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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At first, well it is appeared a copmlicated task but if some one bestows us direction then its not
difficult task for us. So after started our project we have found lots of assitance from our intrenal
project guide and also our H.O.D.Well actually on this acknowledgement we are only two in this
project. But the reallty of this matter is, there are lots of people, working “behind this scenes”
helping in every possible way in making our project.
We are thankful to our internal project guide Mr. Dharmendra chauhan of our colloge, for
providing proper guidance in successful completion of this project. As well as also thankful to
our H.O.D Mr. Jaymin bhalani ,who trust us as asuccesful project learner.
We can’t forgot to thank our parents who are always with us to help us and give full support in
every good work we do.So we give exceptional thanks to our loving parents.
Maulik B. Patel(17/EC/63)
Parth P. Patel(07/EC/70)
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ABSTRACT
This kit can be used to send signal in well over 200 yards of cable.Note that the plastic FO cable
used here is not the glass 1 micron FO cable which is used in long distance (say 20 miles)
communication.
However, Plastic cable introduces most FO concept, is far easier for the experimenter to use and
certainly has definite uses for short distance communication in electrically noisy environment.
This Kit allows you to send sound through 1mm plastic fiber optic (FO) cable. On the
transmitter (Tx) circuit board there is a microphone and a circuit to modulate the light emitted
from an LED. The LED is contained in a plastic case which allows easy connection of the FO
cable. This Kit can be used to send a signal in well over 200 yards of cable. Note that the plastic
FO
On the receiver (Rx) boards there is the photo-Darlington receiver unit, a speaker and a circuit
and amplify the detected signal back into a sound wave. Because the signal travels in the FO
cable as a light wave it is unaffected by any electric or magnetic fields that it travels through.
Each board requires a 9V battery. However, for continuous use pluf packs packs would be
advised.
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CHAPTER 1
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1. Introduction of Project
This kit allows you to send sound through 1mm plastic fiber optic cable on the transmitter TX
circuit board there is microphone & a circuit to modulate the light emitted from an LED is
contained in a plastic case which allows easy connection of the fiber optic cable. On the receiver
RX board there photo darlington receiver unit, a speaker and a circuit to convert and amplify the
detected signal back in to a sound wave.
Because the signal travels in the fiber cable as light wave it is unaffected by any electric or
magnetic fields that it travels through.
Each board requires a 9V battery. However for continuous use plug packs would be advised.
Now imagine that you are looking in to one end of the pipe. Several miles away at the other end
a friend turns on a flash light and shines it in to pipe.
Because the interior of the pipe is the perfect mirror the flash light’s lights will reflect off the
sides of pipe (even though the pipe may curve and twist) and you will see it at the other end.
If your friend were to turn the flash light on and off in a morse code fashion your friend could
communicate with you through pipe. That is the essence of a fiber optic cable.
Making a cable out of a mirrored tube would work, but it would be bulky and it would also be
hard to coat the interior of the tube with a perfect mirror. A real fiber optic cable is therefore
made out of glass. The glass is incredibly pure so that even though it is several miles long, light
can still make it through imagine glass so transparent that window severa l miles thick still looks
clear.
The glass is drawn in to very strand with a thickness comparable to that of a human hair. The
glass strand is then coated in two layers of plastic.
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By coating the glass in the plastic, you get the equivalent of the mirror around the glass strand.
This mirror creates total internal reflection, just like a perfect mirror coating on the inside of the
tube does.
You can experience this sort of reflection with the flash lighth and a window in the dark room. If
you direct the flash light through the window at 90 degree angle,it passes straight through the
glass.
However,if you shine the flashlight at a very shallow angle(nearly parallel to glass),the glass will
act as a mirror and you will see the beam reflect off the window and hitthe wall inside the room.
Light traveling through fiber bounces at shallow angels like this and stays completely within the
fiber.
To send telephone conversations through a fiber optic cable analog voice signal are translated in
to digital signals. A laser at one end of the pipe switches on and off to send each bit. Modern
fiber systems with a single laser can transmit billions of bits per second. The laser can turn on
and off several billions of time per second.
The newest systems use multiple laser with different colors to fit multiple signals in to the same
fiber.
Modern fiber optic cables can carry a signal quite a distance (perhaps 60miles) on a long distance
line, there is an equipment hut every 40 to 60 miles. The hut contains equipment that picks up
and retransmits the signal down the next segment a full strength.
