AllAS Activity Sheets

A1.
01S
Student
Activity 1.1 Mark’s and Peter’s stories
Purpose
● To provide an overview of some symptoms and treatments of cardiovascular disease using personal accounts.
● To identify some risk factors for the development of cardiovascular disease.
● To provide an introduction to the topic.
● To practise extracting relevant information when reading text.
Procedure
The two passages below are Mark’s and Peter’s own accounts of their experiences with cardiovascular
disease. As you read each account, note down relevant information about:
a symptoms
b diagnostic tests
c treatments
d any features of each person’s lifestyle that you think might have contributed to their
development of the disease.
When identifying information in this way, try and be selective and concise in the notes you make.
Mark’s story
By Mark Tolley
I’m 21 now, but 6 years ago something momentous happened that changed my life.
On 28th July 1995, I was sitting in my bedroom playing on my computer when I started to feel dizzy
with a slight headache. Standing, I lost all balance and was feeling very poorly. I think I can
remember trying to get downstairs and into the kitchen before fainting. People say that unconscious
people can still hear. I don’t know if it’s true but I can remember my Dad phoning for a doctor and
that was it. It took five minutes from me being an average 15-year-old to being in a coma.
I was rushed to Redditch Alexandra Hospital where they did some reaction tests on me. They asked
my parents questions about my lifestyle (did I smoke, take drugs, etc.?). Failing to respond to any
stimulus, I was transferred in an ambulance to Coventry Walsgrave Neurological Ward. Following CT
and MRI scans on my brain it was concluded that I had suffered a bleed on my brain. My parents
signed the consent form for me to have an operation lasting many hours. I was given about a 30%
chance of survival.
They stopped the bleed by clipping the blood vessels that had burst with metal clips, removing the
excess blood with a vacuum. I was then transferred to the intensive care unit to see if I would
recover. Within a couple of days I was conscious and day by day regained my sight, hearing and
movement (although walking and speech was still distorted). They had shaved all my hair off!
I had a remarkably quick recovery considering the severity of the operation. I was talking again
(although slurred and jumbled) within 5 days. By the end of the week, I was transferred back to
Redditch Alexandra Hospital to continue the rest of my recovery.
There I received occupational therapy, physiotherapy, and speech and language therapy to improve
my co-ordination, speech and strength. Within 7 days I could walk aided and talk better – I was then
discharged to complete my recovery at home. I was given a wheelchair and was admitted for therapy
as an outpatient. The occupational therapy trained my ability to perform everyday tasks. They made
me make tea, do jigsaws, etc. to improve my cognitive skills.
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. © University of York Science Education Group.
This sheet may have been altered from the original. 1 of 4
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Activity 1.1 Mark’s and Peter’s stories Student
Another effect that the haemorrhage had on me was that the whole right-hand side of my body was weakened (the
haemorrhage happened on the left side of my brain) and things that I took for granted before became a challenge.
My left hand compensated for the weakness and gradually I became stronger, albeit on my former weaker side!
Three weeks later I returned to Coventry Walsgrave for an angiogram, where an X-ray dye was injected into my
veins to show up my blood vessels on a scan. However, this showed that there was still a bleed occurring and so I
was prepared for surgery once again.
The operation was lengthy, but not an emergency. However, I was still warned of the dangers of such surgery.
The operation did not leave me with much disability this time, and I woke up within a day of being transferred
back into the intensive care unit again. Speech and movement were regained quickly. I was discharged to
outpatients within 3 weeks, after undergoing another angiogram, and MRI and CT scans on my brain.
Embarrassingly, they had shaved only half my hair off this time!
The following Wednesday I was called back to the Coventry & Warwick Hospital where my neurosurgeon held a
clinic. He said that there was still a small bleed that needed to be clipped. So I was transferred to Walsgrave for
my third operation. This one not being as severe, I woke up minutes after the operation was completed with my
faculties fully intact. I could talk and walk aided. Following more scans, the next week I was discharged again to
complete my recovery at home. This was now late October 1995. Things such as stair climbing became easier and
I no longer required my wheelchair.
I have had no further episodes of brain haemorrhage activity apart from occasional headaches. I am on anti-
convulsant tablets (phenytoin) as I am now at a much higher risk from epileptic seizures because of the surgery
(although I have not had a fit since the operations). I completed physiotherapy in November 1995, by doing
exercises that improved my stamina, motor skills and co-ordination.
Although I have never been told a full reason why I suffered my stroke, I am certain that it was due to being born
with weak blood vessels in my brain that gave way after years of increasing pressure. I’m glad I was at home
when it happened; I could have been swimming or walking in the countryside with nobody around!
Returning to school in November, I found reading, writing and walking a challenge. I was treated differently from
other students, which I found difficult as I wanted to fit back into my normal routine.
I passed my GCSE exams with lots of effort and went on to the 6th Form. I did a 1-year course in Health and
Social Care which aided my recovery and gave me the strength and confidence to go to college to further my
education. The course also showed me how to express myself in a way that would make everyone look beyond my
disabilities.
I recovered the most in the first 2 years following the stroke: since then it has been a gradual improvement. I do
sport and go dancing and play music like normal people my age. My memory is back to normal, only faltering
occasionally. Nobody knows about my stroke unless they question the huge scar on my head, so I must have
recovered pretty well!
I found online organisations such as ‘Different Strokes’ helpful because I met some people who were in the same
boat as me. It really helps to share experiences.
Well that’s my story. I go trekking around the world in 10 weeks time. I don’t know what the future has in store
for me; I don’t really want to know either. I just look forward to it with hope.
Thank you for reading this.

Mark xx
A1.01S
Peter’s story
By Peter Kempson
I remember clearly the first time I held a hockey stick at school; football wasn’t on the sports programme, so it
became hockey, rugby and cricket in each of the terms.
During my time at the school I developed a keen interest in all sports, representing the school in hockey and
athletics. It did not distract me from my school work but seemed to make me more attentive and kept my mind
more active.
After leaving school I still maintained my sporting interest, representing Bedfordshire at hockey and taking part in
the athletics team at my place of work.
In 1961, aged 23, I got the first indication of cardiovascular problems. I was told that I had high blood pressure. I
didn’t really take much notice. Well you don’t think much about that at 23, do you? My father had died at the age
of 53 from a heart attack but as he was about 4 stone overweight, had a passion for fatty foods and smoked 60 full
strength cigarettes a day, I didn’t compare his condition to mine.
Throughout the rest of my working life I continued to play sport, mainly hockey, and was never overweight. I
must admit that I probably drank too much at times and didn’t bother too much about calories and cholesterol in
food.
As I got older I found it more difficult to keep fit during the summer break between the hockey seasons and so
reverted to road running. I ran my first marathon in Leeds at the age of 42 and I subsequently did another five,
including two in London.
All was going well I thought, until having a medical for a new job showed my blood pressure reading to be 240
over 140. The doctor could not believe that I was still walking around, let alone running, and sent me straight to
my G.P. Since then I have taken tablets for blood pressure and have also reviewed my dietary intake.
I continued running and completed the Great North Run at the age of 63. A few months later, and thinking about
doing the Great North Run again, I was running 8 miles a week and playing hockey, when my 8 day holiday in
Ireland became 3 days touring and 12 days in hospital.
At 2 o’clock in the morning of May 8th I woke up with a terrific pain in my chest. I was sweating profusely and
looking very pale. My wife rang the hotel reception and within 10 minutes a doctor had arrived, checked me over,
and pronounced that I had had a heart attack. Within an hour I was in intensive care and being closely monitored.
At 5 am I had a second attack and a specialist inserted a temporary pacemaker to keep my heart rate up as it was
dropping below 40.
After 5 days in intensive care I was transferred to the general ward for recuperation. I gradually increased my
walks each day and was watched by the Lifestyle Nurse while I climbed stairs. The nurse also discussed my
lifestyle. Did I smoke? No. Did I eat fatty foods? Yes. Did I exercise? Yes. Was I overweight? No. Did I have a
history of cardiac problems in my family? Yes! This then appeared to be the probable cause. I was told that it was
possible that had I not looked after myself I might have had a heart attack much earlier in life.
After 10 days I was given a stress test which involved running on a treadmill to determine my ability to cope with
normal life. Having passed the test I was brought home by the travel insurance company, escorted by a doctor.
On returning to Huddersfield I eventually had an angiogram and was told that I needed a triple bypass operation,
but that my heart might not be strong enough to take it. The specialist at Leeds General Infirmary, Mr
McGoldrick, gave me a detailed analysis of the situation and the operation, but the final decision was up to me.
I found it very difficult to walk more than 100 yards without using my Nitro-spray. This was very difficult to cope
with considering that 9 months earlier I had been so active. The decision was easy, I would have the operation.
A1.01S
I have to say it was not pleasant, but I had decided that it was necessary and I would cope with anything that
happened if it would get me back to a decent lifestyle. Well the operation, a quadruple bypass, was a success and
after 8 days I was back home.
Recuperation involved plenty of walking and visits to cardiac rehabilitation. At that time I was introduced to
Heartline, which is a group of people who have suffered cardiac problems, encouraging exercise and recuperation
by being able to talk to others with similar experiences. I go swimming once a week and have increased my
distance from 2 lengths at first to 40 lengths after 12 weeks. Although I feel fit enough to resume running I think I
will put it on hold for a while. I don’t think I will ever play hockey again. There again, at 66 that’s probably not a
bad decision!
Peter Kempson
A1.02S
Student
Activity 1.2 Demonstrating mass flow
You need
Purpose
• To appreciate speed of diffusion in air. • Dilute ammonium hydroxide
• To observe mass flow. • 2 glass tubes
• Bungs to fit glass tubes
• 16 small pieces of litmus paper
Safety
• Glass or wooden rod
Wear eye protection. • 2 small pieces of cotton wool
Undertake the experiment • Forceps
in a fume cupboard. • Dropping pipette
• Stopclock
Procedure
• Clamp stand, boss and clamp or piece
1 Your teacher/lecturer will set up a glass tube with of Blu-tack®
litmus paper as shown in Figure 1.
2 In a fume cupboard add a few drops (about six) of
ammonium hydroxide solution to a small ball of cotton
wool and then place it at one end of the glass tube. Seal rubber bung
both ends of the tube with rubber bungs. Immediately
start a stopclock. Ammonia is given off by the solution
and diffuses along the tube. The litmus paper changes
colour from red to blue in the presence of ammonia gas.
3 Record how long it takes each piece of litmus paper to litmus paper (red)
change colour.
4 Using a second tube without rubber bungs, place the clamp stand
cotton wool with ammonium hydroxide at one end.
5 Using a large syringe, blow air gently through the tube.
Observe how quickly the litmus paper changes colour
when the syringe is used. Figure 1 Glass tube with litmus paper.
Questions
Q1 Explain how the ammonia moves along the tube with sealed ends and comment on the speed of diffusion.
Q2 Explain how each of these factors would affect the rate of diffusion:
a higher concentration of ammonium hydroxide
b higher temperature
c larger molecules replacing ammonium hydroxide.
Q3 Explain what is happening in the tube without bungs and how the model is similar to mass flow in a
transport system such as the mammalian circulatory system.
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Student
Activity 1.3 Structure of the heart (Dissection)
Purpose You need

• Heart
● To revise your knowledge of the structure of the heart.
● To relate heart structure to function. • Dissecting board or tray
● To locate and compare the structure of the main • Dissecting instruments
arteries leaving the heart with the main veins • Rubber tube
entering the heart. • Clamp to seal blood vessel
● To observe the coronary arteries. • Access to water supply
• Lab coat or apron to protect your clothes
Safety
Wear eye protection.
Wash your hands carefully after completing the dissection

once all the equipment has been put ready to be disinfected.
Take care with sharp dissecting instruments.
Procedure
1 Before starting the dissection, use the textbook to help you label the heart diagram on page 3.
2 Locate the four main blood vessels attached to the heart. The two thicker-walled
vessels are the arteries; they leave the heart at the more rounded front (ventral) side. The thinner-walled
veins enter the heart at the top of the back (dorsal) side. They are often damaged on removal of the heart
from the animal.
3 Looking at the front side of the heart, identify the following external features using
Figure 1 to help:
a right and left atria pulmonary artery
aorta
b right and left ventricles
c coronary arteries and veins. left atrium
right atrium
4 Draw a sketch of the heart

to show the position of the atria
Q1 ventricles.
and
left ventricle
Q1 Why are the right and left sides
apparently on the wrong side? right ventricle
Q2 a Can you distinguish coronary

arteries and veins? Cut along this line Cut along this line
to view inside the to view inside the
b What are their functions? right ventricle. left ventricle.
c Make a sketch showing
how they branch across Figure 1 Ventral (front) view of the heart. The pulmonary vein and vena cava
enter the atria on the dorsal (back) side of the heart so are not visible on this
the surface of the heart. diagram.
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Activity 1.3 Structure of the heart (Dissection) Student
5 If your heart is undamaged you can identify which vessel is the aorta by attaching a rubber tube
to
Q3a water tap and inserting it into the pulmonary vein. Allowing water to flow through the heart
(gently!), it will emerge from the aorta. The same procedure can be used with the superior vena
cava after clamping the inferior vena cava shut.
Q3 In this case from which vessel will the water emerge?
Q4 What does this tell us about the internal structure of the heart?
6 To inspect the internal structure of the heart, cut through the ventricle walls, along
the lines shown in Figure 1. This is best done with a sharp scalpel or a pair of sharp scissors. Be
careful at this stage only to cut through the ventricle walls, leaving the walls of the atria intact.
Q5 Look carefully inside each ventricle and answer these questions:

a Which ventricle has thicker walls?
b Estimate their thickness.
Q6 c Suggest why the ventricle walls are of different thicknesses
Q6 Locate and carefully observe the atrioventricular valves between the atrium and ventricle on each
side of the heart.
a Why is the atrioventricular valve in the right ventricle also called the tricuspid valve?
b Why is the atrioventricular valve in the left ventricle also called the bicuspid valve?
Q7 Locate the semilunar valves at the entrance to the aorta and pulmonary artery. Why are these valves
called semilunar?
Q8 Identify the tendons that stretch between the atrioventricular valves and the ventricle walls.
a What is the function of these valves and what is the role of the tendons in their
operation?
b Work out how you can test your ideas about valves by inverting the heart and using
some water.
Q9 Cut open the atria and examine their internal structure. Explain the relative difference in size
between the atria and ventricles.
7 Locate the opening of the coronary vein in the wall of the right atrium.
8 Cut open the aorta and locate the opening to the coronary artery just above the semilunar valve.
Q10 Examine the openings to the vena cava and pulmonary vein. Do these entry points to the heart
contain valves? If not, why not?
Q11 Describe the safety precautions you took during the practical.
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Activity 1.3 Structure of the heart (Dissection) Student
Vertical section of the heart

Label the diagram. Add arrows to show the route of blood flow through the heart
Figure 2 Vertical section of the heart.
This activity is a modification of one in King, T., Reiss, M. with Roberts, M. (2001) Practical Advanced
Biology, Cheltenham, Nelson Thornes.
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Student
Activity 1.4 Structure of the heart (simulated dissection)
Purpose
● To revise knowledge of the structure of the heart.

● To relate heart structure to function.
● To locate and compare the structure of the main arteries leaving the heart with the
main veins entering the heart.
● To observe the coronary arteries.
Procedure
Complete the activity by referring to diagrams and photographs in textbooks and the animation that
accompanies this activity. There are also some useful websites in the weblinks for this activity.
1 Draw a sketch of the external features of the heart viewed from the front (ventral) side. The two thicker-
walled vessels are the arteries; they leave the heart at the front (ventral) side. The thinner-walled veins
enter the heart at the top of the back (dorsal) side. You should draw and label the following features:
2 Label the vertical section diagram of the heart on page 2. Add arrows to show the route of blood flow
through the heart.
Questions
Q1 Why are the right and left sides apparently on the wrong side?
Q2 What are the functions of the coronary arteries and veins?
Q3 If water were poured into the vena cava, through which vessel would it emerge from the heart?
Q4 What does this tell us about the internal structure of the heart?
Q5 Which ventricle has thicker walls?
Q6 Suggest why the walls of the left and right ventricle are of different thicknesses.
Q7 Why is the atrioventricular valve in the right ventricle called the tricuspid valve and the
atrioventricular valve in the left ventricle called the bicuspid valve?
Q8 What is the function of the atrioventricular valves?
Q9 Why are the valves at the entrance to the aorta and pulmonary artery called semilunar?
Q10 What is the function of the tendons that connect the atrioventricular valves and the ventricle walls?
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Activity 1.4 Structure of the heart (simulated dissection) Student
Vertical section of the heart

Label the diagram. Add arrows to show the route of blood flow through the heart.
Figure 1 Vertical section of the heart.
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Student
Activity 1.5 An ideal transport medium
Purpose
• To understand the importance of the dipole nature of water
• To relate the solvent properties of water to some of the functions of water in living systems.
Properties and polarity

Water is unusual because it is a liquid at room temperature whereas other small molecules are gases. This is
because of the water molecule is polar, the different ends of the molecule have different charges. To help you
understand the dipole nature of water and how it affects water’s properties, read the Key Biological Principles box
on page 8 of the AS textbook and complete the interactive tutorial which accompanies this activity. Then
complete the questions below.
Questions
Q1 Complete and annotate the diagram of water molecules in Figure 1 to explain why water is a
liquid at room temperature, unlike other small molecules such as carbon dioxide.
You should include the following words / ideas in your diagram:
hydrogen bonds
polar charges on oxygen and hydrogen atoms.
Figure 1 Why water is a liquid at room temperature
This sheet may have been altered from the original.
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Student
Q2 Oil and water do not mix. They remain as two separate layers, with the less dense oil floating on
top of the oil. Oil is non-polar; it is hydrophobic (water-repelling).
a Predict what will happen if some drops of water-soluble dye were added to a water-oil mixture.
b Then try doing it, to check if you were correct. Suggest an explanation for what you observe
happening.
………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………
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………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………
Q3 a Vitamin C is water-soluble. Vitamin A is fat-insoluble. Give a possible explanation for this

difference.
………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………
b A celebrity chef announces on his TV show that it would be better to boil a joint of meat rather
than roast it. He says this is because the fat will dissolve out of the meat, making the meal
lower in fat and healthier. Is he correct in his explanation of what is happening during the
cooking?
Explain your answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Q4 Complete the table below, to show why water is ideal as the transport medium in blood.
Property Explanation Role in blood

