fins should be removed and the dimensions and weight noted.

2 The bearing surfaces of the testing machine should be wiped clean and the cube should be placed in the machine in such a way that the load is applied to opposite sides of the cube as cast, that is, not from the top and bottom. The axis of the cube must be carefully ali ned with the centre of thrust of the machine.

55

The load should be applied without shock at the rate of 2,000 Ib/in2 per minute until the cube fails, and the maximum load should be noted. With a hand-operated testing machine, it is particularly important not to jerk the loading system when the cube approaches failure. After the cube has failed, any unusual features of the concrete or of the type of failure should be noted. Cubes which fail to attain the specified strength should be retained for further examination by the engineer.

4 The cube strength should be quoted to the nearest 50 Ib/in2•

5 It is important to maintain testing machines in good working condition and to see, for example, that the spherical seating can move correctly.

Rebound tests

A rebound test in the form of a small spring-loaded hammer is sometimes used to assess the strength of hardened concrete in a structure (see Figure 19). The basis of the test is that a mass of metal is driven against the concrete under the pressure of a spring. The mass of metal rebounds from the concrete and the greater the rebound the greater is the strength of the concrete. The value of the test is as a comparative measure of quality from one part of a structure to another. It is not to be recommended as a substitute for cube testing nor as a part of the specification of the properties of concrete.

Ngure 19: A rebound tl'st hammer uled for (wessing the strength II! hardened concrete.

Covermeter

The covermeter is a non-destructive method of locating the depth and direction of reinforcement in hardened concrete (see Figure 20). It is a portable electromagnetic instrument. Earlier models had a working range of 0 to 2 in. and were operated from electric mains or an accumulator. Recent models incorporating transistors have a working range of 0 to 3 in. and operate from a battery. The instruments are composed of a main unit and a searcher unit; to one of these units is attached the indicator scale. When the instrument is switched on or from one scale to another, it is necessary to place the searcher unit well away from any steel and to set the needle to the upper end of the scale by adjusting the" zero set ". The searcher unit is then placed on the surface of the concrete and if any steel exists below the surface to a depth of 3 in. the needle will move. The searcher unit is rotated and moved across the surface until the minimum reading is obtained; this reading indicates the depth of the steel and the direction of the searcher unit indicates the direction of the steel.

The instrument is accurate to about 15 % when used to detect mild-steel·bars of not less than t in. diameter. Where smaller diameter bars and bars of hightensile steel are being detected, there is a tendency for the covermeter to indicate slightly greater cover than there is. The instrument cannot give the diameter of the reinforcing steel.

If there is doubt about the accuracy of the instrument it can easily be calibrated by placing the searcher unit in line with a steel bar at a known distance away, say one inch, and checking the reading on the scale.

Figure 20: A covermeter for locating the dept" and direction of reinforcement in hardened concrete.

56

57

.,. ....

- ----

REFERENCES

CEMENT A D CO CRElE ASSOCIATION. How to filld the moiJture COlllell1 of aggregate. London, October 1951. pp.15. Mao-on-the-job leaflet 7.

MCINTOSH, 1. D. The siphon-call test for measurillg the moisture cOlltellt of aggregates. London, Cement and Concrete Association, July 1958. pp. II. TRAfI98.

MCINTOSH 1. D. A simple method of measuring the moisture cOlltent of coarse alld.fille aggregate: London, Cement and Concrete Association, July 1955. pp. 7. TRA/194.

58

The Cement and Concrete Association

I he Cement and Concrete Association offers to users of cement and concrete II free service of technical information and impartial advice, based on long pillclical experience and on the findings of its Research Station. Inquiries should h\' scnt to the appropriate Association address, where they will be answered by II~ lechnical advisory service. If a problem cannot be dealt with by correponlil'nce, arrangements can generally be made for one of the Association's technical u!!icers to visit work in progress. This service is an important part of the Alsociation's work, which, in addition to research, comprises technical educalinn, the promotion of better and more economical concreting practice, the Ilidy of new uses of concrete and the publication of both popular and scientific hOllklets and reports. The Association does not engage in the manufacture or

Ik of cement. It is a non-profit-making body, financed through a levy by the

1Ilinpanies listed below:

Aberthaw & Bristol Channel Portland Cement Company Limited The Associated Portland Cement Manufacturers Limited

and The Cement Marketing Company

Imperial Chemical Industries Limited

The Ketton Portland Cement Company Limited Ribblesdale Cement Limited

The Rugby Portland Cement Company Limited and slibsidiary companies

The Tunnel Portland Cement Company Limited and subsidiary companies

ASSOCIATE MEMBER:

The Caledonian Portland Cement Company Limited

59