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Chapter 2
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2.Hardware
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The transmitter uses an electrical interface to encode the use information through AM,FM or
DIGITAL modulation. A laser diode or an LED do the encoding to allow an optical output of
850 nm, 1310 nm, or 1550 nm(typically).
The optical fiber connects the transmitter and the receiver. This fiber may be either singal- mode
or multimode.
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The fiber consists of three main regions, as illustrated in figure 2.3 the core, the center of the
fiber, actually carries the light. The cladding surrounds the core in a glass with a different
refractive index than the core, allowing the light to be confined in the fiber core. A coating or
buffer typical plastic provides strength and protection to the optical fiber.
The receiver uses either a PIN photodiode or an APD to receive the optical signal and convert it
back signal qun to an electrical signal. A data demodulator convert the data into its original
electrical from. These element comprise the simplest link, but other elements may also appear in
a fiber optic transmission system.
For example, the addition of WDM components allows two separate signals to be joined into a
composite signal for transmission, and then can be separated into their original signals at the
receiver end. Other wavelength-division multiplexing techniques allow up to eight
signal(CWDM) or more (DWDM) to be combined onto a signal fiber. These are discussed in
separate articles as linked in the paragraph.
Long distance fiber optic transmission leads to further system complexity. Many long- haul
transmission systems require signal regenerators, signal repeaters, or optical amplifiers such as
EDFAs in order to maintain signal quality. System drop/pepeat/add requirement, such as those
in multichannel broadcast networks, further add to the fiber optic system, incorporating add-drop
multiplexers, couplers/splitters, signal fanouts,dispersion management equipment, remote
monitoring and error-correction components. See the linked articles for additional on these
components.
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And, this ckt we use for both transmitter and receiver power supply circuit.
The voice signal begins as a sounf wave. It is converted to an electrical signal by the electrets
microphone in the TX circuit.
This signal is amplified by the LM741 audio amplifier and converted to an optical signal by
switching the voltage to the fiber optic transmitter via a signal transistor.
This optical signal is fed in to the plastic fiber optic cable. At the other end of the cable the
optical signal is directed at a photo darlington in the receiver, which converts it to an electrical
signal again.
The signal is amplified and fed into a speaker where it becomes to a sound wave. A voltage
regulator has been used in the circuit to overcome feed back in the circuit.
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Chapter 3
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3. Optical transmitter
Defination:
A device that accepts an electrical signal as its input, processes this signal, and uses it to
modulate an opto-electronic device, such as an LED or an injection laser diode, to
produce an optical signal capable of being transmitted via an optical transmission
medium.
3.1 Introducation to transmitter:
The basic optical transmitter converts electrical input signals into modulated light for
transmission light over an optical fiber. Depending on the nature of this signal, the
resulting modulated light may be turned on and off or may be linearly varied in intensity
between two predetermined levels. Figure 3.1 shows a graphic representation of these
two basic schemes.
The most common devices used as the light source in optical transmitter are the light
emitting diode(LED) and the laser diode(LD). In a fiber optic system, these devices are
Mounted in a package that enables an optical fiber to be placed in very close proximity to
the light emitting region in order to couple as much light as possible into the fiber.
In some cases, the emitter is even fitted with a tiny spherical lens to collect and focus
“every last drop” of light onto the fiber and in other cases, a fiber is “pigtailed” directly
onto the actual surface of the emitter.
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LEDs have relatively large emitting areas and as a result are not as good light sources as
LDs. However, they are widely used for short to moderate transmission distance because
they are much more economical, quite liner in terms of light output versus electrical
current input and stable in terms of light output versus ambient temperature.
LDs on the other hand have very small light emitting surface and can couple many times
more power to the fiber than LEDs. LDs are also linear in terms of light output versus
electrical current input,but unlike LEDs they are not stable over wide operating temperate
ranges and requires more elaborate circuity to achieve acceptable stability. In addition,
their added cost makes them primarily useful for applications that requires the
transmission of signal over long distance.
LEDs and LDs operate in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum so that
their light output is usually invisible to the human eye. Their operating wavelength are
chosen to be compatible with the lowest transmission loss wavelength of glass fibers and
highest sensitivity ranges of photodiodes.
The most common wavelength in use today are 850nm,1300nm and 1550 nm. Both LEDs
and LDs are available in all three wavelength.