The positively charged end
of a water molecule is
attracted to the negative
ends of surrounding
molecules. Hydrogen bonds
form; these hold the water
molecules together.
Solvent for ionic and

polar substances.
Blood helps to regulate body

temperature because water
resists changes in
temperature.
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Student
Q5 Your young cousins are worried that the fish in their large garden pond will get too hot on very
sunny days in summer. What would you say to make them realise they do not need to
worry?
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Student
Activity 1.6 Investigating arteries and veins
Purpose You need

• To relate the structures of blood vessels • Ring of artery and vein
to their functions.
• Mass carrier
• To practise some experimental skills, • 5 × 10 g masses
including identification of variables, • Hook
producing valid results, presenting data, • Clamp stand, boss and clamp
drawing conclusions and considering safety. • Metre rule
Safety • Graph paper
Wear eye protection while stretching • Prepared slide of artery and vein T.S.
blood vessels. • Prepared slide of lung or thyroid gland
T.S. to show capillaries
Benches should be thoroughly cleaned • Microscope
with 1% Virkon or other suitable • Histology book for microscope images
disinfectant. and notes
Wash your hands after handling • Drawing paper
tissue once cleaning up is finished.
Procedure
Part A: Elastic recoil in arteries and veins
1 Suspend a ring of artery from a hook on a clamp stand. Use a metre rule to record
the length of the ring once the mass carrier has been attached to the free end of the
ring.
2 Attach a 10 g mass (see Figure 1) and record the length of the ring after the mass is
added.
3 Remove the mass and record the length of the ring.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 using 20, 30, 40 and 50 g masses. Record the length with and
without the masses each time.
clamp stand
hook
ring of tissue
mass carrier metre rule
10 g masses
Figure 1 Measuring the length of the ring.
5 Calculate % change in length:

(new length − original length)
% change in length = original length × 100
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Activity 1.6 Investigating arteries and veins Student
6 Enter your results into an appropriate table. A good table of results should have:
• an informative title
• the first column containing the independent variable (the factor that is varied by the
experimenter; in this experiment it is the mass)
• the second and subsequent columns containing the dependent variables (The value
of the dependent variable depends on the value of the independent variable. In this
case the length of the ring depends on how much mass is added, so ring length is
the dependent variable.)
• informative column headings; each column should have a descriptive heading
• units in the heading, not next to the numerical data.
Additional columns can be added to include calculations based on raw data such as
% change in length, etc.
7 Plot two appropriate graphs, one for artery, and one for vein. Remember that the most appropriate
type of graph should be chosen to represent data, e.g. bar chart, pie chart, histogram or line graph.
A bar chart is used when the independent variable is non-numerical or discontinuous, e.g. the
different stages of mitosis.
A pie chart can be used to display data that are proportions or percentages.
A histogram is used when the independent variable is numerical and the data are continuous, but
classified into groups, e.g. mass in kg which is divided into classes such as 41–50 kg, 51–60 kg,
etc. There are no gaps between the bars of a histogram and the area of the bar represents the
frequency.
A line graph can be used to show relationships in data which are not immediately obvious from
tables. Both the dependent and independent variables are continuous. The independent variable
normally goes on the x-axis.
Remember to include:
• an informative title
• sensible scales on each axis, if appropriate
• labels on both axes
• units on both axes, if appropriate
• a key.
(For more detail on presenting data see Alan Cadogan (ed.) (2000) Biological
Nomenclature: Standard terms and expressions used in the teaching of biology, 3rd
Edition, Institute of Biology ISBN 0900490365)
In this experiment plot percentage change in length against mass.
Values for adding and removing masses should be plotted on the same graph. (You could colour-
code the points to show which are adding and which removing masses.)
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Part B: Histology of blood vessels

8 Examine slides of artery and vein. Identify the three main regions of the vessel wall, and the
tissues in these regions:
a) external, middle and inner layers of tissue
b) elastic and collagen fibres
c) smooth muscle.
9 Sketch a plan of a cross-section across both vessels to show the amount and distribution of each
type of tissue.
10 Annotate the sketch with notes on the three regions and other features of the vessel, e.g.
thickness of wall, tissues in the three regions.
11 Using H.P. (high power) examine a capillary in a section of an organ, e.g. lung or thyroid.
A1.06S
Questions
Q1 How do the results for artery and vein compare when looking at:
a % change in length on loading?
b return to the original length on unloading?
Q2 What are the main properties of:

a elastic fibres
b collagen?
Q3 Explain any trends or patterns in the data, supporting your ideas with evidence from the data
and your biological knowledge of the histology of arteries and veins.
Q4 Explain how the properties of arteries and veins that you have investigated link to the
functions of arteries and veins in the body.
Q5 State two ways in which the structure of a capillary is related to its function.
Q6 What is the role of smooth muscle in blood vessel walls?
Q7 Comment on any safety issues that should be considered when performing this experiment.
Q8 Suggest variables that should ideally be controlled in this experiment.

Remember that the independent variable is the factor that you vary. You may be able to choose the
range of values of the independent variable. The dependent variable depends on the value of the
independent variable. Any other variables that may affect the dependent variable should be
controlled (kept constant) where possible, in order to produce results that are reliable.
Q9 Suggest modifications to the experimental procedure that would ensure that more reliable and valid
results are produced. Remember that reliable and valid results are produced through precise,
repeatable measurements made with apparatus and experimental procedures that are suitable for the
task.
Reliability means that the same results are recorded if the activity is repeated. This partly
depends on the number of measurements or observations that were taken. Ideally, a large number
of replicates (repeat measurements) should be taken, and any readings that vary considerably
from the others should be repeated or discounted. A mean or some other average (e.g. a median)
can be calculated to be representative of the set of results. The pressure of time usually puts a
limit on the number of replicates that can be taken.
Validity means that the experimenter succeeds in measuring what he or she intended to, in
other words that there is little or no difference between the actual values and the recorded
values.
Precision is the closeness of repeated measurements to each other. Precision involves the
choice of apparatus and the skill with which it is used. Precise readings are not necessarily
accurate. A faulty piece of equipment or an incorrectly used piece of apparatus may give
very precise readings (repeated values close together) but inaccurate (not valid) results. To
be accurate, a measurement should be close to the true value.
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Student
Activity 1.7 The cardiac cycle
Purpose
● To describe the sequence of events in a single heartbeat,
the cardiac cycle.
Use the section on the cardiac cycle in your textbook or

the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity to
help you complete this worksheet.
Procedure
1 Cut out the pictures from the separate sheet and stick these into
the correct boxes on the right to match the order of descriptions
below.
2 Complete the descriptions and make deletions as appropriate,
i.e. when you are provided with two alternatives separated
by a /.
3 Add arrows to each diagram to show blood flow.
Atrial and ventricular diastole

Blood flows into the atria. Elastic recoil of the atrial walls
generates low pressure in the atria, helping to draw blood into
the heart.
Initially the atrioventricular valves are open/closed.
As the ventricles begin to relax, blood tends to fall back from
the aorta and pulmonary artery causing the valves to
close. This causes the second heart sound ‘dub’.
Atrial systole
As the atria fill with blood, the pressure in the atria
increases/decreases, the atrioventricular valves are pushed open
and blood flows into the relaxing ventricles. The two
atria contract simultaneously, forcing the remaining blood into
the ventricles.
Ventricular systole
After a slight delay, the ventricles contract. This
increases/decreases the pressure in the ventricles so the
atrioventricular valves open/close. This causes the first heart
sound ‘lub’.
Blood is forced into the and .
The semilunar valves are open/closed.
Blood begins to flow into the relaxing .
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. ©University of York Science Education Group. 1 of 1
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Student
Activity 1.8 Atherosclerosis

Purpose
● To explain the course of events that lead to atherosclerosis.
● To describe the blood-clotting process.
Effects of atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is the name given to the process that occurs within arteries, causing them to narrow.
This can lead to coronary heart disease. A patient may only be aware that they have coronary heart
disease when their blood flow is restricted causing angina – pain associated with a lack of oxygen in
the heart muscle. Ultimately atherosclerosis can result in thrombosis – the blockage of an artery by a
blood clot. If the blood supply to the heart muscle cells is stopped they are said to be ischaemic, i.e.
without blood. The cells will die if they are starved of oxygen and nutrients for an extended period.
Procedure
Cut up the table below to make a set of cards with key words and phrases written on them. Sort the
cards into a sequence that follows the events in the development of atherosclerosis and thrombosis.
Using the key words, create a complete description, a flow chart or an annotated diagram of the
processes of atherosclerosis and blood clotting.
1 Fibrin 12 A blood clot forms

Platelets in contact with
2 Hard plaque forms 13
damaged artery wall
3 Tangled mesh 14 Artery narrows
Large white cells enter
4 15 Platelet plug forms
wall
5 Platelets become sticky 16 Rising blood pressure
6 Inflammatory response 17 Artery wall damaged
7 Thrombin 18 Wall elasticity reduced
8 Cholesterol accumulates 19 Atheroma forms
9 Prothrombin 20 Blood cells trapped
Calcium salts and fibrous
10 21 Fibrinogen
tissue accumulate
Cascade of chemical
11 22 Atherosclerosis
changes
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. © University of York Science Education Group. 1 of 1
A1.09S
Student
Activity 1.9 Estimating risk

Purpose
• To estimate risks and investigate people’s perceptions of risk.
• To analyse and interpret quantitative data on illness and mortality rates.
• To distinguish between correlation and causation.
Estimating risks and analysing data

Q1 In the year 2000 there was a total of 537 877 deaths in England and Wales. Of these, 2837 were due to
motor-vehicle accidents. For each of the causes of death in Table 1, estimate the number of deaths occurring
in 2000. (Note that there are causes of death other than those listed here.)
Cause of death in Estimated Actual

England and number number of
Wales of deaths deaths in Disease Incidence of Number
in 2000 2000 disease of deaths
(new cases) in 2005
Accidental falls
All diseases of the 897 741* 171 021
Appendicitis circulatory system
Asthma All cancers 233 621 126 246
Cancer Lung cancer 30 459 26 811
Diabetes Breast cancer 36 939 10 297
Electrocution Prostate cancer 29 406 8 492
Epilepsy Respiratory disease 694 219* 67 905
Heart disease Chlamydia 99 230 –
Influenza
Meningitis Table 2 Incidence of disease and causes of death
in England, 2005
Motor vehicle
accidents
Murder
Pregnancy
Railway accidents
Thalassaemia
Table 1 Causes of death in England and Wales, 2000.
Q2 Your teacher/lecturer will provide you with the actual number of deaths that occurred in 2000 due to
each of the causes in Table 1. The figures come from the Office of National Statistics. Compare your
estimates with these figures. If there are discrepancies between your estimates and the official statistics,
try and explain why you may have overestimated the risks.
Q3 It is not unusual for people to overestimate the risk of death from train accidents. Suggest reasons for
this overestimation.
Q4 It is not unusual for people to underestimate the risk to their health of smoking. Suggest reasons for this
underestimation.
Study the year 2005 incidence (number of new cases) and cause of death data for England in Table
2 and then answer the questions that follow. The 2005 population of England was 50 431 700. The
total number of deaths in England during the year 2005 was 479 678.
A1.09S
Activity 1.9 Estimating risk Student
Q5 Calculate the percentage of total deaths in England in 2005 that resulted from each of the eight categories of
disease in Table 2. (Hint: The number of deaths due to a particular disease is divided by the total number of
deaths for the year 2005 and multiplied by 100 to give a percentage. So the % of total deaths in the year 2005
due to all cancers is 126 246 ÷ 479 679 × 100.)
Q6 a Use the 2005 data to estimate the probability of an average person in England developing each of the
diseases. Express your answers as 1 in ? values or as decimals. The population of England in 2005 was 50
465 600. (See section 1.2 in your textbook if you need help in getting started with the calculations.)
b Use the 2005 data to estimate the probability of an average person dying from each of the diseases in any
year.
c The probabilities you have calculated are for the population as a whole. Why is it that the probability for
each individual will typically be very different?
Correlation and causation

A positive correlation between two variables occurs when an increase (or a decrease) in one variable can be
linked to an increase (or a decrease) in the other variable. For example, an increase in the number of
cigarettes smoked is positively correlated with the incidences of lung cancer and coronary heart disease. This
is a positive correlation because as the number of cigarettes smoked increases, the incidences of these
diseases also increase. Similarly, the amount of alcohol in the bloodstream of drivers positively correlates
with the likelihood that they will have a car accident. In both of these cases there is likely to be a causal link
between the two variables. The more a person smokes, the greater the amount of chemicals in the
bloodstream that can cause damage that results in lung cancer and coronary heart disease. The more alcohol
a person consumes, the slower their reaction times and the more likely they are to have an accident.
However, a strong correlation between two variables does not necessarily prove a causal link between them.
Q7 Look at the data in Table 3 on the next page and then attempt the questions.
a Is there any correlation between the two sets of data? If yes, is it a positive or negative correlation? It might
help to draw a graph using the two sets of data or at least sort it. An Excel file of the data is available with this
activity.
b It is unlikely that sending televisions to countries with a short life expectancy would increase people’s lifespan.
Suggest a plausible explanation for the relationship between the variables.
Q8 A World Health organisation preliminary investigation suggested that high levels of background noise (e.g. traffic
noise) can affect your risk of heart disease.
a Suggest other factors that may account for the increased incidence of heart disease in areas with high levels of
background noise.
b The correlation between noise and increased heart disease is unlikely to be a causal link. Suggest how noise
could increase the risk of heart disease.
A1.09S
Country Life People per Country Life People per

expectancy television expectancy television
Argentina 70.5 4.0 Morocco 64.5 21.0
Bangladesh 53.5 315.0 Myanmar 54.5 592.0
(Burma)
Brazil 65.0 4.0 Pakistan 56.5 73.0
Canada 76.5 1.7 Peru 64.5 14.0
China 70.0 8.0 Philippines 64.5 8.8
Colombia 71.0 5.6 Poland 73.0 3.9
Egypt 60.5 15.0 Romania 72.0 6.0
Ethiopia 51.5 503.0 Russia 69.0 3.2
France 78.0 2.6 South Africa 64.0 11.0
Germany 76.0 2.6 Spain 78.5 2.6
India 57.5 44.0 Sudan 53.0 23.0
Indonesia 61.0 24.0 Taiwan 75.0 3.2
Iran 64.5 23.0 Thailand 68.5 11.0
Italy 78.5 3.8 Turkey 70.0 5.0
Japan 79.0 1.8 Ukraine 70.5 3.0
Kenya 61.0 96.0 United 76.0 3.0
Kingdom
Korea, North 70.0 90.0 United 75.5 1.3
States
Korea, South 70.0 4.9 Venezuela 74.5 5.6
Mexico 72.0 6.6 Vietnam 65.0 29.0
Risk calculator
Risk calculator models provide scientists and other medical professionals with a useful tool to
analyse information based on research data. The models can predict the interaction of biological
factors, and the impact of these factors on a range of disorders. Models can be used to support
decisions involving interventions e.g. drug prescriptions, changes to lifestyle and dietary changes.
There are many examples of risk calculators to be found on the Internet.
You can create your own CHD risk calculator or use the one provided with this activity to compare
risk factors for a certain patient with “normal range” of risk. It will also show how CHD is
influenced by the complex interaction of different factors. Full details of how to create your own
risk predictor using an Excel spreadsheet are provided in the ICT support section of the website.
The data used to develop the risk calculator model were taken from the Framingham Heart Study, started in
1948 in the USA. For more details about this study see the textbook page 22.
A1.09S
Using the risk calculator model

Use the information below and the risk calculator model to answer the questions.
Patient A
A 46 year old male
Cholesterol levels: LDL = 4.95 mmol/l, HDL = 1.2 mmol/l
Blood pressure reading: systolic = 145, diastolic = 90
Diabetic
Smoker
Q9 What is the risk of patient A developing CHD over the next 10 years?
Q10 Use Table 1 to describe patient A’s risk compared to that of a low risk and average risk man of the
same age.
Q11 Suggest lifestyle changes that might help patient A to reduce his risk of developing CHD.
Q12 What are the two most significant risk factors for patient A?
Comparative risk
Age Average Low*
(years) 10 Yr CHD 10 Yr CHD
risk (%) risk (%)
30–34 3 2
35–39 5 3
40–44 7 4
45–49 11 4
50–54 14 6
55–59 16 7
60–64 21 9
65–69 25 11
70–74 30 14
*Low risk was calculated for a man the same age, normal blood pressure,
LDL cholesterol 100–129 mg/dL, HDL cholesterol 45 mg/dL, non-smoker, no diabetes
Table 1 Risk values for an average man and a low risk man of the same age.
A1.10S
Student
Activity 1.10 Identifying health risks
Purpose
• To evaluate the design of studies used to identify health risk factors.
Epidemiological studies
There are several different study designs used to look for correlations between a disease and
specific risk factors. Any study must be carefully designed to ensure that the results identify true
correlations. Cohort studies and case-control studies are two commonly used designs. Read the
section in the textbook on the design of epidemiological studies, pages 12–24, before completing
this activity sheet.
MMR vaccination and autism