LEDs and LDs, as previously stated, are modulated in one of two ways, on and off, or
lineary. Figure 3.2 shows simplified circuitry to achieve either method with an LED or
LD.
A transistor is used to switch the LED or LD on and off in step with an input digital
signal. This signal can be converted from almost any digital format by the appropriate
circuitry, into the correct base drive for the transistor. Overall speed id then determined
by the circuitry and the inherent speed of LED or LD.
Used in this manner, speeds of several hundred megahertz are read ily achieved for LEDs
and thousands of megahertz for LEDs. Temperature stabilization circuitry for the LD has
been omitted from this example for simplicity. LEDs do not normally require any
temperature stabilization.
The inverting input is used to supply the modulating drive to the LED or LD while the
non- inverting input supplies a DC bias reference. Once again temperature stabilization
circuitry for the LED has been omitted from this example for simplicity
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Digital on/off modulation of an LED or LD can take a number of forms. The simplest as
we have already seen is light-on for a logic “1” and light off for a logic “0”. Two other
common forms are pulse width modulation and pulse rate modulation.
In the former a constant stream of pulses is produced with signifying a logic “1” and
another width a logic “0”. In the latter the pulse are all of the same width but the pulse
rate changes to differentiate between logic “1” and logic “0”.
Analog modulation can also take a number of forms. The simplest is intensity modulation
where the brightness if the LED is varied in direct step with the variation of the
transmitted signal.
In the other methods, an RF carrier is first frequency modulated with another signal or, in
some cases, several RF carriers are separately modulated with separate signals, then all
are combined and transmitted as one complex wave form. Figure 3.3 shows all of the
above modulation methods as a function of light output.
The equivalent operating frequency of light, which is, after all, electromagnetic eadiation,
is extremely high – on the order of 1,000,000 GHz. The output bandwidth of the light
produced by LEDs and laser diodes is quiet wide.
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Unfortunately today’s technology does not allow this bandwidth to be selectively used in
the way that conventional radio frequency transmissions are utilized.
Rather, the entire optical bandwidth is turned on and turn off in the same way that early
“spark transmissions” (in the infancy of radio), turned wide portions of the RF spectrum
on and off. However, with time, researchers will overcome this obstacle and “coherent
transmissions”, as they are called, will become the direction in which the fiber optic field
progresses.
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Chapter 4
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4. Optical receiver
Defination:
A device that detects an optical signal, converts it to an electrical signal, and processes
the electrical signal as required for further use.
The basic optical receiver converts the modulated light coming from the optical fiber
back into a replica of the original signal applied to the transmitter.
The detector of this modulated light is usually a photodiode of either the PIN or the
Avalanche type. This detector is mounted in a connector similar to the one used for the
LED or LD. Photodiodes usually have a large sensitive detecting area that can be several
hundred micron in diameter. This relaxes the need for special precaution in centering the
fiber in the receiving connecter and makes the “alignment” concern much less critical
than it is in optical transmitter.
Since the amount of light that exits a fiber is quite small, optical receiver usually employ
high gain internal amplifiers. Because of this, optical receiver can be easily overloaded.
For this reason, it is important only to the size fiber specified for use with a given system.
If, for example, a transmitter/receiver pair designed for use with signal- mode fiber were
used with multimode fiber, the large amount of light present at the output of the fiber
(due to over-coupling at the light source) would overload the receiver and cause a
severely distorted output signal. Similarly, if transmitter/receiver pair designed for use
with multimode fiber were used with signal- mode fiber, not enough light would reach the
receiver, resulting in either an excessively noisy output signal or no signal at all.
The only time any sort of receiver “mismatching” might be considered is when there is so
much excessive loss in the fiber that the extra 5 to 15 dB of light coupled into a
multimode fiber by a signal- mode light source is the only chance to achieve proper
operation. However, this is an extreme case and is not normally recommended.
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As in the case of transmitter, optical receivers are available in both analog and digital
versions. Both types usually employ an analog preamplifier stage, followed by either an
analog or digital output stage (depending on the type of receiver). Figure 4.1 is a
functional diagram of a simple analog optical receiver.
The first stage in an operational amplifier connected as a current-to-voltage convert. This
stage takes the tiny current from the photodiode and converts it into a voltage,
Usually in the millivolt range. The next stage is a simple operational voltage amplifier.
Here the signal is raised to the desired output level.