A large number of studies have investigated whether the MMR (mumps, measles and rubella)
vaccination is a risk factor for the development of autism or other developmental disorders. Some of
these studies are outlined below. Read the summaries and then answer the questions that follow.
Autism is a developmental disorder. People with autism have difficulties with communications and
social interactions, displaying repetitive and rigid behaviour. In most cases signs of abnormal
development can be recognised by the time a child is two years old. The MMR vaccination is given
to about 600 000 UK children each year, mostly when they are about two years old.
In 1998 a link between the MMR vaccination and autism was suggested by Dr Andrew Wakefield
and his co-workers from the results of an uncontrolled case study of 12 children that had been
referred to the hospital’s gastroenterology group with intestinal symptoms (diarrhoea, abdominal
pain, bloating and food intolerance) and development disorder. They had been developing normally
but then lost some of their acquired skills. Medical and developmental histories were obtained for
each child, including details of immunisations and exposure to infectious diseases. Neurological and
psychiatric assessments were completed. Clinical and laboratory investigations were completed,
including endoscope investigations of the bowels with tissue samples taken for analysis. The
researchers suggested that the chronic bowel symptoms might be linked with autism. They noted
that in most cases (eight), onset of symptoms was after MMR immunisation and further
investigations were needed to examine this syndrome and its possible relation to the MMR vaccine.
In the same year, 1998, the results of a long-term vaccination project to eliminate MMR diseases
from Finland were published. The project launched in 1982 saw all children vaccinated twice, at
age 14–18 months and 6 years. Any children who had adverse reactions to the vaccine were
reported to the Institute. By the end of 1996 about three million vaccinations had been given to
children and some adults. 31 children developed gastrointestinal symptoms after vaccination; none
went on to develop signs of autism.
A study in the North Thames health district of 293 children with confirmed autism in vaccinated
and non-vaccinated groups concluded that there was no evidence to support an association between
autism and MMR. The results were published in the Lancet in 1999.
A1.10S
Activity 1.10 Identifying health risks Student
Results of a matched case-control study conducted using data from the General Practice Research
Database (GPRD) were published in the Lancet in 2004. This database contains detailed
information about every consultation by over 280 medical practices serving over 2 million people
selected to be representative of the whole UK population. 1294 children affected by autism or other
developmental disorders were identified from the database. Two child psychiatrists using 10
diagnostic criteria for autistic disorders reviewed the medical information for each child. Some
children with medical disorders that are thought to have a causal association with autism such as
fragile X disorder, phenylketonuria or congenital rubella, were excluded. For each of these affected
children up to five matched controls were also identified from the database, children with no record
of developmental disorders matched on age, sex and medical practice. A questionnaire to parents of
all cases and controls included questions about the family size, socioeconomic status, education of
parents and medical history. The following dates were recorded for each affected child:
• First attendance to the GP with symptoms
• First concerns or symptoms recorded in hospital letters
• Definitive diagnosis from hospital letters
• Parents’ first concern about symptoms of autism collected retrospectively
• MMR vaccination from GP records
1294 cases and 4469 controls were included in the study. 1010 cases had MMR vaccination
recorded before diagnosis, 3671 controls had MMR vaccination before the age at which their
matched case was diagnosed. The study concluded that MMR vaccination was not associated with
an increased risk of autism or other developmental disorders.
Questions
Q1 Wakefield suggested a causal association between the MMR vaccine and a new syndrome of chronic
inflammatory bowel disease and autism. The study and its conclusions were widely criticised. Suggest
some of the weaknesses that the critics identified in this epidemiological study.
Q2 Explain how the Finnish study provided more reliable results than those of the Wakefield study.
Q3 What type of study was undertaken in the North Thames health district?
Q4 Why were children with conditions such as fragile X syndrome excluded from the GPRD study?
Q5 Explain why the GPRD questionnaire was sent to all participants?
Q6 In the GPRD study which of the dates recorded for each affected child are more reliable for
investigating the relationship between the timing of the MMR vaccination and development of autism?
Q7 A working party of the UK Committee on Safety of Medicines undertook a study to assess reports of
children who had developed autism or similar disorders following MMR vaccination. The parents of all
children included had sought legal advice about possible damage as a result of vaccination. How might
this method of selecting participants affect the results of the study?
A1.10S
Activity 1.10 Identifying health risks Student
Cholesterol and risk of stroke

All papers submitted to academic journals are referred, that is, the papers are sent to experts who
decide if they are suitable for publication. Read the description below of an epidemiological study
undertaken to investigate whether blood cholesterol concentrations can be used to predict stroke.
Decide whether you would publish the paper based on this study in the medical journal for which
you referee papers. Write a letter of response to the epidemiologists who undertook the study
explaining the reasons for your decision. You may decide that a decision cannot be made unless
additional information is provided and in that case you must tell the epidemiologists what
information they need to supply.
Study outline
A prospective cohort study by the Korean National Health Service to determine risk factors for
stroke and heart attack was completed. 661 700 male and 125 742 female public servants were
included in the study. They are all between 30-64 years of age, with a mean age of about 42. They
had a health check by the Korean Medical Insurance Company, one of the main national health
insurance providers who provide medical insurance services for all public servants and their
unemployed family members. Information about exposure to risk factors came from the medical
examination and a self-administered questionnaire.
The study found that high concentrations of blood cholesterol were associated with ischaemic
stroke (associated with atherosclerosis). Low blood cholesterol was associated with haemorrhagic
stroke (not associated with atherosclerosis).
A1.11S
Student
Activity 1.11 Analysis of cardiovascular disease data
Purpose
● To analyse quantitative data on cardiovascular disease.
● To consider the effect of age and gender on the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Analysis of risk: haemorrhagic stroke

Mark had his haemorrhagic stroke in 1995 at the age of 15. In this type of stroke a blood vessel in the
brain bursts. With the correct data it is possible to calculate his risk, and to see how risk is affected
by age and gender. This data is for the year that Mark had his stroke at age 15.
Age Male Female
0–4 6 7
5–9 6
10–14 7 5
15–19 8 6
20–24 19 10
Table 1 No. Of UK deaths from haemorrhagic stroke in 1995.
Q1 What was the chance of a 15-year-old male in the UK

dying from a haemorrhagic stroke during 1995?
Express your answer as a probability.
Gender
Females Males
Age group 15–19 1 682 000 1 780 000
Table 2 Population of the UK in 1995 separated by gender and age group.
Q2 What was the chance of a 15-year-old female in the UK

dying from a haemorrhagic stroke during 1995?
Express your answer as a probability.
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. ©University of York Science Education Group.
A1.11S
Activity 1.11 Analysis of cardiovascular disease data Student
Analysis of coronary heart disease data
Use the data on age-specific death rates from coronary heart disease over a number of years
in Table 3 to answer the questions that follow.
Age/years 35–44 45–54 55–64 65–74

Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women
1980 56 9 270 50 733 215 1621 688
1985 43 7 221 43 687 213 1601 702
1990 37 6 159 33 536 179 1352 594
1995 26 5 117 24 408 124 1133 498
2000 19 5 92 20 291 84 823 347
2005 19 4 73 16 204 54 558 225
Table 3 Death rates per 100 000 of population of the United Kingdom due to coronary heart disease.
Q3 Comment on what happens to the average risk of Q5 a Compare the incidence of CHD deaths in men
death due to coronary heart disease as you get and women.
older. b Suggest reasons for any differences described.
Q4 a Describe the trend in the number of deaths from Q6 Use the data to produce an appropriate graph to
coronary heart disease between 1980 and 2005. show clearly the gender differences for a
b Suggest reasons for this trend. particular year.
Use the data on the incidence of angina in adults in
Table 4 to answer the questions that follow. Q7 a Has this gender difference changed over the
time period shown?
b Suggest reasons for any changes observed.
Study Year Sex Age group Incidence

/100 000
4th National Study of Morbidity Statistics from 1991/92 Men 45–64 1080
General Practice 65–74 2250
Royal College of General Practitioners, the 75–84 2730
Office of Population Censuses and Surveys and 85+ 2020
the Department of Health (1995) Morbidity Women 45–64 660
Statistics from General Practice, Fourth National
Study 1991–1992. HMSO: London 65–74 1760
75–84 2240
85+ 2150
Q6
One general practice in Oxford (Gill et al, 1999) 1989/91 Men 45–54 830
55–64 1353
65–74 930
Women 45–54 643
55–64 1257
65–74 827
Table 4 Incidence of angina per 100 000 adults determined in two UK studies.
Q8 Comment on the risk for men and women of suffering angina as they get old and on any conflicting
evidence in the two studies.
2 of 2
A1.12S
Student
Activity 1.12 Measuring blood pressure
Purpose
• To measure blood pressure. You need
• To explain the significance of high blood ● A sphygmomanometer and stethoscope,
pressure in cardiovascular disease. or a blood pressure monitor
• To develop experimental and investigative skills.
Blood pressure
Blood pressure is one of the easiest and quickest measures used by the medical
profession to check the health of your heart and circulation system.
If you have ever had your blood pressure taken or seen it done on one of the many
TV hospital dramas, you will know that an inflatable cuff is generally put around
your upper arm and held loosely in place with Velcro. Air is pumped into the cuff
inflating it and measurements are taken as the cuff is deflated.
‘Normal’ blood pressure is often quoted in books as 120/80 mmHg, but how
many people actually have this blood pressure? Find out by using a
sphygmomanometer or digital blood pressure monitor to determine the blood
pressure of several members of your group. Are they all the same? Are there any
patterns within the values obtained?
The interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity can help you understand
exactly what is happening when blood pressure is measured. It can be used as an
alternative to measuring blood pressure with a sphygmomanometer, which is
difficult to use.
But remember that taking pressure measurements can cause anxiety which may
affect the measurement. Eating, smoking, drinking alcohol and sports can all
affect your blood pressure. Any high or low measurements made in the classroom
should not be regarded as indicative of a blood-pressure problem. Even with the
blood-pressure monitors that are widely available on the high street, unusual
measurements should be checked by a qualified health professional.
Safety
Never use a sphygmomanometer or blood pressure monitor unsupervised.
Do not over-inflate the cuff or leave it inflated for longer than necessary.
Do not worry if your blood pressure seems too high or too low. This is not a
definitive medical measurement of blood pressure, just an estimate.
You should not use one of these monitors if:
You know you suffer from heart rhythm disorders, or you already suffer from
severe atherosclerosis – unlikely unless you are a mature student – or you have a
cardiac pacemaker.
1 of 3
A1.12S
Activity 1.12 Measuring blood pressure Student
Procedure
1 Make yourself comfortable and try to relax before having your blood pressure
taken.
2 Remove any clothing with tight sleeves: it is important that blood flow is not
constricted. If you push up your sleeve, make sure that it doesn’t become so
tight that it impedes blood flow.
3 Most sphygmomanometers or digital meters have a
cuff that must cover the brachial artery in the upper
arm. The cuff must be closed firmly so that the artery
is well covered, as shown in Figure 1.
4 Try to lay your arm on a surface such as your lab
bench, ensuring that the cuff is at approximately the
same height as your heart. (Think why!) The palm of
your hand should be facing upwards.
Using a sphygmomanometer
5 With traditional sphygmomanometers use a
stethoscope to listen for the sound of blood flow in Figure 1 Using a sphygmomanometer and
the brachial artery. The stethoscope is positioned on stethoscope to measure blood pressure.
the inside forearm below the elbow as shown in Figure 1.
6 Pump air into the cuff, inflating it until the pulse sound disappears.
7 Deflate the cuff until the sound of blood can be heard as it starts to push
through the artery.
8 Take a reading at this point. This first reading gives systolic pressure.
9 Further deflate the cuff. As the sound disappears take a second reading. This
gives diastolic pressure, a measure of the pressure in the artery when the heart
is relaxed. The overall blood pressure is given in mmHg. It is usually
expressed as systolic over diastolic e.g. 120/70 mmHg.
Unless you are an experienced nurse or paramedic, it is often difficult to recognise
the change in sound of blood flow. The animation lets you see what should
happen.
Using a digital blood-pressure monitor (alternative method)
10 Digital blood-pressure monitors have a pre-set switch. This means that when
you start to inflate the cuff, you should set this switch at a value slightly
higher than your expected systolic pressure (the upper value). For instance, if
you are young and healthy, you will probably need to set the switch at 140. If
you have doubts, your teacher or lecturer will be able to advise you.
11 Press the start button to automatically inflate the cuff to the pre-selected
pressure. Most models continue to inflate past the pre-set value if you have set
it too low.
12 When the monitor reaches the target inflation value, the air is automatically
released and the value in the digital display begins to count downwards.
2 of 3
A1.12S
Activity 1.12 Measuring blood pressure Student
13 When the monitor first detects your pulse, the majority of monitors will begin
to ‘beep’ and a symbol will start to flash. Here, the monitor is determining the
upper value for your blood pressure, the systolic blood pressure. Notice that
the ‘beeping’ is fairly regular. What do you think the ‘beeps’ show?
14 As the pressure in the cuff continues to drop, there comes a point when the
monitor can no longer detect your pulse. This gives the lower value for your
blood pressure, the diastolic blood pressure. Can you think what has happened
to your brachial artery at this point?
15 When all the air has been released, the monitor will display both your systolic
and your diastolic blood pressures. Most machines will also show your pulse
rate at the same time.
16 You may wish to store these measurements using the monitor’s memory
facility, so that you can monitor changes in your blood pressure, perhaps in
accordance with exercise or possibly over a period of time.
Most people’s blood pressure falls within the range of 100–140 mmHg for
systolic pressure and 60–90 mmHg for diastolic pressure. Pressures below these
values are considered to be low pressure; above about 160/95 mmHg is classed as
high blood pressure.
Unusual measurements should be checked by a qualified health professional.
Questions
Q1 What do you think the beeps made by a digital pressure monitor at step 8 of the
procedure represent?
Q2 What is happening to blood flow in the brachial artery at the final step of both
procedures?
Q3 Comment on your results if you have taken several readings from different people
within the group.
Q4 A person has a blood-pressure reading of about 170/95 mmHg. Would this be
classed as high blood pressure?
Q5 Why can elevated blood pressure increase the risk of cardiovascular disease?
Extension question
Q6 Blood pressure can vary between individuals and can change through the day.
What effect might posture and relaxation have on blood pressure? Plan an
experiment that would let you check out your idea.
3 of 3
A1.13S
Student
Activity 1.13 Blood pressure summary
Purpose
● To draw together all the blood pressure ideas.
● To introduce the use of concept maps.
Procedure
The concept map is one method of producing a summary of what you think you
know about a particular subject area, in this case blood pressure. The construction
of the map allows you to think through the ideas covered and clarify your
understanding. A map will often highlight errors or omissions. It can provide a
useful tool in learning.
If you have never constructed a concept map you may need to read the
Exam/coursework support before getting started.
Starting with the idea of blood pressure, construct your own concept map.
You might include what blood pressure is and what it is the result of, then expand
out from these ideas.
is Blood pressure
is the result of
cardiac output
aga inst is the result of of
blood vessel walls heart rate stroke volume blood vessels
is is that can vary in
whose elastic fibres allow amount of blood pumped

by left ventricle
changed by so that obese people have
stretching during longer blood vessels
during which we feel as a during is controlled by may may to raise
contract
arteriole walls
maintaining to reduce to raise
thus maintaining
Figure 1 Blood pressure concept map.
A1.14S
Student
Activity 1.14 Carbohydrate structure
Purpose
● To describe condensation and hydrolysis reactions.
● To distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides, and relate their
structure to their roles in providing and storing energy.
Procedure
Complete the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity or read the section on carbohydrates
in your textbook and then use what you have learned to complete this worksheet.
Joining sugar units
Splitting sugar units
A1.14S
Activity 1.14 Carbohydrate structure Student
1 Complete the table below.
Name of disaccharide Sugar monosaccharides making up disaccharide
Building complex carbohydrates

2 Fill in descriptions of the molecules below.
3 On the monosaccharide diagram above, label the carbons 1 to 6, start with 1 on the carbon to the
right of the oxygen in the ring.
4 On the diagram below, draw in 1,4 glycosidic links. Label one glucose monomer. On that
molecule, draw in a hydroxyl group and side group in the correct position.
Joining glucose molecules to form starch and glycogen
Structural formula of starch

Starch is a polymer made up of glucose monomers.
Branching glucose chains are possible when 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic links are present.
5 On the diagram below, add the 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds. Label one 1,4 glycosidic link
and one 1,6 glycosidic link.
2 of 3
A1.14S
Activity 1.14 Carbohydrate structure Student
Starch is made up of amylose and amylopectin.

5 Fill in the table with information about these two molecules:
Name of molecule Type of glycosidic links present
6 In the box below, describe how the structure of glycogen is similar to that of starch.
7 Use information from the interactive tutorial and textbook to complete the table below:
Name of molecule Structure and chemical properties Biological role

Sweet, soluble, crystalline Monomer of polysaccharides
Monosaccharide Substrate for cell respiration in all
living organisms releasing energy
Insoluble polysaccharide formed

from two glucose polymers:
branched amylopectin with 1,4 and
1,6 glycosidic links and helical
amylose with 1,4 glycosidic bonds
only
Maltose
Sweet, soluble, crystalline

Disaccharide formed by
condensation reaction between
glucose and fructose
Glycogen
In the ICT support there is a data logging sheet on testing for sugars using a colorimeter.
3 of 3
A1.15S
Student
Activity 1.15 Biotechnology to the rescue
Purpose You need

• To reinforce the idea that disaccharides can be • 2 cm3 lactase
converted into monosaccharides by hydrolysis. • 8 cm3 sodium alginate solution (2%)
• 20 cm3 1.5% calcium chloride solution
Is there a use for lactose? • 20–50 cm3 distilled water
• Glass rod
Lactose is the disaccharide found in milk. It is not
• 10 cm3 syringe barrel
actually a very useful sugar:
• Clamp stand, boss and clamp
• It can’t be used in food products because many • Tea strainer
people are intolerant to lactose. Of the Thai, • 2 small beakers
Chinese and Afro-Caribbean populations, 97%, • 10 cm3 measuring cylinder
90% and 73%, respectively, are reported to be
lactose-intolerant, often resulting in severe
digestive problems.
• Lactose has low solubility, and tends to produce crystals at concentrations above 11%. If
lactose is used in food products, the crystals can produce an unpleasant sandy texture.
• Lactose is only 20% as sweet as sucrose. If it were to be used in foods, the large amount
needed to achieve sweetness would substantially increase the calorie content of the food.
• When cheese is made, the large quantities of liquid whey produced contain lactose and
protein. If whey is disposed of into the sewage system, its high nutrient content encourages
growth of microorganisms, and fines can be imposed on the industry for this pollution.
How can enzymes help?