Figure 4.2 is a functional diagram of a simple digital optical receiver. As in the case of
the analog receiver, the first stage is a current-to- voltage converter. The output of this
stage, however, is fed to a voltage comparator, which produces a clean, fast rise-time
digital output signal.
The trigger level adjustment, when it is present, it used to “touch up” the point on the
analog signal where the comparator switches. This allows the symmetry of the recovered
digital signal to be trimmed as accurately as desired.
Additional stages are often added to both analog and digital receiver to provide drivers
for coaxial cable, protocol converters or a host of other function in efforts to reproduce
the original signal as accurately as possible.
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It is important to note that while fiber optic cable is immune to all forms of interference,
the electronic receiver is not, because of this, normal precautions, such as shielding and
grounding, should be taken when using fiber optic electronic components.
These are:
There may also be additional circuits depending on the kind of the signal being received.
As an example, a receiver that is extracting voice information will need a frequency to
voltage converter and an audio amplifier to reproduce the original voice signal. Computer
data receiver will also need some decoding circuits that would configure the transmitted
serial data into 8 bit words. However, this section will concentrate on the circuits needed
for processing voice information.
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For long-range application it is essential to collect the weak modulated light from the
distance transmitter with a glass or plastic lens and focus it onto a silicon PIN
photodiode. Although mirrors could also be used to collect the light, glass or plastic
lenses are easier to use and cost less. Plastic lenses measuring from a fraction of an inch
to six inches are available. For a system that demands a large lens, the flat “Fresnel” lens
is much less expensive than a solid lens. Forming special concentric bumps in a clear
plastic sheet makes Fresnel lenses. The bumps bend the light just as a conventional thick
lens would. Fresnel lenses are available with diameter or several feet.
For contain short-range application it may also be possible to use a naked light detector
without any lens. Distances up to several hundred feet are possible with system that don’t
rely on lenses at either the transmitter or the receiver. Lens- less system are especially
useful when very wide acceptance angles are required. Many cordless IR stereo headset
use two or more naked detector to provide acceptance angles approaching 360 degrees.
The lens chosen should be as large as possible but not too large. A lens that is too large
can produce a half angle acceptance angles that is too small. Acceptance angles less than
about 0.3 degrees will result in alignment difficulties. Building sway and atmospheric
disturbances can cause signal disruption with narrow acceptance angles.
A rough rule-of-thumb might be that the lens diameter should not be more than 100 times
larger than diameter of the active area of the PIN detector. Also, the receiver should
never be positioned so sunlight will destroy the sensor. A north/south alignment for the
transmitter and the receiver will usually prevent an optical system from going blind from
focused sunlight.
As discussed in the section on light detectors, the silicon PIN photodiode is the
recommended detector for most all through-the-air communications. Such a detector
works best when reversed biased. In the reversed biased mode it becomes a diode that
leaks current in response to the light striking it. The current is directly proportional to the
incident light power level (light intensity).
When detecting light at its peak spectrum response wavelength of 900 nanometer, the
silicon PIN photodiode will leak about 0.5 micro amps of current for each microwatts of
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light striking it. This relationship is independent to the size of the detector. The PIN
photodiode size should be chosen based on the required frequency response and the
Desired acceptance angle with the lens being used. Large PIN photodiodes will have
slower response times than smaller devices.
For example, 1cm X 1cm diodes should not be used for modulation frequency beyond
200KHz, while 2.5cm X 2.5cm diodes will work beyond 50MHz. If a long range is
desired, the largest photodiode possible that will handle the modulation frequency should
be used.
Some systems can benefit from the placement of an optical fiber between the lens and the
photodiode. The filter can reduce the effects of sunlight and some stray light from distant
street lamps. Filters can be specially effective if the light detector is going to be
processing light from a diode laser. Since laser light has a very narrow bandwidth, an
optical band pass filter that perfectly matches the laser light can make a light receiver
nearly blind to stray sunlight.
If light emitting diode light sources are used, optical filters with a much broader
bandwidth are needed. Such a filter may be needed for some situation where man- made
light is severe. Many electronically controlled fluorescent and metal vapor lamps can
produce unwanted modulated light that could interfere with the light from the distance
transmitter.
But, in all but a few rare exceptions, band pass filter produce few overall improvements if
the correct detector circuit is used. Since be optical filter is perfectly transparent, the
noise reduction benefits of the filter usually do not outweigh the loss of light through the
filter. Also, if the detector is going to process mostly visible light, no optical filter should
be used.