Hydrolysis of lactose yields the monosaccharides glucose and galactose which are much
sweeter sugars. The enzyme lactase can be used to hydrolyse lactose, and this process is now
used in the production of ice cream and sweetened, flavoured and condensed milks. Syrup
made from the products of hydrolysis of the lactose-rich whey from the cheese industry can be
made into a useful product: a hygroscopic (water-retaining) toffee that has a low melting
point. The toffee can be poured into chocolate cups at relatively low temperatures, and
because it is hygroscopic it can be used to coat biscuits without making them become soggy.
Milk treated with lactase is suitable for lactose-intolerant people to drink.
In industry this process is carried out using immobilised enzymes. In the experiment that follows,
lactase is used to make lactose-free milk.
Figure 1 Enzyme immobilisation.
1 of 3
A1.15S
Student
Safety
The products from the column should not be tasted unless the experiment has been
conducted in a food preparation area with equipment for food use only using food grade
reagents (including food grade enzyme) and observing strict hygiene rules.
Lactase is a relatively safe enzyme, but contact with or inhalation of any enzyme should be
protected against to avoid allergic reaction or sensitisation.
Procedure
1 Mix 2 cm3 lactase with 8 cm3 alginate gel solution. Stir gently with glass rod.
2 Pour 20 cm3 calcium chloride solution into a clean beaker.
3 Clamp a 10 cm3 plastic syringe barrel above the beaker of calcium chloride solution.
Position the syringe close to the top of the beaker.
4 Pour the alginate gel into the syringe, allowing the gel to drip slowly into the calcium
chloride solution. It is best to add about 2 cm3 of gel to the syringe at a time.
5 The gel beads must be left in the calcium chloride solution for 10 minutes to harden,
then strained in a tea strainer, and rinsed with distilled water.
Making a column of beads
6 Clamp a syringe barrel above a small beaker, and place a small piece of nylon gauze in
the bottom of the syringe (see Figure 2 below).
7 Attach a short length of rubber tubing to the syringe outlet, and screw a Hoffman clip
onto this to seal the end of the syringe. The Hoffman clip can be used to control the flow
of liquid from the syringe.
8 Pour the beads into the syringe barrel – you can use a small spoon or spatula for this.
Figure 2 Making a column of immobilised lactase.
2 of 3
A1.15S
Student
Hydrolysing the lactose

9 Pour the milk into the column. Adjust the clip so that the milk slowly drips into a
beaker.
10 Use a glucose test strip to test for glucose in the liquid collected from the column.
Glucose test strips are semi-quantitative; you can get a reading of glucose concentration
by comparing the colour produced with a colour scale.
If you have time, investigate the effect of the rate of flow of the milk over the beads on the
production of glucose.
How glucose test strips work

The detection of glucose using test strips (Figure 3) provides a quick and easy way for
diabetics to monitor their own blood and urine glucose levels. The advantage of this method
over some chemical methods is that it is specific for glucose; glucose can be distinguished
from the presence of other sugars.
The enzymes glucose oxidase and peroxidase

are immobilised onto a cellulose fibre pad with
chromagen dye.
Figure 3 Glucose test strip.
The test strip is dipped into the solution to be tested.

Two reactions take place:
1 catalysed by glucose oxidase
glucose + oxygen + water → hydrogen peroxide + gluconic acid
2 catalysed by peroxidase
hydrogen peroxide + colourless chromagen dye → coloured, oxidised chromagen dye + water
The amount of coloured chromagen produced is a measure of the amount of glucose which
has reacted. A colour reference card gives an indication of the concentration of glucose
present in the solution.
Q1 Explain what happened to the milk as it passed through the column of beads. Use biochemical
detail and diagrams in your answer as appropriate.
3 of 3
A1.16S
Student
Activity 1.16 Lipids
Purpose
● To describe the synthesis of a triglyceride.
● To describe the formation of ester bonds in condensation reactions between glycerol
and fatty acids.
● To recognise differences between saturated and unsaturated lipids.
Procedure
Complete the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity or read the section on
lipids in your textbook and then use what you have learned to complete this worksheet.
Fats and oils belong to a group of molecules called lipids. Lipids do not dissolve in water,
but do dissolve in non-polar solvents.
Figure 1 Formation of a triglyceride.
Questions
Q1 Label Figure 1 with the following: Name of reaction, number of H2O molecules removed in total, fatty
acids, glycerol, name of product, ester bond.
Q2 In Figure 1, circle and label the atoms removed during the formation of an ester bond between one
fatty acid and glycerol.
Q3 Using the information about joining and splitting sugar units in the section on carbohydrates in the
textbook and Activity 1.15, name the reaction that would split an ester bond to release a fatty acid.
A1.16S
Activity 1.16 Lipids Student
Q4 What do you think are the products of lipid digestion?
Q5 Draw a simple diagram in the space below to show a monounsaturated fatty acid.
Table 1 Fatty acid information.
Name Formula No. of No. of double bonds Melting

carbons in hydrocarbon chain point/ °C
Lauric acid C12H24COOH 12 0 44.2
Palmitic acid C16H32COOH 16 0 63.1
Stearic acid C18H36COOH 18 0 69.6
Oleic acid C18H34COOH 18 1 13.4
Linoleic acid C18H32COOH 18 2 – 5.0
Arachnidonic acid C20H32COOH 20 4 – 49.5
Arachidic acid C20H40COOH 20 0 76.5
Q6 Referring to the data in Table 1, what effect does an increase in the number of double bonds have on the
melting point of a fatty acid?
Q7 What effect does an increase in the number of carbon atoms have on the melting point?
Q8 Explain why most polyunsaturated oils are liquid at room temperature.
A1.17S
Student
Activity 1.17 Your energy budget
Purpose
● To analyse data on energy budgets and diet.
● To calculate obesity indicators and explain their energy
significance. energy
intake
requirement
Energy budget
The calories that you need each day depend on: weight gain
● the amount of energy your body uses when

completely at rest (basal metabolic rate) energy energy
requirement intake
● the energy used as a result of eating (specific
dynamic action)
● the amount of physical activity (PA) you take part in. weight loss
To analyse your energy budget you need to calculate energy energy

requirement intake
energy expenditure and energy intake from food. The
calculations can be completed on the interactive no change in weight
tutorial that accompanies this activity, or by working
Figure 1 If the balance between energy consumed
through the sections on this worksheet. and energy used is not equal, you will lose or gain
weight.
Procedure
Calculating energy requirements
Calculating your basal metabolic rate (BMR)
There are various formulae for calculating basal metabolic rate (BMR). The formula used here is the Harris-
Benedict formula which takes height, mass and age into account. Calculate your BMR:
Formula gives calorific requirements in kcal per day My height in cm
Adult females 655.1 + (9.563 x M) + (1.850 x H) – (4.676 x A) My mass in kg
Adult males 66.5 + (13.75 x M) + (5.003 x H) – (6.775 x A) My age in years
H = height/cm; M = mass/kg; A = age/years My BMR
Although scientists normally use kilojoules (kJ) as the unit of energy, Calories (kcal) are very widely
used by the food industry for energy content of food. A Calorie is the same
as a kilocalorie. 1 kcal = 4.18 kJ.
Calculating physical activity (PA)

Calculate your total daily calorific expenditure using the formula:
Daily energy expenditure during exercise = (M x E x T)

M = mass/kg; E = energy expenditure/kcal per kg per min; T = time/min
A1.17S
Activity 1.17 Your energy budget Student
To do this you need to:
1 Work out roughly how long you spend in minutes each day on the equivalent of the
activities below. If an activity you participate in, e.g. football, is not shown, select an
activity that you think would use about the same amount of energy per minute.
2 Work out the energy used for each activity each day and then sum these values to give
the total for each day. The values are energy used per kg of your mass.
3 Multiply the energy used by your mass to give your total energy expenditure during
physical activity per day.
Activity Energy Time Energy Activity Energy Time spent Energy

expenditure spent on used* expenditure on activity used*
/kcal per kg activity /kcal per /kcal per /min /kcal per
per min /min kg kg per kg
min
Running 12 0.14 Cycling 0.07
min per mile 5 mph
Running 9 min 0.19 Cycling 0.12
per mile 10 mph
Running 8 0.22 Cycling 0.17
min per mile 15 mph
Running 7 0.24 Swimming 0.09
min per mile crawl 25 m
per min
Running 6 0.28 Swimming 0.18
min per mile crawl 50 m
per min
Walking 20 0.03 Standing 0.014
min per mile
Walking 15 0.06 Driving 0.029
min per mile
Walking 11 0.14 Writing/ 0.014
min per mile deskwork
Sitting 0.014 Sleeping 0.014
(watching
TV)
Showering 0.06 My total energy expenditure per kg**
/kcal per kg
*Energy used = energy expenditure/kcal per kg per min x time/min.
**Sum of energy used in one day for all activities.
My daily energy expenditure in exercise (PA)
= total energy expenditure per kg x mass
Calculate specific dynamic action (SDA)

The amount of energy needed to digest, absorb, transport and metabolise your food can
be assumed to be 10% of your BMR and PA. This factor is included in the formula below by
multiplying PA + BMR by 1.1.
Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. ©University of York Science Education Group. 1 of 4 4
2 of
A1.17S
Total daily energy expenditure
Use this formula to calculate your calorific needs for one day:
1.1 x (BMR + PA) =
Calorific input from food
Use tables of nutritional values to analyse your diet for a typical day. Compare the total
energy input from food with the value that you calculated above, which is your total
daily energy requirement.
Do your daily energy requirements and daily energy input from food balance? If not, which
is greater and by what percentage?
Questions
Q1 Suggest how age, gender and body size may all affect BMR.
Q2 Suggest how environmental temperature may affect BMR.
Q3 When you diet, after a couple of weeks your BMR will slow down as your body attempts
to conserve energy. Use this to explain why exercise may be a more effective way of
losing weight than dieting.
Extension questions
Q4 Assume that an 80 kg person loses 1 kg of body fat for every 7700 kcal that their
energy expenditure is above intake. How long in minutes would they need to run at 6
min per mile in order to lose 1 kg of body fat?
The smaller an animal, the larger their surface area compared with their volume. A mouse
loses a larger proportion of body heat through its surface than an elephant. A baby will lose
body heat more easily than an adult will.
Q5 Use the information above to suggest how the BMR of a baby per kilogram of its body
mass will compare with that of an adult.
A1.17S
Calculate your BMI

Body mass index (BMI) is used to classify a person’s body mass relative to their height.
It gives an indication of whether a person is underweight, normal weight, overweight or
obese.
BMI is calculated using the formula:
BMI = body mass/kg
height2/m2
Calculate your BMI and decide your category of bodyweight using the table below.
BMI Classification of bodyweight
< 20 underweight
20–24.9 normal
25–29.9 overweight
30–40 obese
> 40 severely obese
Questions
Q6 A fully grown adult man has a daily energy requirement of approximately 3052 kcal, and
has a daily energy intake of about 3500 kcal. What will be the consequences for his
body mass index if he maintains this energy budget?
Q7 Edgar is 165 cm tall and weighs 65 kg. Work out his body mass index. What advice
would you give him regarding his weight?
Q8 Explain why doctors would advise patients with BMIs above 30 to reduce their weight.
_______________________________________
Calculate waist-to-hip ratio
Waist-to-hip ratio has been identified as a better measure of obesity. There is a positive
correlation between waist-to-hip ratio and risk of heart attack.
Waist-to-hip ratio is calculated by dividing waist circumference by hip circumference.

The waist is measured unclothed at the narrowest point between the top of the hip bone
and the rib margin. The hip measurement is taken at the widest point around the
buttocks wearing light clothing. A non-stretchable tape measure is used attached to a
spring scale with a tension of 750g.
Women’s waist-to-hip ratio should not be greater than 0.85, men’s should not exceed
0.90. The higher the value above these figures, the greater the risk.
Q9 Two female friends measure their waist and hip circumferences. One has a waist
measurement of 76 cm and hips of 102 cm, the other has a waist circumference of 110
cm and hips of 138 cm. Calculate their waist-to-hip ratio and decide if either should be
concerned. The two friends are the same height, 170 cm.
Edgar has a hip measurement of 85 cm and waist of 90 cm. Would your advice remain
the same as that given in response to question 7?
Q10 Suggest why waist-to-hip ratios are better than BMI as an indicator of obesity and heart
disease risk.
Q11 Suggest why waist-to-hip ratios are better than BMI as an indicator of obesity and heart
disease risk.
A1.18S
Student
Activity 1.18 Cholesterol and CVD
Purpose
z To look at evidence for a correlation and a
causal link between cholesterol levels and
cardiovascular disease (CVD).
Correlation or cause?
Most people have heard that cholesterol is ‘bad for you’. But this is not entirely true; cholesterol is
essential for the body in small amounts. It is needed for maintaining the correct level of fluidity in
cell membranes. Cholesterol is also needed in the manufacture of steroid hormones, and some of the
components of bile.
We normally obtain around 25% of our blood cholesterol from our food, and our liver makes the
other 75%. There are major concerns about the high levels of fat in many people’s diet, and the
impact this can have on blood cholesterol levels, health, and in particular the development of
coronary vascular disease (CVD), including coronary heart disease (CHD) and stroke.
Table 1 shows summary results of a review of 49 trials looking at the effect of lowering blood
cholesterol on CHD risk.
Time since lowering of Reduction in risk/%
cholesterol/years
1 11
2 24
3–5 33
>5 36
Table 1 The effect of lowering blood cholesterol levels by 1mmol/l on CHD risk.
Q1 What conclusions can be drawn from the results in Table 1 about the relationship between blood
cholesterol and heart disease?
Q2 Many studies have looked in more detail at the relationship between cholesterol and CHD. Table 2
below shows the total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglyceride levels, in the blood
of the participants in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. In a 10 year follow-up of this
US study involving 12 339 participants, 725 CHD events occurred.
A1.18S
Activity 1.18 Cholesterol and CVD Student
Using the data in Table 2, suggest the possible significance to health of different types of blood cholesterol.
Women Men
CHD No CHD CHD No CHD
number of
216 6691 509 4923
participants
total cholesterol/
5.96 5.59 5.72 5.40
mmol l–1
LDL cholesterol/
3.89 3.48 3.91 3.56
mmol l–1
HDL cholesterol/
1.30 1.51 1.07 1.18
mmol l–1
Triglycerides/
1.68 1.30 1.63 1.44
mmol l–1
Table 2 The mean values for lipids in ARIC women and men with and without CHD.
The difference between the CHD and non-CHD participants was shown to be statistically significant.
Q3 From the data shown in Figure 2, what conclusions can be made about the interaction between HDL
cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and cardiovascular disease risk?
Figure 1 The interaction between LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and CVD risk, data from the Framingham study.
The passage below concerns the development of atherosclerotic plaques in experimental animals.
This is a modified extract from an article published in Nature on atherosclerosis.
A1.18S
Activity 1.18 Cholesterol and CVD Student
The first observable change in the artery wall following the feeding of a high-fat, high-cholesterol
diet is the accumulation of lipoprotein particles and their aggregates in the intima. Within days or
weeks, monocytes can be observed adhering to the surface of the endothelium. The monocytes then
move across the endothelial monolayer into the intima, where they proliferate, differentiate into
macrophages and take up the lipoproteins, forming foam cells. With time, the foam cells die,
contributing their lipid-filled contents to the necrotic core of the lesion. Some fatty streaks
subsequently accumulate SMCs [smooth muscle cells], which migrate from the medial layer. With
the secretion of fibrous elements by the smooth muscle cells, fibrous plaques develop and increase
in size. Initially, the lesions grow towards the adventitia [inner layer] until a critical point is
reached, after which they begin to expand outwards and encroach on the lumen.
Modified from Aldons J. Lusis 2000 Nature 407:233-241
Q4 List the evidence presented on this activity sheet which supports:

a correlation between blood lipid levels and CVD risk, and
b a causal link between blood lipid levels and CVD risk.
Q5 The extract above only refers to high cholesterol diet and accumulation of lipoproteins. Suggest what
additional evidence would be required to make a causal link between high LDL cholesterol levels with
the development of atherosclerosis lesions.
Q6 Explain why both the data from studies such as those shown in Table 1 and Figures 1, 2 and 3, and
evidence from histology and animal studies, is needed to construct a convincing theory linking blood lipid
levels and CVD.
A1.19S
Student
Activity 1.19 Sudden death in athletes

Purpose
• To illustrate how the predisposition for cardiovascular disease can be inherited.
• To apply knowledge of atherosclerosis and blood clotting.
Procedure
The article describes how possession of one gene can increase the risk of developing the disease without the
presence of other risk factors. Read the article and then answer the questions that follow.
Sudden Death in Athletes

by Warren Dolphin, Iowa State, © 1996 Peregrine Publishers, All Rights Reserved
In November, 1995, Sergei Grinkov, an Olympic The Johns Hopkins researchers speculate that Grinkov’s
gold medalist in pairs figure skating, collapsed coronary arteries were narrowed by accumulation of
and died of sudden cardiac arrest while training fatty substances and that a blood clot formed and
at Lake Placid, NY. An abbreviated necropsy completely blocked a coronary artery, resulting in his
report appears in the June 29 issue of the medical death. Further information about the gene can be
journal Lancet. Grinkov had such severe obtained from an article in the April 25 issue of The New
cardiovascular disease that his coronary arteries England Journal of Medicine.
looked like those of a 70-year-old. Although
Grinkov had never complained of any chest pain, It is estimated that about 20% of individuals in the US
evidence indicated that he had a heart attack population carry the harmful form of the platelet antigen
about 6 hours before his death. What is puzzling gene. The presence of this gene will not necessarily
about this sudden death is that Grinkov was an cause a heart attack, but it does increase the probability
athlete in good physical condition, did not smoke of attack. If researchers can devise a simple test for the
or use drugs, did not have high blood pressure or presence of this gene, then those identified as carrying it
diabetes mellitus, nor did he have high may be able to adjust their lifestyles to reduce the risk of
cholesterol levels. However, his family medical cardiovascular problems.
history was significant: his father had died
suddenly at age 52. In a large study of athletic death, Barry Maron, a
cardiologist at the Minneapolis Heart Institute
Researchers at Johns Hopkins University read Foundation, and his colleagues collected information on
about Grinkov’s death in the newspapers and 158 deaths in young athletes from 1985 to 1995. His
wondered if it had any relationship to a genetic group’s report in the Journal of the American Medical
flaw they had just described. Samples of Association indicated that the most common cause of
Grinkov’s blood were obtained and DNA was death among young athletes was a condition known as
extracted from the white blood cells. Analysis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) caused by
the DNA indicated that Grinkov had inherited a mutations in any one of several genes. The effect of
form of a gene, called the platelet antigen gene, these mutated genes is to produce an abnormally thick
which greatly increased his chances of heart wall in the left ventricle. Only about 2% of those in his
attack. This form of the gene causes platelets to study were thought to carry the gene for the abnormal
be overly active in forming blood clots and may platelet antigen, indicating that sudden cardiac failure
cause cholesterol to bind to endothelial cells may be due to a number of factors.
lining blood vessels.
Q1 Explain in detail how possession of this form of the platelet antigen gene affects the process of atherosclerosis and
can result in sudden death.
Q2 Why might having an abnormally thick left ventricle wall create a problem? To find out more information about
cardiomyopathy you can visit the Cardiomyopathy Association website. See the weblinks for this activity.
In most cases cardiovascular disease is not the result of inheriting a single faulty gene. Several genes can affect
the risk of developing the multifactorial disease.
Q3 Outline how inheritance of different forms of the APOE gene can affect the chance of inheriting CVD.
Q4 Describe what is meant by multifactorial disease.
A1.20S
Student
Activity 1.20 Are you getting enough antioxidants?
Purpose
● To highlight the importance of antioxidants in the diet.
Antioxidants
Antioxidants are chemicals that help prevent damage within cells by unstable radicals. Chemical
reactions within cells produce radicals. These are atoms or molecules with one or more unpaired
electrons. Radicals are oxidising agents – they accept electrons from other molecules that
become oxidised (oxidation is loss of electrons). The unpaired electron in the radical is restored
to a pair by pulling a hydrogen atom with its single unpaired electron from another molecule.
These reactions cause damage to DNA, proteins, lipids and other molecules in the cell. Although
cells have a number of antioxidants that help to minimize the effect of the radicals, the damage
accumulates over time and has been linked to the changes that occur with ageing and with
diseases such as coronary heart disease and cancer. Oxidised, low-density lipoproteins are
thought to be more readily taken up by the white blood cells involved in atherosclerosis.
The cell has antioxidant defences against radical damage. For example, oxidised DNA is
repaired by enzymes, and oxidised proteins are destroyed by proteases. Antioxidants in the diet,
such as vitamin C, vitamin E and beta-carotene (used by the body to make vitamin A), also help
prevent the damage caused by radicals in the cell by providing hydrogen atoms whose electrons
pair up with the unpaired electrons in the radicals.
To help reduce radical damage it is recommended that a healthy balanced diet contains three
portions of vegetables and two portions of fruit a day.
Some sources of radicals

Radicals are produced in many reactions within cells. Within mitochondria, respiration
reactions, which reduce oxygen to water, produce by-products with unpaired electrons, namely
superoxide (O2–) and hydroxyl radical (yOH). Some of these radicals leak in to the cell’s
cytoplasm.
In a rat cell about 1012 oxygen molecules per day are converted in this way and about 2% of
these molecules leak into the cell partially reduced. This is 2 x 1010 in a day.
The breakdown of fatty acids and other molecules within peroxisomes (membrane-bound
organelles in the cytoplasm that contain enzymes) produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product.
The breakdown of this molecule is normally catalysed by the enzyme catalase within the
peroxisomes. However, occasionally some of the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is not broken down
and leaks into the cytoplasm. Reaction involving hydrogen peroxide in the cytoplasm gives rise
to hydroxyl radicals.
Toxic chemicals in our diet are broken down by enzymes within the cytoplasm. This avoids
them having a toxic effect but some of the breakdown products are radicals. Oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) in cigarette smoke and other pollutants cause oxidation of molecules in cells.
It is thought that some white blood cells destroy bacteria and virus-infected cells by bombarding
them with a mixture of oxidants including hydrogen peroxide. Although this prevents infection it
also releases radicals. Other researchers suggest that it is not radicals involved in this process but
enzymes.
A1.20S
Activity 1.20 Are you getting enough antioxidants? Student
Questions
Q1 a What are radicals?
b How are they formed within cells?
Q2 Will large numbers of radicals in the body increase the risk of developing CHD? Explain your answer
Q3 Low plasma concentrations of the antioxidant Vitamin C are associated with increased risk of heart
disease.
a Explain how the results shown in Figure 1 support a negative correlation between these two factors
b What other conclusion can be drawn from the data in Figure 1?
Figure 1 Plasma vitamin C concentrations in patients with acute heart attack (n = 179)
and apparently healthy control subjects (n = 172), by smoking status.
(Source: Vitamin C and the risk of acute myocardial infarction Rudolph A Riemersma, Kathryn F Carruthers, Robert A
Elton and Keith AA Fox American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 71, No. 5, 1181-1186, May 2000)
Q4 Do the data support a causal link between Vitamin C and coronary heart disease? Give a reason for your
answer.
Q5 Explain how the Department of Health recommendation that everyone should eat five portions of fruit and
vegetables a day should protect against:
a coronary heart disease
b cancer.
A1.20S
Activity 1.20 Are you getting enough antioxidants? Student
Q6 Check below to find out how frequently you consume foods containing these important health-promoting
vitamins and decide if you are getting enough antioxidants.
1–2 times 3–5 times

How often do you eat these? Never Seldom Daily
per week per week
Vitamin C-rich foods:
1 Grapefruits, lemons, oranges or
pineapples
2 Strawberries, kiwi fruits or honeydew
melons
3 Orange, cranberry or tomato juices
4 Green, red or chilli peppers
5 Broccoli, Chinese cabbage or cauliflower
6 Asparagus, tomatoes or potatoes
Beta-carotene-rich foods:
7 Carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkins
8 Spinach, spring greens or chard
9 Cantaloupe melons, papayas or
mangoes
10 Nectarines, peaches or apricots
Vitamin E-rich foods:
11 Wholegrain breads, cereals or
wheatgerm
12 Crabs, shrimps or fish
13 Peanuts, almonds or sunflower seeds
14 Oil, margarine, butter, mayonnaise or
salad dressing
Source: Brown, J.E. (1995) Nutrition Now, St Paul, West Publishing Company
Scoring: Several responses in the last two columns indicate adequate antioxidant vitamin consumption. If you
need to boost your intake, increase the overall amount of fruit, vegetable and whole grains in your diet.
Although nuts, seeds, oils, mayonnaise and salad dressing all contribute vitamin E, they are high fat and should
only be consumed in moderation.
Q7 These sorts of tests are extremely popular and often found in food and other magazines.
How a valid (giving true results) and b useful do you think they are and why?
A1.21S
CORE
Student
Activity 1.21 Is high C all it claims to be?
Purpose
• To investigate the vitamin C content of fruit juice.
Schoolgirls expose false vitamin C claims

Fruit juice is recommended as a good source of the antioxidant vitamin C and large volumes
are sold every day in bottles and cartons. In 2004, two high school students in New Zealand
conducting an experiment to determine the Vitamin C levels of their favourite fruit drinks
found that the levels in one well-known blackcurrant juice drink were much lower than those
claimed by the manufacturer. The manufacturer dismissed the concerns, saying the claim
related only to the blackcurrant fruit and not the product. However, the case was taken up by a
television consumer affairs show and after further testing, it was found that statements about
the levels of vitamin C had been misleading. 15 charges were brought under the Fair Trading
Act. In March 2007 the manufacturer pleaded guilty to all 15 charges and was fined
NZ$217,500.
The manufacturer maintains that the issue affected only Australia and New Zealand, and that
the juice drink sold in other markets such as the United Kingdom contains the levels of
vitamin C stated on the product label.
Which juice contains the most vitamin C?
Planning
• Which type of fruit juice provides the most vitamin C?
• Is drinking fruit juice from a carton just as good as eating fresh fruit to maintain high levels
of antioxidant vitamin C in your diet?
(Remember that fruit juice sold in cartons is ‘long life’ and does not require refrigeration
because it has been heat treated.)
The quantity of vitamin C in food and drink can be determined using a simple colour test.
Vitamin C decolourises the blue dye DCPIP (dichlorophenolindolphenol). Vitamin C is an
antioxidant and reduces the DCPIP. DCPIP changes from blue to colourless (or slightly pink)
as it becomes reduced.
Design an experiment to test one of the questions posed above.
You will be provided with the following equipment:
• Range of fruit and/or fruit juices
• Standard 1% vitamin C solution
• DCPIP 0.1%
• Pipette, syringe or burette to measure volumes accurately
• Standard laboratory glassware and apparatus
A1.21S
CORE
Activity 1.21 Is high C all it claims to be? Student
Make sure your plan:

• includes a question or problem that you are testing
• includes a procedure which uses suitable apparatus to test your question or problem
• identifies the independent and dependent variables
• identifies any other variables which may affect the outcome of the experiment, and, where
possible, controls or allows for them
• has a control, if appropriate, and this control is fully explained
• includes replicates, and an explanation of why this is necessary
• says what measurements you will make, how they will be made, and the level of accuracy
that you can expect in your measurements
• says how you will make sure the results are reliable and valid
• includes a risk assessment.
Have your plan checked by your teacher/lecturer before you start the experiment.
A1.23S
CORE
Student
Activity 1.23 Does caffeine affect heart rate?
Purpose
● To investigate the effect of caffeine on the heart rate of Daphnia (water fleas).
Caffeine
Plants produce caffeine as an insecticide. Cocoa in South America, coffee in Africa and tea
in Asia have all been used for hundreds of years to produce ‘pick me up’ drinks containing
caffeine. These days, caffeine is also used as a flavour enhancer in a wide range of cola and
other soft drinks. In addition, it has medicinal uses in aspirin preparations and is found in
weight-loss drugs and as a stimulant in students’ exam-time favourites like Pro-plus and Red
Bull.
In humans, caffeine acts as a stimulant drug, causing increased amounts of stimulatory

neurotransmitters to be released. At high levels of consumption caffeine has been linked to
restlessness, insomnia and anxiety, causing raised stress and blood pressure. This can lead to
heart and circulation problems.
Safety
If a stroboscope is used to show the Daphnia’s heart rate and you know you suffer from
photosensitive epilepsy tell your teacher and take appropriate precautions.
Procedure
Making a hypothesis
What do you think will be the effect of caffeine on the heart rate of water fleas? Write down
your ideas and support your prediction by presenting biological knowledge which supports
the idea. You now have an idea (hypothesis) to test.
Planning
The beating heart of a water flea can be seen through its translucent body, by placing the flea
in a few drops of water in a cavity slide. A cover slip helps stop the water evaporating.
The following equipment will be available:

● Culture of Daphnia (water fleas) ● Standard glassware (beakers, measuring
● Cavity slides cylinders, etc.)
● Dropping pipettes ● Stopclock
● Distilled water ● Paper towels or filter paper
● Caffeine tablets ● Microscope
● Cotton wool
Produce a detailed plan for an experiment that allows you to test your hypothesis about the
effect of caffeine on the heart rate of water fleas.
In your plan, make sure you include the following:

● Select suitable apparatus that will give you measurements which will validly test your
hypothesis. Explain why the apparatus is suitable and how the results will let you test
the hypothesis.
A1.23S
Activity 1.23 Does caffeine affect heart CORE
Student
● Include a risk assessment, identifying any risks and explaining any safety precautions that
need to be taken so as to reduce those risks.
● Comment on any ethical issues that arise from using invertebrates in the experiment
and explain how these will be taken into account in the practical method used.
● Identify the dependent and independent variables and indicate how relevant variables
will be controlled.
● Show how you will ensure that reliable and valid results are produced and describe
what you will do to ensure that measurements are precise, accurate and repeatable.
● Identify any potential errors in readings that can be systematic (values differing from
the true value by the same amount) or random (values equally likely to lie above or
below the true value).
Performing the experiment

Either use the plan you have created after it has been checked by your teacher/lecturer
or use a method supplied by your teacher/lecturer.
Presenting your data

Present your data in an appropriate table and graph. See the features of a good table and
graph in the Maths/stats support.
If you have lots of repeated results, remember that you should work out mean values
and present these in your report. This also lets you comment on the significance of your
results. If the results that are used to calculate the means are very variable, this indicates
errors within the experiment and any differences between the treatment means may not
be significant. The range of values can be shown on the graph using bars on each point as a
measure of the variation of the data. See Maths/Stats Support 10 Standard Deviation for
details of how to work out standard error. NB: you need to make it clear what any bars on a
graph are showing.
Using results to draw conclusions

In the discussion of your results you should explain any trends and patterns in your data.
You should use evidence from the data when identifying patterns and trends. For example,
when you identify a trend in the results you should quote some data that shows the trend. For
instance, in an experiment investigating inhibition of the enzyme catalase by copper sulphate
you might report that there is a steady decrease in the volume of oxygen produced with
increasing copper sulphate concentration: at 0.25 M copper sulphate the mean volume of
oxygen produced was 0.57 cm3; with 2 M copper sulphate the volume of oxygen produced
had fallen to 0.27 cm3.
You should then attempt to explain any patterns and trends using your biological knowledge.
Remember that the hypothesis you suggested may not be correct. In this case, the results will
not show the patterns or trends that you expected. There may be a different trend or no trend
at all. This is perfectly OK. You may be able to suggest an alternative explanation for the
results you have obtained. Alternatively, you may still think the original hypothesis is sound
but there are concerns about the experimental method used and the results obtained are not
very valid, i.e. they may not be testing the hypothesis appropriately. In this case, you cannot
draw valid conclusions from the results and this should be explained in your write up. A
report on an experiment that does not produce the expected results is often as valuable to
other researchers as a report that supports the original hypothesis. It allows other researchers
to make informed decisions about the methods they will use in the future and it may allow
them to suggest alternative ideas.
A1.24S
Student
Activity 1.24 Healthy heart quiz
Purpose
● To review ideas about risk factors for coronary heart disease.
Questions
Identify each of the following statements as ‘true’ or ‘false’ to test your knowledge of heart
disease and its risk factors.
Q1 The risk factors for coronary heart disease that you can do something about are: high blood
pressure, high blood cholesterol, smoking, obesity and physical inactivity.
Q2 A stroke is often the first symptom of high blood pressure and a heart attack is often the
symptom of high blood cholesterol.
Q3 A blood pressure greater than or equal to 160/95 mmHg is generally considered to be high.
Q4 High blood pressure affects the same number of black people as it does white people.
Q5 The best ways to treat and control high blood pressure are to control your weight, exercise,
eat less salt (sodium chloride), restrict your intake of alcohol and take any high blood
pressure medicine, if prescribed by your doctor.
Q6 A low blood cholesterol is needed to prevent heart attacks in adults.
Q7 The most effective dietary way to lower the level of your blood cholesterol is to eat foods low
in cholesterol.
Q8 Lowering blood cholesterol levels can help many people who have already had a heart
attack.
Q9 The only children who need to have their blood cholesterol levels checked are from families
at high risk of heart disease.
Q10 Smoking is a major risk factor for four of the five leading causes of death including heart
attack, stroke, cancer and lung diseases such as emphysema and bronchitis.
Q11 If you have had a heart attack, quitting smoking can reduce your chances of having a second
attack.
Q12 Someone who has smoked for 30 to 40 years will not be able to quit smoking.
Q13 The best way to lose weight is to increase physical activity and eat fewer calories.
Q14 Eating five portions of fruit and vegetables a day will provide antioxidant vitamins that
reduce the risk of coronary heart disease.
Q15 Heart disease is the leading killer of men and women in the UK and in the USA.
A1.25S
Student
Activity 1.25 Making decisions
Purpose
• To consider how people use scientific information to reduce their risk of cardiovascular
disease.
To change or not to change

People often use scientific information to help make decisions about their lifestyle which may
directly (and deliberately) or indirectly reduce their risk of developing cardiovascular disease.
Answer the questions below.
Q1 The three information panels in Figure 1 below come from the front of crisp multi-packs. Discuss how
you might use the information provided to decide which pack would be the most ‘healthy’ choice, if
you are concerned about your risk of heart disease.
1 2 3
Figure 1 Nutritional information panels from three different varieties of crisps. All bags contain the same mass of crisps.
Q2 Look at the dietary information provided on two packs of chicken tikka masala below. Decide which
would be the better buy if you were trying to reduce your risk of heart disease. Give reasons for your
answer.
A
Figure 2 Nutritional information on two ready meals, each with a mass of 400 g
Q3 Table 1 shows data for the sales of different types of milk over a 12-year period. Describe any
changes in market share over this period. Comment on possible reasons for any changes.
A1.25S
Activity 1.25 Making decisions Student
% Share
Whole Semi-skimmed Skimmed
1995 39.6 46.1 13.3
1996 37.7 48.3 13.1
1997 36.3 50.1 12.7
1998 35.4 50.6 12.9
1999 33.9 52.2 13.0
2000 32.3 52.9 13.8
2001 30.3 53.7 14.9
2002 28.8 54.6 15.4
2003 27.3 57.2 15.5
2004 27.2 57.3 15.4
2005 25.6 59.0 15.4
2006 24.3 59.7 16.0
Table 1 Milk sales in Great Britain by fat content.
Source: MDC Datum, the market information service of the Milk Development Council.
Q4 In 2005 Unilever, the makers of cholesterol lowering dairy products, made a controversial agreement
with a French private health care insurer. The insurance company will refund up to €40 (£27) a year to
customers who buy Flora pro-activ yoghurts, margarine and milk. Suggest why the insurance
company would decide to enter into this agreement.
Q5 A leading brand of margarine added plant sterols to help reduce LDL cholesterol. In the UK, this brand
took 5% of the market share in the four weeks after its May launch; this declined to 3.2% by the
middle of July. The dip was thought to coincide with the scaling back of the advertising campaign after
the launch. People have decided to try the new product based on the health benefit information
provided in the advertising, but have not continued with its use. Suggest a reason why they may not
have continued to buy the product.
Q6 A Glasgow University study published in September 2007 reported a 17% fall in heart attacks in
Scotland following the introduction of the smoking ban in public places. In the 10 months before the
ban there were 3 235 admissions for heart attacks in the nine hospitals that took part in the study. In
the same period after the ban the admissions for heart attacks fell to 2 684. Blood tests were done on
patients to check if they were smokers. It was found that in non-smokers, the fall in heart attack
admissions was 20%, compared with a 14% drop among smokers.
a Discuss whether these are the findings that you would have expected in the 10 month period
following the smoking ban.
b Suggest which factors may have contributed to the decrease in heart attacks after the ban.
A1.25S
Activity 1.25 Making decisions Student
Q7 Which of the following is the most ‘scientifically sound’ advertising claim to help people decide
whether butter or margarine is the most healthy option? Give reasons for selecting or rejecting each
statement.
1 Butter is a natural product, so is better for your health.
2 Margarine contains less fat than butter.
3 Butter contains a higher proportion of saturated fat than margarine.
4 Margarine contains lots of chemicals, so can’t be good for you.
Q8 In 2006, the European Union introduced a new health claims regulation, to avoid misleading or
confusing health claims being used on foods. For example, a claim that a food is low in fat may only
be made where the product contains no more than 3 g of fat per 100 g of solid food, or 1.5 g of fat per
100 ml of liquid (1.8 g of fat per 100 ml are permitted for semi-skimmed milk).
Suggest at least two other possible claims made by manufacturers about food where the regulation should
set guidelines, to allow people to choose foods which will reduce their risk of CVD.
A1.26S
Student
Activity 1.26 Check your notes for Topic 1:

Lifestyle, health and risk
Purpose
• To help you get your notes in order at the end of this topic.
Topic 1 summary
Make sure your notes cover the following points. The points are listed in the approximate
order they appear within the topic. All the points are covered in the textbook but where there
is supporting information within the activities this is indicated.
There are suggestions on making notes and on revision in the Exam/coursework support.
You should be able to:
o Explain why many animals have a heart and circulation (mass transport to overcome
limitations of diffusion in meeting the requirements of organisms). (Checkpoint
question 1.1) (Activity 1.2)
o Explain the importance of water as a solvent in transport, including its dipole nature.
(Activity 1.5)
o Explain how the structures of blood vessels (capillaries, arteries and veins) relate to
their functions. (Checkpoint question 1.2) (Activity 1.6 )
o Describe the cardiac cycle (atrial systole, ventricular systole and diastole).
(Checkpoint question 1.3) (Activity 1.7)
o Relate the structure and operation of the mammalian heart to its function, including
the major blood vessels. (Activities 1.3 and 1.4)
o Explain the course of events that leads to atherosclerosis (endothelial damage,
inflammatory response, plaque formation, raised blood pressure). (Activity 1.8)
o Describe the blood clotting process (thromboplastin release, conversion of
prothrombin to thrombin and fibrinogen to fibrin) and its role in cardiovascular
disease (CVD). (Activity 1.8)
o Analyse and interpret quantitative data on illness and mortality rates to determine
health risks (including distinguishing between correlation and causation and
recognising conflicting evidence). (Activity 1.9)
o Explain why people’s perceptions of risks are often different from the actual risks
(including underestimating and overestimating the risks due to diet and other lifestyle
factors in the development of heart disease). (Checkpoint question 1.4) (Activity 1.9)
o Evaluate design of studies used to determine health risk factors (including sample
selection and sample size used to collect data that is both valid and reliable).
o Describe the factors that increase the risk of CVD (genetic, diet, age, gender, high
blood pressure, smoking and inactivity). (Checkpoint question 1.6) (Age and gender –
Activity 1.11. Genetic inheritance – Activity 1.19. Blood pressure – Activities 1.12,
1.13 and 1.22. Diet – (Activities 1.17 and 1.20)
A1.26S
Student

Lifestyle, health and risk
o Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides (glycogen

and starch – amylose and amylopectin) and relate their structures to their roles in
providing and storing energy (α-glucose and cellulose are not required in this topic).
(Activities 1.14)
o Describe how monosaccharides join to form disaccharides (sucrose, lactose and
maltose) and polysaccharides (glycogen and amylose) through condensation reactions
forming glycosidic bonds, and how these can be split through hydrolysis reactions.
(Activities 1.14 and 1.15)
o Describe the synthesis of a triglyceride by the formation of ester bonds during
condensation reactions between glycerol and three fatty acids and recognise
differences between saturated and unsaturated lipids. (Activity 1.16)
o Analyse data on energy budgets and diet so as to be able to discuss the consequences
of energy imbalance, including weight loss, weight gain, and development of obesity.
(Activity 1.17)
o Analyse and interpret data on the possible significance for health of blood cholesterol
levels and levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) and low-density lipoproteins
(LDLs). (Activity 1.18)
o Describe the evidence for a causal relationship between blood cholesterol levels (total
cholesterol and LDL cholesterol) and CVD. (Activity 1.18)
o Describe how to investigate the vitamin C content of food and drink. (Activity 1.21)
o Describe how the effect of caffeine on heart rate in Daphnia can be investigated
practically, and discuss whether there are ethical issues in the use of invertebrates.
(Activity 1.23)
o Discuss how people use scientific knowledge about the effects of diet (including
obesity indicators), exercise and smoking to reduce their risk of coronary heart
disease.(Obesity indicators – Activities 1.17 and 1.25 )
o Describe the benefits and risks of treatments for CVD (antihypertensives, plant statins,
anticoagulants and platelet inhibitory drugs).
A2.01S
Student
Activity 2.1 After the funeral
Purpose
● To provide an overview of the genetic basis of cystic fibrosis
and some of the issues it throws up.
Procedure
1 Read through the play script below, either as a class or in small groups.
AFTER THE FUNERAL

Characters
VALERIE a pale, thin woman in her forties.
MATT her husband, about the same age, a cheerful sceptic.
CLAIRE aged sixteen, their daughter, whose sister Rachel has cystic fibrosis.
TOM the local vicar, a cheerful believer, friendly with Valerie; he and Matt enjoy baiting
each other.
(A normal kitchen. CLAIRE is sitting at the table drinking a cup of coffee and reading a magazine.
Enter VALERIE, looking very tired; she is dressed very smartly and soberly; she has been to a
funeral.)
CLAIRE Hello Mum, you look shattered. Want a coffee? The kettle’s just boiled.
VALERIE Yes please dear. (She sits down wearily. CLAIRE gets up and makes a cup of coffee
while the following conversation is taking place.) I need to sit down for a bit before I
start getting supper. Where’s Dad? He’s usually in by this time.
CLAIRE He’s gone to get an Indian take-away, to save you having to cook tonight.
VALERIE That’s nice. I’m so tired, I hate funerals.
CLAIRE Why did you go then? Laurie was only a distant cousin wasn’t he? I’ve only met him
a couple of times.
VALERIE I suppose I thought that our families had things in common.
CLAIRE You mean the cystic fibrosis?
VALERIE (Nodding as CLAIRE hands her a cup of coffee) Yes, thanks dear.
CLAIRE He was a thoroughly miserable little git though, wasn’t he? He didn’t seem to do
anything except collect his disability benefit and watch television.
VALERIE (Slightly angry and becoming more so) If you’d had to have physiotherapy which
involved being thumped on the back every day of your life, had chronic diarrhoea
and other digestive problems, had one chest infection after another knowing that the
next one might very well carry you off, been in and out of hospital more times than
you could count, had to take antibiotics, digestive tablets and goodness knows what
other medication and knew that you were unlikely ever to have children and even
more unlikely to reach the age of forty. (Each time she pauses for breath CLAIRE
interrupts but isn’t quick enough) If you’d been waiting for three years for a heart
and lung transplant that was your last hope, you might not be the chirpy, happy, life
and soul of the party type either.
CLAIRE Spare me the lecture, Mum. I know all about that stuff. Rachel has got cystic fibrosis
and she’s not like that. She has to have the physiotherapy and I know she’s been
1 of 4
A2.01S
Activity 2.1 After the funeral Student
pretty ill but she’s cheerful and happy – usually. And she’s got a good job, and
there’s all that stuff she does at church.
VALERIE She’s been very lucky. We were always very sensible with her, we were careful, but
not too protective.
CLAIRE And she didn’t have a mother like Auntie Dorothy, taking Laurie to all those weird
religious services and those faith healers and trying to convince him that transplants
were evil. It can’t have helped.
(Pause, while they both drink coffee.)
CLAIRE Cousin Laurie was a lot younger than Rachel wasn’t he?
VALERIE (Exasperated) Thank you, Claire, thank you very much, that cheers me up no end.
CLAIRE (Hastily) I’ll go and do my homework. (She exits and a few moments later, sticks her
head round the door.) Brace yourself, Tom’s just coming in the front gate. Shall I
tell him you’re not back yet?
VALERIE (Hesitates for a moment then makes up her mind.) No, I’d like a chat with him.
(Exit CLAIRE again, a door bell rings. There is a short, indistinct offstage conversation between
CLAIRE and TOM. Enter TOM, wearing a quiet suit and a clerical collar.)
TOM Hello Val, I was going to ask if you could help with the Sunday School this week.
Dawn’s gone down with ‘flu but I gather you’ve had a pretty rotten day so I’ll get
someone else, it’s no problem.
VALERIE Come and sit down, Tom. I’ll help with the Sunday School, though I don’t exactly
feel full of Christian joy at the moment. I suppose going to Laurie’s funeral brought
all the questions back.
TOM (Sitting opposite her) Questions?
VALERIE Why do things like cystic fibrosis exist?
TOM If you want a theological answer, there are nearly as many of those as there are
theologians, none of them totally convincing, I’m afraid. If you want a scientific
answer, isn’t it supposed to give protection against some disease? Typhoid, possibly,
or cholera, though that’s not terribly relevant in twenty first century Britain.
VALERIE (Pause) Did we really do the right thing in bringing Rachel and Claire into the
world? Rachel with cystic fibrosis and we know Claire’s a cystic fibrosis carrier,
she’s got to be. Will she have children or grandchildren who’ll suffer as much as
poor Laurie? (Pause) Matt and I didn’t think we would have more children after
Rachel. Then after a couple of years I suddenly found I was pregnant again. One
doctor did suggest that we consider an abortion. I talked it through with Reverend
Duncan, your predecessor. He was absolutely against it.
TOM And so am I. We really do not have the right to end the life of a foetus just because it
isn’t perfect or has a chance of producing children that aren’t. Besides, Claire’s a
super kid, a credit to you and Matt. She wants to go into medicine as a career doesn’t
she? She might be the one to find an effective cure, perhaps nobody’s children or
grandchildren will have to suffer from cystic fibrosis in a few years’ time.
VALERIE She’s got a long way to go yet; A levels, then university.
TOM She’ll manage. Seriously, they are quite near to a cure. They know an awful lot about
cystic fibrosis these days, don’t they?
A2.01S
VALERIE They know it’s caused by a mutation in a gene. They know exactly where that gene
is in a human cell. They know which chromosome it’s on. They know exactly what
the gene does. It makes something called a CFTR protein. They know exactly where
the mutation takes place and they know exactly what goes wrong. It’s to do with
transporting sodium and chloride ions across cell membranes, apparently. They
know that one in twenty-five people are cystic fibrosis carriers, which means that
about one child in two thousand five hundred will be born with the disease. In fact,
they know just about every damn thing about it except how to cure it, or even treat it
effectively.
(There is a crash as the door is kicked open, MATT enters, he half staggers, half falls into the room,
his arms full of the brown paper bags that Indian take-aways use.)
MATT Hello dear, did Claire tell you I was getting a take-away? Sorry I took so long, I
forgot the rice and had to go back for it. (He sees TOM) Oh it’s our friendly
neighbourhood shaman, I thought I saw the local coven members rushing away in a
panic. (He starts to unpack the take-away.)
TOM No that was Doris Crane and Phyllis Bendall trotting along to bingo. And I think
perhaps I should be off.
MATT Don’t go, I was looking forward to a good argument.
VALERIE Not now, Matt. I’ve had a hard day, I don’t enjoy funerals.
MATT You don’t have to join in. It was his lot who were partly responsible for poor
Laurie’s death. If Laurie’s mother hadn’t got mixed up with a load of anti-scientific
religious cranks who tried to forbid him to have gene therapy and a heart–lung
transplant, he might still be alive today. (To TOM) Have an onion bhaji.
TOM Thank you. (He takes a bhaji and starts to eat it.) That’s a bit unfair: I’m a Church of
England vicar, Laurie’s mother belonged to a rather weird cult called the Divine
Temple of Incarnation, I believe.
MATT Religion – it’s like these take-aways, exactly the same stuff underneath, it’s just
disguised with different sauces on top. Have a poppadom.
TOM Thank you. (He takes a poppadom) I don’t object to transplants, or gene therapy.
MATT Oh? I thought I read a letter of yours in the local paper protesting about the GM crop
trials.
TOM (Slightly pompously) Gene therapy is a rather different use of genetic engineering
and one that will certainly benefit many people in the future, although it doesn’t
seem to have helped any cystic fibrosis sufferers yet.
MATT Careful, Tom, you’re starting to speak with your pulpit voice. Don’t forget that if
Laurie had received a heart–lung transplant it would have come from some healthy
young person who would have died in tragic circumstances.
TOM I must go, thanks for the food. See you at Evensong this Sunday, Matt?
MATT Over my dead body.
TOM You never know, eventually I, or my successor, might be saying a few words over
your dead body. Sorry Val, you’ve had enough talk of funerals for one day.
Goodbye.
VALERIE Goodbye Tom.
(Exit TOM. MATT has finished unpacking the take-away.)
A2.01S
MATT That’s about ready, I’ll give Claire a ca. .....

(CLAIRE bursts in, she is ‘dressed up’.)
CLAIRE Don’t save any for me, I’m just going out. Nathan Cole is taking me out to Pizza Hut
then we are going on to Le Chat.
MATT Hang on, I got the prawn biryani just for you, we don’t like it.
VALERIE We want you back home by midnight. Who is this Nathan? We don’t know him do
we?
CLAIRE He’s in the sixth form at school. His sister’s in my French set. I’ve been round to
their house a couple of times to help her with her homework.
MATT Le Chat? Isn’t that the new nightclub in town? How are you going to get home at
that time of night? I hope you’re not expecting a lift from me.
CLAIRE Nathan will bring me back, he’s got his own car. He’s eighteen, he’s the captain of
the rugby team, he’s really great. But you’d like him, his parents have loads of
money and he’s going to study history at University. Bye.
(Exit CLAIRE, in a hurry)
MATT Let’s hope he’s not a cystic fibrosis carrier.
END
The play script contains a lot of information about cystic fibrosis and raises many issues that people
with cystic fibrosis have to think about.
2 Read through the play script again on your own and this time underline or highlight the factual
biological information about cystic fibrosis and, with another colour, highlight or underline the
issues that Valerie, Matt and Claire have to think about.
3 Using these highlighted passages, work with a friend to produce a ‘mind map’
showing how the information you have gathered on cystic fibrosis is linked together.
One way of starting a ‘mind map’ is shown below.
Figure 1 How to start a mind map.
A2.02S
Student
Activity 2.2 Personal CF stories
Purpose
● To find out how cystic fibrosis affects individuals with the condition by reading some accounts by
people affected by CF.
Cystic fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis is not a rare disease. In fact 1 in 25 people of European descent carry a mutation that
results in cystic fibrosis. The people carrying the mutation may not know they do so. Eighty per
cent of children with cystic fibrosis are born to parents with no prior history of the disease. People
with cystic fibrosis have an average life expectancy of just over 30 years but many people live a lot
longer than that. In fact the oldest person to be diagnosed with cystic fibrosis was 82 years old!
However, most people with cystic fibrosis are diagnosed within the first few years of life.
Procedure
Read each account and answer the questions that follow.
Angela
Angela, a young teenager in America, has written the following account of how cystic fibrosis has
affected her life.
Read the passage and then answer the questions.
For the first six months of my life, I did everything any normal baby did. I ate, gained weight,
slept, played and all those sorts of baby things. Around six months though, I started to get sick a
lot. It started out as just a cold and ear infection. My doctor put me on antibiotics but I never
seemed to get any better. After a few weeks on antibiotics I had a pretty bad cough that never went
away and I started to throw up all the time. At that time, I got really dehydrated. When my mom
took me to the doctor, he just told her to give me Pedialyte® every two hours for all of that night.
As I refused to drink from a bottle (I was still breast feeding) my mom had to feed it to me with an
eyedropper. That worked, that time, but a few weeks later I was severely dehydrated all over
again. This time I was admitted to the hospital and given IV fluids. I was seven months old, and
this was to be my first hospitalization of many.
I was admitted to Whittier Presbyterian Hospital and treated for dehydration and bronchitis.
During this admission, I also had a spinal tap to check for encephalitis. Fortunately that test came
back negative because encephalitis can cause a brain infection and brain damage. While I was in
the hospital, it was discovered that my blood sodium was low. At the time, my doctor thought I
had some kind of kidney disease. Finally, when my doctor in Whittier couldn’t figure out what to
do with me, he sent me to Children’s Hospital of Orange County (CHOC).
Once at CHOC, it was discovered that my blood sodium was so low I was in danger of seizures
and cardiac arrest, so I was admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit. Soon after I was admitted,
a sweat test was ordered. A sweat test is how cystic fibrosis is diagnosed. The doctors must have
suspected that I had cystic fibrosis very soon after hearing all my symptoms from my parents. It
was a Friday when I was admitted though so I couldn’t have the test until the following Monday.
A2.02S
Activity 2.2 Personal CF stories Student
This period in my life must have been a difficult time for my parents. Just a day or two before I
was admitted to CHOC, my mother’s father died. I had never met my grandpa because he lived in
Texas. Anyway, my mom had to fly to Texas for the funeral. They got the results of my sweat test
back while she was gone. My mother didn’t know it yet but it was official. I had cystic fibrosis.
When I was younger I didn’t think having CF was so bad. Because of my CF, I got to do many fun
things, such as having my picture taken with famous people like Joan Rivers, going on the TV
show ‘Family Feud’ as the CF Poster Child and attending fundraising events for the Cystic
Fibrosis Foundation (CFF). At one of these events the executive director of the CFF for Orange
County bought a miniature pinscher puppy in an auction and gave him to me. I still have him
today. I named him Noodles, and now he is six years old. After I was six years of age, I went to
CF Camp for a week every summer for six years. Some of my favourite memories are stored away
in my mind from CF Camp. Also when I was eight years old I received a wish from the Make-A-
Wish Foundation. My whole family and I went to Walt Disney World in Florida for five whole
days.
The only bad part about having CF then was having breathing treatments, chest physical therapy
(cpt) and taking pills every day, but I always had to do all these things so I didn’t think anything
was unusual about that. Sometimes I got sick with a bad cough and needed oral antibiotics, and I
had a few surgeries such as sinus surgery, my tonsils and adenoids removed and tubes put in my
ears. But I never had to be admitted to CHOC for more than an overnight stay again until I was
nine years old.
That first hospital visit wasn’t half as bad as anyone might think. I’ve really never thought being in
the hospital was very bad. When I’m in, I get to do pretty much whatever I want. The nurses and
other people who work there are really nice and always bring me anything I like to drink and eat,
and I can have it whenever I want. I usually have to have an IV but the only bad part is when they
start it, and after it’s in it doesn’t bother me unless it goes bad. All in all, being at CHOC isn’t so
terrible.
Home IVs are another story. The first time I had home IVs was when I was in the fifth grade. It is
pretty awful. My mom gets so tired and she is not even any fun anymore. I get really tired when I
am on home IVs, too. My last dose of antibiotics isn’t due until around 11:00 pm and I can never
fall asleep till it is over so I always seem to be up very late. The first dose of the day has to be
around 6:00 am so that usually wakes me up when my mom comes in to start the medication.
When I am on home IVs I have to have a home teacher because I am so tired and I don’t feel well
so I can’t go to school regularly. When I’m in the hospital, I have to go to the school there, but it is
fun because the kids are all really nice, and they have medical problems like me. Usually there are
little kids at the CHOC school and I think it is fun to watch the teacher work with them and see
how they act in the hospital. I would rather be in the hospital than have home IVs.
My life might seem bad to some people, but I am really very lucky. Most people with CF have this
disease much worse than I do. My doctors consider my CF to be very mild. Of course my CF
could always get worse in the future but I am thankful every day that I have made it as far as I
have with this fatal disease called cystic fibrosis.
Q1 The first paragraph refers to a medicine called ‘Pedialyte®’. Why do you think Angela was given this
medicine?
Q2 What do you think ‘chest physical therapy’ is?
Q3 Why do you think Angela gets so tired and has to have a ‘home teacher’ when she is on ‘home IV’?
A2.02S
Activity 2.2 Personal CF stories Student
Justin
Another perspective on the effects of cystic fibrosis on a family is provided by the following
account of life with Justin by his elder sister Jess.
Read the passage and then answer the questions.
When Justin was born I was as excited as a sister could possibly be. I had waited seven long
years to have a younger sibling . . . and now I finally had one. Justin acted just like a normal
baby, laughing and crying and being adorable. But he wasn’t a normal baby. He had a terrible
disease and nobody knew it. In fact, we didn’t find out that he had cystic fibrosis until four years
after he was born.
During the first few weeks of his diagnosis, things were really scary for me. My whole life
changed eight hours after my brother was given a sweat test (this is a test that pretty much
diagnoses cystic fibrosis). Justin was whisked off to the hospital the day after Christmas for two
weeks.
Let me tell you, it’s pretty hard to have only half your family around for two weeks.
It was also hard to spend my whole weekend at the hospital seeing my tiny brother with a needle
stuck in his arm (actually it was an IV and it probably didn’t bother him nearly as much as it did
me).
The few weeks after Justin got home, my life changed drastically. We could no longer just run
out to the store, because Justin had to get his treatment done or take his medicine. Justin was
always getting things because everyone felt bad for him. I began to envy him and I even wished
that I had the disease so people would pay attention to me.
I got over a lot of my jealousy when I learned about how much medicine he has to take and what
he has to go through to stay healthy. I began to look up to him because he was so brave.
Today, about four years after he was diagnosed, Justin is a happy eight-year-old who loves to
annoy his sister! He hasn’t been hospitalised for almost two years and we are all very happy
about that. Did you know that every day, the scientists get closer to finding the cure for CF?
When they do, my little brother’s future will be looking very bright!
Q4 The second paragraph of Jess’s account mentions a ‘sweat test’ that is used to diagnose cystic fibrosis.
Suggest how sweat might be diagnostic for cystic fibrosis.
Q5 Jess writes about ‘how much medicine he has to take’. What sort of medicines do you think her brother,
Justin, has to take?
A2.03S
Student
Activity 2.3 The effect of size on uptake by diffusion
Purpose You need