Many published magazine circuit and even many commercially made optical
communication system fall short of achievable goals from poorly designed front-end
circuits. Many of these circuit are greatly influenced by ambient light and therefore suffer
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from poor sensitivity and shorter operating range when used in bright light condition. To
get the most from your optical through-the-air system you need to use the right front-end
circuit.
As discussed above, the transimpedance amplifier converts the PIN current to a voltage.
However, it may be too much to expert one amplifier stage to boost the signal o f interest
to a useful level. Typically, one or more voltage amplifier stage after the front end circuit
are needed.
Often the post amplifiers will include some additio nal signal filter son only the desired
signals are amplified, rejecting more of the undesired noise. The circuit uses a quality
operational amplifier in conjunction with some filter circuit designed to process light
pulses lasting about 1 micro second. The circuit boosts the signal by a factor of X20.
Once the signal has been sufficiency amplified and filtered, it often needs to be separated
completely from any background noise. Since most system use pulse frequency
modulation techniques to transmit the information, the most common method to sepa rate
the signal from noise is with the use of a voltage comparator.
The comparator can produce an output signal that is thousand of time higher in amplitude
than the input signal. As an example, a properly designed comparator circuit can produce
a 5 volt peak to peak TTL logic output signal from a input of only a few millivolts.
But, to insure that the comparator can faithfully extract the signal of interest, the signal
must be greater in amplitude than any noise by a sizeable margin. For most applications, I
recommend that the signal to noise ratio exceed a factor of at least 10:1 (20 db). Then,
with a properly designed comparator circuit, the comparator output would change state
(toggle) only when signal is present and will not be effected bt noise.
The final circuit needed to complete a voice grade light pulse receiver is an audio power
amplifier. It cause a signal inexpensive LM386 IC. The circuit is designed to drive a pair
of audio headphones. The variable resistor shown is used to adjust the audio volume.
Since the voice audio system described above dies not transmit stereo audio, the left and
right headphones are wired in parallel so both ears receive the same audio signal.
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One of the most difficult problems to overcome in an optical through the air
communication system in ambient light. Any stray sunlight or bright background light
that is collected by the receiver optics and focused onto the light detector will produce a
large stedy state DC level through the detector circuit.
Although much of the DC is ignored with the use of an inductive feedback amplifier
method in the front-end circuit, the large DC component in the light detector will produce
some unwanted broadband noise.
The noise is very much like the background static you may hear on an AM radio when
tunning the dial between stations. As discussed in the section on light detector, the
amount of noise produces by the detector is predictable.
The equation describe how the detector noise varies with ambient light. The relationship
follows a square root function. That means if the ambient light level increases by a factor
of four, the noise produced at the detector only doubles. This characteristic both helps
and hurts a light receiver circuit, depending on whether the system is being used during
the light of day or during the dark of night.
The equation predicts that for high ambient daytime condition, you will have to
dramatically reduce the amount of ambient light striking the detector in order to see an
significant reduction in the amount of noise produce at the detector circuit.
The equation also describes that under dark nighttime conditions, the stray light has to
dramatically increase in order to produce a sizable elevation in noiself the system must
work during both day and night, it will have to contend with worst daytime noise
condition.
Conversely, some light receivers could take advantage of the low stray light conditions
found at night and produce a communication system with a much longer range than
would be otherwise possible if it were used during daylight.
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As mentioned above, interesting an optical filter between the lens and the light detector
can reduce the effects of ambient light. But, as shown by the noise equation, the amount
of light hitting the detectors needs to be dramatically reduce to produce a sizeable
reduction in the induced noise
Since most sunlight contains a sizable amount of infrared light, such filter do not reduce
the noise level very much. However, very narrow band filters that can be selected to
match the wavelength of laser diode light source, are effective in reducing ambient light
and therefore noise.
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Chapter 5
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The ray of light then traveled in a straight line through the glass untill it reached the Secondary
boundary . Only instead of transmitting across this boundary , the entirety of the light seemed to
reflect off the boundary and transmitting out the opposite face of the isosceles triangle .This
discrepant event bothered many as htey spent several minutes looking for the light to reflract
through the second boundry.
Then finally ,to their amazement ,they looked through the third face of block and could clearly
seee the ray. What happened ? Why did light not refracted through the second face
Figure 5.1.1
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The phenomenon observed in this part of the lab is known as total internal reflection.Total
internal reflaction , or TIR as it is intimately called , is the reflaction of the total Amount of
incident light at the boundary between two mediam.To understand total Internal reflection, we
will begin the thought experiment.
Suppose that a laser beam is submerged in a tank of water (dont do this at home ) and Pointed
upward toward water-air buondary .Then suppose that the angle at which the beam is directed
upward is slowly alterd,beginning with samll angle of incidence and procedding toward larger
and larger angle of incidence.
But that”s not only obervation which ehich we could make. We would also observed that the
intensity of the reflection and reflacted rays do not remain constant , At angle of incidence close
to 0 degree ,most of the light energy is transmitted across the boundry and very littel of it is
reflacted.
As the angle is incresed to greater and greater angle , we would begin to observed less reflaction
and more reflaction . That is, as the angle of inciedence is increased, the brightness of the
reflacted ray decreases and the brightness of the reflacted ray increases.
Finally ,we would observed that the angle of the reflaction are not equal. Since the light waves
would refract away from the normal (a case of the SFA principle of refraction.) the angle of the
refraction would be greater than the angle of incidence.
And if this the case , the angle of refraction would also be greater than the angle of Reflaction
(since the angle of reflaction and incidence are the same). As the angle of Incidence is increased
,the angle of reflaction would eventually reched a 90 degree
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Figure 5.1.2
The maxiaum possible angle of reflection is 90-degree . Ifyou think about it (a practical which
always helps),you recognize that if the angle of refraction were greater than 90 degrees,then
refracted ray would lie on the incident side of the medium – that’s just not possible .So in the
laser beam in the water there is some specific value for the angle of incident (we’ll call it the
“crtical angle”) which yeild an angle of refraction of 90-degree. This particular value for the
angle of incident could be calculated using Snell’s law (ni=1.33,nI=1.000,Ө I=90 degree, Ө i=???)
and would be found to be 48.6 degree.
Any angle of incidence which is greater than 48.6 degree would not result in any refraction.
Instead when the angles of incidence is greater (the critical angle ) all of the energy the (the totol
energy ) carried by the incident waveto the boundary stays within the water( internal to the
origianl medium) and undergoes reflaction off the boundary.When this happens, totol internal
reflaction occurs.
Total internal reflection (TIR) is the phenomenon which involves the reflection of all the incident
light off the boundary. TIR only takes place both of the following two condition are met:
The light is themore dense medium and approching the less dense medium.
The angle if incidence is greater than the so called criacal angle.
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Total internal reflection will not take place unless the incident light is traveling within the more
optical dense material medium toward the less optically dense medium.TIR will happen for light
traveling from water toward air,but it will not happen for light traveling from air toward
water.TIR would happen for light traveling from water .TIR would happen for light traveling
from (n=1.333) toward crown glass(n=1.52) TIR occurs becuase the angle of reflection reaches a
90 degree before the angle of reflection reaches a 90-degree angle.
The only way for the angle of reflection to be greater than the angle of reflection , is for light to
be bend away to the normal. Since light only bend away from the normal when passing from a
more dense medium to the less medium . then this would be a necessary condition for total
internal reflection.
Total internal refletion occurs with large angle of incidence . Question: How large iv large?
Answer: larger than critical angle for water air boundary is 48.6 degree.So for angle of incidence
greater than 48.6-degreee.TIR occurs .but 48.6 degree is the critical angle only for the water-air
boundary .The actual value of critical angle is dependant upon the two material on either side of
the boundary .For the crown glass-air is 41.1 degree.
For the diamond-air boundary, the critical angle is 24.4 degree.For the diamond-water buondary,
the critical angle is 33.4 degree . The critical angle is diffrent for diffrent media, we will
investigate how to determine the critical angle for any two material. For now, let’s internalize
the idea that TIR can only occurs if the idea that TIR can only occurs if the anglr of incidence is
greater than the critical angle for the particular combination of materials.
Figure 5.1.3
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Total internal reflection was demonstrated in class through a variety of demonstrated.In one
such demonstation , a beam of laser light was directed into a coiled plastic thing-a- majig. The
plastic served as “light pipe,” directed the light through the coiled untill it final existed out the
opposite end .Once the light entered the plastic , it was in the more dense med ium. Every time
the light approached the plastic-air boundary, it was approching at angle greater than the critical
angle .The two condition necessary for TIR were met,and all of the incident light at the plastic-
air boundary stayed internal to the plastic and underwent reflection . And with the room light off.