• To investigate the effect of surface area to volume
• Block of agar jelly
ratio on uptake by diffusion.
• White tile
• To show why a large surface area in the lungs, • Scalpel or sharp knife
combined with a circulation system, is required to • Paper towel or filter paper
meet the body’s demand for oxygen and need to
• Beaker (100 cm3)
eliminate carbon dioxide.
• Potassium manganate (VII) solution
Diffusion limits size (0.02 M) or hydrochloric acid (0.1 M)
Organisms that rely completely on diffusion for • Ruler
the absorption of substances and their movement • Rubber or plastic gloves
around the body rarely grow to be more than a few • Graph paper
millimetres thick. The surface area to volume ratio
limits the size of the organism. You can investigate the
effect of increasing size on uptake by diffusion using agar jelly ‘animals’.
Safety
Avoid skin contact with potassium manganate.
If potassium manganate solution is spilt do not
clean it up yourself – tell the teacher/lecturer.
Procedure
1 Cut the agar jelly to give three cubes with heights of 0.5 cm, 1 cm and 2 cm. Putting graph
paper under the dish of agar jelly is helpful when cutting the blocks.
2 Place the cubes in the beaker and cover with the potassium manganate solution. If your
jelly is green due to universal indicator then use weak acid rather than the potassium
manganate (VII) solution. Leave the cubes for 5 minutes.
3 While you wait, calculate the surface area, volume and surface area to volume ratio
(surface area divided by the volume) for each of the cubes). Work in cm. See page 58 of
the textbook for some help.
4 Pour off the solution and blot the surfaces of each cube dry with a paper towel.
5 Cut each of the cubes in half and measure the distance from the edge that has changed
colour.
Questions
Q1 What do you notice about the increase in volume of the ‘organism’ when its length doubles?
Q2 What do you notice about the increase in surface area of the ‘organism’ when its length doubles?
Q3 What do you notice about the surface area to volume ratio as the size of the ‘organism’ increases?
Q4 Calculate how long it would take for the solution to diffuse all the way to the centre of each cube.
Q5 As a simplification, let us assume that the increase in volume will be directly related to a similar
increase in need for oxygen and nutrients. Explain your experimental findings as fully as you can in
terms of diffusion and problems the organism would encounter if it got any larger.
A2.04S
Student
Activity 2.4 The structure of alveoli
Purpose
z To look at the detailed structure of the lungs and identify features that aid rapid
diffusion of gases into the bloodstream.
z To interpret structures of gas exchange surfaces and describe their properties.
Safety
Never use a microscope with a daylight mirror in a place where sunlight
could strike the mirror. Your retina could be permanently damaged.
Procedure
Looking at airways and blood vessels
The lungs contain a branching network of tubes that allow ventilation of the alveoli. The action of
breathing causes air to move into the lungs along these airways into the alveoli.
1 Examine a prepared section of lung tissue under low power. Remember that you are looking at
a thin, two-dimensional section of the three-dimensional lung. Scan across the slide and locate
the different types of airway tubes found within the lungs. Your section may include the
trachea, a bronchus, and bronchioles.
2 Look carefully at the cells that line the airways using a higher magnification. What do you notice
about these cells? The layer of cells is called pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium –
this should give you clues to some of the features you are looking for. See page 57 of the textbook
for more help. Draw a simple sketch to show the structure and arrangement of cells in the
epithelium.
3 Identify the mucus-secreting goblet cells within the epithelium and label them on your
diagram. What is the function of the mucus produced by these cells?
4 Find an airway that has cartilage within the wall. Why do the airway cells contain cartilage?
5 Locate an artery and vein in your section. How can you distinguish between these blood
vessels?
Looking at alveoli
6 Most of the section will be made up of the alveoli and their associated capillaries.
It often appears as if large numbers of the alveoli have broken down or are incomplete,
leaving gaps on the slide. These gaps are in fact cavities that the bronchioles open into. The
alveoli themselves open out from these cavities (see Figure 1 on p. 2). Locate a group of
alveoli and identify the associated capillaries. Are all the alveoli the same size?
A2.04S
Activity 2.4 The structure of alveoli Student
7 Look carefully at the cells that make up the walls of an alveolus and a capillary.
Describe these cells.
8 If available, use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer to determine the average diameter of
the alveoli and the thickness of the barrier between the alveolus and a capillary. Work out the
distance an oxygen molecule would have to travel in diffusing from the centre of the alveolus
through the wall and into the capillary.
9 Summarise the observable features of the lung tissue which ensure that there is rapid gas
exchange between the alveoli and the bloodstream. Suggest what other features may aid the
diffusion of gases but cannot be observed in a prepared cross-section.
Figure 1 Semi-diagrammatic section through a mammalian lung.
A2.05S
Student
Activity 2.5 Alveoli and lung surface area

Purpose
● To work out how the surface area of the lungs is greatly increased by the presence
of numerous alveoli.
Procedure
Use the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity to compare the surface area of
lungs with and without alveoli. Alternatively, complete the calculations yourself using
this worksheet.
For these calculations we are assuming:
a) that the lungs are two perfect spheres
b) that each sphere has a radius of 89 mm, giving a volume of 3 dm3, 3 ×106 mm3
c) that the diameter of an alveolus is 0.25 mm.
We first find the surface area of these two spheres by working out:
1 Surface area of one sphere = 4πr2
= mm2
2 Surface area of the two spheres = answer to part (1) × 2
= mm2
We now calculate the surface area of an alveolus by working out:
3 Diameter of one alveolus = mm
4 Radius of one alveolus = diameter

2
= mm
5 Volume of one alveolus = 4/3 πr3
= mm3
6 Surface area of one alveolus = 4πr2
= mm2
To find out the surface area of all the alveoli that can fit into the two ‘sphere’ lungs you
must work out:
7 The number of alveoli that will fit into both the lungs
= volume of lungs/mm3
volume of one alveolus/mm3
= 6 × 106
= alveoli
A2.05S
Activity 2.5 Alveoli and lung surface
Student
8 Surface area of the alveoli that will fit inside the lungs
= surface area of one alveolus x number of alveoli
= x
= mm2
Comparing the two
9 Surface area of the two spheres = mm2
10 Surface area of all the alveoli in the two spheres = mm2
Alveoli increase the surface area of the lungs times. (Divide the surface area with
alveoli by the surface area without alveoli to find the factor it has increased by.)
Questions
Q1 What assumptions have you made when estimating the surface area of the lungs in this
activity?
Q2 The actual surface area of a typical pair of human lungs is 60–80 m² but can be as much
as 140 m². This maximum lung surface area is closest to which of the following? Circle the
correct answer.
a a large dining table
b the floor of a small room
c a tennis court
d a football pitch
Q3 Does your estimate give a reasonably precise value for lung surface area? Explain your
answer.
Q4 Does your estimate give a reliable value for lung surface area? Explain your answer.
Q5 List the features of gas exchange surfaces and describe how they increase the rate of gas
exchange.
A2.06S
Student
Activity 2.6 Proteins
Purpose
z To describe the basic structure of an amino acid.
z To describe the formation of polypeptides and proteins.
z To explain the significance of a protein’s primary structure in determining its three-
dimensional structure.
z To describe the types of bonds involved in maintaining protein structure.
Procedure
Complete the interactive tutorial accompanying this activity and then complete this worksheet.
Amino acids
Proteins are polymers made up of 20 different amino acids.
Q1 What is a polymer? …………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………… Figure 1 General formula
Q2 Annotate this general structure of an amino acid (see Figure 1) with the name and of an amino acid.
description of the groups that make it up.
Q3 Draw below the general structure of an amino acid as it would be when dissolved in water.
Joining amino acids

Q4 Draw a ring around the atoms in Figure 2 which are removed when two amino acids are joined. Write the
chemical formula of the molecule that they form in the box.
H H
Figure 2 Formation of a dipeptide.
A2.06S
Activity 2.6 Proteins Student
Q5 The reaction which joins two amino acids is called

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q6 Label the peptide bond in Figure 2.
Splitting the peptide bond

Q7 Draw a dashed arrow from the water molecule in Figure 3 to show where the water is added to break the
peptide bond.
Figure 3 Splitting of a dipeptide.
Q8 The breaking of a bond by the addition of water is called

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Making a protein
Q9 The flow chart in Figure 4 below shows the sequence of events involved when amino acids join to make
polypeptides which then combine to make a protein. Annotate the diagram with a description of what
happens at each stage; include the types of bonds involved at each stage.
Figure 4 Flow chart showing the making of a protein from amino acids.
A2.06S
Activity 2.6 Proteins Student
Q10 Explain how the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain determines the
3-dimensional shape of a functional protein.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q11 What is the importance of the following in protein folding:

a hydrogen bonds
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
b water-repelling and water-attracting amino acid side groups?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE
B THEORETICAL MODELS: CELL MEMBRANES
This is a lesson aimed at helping students to develop their understanding of the

role of theoretical models in science, using models of the structure of cell
membranes as an example.
Resources for students

Downloaded from www.nuffieldfoundation.org/aboutscience
OHP B0.1 Aims of the lesson
Sheet B1.1 Structural models of cell membranes
Sheet B1.2 Time line
Sheet B1.3 Lipid layer evidence
Sheet B2.1 Electronmicrograph evidence
Sheet B2.2 Danielli and Davson model
Sheet B2.3 Robertson model
Sheet B3.1 Freeze fracture electronmicrograph evidence
Sheet B3.2 NMR and X-ray diffraction evidence
Sheet B3.3 Singer and Nicholson model
Sheet B3.4 Plasticine model
Teachers’ notes (separate download)

Download from www.nuffieldfoundation.org/aboutscience
by Andy Hind, John Leach, and Jim Ryder: University of Leeds
We have made every effort to trace ownership of copyright, and would be happy to make arrangements
with any copyright holder whom it has not been possible to contact.
COPIABLE TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE © UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS 2001

TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE OHT B0.1
Aims of the lesson
In this lesson you are learning about the following.
• When scientists produce theoretical models, they use

their imagination and creativity to think about data in new
ways. The theoretical models that they produce are
therefore more than careful descriptions of the data.
• Because the models go beyond the data, more than one

theoretical model can be supported by the available
evidence.
• In some cases new evidence is gathered which shows

one model to be better than another.

TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE SHEET B1.1
STRUCTURAL MODELS OF MEMBRANES

In this lesson you will respond to a number of pieces of evidence which will be
provided in the sequence in which they were discovered.
The time line will help you to see the order of events as they actually happened.
You will need to respond to the questions using all the evidence you have been
provided with at each stage.
Task 1
You should have a copy of sheet B1.3 ‘Lipid layer evidence’.
1.1 From looking at the data in the table, would you agree with the conclusions
of Gorter and Grendel?
1.2 What aspects of the membrane structure is there no evidence for in this data?
Task 2
You should have been given sheet B2.1‘Electronmicrograph evidence’ and a
description of two different models.
2.1 For each of the models, state how the evidence you have supports or
undermines the model.
2.2 Describe what you think led to each model being devised.
Task 3
You should now also have sheets:
B3.1 ‘Freeze fracture electronmicrograph evidence’,
B3.2 ‘NMR and X-ray diffraction evidence’ and
B3.3 ‘Singer and Nicholson’s model’.
The time line will help you see the order these pieces of evidence and models
came in.
3.1 How is each of the models, including Singer and Nicholson’s, supported or
undermined by all the evidence now available?
3.2 Which do you think is the most useful model? Justify your answer.

1920
TIME LINE
Gorter and Grendel publish their paper indicating the possibility of a bilayer
of lipids (1924)
1930
Danielli and Davson propose their original model of the membrane (1935)
1940 First electronmicroscope images of cell membranes produced
1950
Danielli and Davson publish a revised version of their model (1954)
J.D. Robertson proposes his model based on Danielli and Davson’s

1960 The structure of a protein (haemoglobin) was identified for the first time (1959)
Freeze etching techniques developed giving images of membrane faces

1970
Singer and Nicholson publish fluid mosaic model (1972)
NMR and X-ray diffraction techniques are developed sufficiently to provide

evidence about the movement of lipids in the membrane
1980
1990
Gunther Blobel receives a Nobel Prize for his pioneering work on the
2000
mechanisms by which proteins integrate with the membrane (1999)
????


LIPID LAYER EVIDENCE
Data from the experiment which laid the foundations for a model of membrane
structure is summarised in the table below. Gorter and Grendel obtained the
membranes of red blood cells. They calculated the area of the red blood cell
membrane and then extracted the lipids that were present. These were dissolved in
petroleum ether and allowed to spread into a layer one molecule thick on a surface of
water and the area was measured.
Animal Total surface area of Surface area Factor
the red blood cell occupied by the B/A
membrane (A) lipids extracted (B)
Sq. µ Sq. µ
Dog 31.3 62 2
6.2 12.2 2
Sheep 2.95 6.2 2.1

2.65 5.8 2.2
Rabbit 5.46 9.9 1.8

5.46 8.8 1.6
0.27 0.54 2
0.49 0.96 2
4.9 9.8 2
4.9 9.8 2
Guinea-pig 0.52 1.02 2

0.52 0.97 1.9
Goat 0.33 0.66 2

0.33 0.69 2.1
3.34 6.1 1.8
3.34 6.8 2
0.33 0.63 1.9
Man 0.47 0.92 2

0.47 0.89 1.9
From these results they concluded:

‘It is clear that all our results fit in well with the supposition that the erythrocytes (red blood cells)
are covered by a layer of fatty substances that is two molecules thick.’
(From Gorter. E. and Grendel. F. Bimolecular layers of lipoids on the chromocytes of the blood, 1924.)


ELECTRONMICROGRAPH EVIDENCE
During the late 1930s and early 1940s, electronmicroscopy techniques were developed
which provided much more detailed resolution of the structure of a cell. Early micrographs
were obtained by staining a very thin section of tissue with heavy metal salts. These are
absorbed in different amounts by different parts of the cell, giving contrasting degrees of
electron scattering. The parts that take up the most stain appear the darkest on the image.
Electron microscope images of the cell membrane such as this one give us clues as to its
basic structure.
Reprinted from
Gomperts, BD
(1977) The plasma
membrane: models for
structure and function.
chapter 2, page 55,
by permission of the
publisher, Academic
Press

DANIELLI AND DAVSON MODEL

Danielli and Davson proposed their initial model in 1935 and refined it as in the
diagram below in 1954.
protein layer
lipid bilayer
The model consists of

A lipid bilayer where two layers of polar lipid molecules are arranged with their
hydrophilic heads outward.
A layer of protein covering the surfaces of the membrane. Note that the protein
layer is embedded in the layer of lipids, holding them in place.
In this model, the lipids are not free to move around.