Every becomes quickly awre that once more physics is better than druges.
Figure 5.1.4
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This demonstratin illustrated the principle by which optical fiber work the use of a long strand of
plastic (or other material sush as glass) to pipe light from one end of the medium to the other is
the for the modern day use of optical fiber.
Optical figers are used in the communication system and micro-surgeries.Since total internal
reflection takes place within the fiber ,no incident energy is ever lost due to the transmission of
the light across the boundary . The intensity of the signal remains constant.
As previously mentioned,there are two mwthods whereby light is coupled into a fiber onse ics by
pigtailing. The other is by placing the fibre’s tip in very close proximity to an LED or LD.
When the proximity type of coupling is employed ,the amount of light that will enter the fiber is
a function of one of four factors: the intensity of the LED or LD,the area of the light emitting
surface,the acceptance angle of the fiber, the fiber ,and the losses due to reflection and scattering.
Following is a short discussion on each:
Intensity : The intensity of an LED or LD is a function of its design and is usuaiiy specified in
terms of total power output at a particular drive current .sometime,this figure is given a actual
power taht is delivered into a particular type of fiber of all other factor being equal,more power
provided by an LED or LD translates to more power “launched” into fiber.
Area: The amount of light “launched” into a fiber is a function of the a area of the light emitting
surface compared to the area of the light accepting core of the fiber . The smaller this ratio is ,the
more light that is launched into the fiber
Acceptance Angle: The acceptance angle of a fiber is expressed in terms of numeric aperture.The
numerical aperture (NA ) is defined as the sine of one half of the acceptnace of the fiber .Typical
NA values are 0.1 to0.4 which correspond the acceptance angle of 11 degree ti 46 degree.Optical
fiber will only transmitte light that enters at an angle that is an equal to or less than the
acceptance angle for the particular fiber.
Other losses: other than opaque obesruction on the surface of a liber, there is always a loss due to
reflaction from the entrance and exit surface of any fiber. This loss is called the Fresnall loss and
is equal to about 4% for each transition between a air and glass. There are special coupling gels
that can be applied between glass surface to reduce this loss when necessary.
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To appreciate the purity of the glass ,consider the glass in common windowpanes.We think of
windowoanes as “clear,” allowing light to pass fereely through, but this is bicuase they are only
1/16 to ¼ inch thick ,in contrast to this clear apperance ,the edges of a broken windowpanes
look green and almost opaque .
In this case ,the light is passing edgewise into the glass, through several inches. Just imagine how
little light would be able to pass through a thosand feet of window glass!
Most general pupose optical fiber exhibits losse of 4 to 6 dB per km ( a 60% to 75% loss per km)
at a wavelength of 850 nm.When the wavelength is changed to 1300 nm the loss drops to about
3 to 4 dB (50% to 60%) per km. AT 1550nm, it is evev lower. Premium fiber are available with
loss figures of 3 dB (50%) per km at 850nm and 1 db(20%) per km at 1300nm. Losses of
0.5dB(10%) peer km at1550nm are not uncommon.
Another source of loss within the fiber is due to exessive bending ,which causes some of the light
to leave the core area of the fiber.
The smaller the bend radius,the greater the loss.Becuase of this, bends along a fiber optic cable
should have a turning radius of at least an inch.
There is an actual bandwidth limitation of optic fiber however , and this is measured in MHz per
km. The easiest way to understand why this loss occurs is to refers to figure 5.4.1
Figure 5.4.1 Diffrerent Light Path Length Determine The Bandwidth of Fiber
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As figure 5.4.1 illustrated, a ray of light that enters a fiber at a small angle (M1) has a shorter
path through the fiber than light which enters at an angle close to the maximum acceptance angle
(M2), as a result ,diffrent .”rays” (or modes) of light reach the end of the fiber at different times,
even through the original source is same LED or LD.
This produces a “smearing” effect or uncertainty as to where the start and end of a pulse occurs
at the output end of the fiber- which in turn limits the maximum frequency that can be
transmitted.
In short, the less modes, the higher the bandwidth of the fiber. The way that the number of
modes is reduced is making the core of the fiber as small as possible. Single- mode fiber, with a
core measuring only 8 to 10 microns in diameter, has a much higher bandwidth becuase it allows
only a few modes of light to propogate along its core.
Fiber with a wider core diameter such as 50 and 62.5 microns, allows many modes to propagate
and are therefore referred to as “multimode” fibers.
Typical bandwidth for common fiber range from a few MHz per km for verry large core fibers,
to hundreds of MHz per km for standard multimode fiber, to thousands of fiber increase, its
bandwidth will decrease proportionally. For example, afiber cable that can support 500MHz
bandwidth at a distance of one km only be able to support 250MHz at 2 km and 100MHz at 5
km.
Because single –mode fiber has such a high inherent bandwidth, the “bandwidth reduction as a
function of length” factor is not real issue of concern when using this type of fiber. However, it
is a consideration when using multimode fiber, as its maximum bandwidth often falls within the
range of the signals most often used in point-to-point transmission systems.
The basic optic fiber is provided with a buffer coating which is mainly used for proctection
during the manufacture praocess. This fiber is then enclosed in a central pvc loose tube which
allows the fiber to flex and bend, particularly when going around corners or when being pulled
through conduits.around the loose tube is a braided kevlar yarn strength member which absorb
most of the strain put on the fiber during installtion.
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Basic optical fiber is ideal for most inter-building application where extreme ruggedness is not
required . In addition to the “basic” variety. It is also available for just about any application ,
including direct biried ,armored,rodent resistant cable with steel outer jacket, and UL approved
plenum grade cable. Colored-coded, multi- fiber cable is also available.
Silica fiber it typically used in application involving high power lase and sensors, such as
medical laser-surgery.
All- plastic fiber is useful for very short data links within eqquipment beacuse it may be used
with relatively inexpensive LEDs . An isolation system fo r use as part of a high voltage power
supply would be typical exmple of application for plasic fiber.
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In operation,the connector centers the small fiber so that its light gathering cores lies directly
core lies directly over and in line with light source (or other fiber) to tolerances of a few ten
thousandths of an inch. Since the core size of common 50 micron fiber is only 0.002 inches, the
need for such extreme tolerances is obvious.
There are many different types of optical connectors in use today. The SMA connectors, which
was first develope before the invention of single- mode fiber, was the most popular types
connectors until recently. Figures 5.7.1 shows an exploded view of the parts of this connector.
The inclusion of an “anti-rotaion tab” assures that every times connectors are mated, the fibers
always return to the same rotational position assuring constant, uniform performance.
ST connectors are available for both multi- mode and single- mode fibers, the primary difference
being the overall tolerances. Note that multi- mode ST connectors will only perform properly
with multimode fibers. More expensive single-mode ST connectors will perform with both
singlemode anr multimode fibers.
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The installation procedure for the ST connector is not difficult and can be easily mastered by any
system installer. Figure 5.7.2 shows same of the major feature of the typical ST connector.
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Chapter 6
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6. User guide
6.1 Operating Manual:
First of all check off the component against the component listing on the next page. Especially
make sue toget the resistors correctly identified.
Note that the FO emitter and detector modules are very similar. The components for both board
are mixed together. Make one board at a time.
Look at the circuit schematic diagram, identify the component them place it in the board. It is
generally best to add the lowest hight component first.
So place the resistor first. The elecret microphone must be inserted with a pin connected to the
metal case connected to the negative rall (that is, to the ground of zero voltage side of the
circuit) .
This is marked with a sign on the Mic on the transmitting circuit board. Make sure to get the
electrolytic capacitors around the correct way.
3. Range : 1.5m
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R1 3K3
R2 4K7
R3,R4 10K
R5 100E
R6 1K
C1 1000 UF / 16V
C2 22 UF/ 16V
C3 47KPF, DISC
C4 10UF/25V
U1 LM 7809
U2,U3 LM 741
Q1 BC 547
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R1 100K
R2 1M
R3 1K
R4 100K
R5 100K/3006 TRIMPOTE
R7 220K
R8 100K
R9 10K
R10 4.7E
C2 100/16V
C6 10UF/25V
C7 10UF/25V
C10 220UF/16V
U1 LM 7805
U2 LM 358
U3 LM 386
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1nos. 2” ½ SPEAKER
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Referances:
Books:-
(1) Optical Fiber Communication by Gerd Kaiser
(2) Optic Fiber Communication by Senior
WEBSITE:-
@www.alldatasheet.com
@www.google.com
@www.nationalsemiconductor.com
@www.atmel.com
@www.kitrus.com
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Appendix
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