ROBERTSON MODEL
The model proposed by J.D. Robertson in 1959 is a development of the Danielli
and Davson model with the following exceptions.
The protein layer is formed from a monolayer of polypeptide chains rather
than whole protein molecules. (Polypeptides are the long chain molecules that
proteins are made from.)
The polypeptide layer is on the exterior of the membrane. It is not embedded
in it so the lipids are not held in place.
Robertson proposed that the inner layer could be either polypeptide or
polysaccharide (a long chain sugar molecule).
polypeptide layer
lipid bilayer
inner layer of
polysaccharide or
polypeptide


FREEZE FRACTURE ELECTRONMICROGRAPH EVIDENCE
In the freeze fracture technique, the sample is frozen and then cut with a
microtome knife to split the cell. This exposes the membrane’s layered structure
showing the outer and inner layers.
This electron micrograph image shows a red blood cell treated in this way.
Note the presence of globular particles on the top surface of the inner
membrane layer which would be within the intact membrane.
100 nm
globular particles
inner membrane surface
outer membrane surface
The second picture shows 100 nm

a similarly treated cell that
has first had 70% of the
protein removed.
There are very few of
the globular structures
that appear in the
membrane of the
untreated cell.
Reprinted from Gomperts, BD

(1977) The plasma membrane:
models for structure and function.
chapter 2, page 55, by
permission of the publisher,
Academic Press

NMR AND X-RAY DIFFRACTION EVIDENCE

NMR stands for Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. By exposing the molecules of the
membrane to a static and an oscillating magnetic field, scientists have been able
to show that the lipids in the membrane, which have a characteristic magnetic
‘spin’, move over distances of up to 50 nm during the duration of the
measurement (5 to 10 seconds).
X-ray diffraction has shown that, at higher temperatures, the hydrocarbon chains
of the lipids give off diffraction patterns similar to those of liquid paraffins.
However at low temperatures this movement is lost.

SINGER AND NICHOLSON MODEL

Singer and Nicholson’s ‘fluid mosaic model’ (1972) was again a development of Danielli
and Davson’s model but with more significant differences than in the Robertson model.
protein molecule
lipid bilayer
The key differences are as follows.

The proteins do not form a structural layer holding the lipids in place so the
lipid component of the membrane is not rigid but fluid.
The proteins are not attached to the outside of the lipid layer but embedded
within it, in some cases extending through the thickness of the membrane.

TEACHING ABOUT SCIENCE TEACHERS’ RESOURCE SHEET B3.4
PLASTICINE MODEL
In pilot studies, student feedback suggested that a simple model was helpful in
understanding the evidence presented on the freeze fracture sheet.
In freeze fracture preparation, the sample is frozen and then cut with a microtome
knife in a way which exposes the interior of cell organelles.
In the electronmicrographs shown on sheet B3.1, the membrane has been
fractured in a way which exposes the interior of the membrane bilayer.
The simple model described here helps to illustrate this.

Roll out a flattened doughnut of plasticine and superimpose it on
a roughly circular sheet of a contrasting colour.
This surface represents

the outer face of the
inner layer of the
membrane.
This surface represents

the outer face of the upper
layer of the membrane
Current membrane research

Studies of cell surface protein receptors in T-cells has shown a link between
tumour necrosis factor (TNF), which attacks cancer cells, and the ageing process. (1999)
Work on molecules that bind with specific receptors on membranes is enabling
new drugs to be developed. (2000)

Nuffield Curriculum site only GO
Search
Post16 Teaching About Science

Key facts
Relevance
AS/A Biology
Time: 60 minutes
Downloadable resources
Teacher guidance
Download with detailed advice for teachers (pdf, 64K)
Activities
OHTs, background information and student sheets for the lesson.
Resources part 1 (pdf, 512K)

Resources part 2 (pdf, 576K)
Lesson B: Cell membranes
Focus
Experimental data provide the basis from which scientific understanding of the
natural world develops. However, scientific understanding does not emerge
unproblematically from the data without the creative, intuitive thinking of scientists.
In other words, scientists have to decide what kind of data to collect, and how to think
about that data in order to build scientific knowledge about the world.
In situations where there is more than one model available, new evidence may support
one model more than the others. In these situations scientists need to decide whether
such evidence is sufficient for them to shift their support to this model.
The overall focus of this teaching is to make clear to students that scientific
understanding does not just emerge from experimental data, and to develop their
confidence in evaluating the extent to which evidence supports scientific
explanations.
Rationale
The lesson aims to help students develop their understanding of the role of theoretical
models in science. In particular that:
• producing models involves conjecture and creative thinking;

• competing models can arise;
• further scientific research can lead to the acceptance of one model as a
consensus view.
Activities
This lesson consists of three activities.
Activity B1
Students are asked to evaluate a straightforward conclusion drawn from experimental

evidence.
Activity B2
Students evaluate two competing models in the light of contemporary evidence and
identify the parts of the models that are not evident from the data.
Activity B3
Students re-evaluate the two models and a third, more recent, model in the light of
further evidence. It should now be clear how the increased amount of evidence
supports a single model.
©The Nuffield Foundation 2003

A2.08S
Student CORE
Activity 2.8 Why does the colour leak out of

cooked beetroot?
Purpose You need
• To investigate the effect of temperature or • Raw beetroot
alcohol on membrane structure. • Size 4 cork borer
• To highlight experimental and investigative • White tile
skills, including risk management. • Knife
• Ruler
Beetroot pigments • Water baths at 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60,
If you read a recipe for cooked beetroot it will 70 °C, or alcohol
usually recommend that you don’t remove the • Plastic beaker, about 250 cm3
outer skin of the beetroot and don’t cut off all the • 8 boiling tubes
stalk and root if you want to avoid getting lots of • 2 boiling tube racks
red dye in the cooking water. Beetroot contains • Crushed ice
red pigments called betalains, located within the • Thermometer (one per water bath)
cell vacuole. Normally the pigments cannot pass • Colorimeter
through membranes but they leak out when the • Cuvettes
beetroot is cooked or put in alcohol. • Stopclock
The aim of this practical is to use beetroot to • Distilled water
examine the effect of temperature or alcohol on • Pipettes for measuring 2 cm3 and 5 cm3
cell membranes and relate the effects observed to • Small measuring cylinders
membrane structure. To function correctly a cell
needs to be able to control transport across the If alcohol concentration is investigated
partially permeable cell membrane. several water baths and ice will not be
required. Pipettes and alcohol will be
Safety needed instead.
Take care using a cork borer,
a knife and water bath at 70 °C.
Planning
Before you start the experiment you should:
a Decide what you think will be the effect of temperature or alcohol on beetroot cell
surface membranes and how this will affect their permeability. Write down your
idea as a hypothesis that you can test, and support your idea with biological
knowledge.
b Read through the procedure and decide if this experiment will generate appropriate
measurements that will allow you validly to test your hypothesis.
c Go through the procedure and decide if:
• the apparatus is suitable and will achieve appropriate measurements for your
investigation
• all the variables have been identified and where possible controlled or allowed
for
• the results will be valid and reliable. Are they precise, repeatable measurements
made with suitable apparatus?
• there are likely to be any systematic or random errors.
d Suggest alterations to the procedure if needed.
e Write a risk assessment for the procedure including the safety precautions you will
take.
A2.08S
Student CORE
cooked beetroot?
Procedure to investigate the effect of temperature

1 Cut sections from a single beetroot using a size 4 cork borer. Cut eight 1 cm length slices
from these sections. Be careful not to spill beetroot juice on your skin or clothing as it will
stain very badly.
2 Place the slices in a beaker of distilled water. Leave overnight to wash away excess dye.
3 Next day, place eight labelled boiling tubes each containing 5 cm3 distilled water into
water baths at 0 °C, 10 °C, 20 °C, 30 °C, 40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C and 70 °C. Leave for 5
minutes until the water reaches the required temperature. Place one of the beetroot
sections into each of the boiling tubes. Leave for 30 minutes in the water baths.
4 Decant the liquid into a second boiling tube or remove beetroot sections using a technique
that does not squeeze the slice e.g. spear with a pointed seeker. Shake the water/solution
to disperse the dye.
5 Switch on the colorimeter and set it to read % absorbance.
6 Set the filter dial to the blue/green filter.
7 Using a pipette accurately, measure 2 cm3 distilled water into a cuvette. Place the cuvette
into the colorimeter, making sure that the light is shining through the smooth sides.
8 Adjust the colorimeter to read 0 absorbance for clear water. Do not alter the setting again
during the experiment.
9 Place 2 cm3 of the dye solution into a colorimeter cuvette and take a reading for
absorbency. Repeat the readings for all the temperatures.
10 Present your results in an appropriate way.
11 Identify any trends or patterns in your results.
12 Explain any trends or patterns, supporting your statements with evidence from your data
and using biological knowledge. You can find out more about the biochemistry of the
main components of the cell membrane in the textbook and in the interactive tutorials on
lipids and protein structure.
13 Describe how you could have improved this experiment to give more reliable results.
In the ICT support there is a datalogging sheet on monitoring diffusion of pigment across
beetroot cell membranes.
A2.08S
Student CORE
cooked beetroot?
Procedure to investigate the effect of alcohol

1 Cut sections from a single beetroot using a size 4 cork borer. Cut eight 1 cm length slices
from these sections. Be careful not to spill beetroot juice on your skin or clothing as it will
stain very badly.
2 Place the slices in a beaker of distilled water. Leave overnight to wash away excess dye.
3 Next day, place one of the beetroot sections into a boiling tube containing 5 cm3 distilled
water. This is 0 % alcohol concentration. Repeat with seven test tubes containing 10 %, 20
%, 30 %, 40 %, 50 %, 60 % and 70 % alcohol. Leave boiling tubes for 30 minutes.
4 Decant the liquid into a second boiling tube or remove beetroot sections using a technique
that does not squeeze the slice, for example, by spearing with a pointed seeker. Shake the
water/solution to disperse the dye.
5 Switch on the colorimeter and set it to read % absorbance.
6 Set the filter dial to the blue/green filter.
7 Using a pipette accurately, measure 2 cm3 distilled water into a cuvette. Place the cuvette
into the colorimeter, making sure that the light is shining through the smooth sides.
8 Adjust the colorimeter to read 0 absorbance for clear water. Do not alter the setting again
during the experiment.
9 Place 2 cm3 of the dye solution into a colorimeter cuvette and take a reading for
absorbency. Repeat the readings for all the alcohol concentrations.
10 Present your results in an appropriate way.
11 Identify any trends or patterns in your results.
12 Explain any trends or patterns, supporting your statements with evidence from your data
and using biological knowledge. You can find out more about the biochemistry of the
main components of the cell membrane in the textbook and in the interactive tutorials on
lipids and protein structure.
13 Describe how you could have improved this experiment to give more reliable results.
In the ICT support there is a datalogging sheet on monitoring diffusion of pigment across
beetroot cell membranes.
A2.09S
Student
Activity 2.9 Methods of transport within

and between cells
Purpose
● To demonstrate some methods of transport within
and between cells.
● To develop scientific explanations using ideas about
transport across membrane and membrane structure.
Procedure
Complete the experiments or look at the
demonstrations provided and then try to explain your
observations as you answer the questions associated
with each experiment. Remember that plant cells
have both a cell wall and a cell membrane.
You need
Experiment 1
• About 20 cm3 thick starch solution
• Warm water
Safety • Iodine (dissolved in KI)
Avoid skin contact with the iodine solution.
• Medium sized (200–300 cm3) beaker
• Clear plastic bag (the thin ones used for
Procedure vegetables at the supermarket work well)
1 Cut a section from the plastic bag. You need the largest
roughly square sheet possible but with no ventilation holes.
If there are no holes in the bag the complete bag can be used.
2 Spread the plastic over the top of a beaker or your cupped hand and pour the starch solution into the
centre of the plastic. Hold the sides of the plastic up and twist them together to make a closed bag. Tie a
knot in the bag or use a rubber band to tightly seal the bag of starch solution.
3 Half fill the beaker with warm water. Add enough iodine to make a light yellowy brown solution.
4 Place the plastic bag of starch solution into the iodine and observe for about 15 minutes.
Q1 Describe and explain any changes that you saw.

Q2 Suggest why warm water was used.
Experiment 2 You need

• 4 grapes of similar size
Safety • 50 cm3 water
Do not eat the grapes! • 50 cm3 strong sugar solution
• 2 small beakers
Procedure
1 Pour approximately 50 cm3 of strong sugar solution into a small beaker.
2 Pour approximately 50 cm3 of water into another small beaker.
3 Label the beakers clearly.
4 Peel two of the grapes and add one peeled and one unpeeled grape to each beaker.
5 Leave for at least 24 hours. Then observe and feel the fruit.
A2.09S
Activity 2.9 Methods of transport within and between cells Student
Q3 Write a description and explanation of the changes or lack of changes in each piece of fruit.
Q4 What limits the change in size of:
a the unpeeled fruit
b the peeled fruit?

Procedure • 2 thin slices of potato (about 0.5 cm wide)
1 Place a slice of cucumber and a slice of potato in • 2 thin slices of cucumber (about 0.5 cm wide)
each Petri dish. • Water
2 Fill one Petri dish with water and the other with • Saturated salt solution
saturated salt solution, being careful to cover the • 2 Petri dishes
slices and making a note of which is which.
3 Remove and examine the slices after 10 minutes.
Q5 Describe and explain the changes observed.

Safety • 3 cm3 of mammalian blood
Mammalian blood is a source of possible infection.
• 10 cm3 of distilled water
Avoid all skin contact. If spilt, inform your teacher.
Do not pour down the sink. Wash hands with soap • 10 cm3 isotonic saline
and water after use. • 10 cm3 1 M saline solution
• 3 test tubes
Never use a microscope with a daylight mirror in a • 2 pipettes
place where sunlight could strike the mirror. Your • 3 microscope slides and coverings
retina could be permanently damaged.
• Microscope
Procedure • Marker pen
1 Label your test tubes – water, isotonic, 1 M salt.
2 Put 1 cm3 blood in each test tube.
3 To each tube add 10 cm3 of the solution indicated on the
label.
4 Leave the test tubes for 5 minutes.
5 After 5 minutes compare the turbidity (cloudiness) of the
tubes either with a colorimeter or by trying to see a page of
printed text held behind each tube.
6 Take a drop of the liquid from the isotonic blood tube and
put it on a microscope slide. Cover the drop with a
coverslip and observe under a microscope.
7 Repeat for the other two tubes.
Q6 Describe the effect of each of the solutions on the blood cells. Explain what happened to the cells in
each case and how this affected the turbidity.
Q7 Bearing in mind your results from Experiment 2, what would you expect to observe in plant cells
placed in the solutions used in Experiment 4? Give reasons for your answer.
In the ICT support there is a datalogging sheet on studying diffusion using Visking tubing.
A2.10S
Student
Activity 2.10 CFTR protein and membrane

transport
Purpose
● To explain the function of the CFTR protein and how the expression of a cystic
fibrosis gene mutation impairs the functioning of the gaseous exchange, digestive and
reproductive systems.
Procedure
This worksheet can be used with the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity. You
should also read the account of regulation of ions in the cells lining the airways in the
textbook (pages 73–75) before attempting the questions that follow.
Questions
Q1 Label the structures shown in Figure 1.
Apical end of cell
Basal end of cell
Figure 1 Cells in the airway of the lung.

Q2 Draw labelled arrows on the diagram to show the ‘normal’ situation in your lungs. This is
where there is excess water in the mucus and water is absorbed by osmosis into cells lining
the airway.
You need to include arrows for:
a the movement of Na+ ions in and out of the cell
b osmosis between the cell and its surroundings.
Q3 Write a commentary for the three animations in Interactive tutorial 2.10.
a Animation 1: the normal situation (excess water in the mucus).
b Animation 2: the situation with dehydrated mucus.
c Animation 3: the CF situation.
The commentaries should describe the movement of ions and water in the cells lining the airways
of the lungs. They should also describe any change in the structures involved (e.g. channel
proteins).
Q4 Watch the video clip of the movement of cilia in the airways of the lungs. Explain how
absence of a functional CFTR channel in people with CF can lead to accumulation of sticky
mucus in the lungs.
Q5 Suggest how the absence of a functional CFTR channel can lead to digestive and
reproductive problems.
A2.11S
CORE
Student
Activity 2.11 Enzyme concentrations and

enzyme activity: Planning Sheet
Purpose
● To investigate how enzyme concentration can affect the initial rate of reaction.
● To develop experimental and investigative skills, including risk assessment.
Reducing concentration
The pancreatic duct in individuals who have cystic fibrosis frequently becomes blocked, reducing
or preventing the release of pancreatic enzymes into the small intestine. The aim of this activity is
to investigate the effect of a reduction in enzyme concentration on the rate of reaction. The
pancreas releases several enzymes including proteases, which could be used to investigate the
effect of enzyme concentrate on rate of reaction. Other enzymes, including catalase, could be used
to investigate the effect of enzyme concentration on rate of reaction. Catalase is not released by the
pancreas, it occurs in most cells to break down toxic hydrogen peroxide, the by-product of various
biochemical reactions.
Planning
Milk powder contains a white protein called casein. A white suspension of milk powder clears
on the addition of the enzyme trypsin. Hydrogen peroxide is broken down by the enzyme
catalase forming water and oxygen gas.
What do you think will be the relationship between the enzyme concentration and the initial rate
of breakdown of the substrate. Use scientific ideas to support your prediction.
You are provided with the following equipment:

• Standard acidified protease solution or a • Standard laboratory glassware and apparatus
cylinder of potato tissue (a source of catalase) including a ruler, stopclock and thermometer
• Milk powder or hydrogen peroxide solution • A colorimeter and cuvette
NB: Casein will hydrolyse in acid conditions without addition of the enzyme.
Make sure your plan:
• includes a hypothesis about enzyme concentration and the breakdown of substrate with a
scientific explanation to support your ideas
• includes a procedure which uses suitable apparatus to produce measurements that will validly
test your hypothesis
• identifies the variables – dependent and independent – and, where possible, controls or
allows for them
• has a fully explained control
• has replicates, and that you have explained why these are necessary
• says exactly what measurements you will make and how they will be made
• says how you will make sure the results are valid, accurate, precise and repeatable
• includes a risk assessment with any safety precautions you will take.
Have your plan checked by your teacher/lecturer before starting the experiment. On completion
of the experiment make sure you:
• present your results in the most appropriate way
• identify any trends in your results
• explain any trends or patterns supporting your statements with evidence from your data and
using biological knowledge
• comment on any systematic or random errors in the readings
• look at the variation and possible errors within the data
• propose changes to your procedure that would improve the validity of the results.
1 of 1
A2.12S
Student
Activity 2.12 DNA model
Purpose
• To show complementary base pairing and the hydrogen bonding involved in the
formation of the DNA double helix.
Procedure
1 Cut out the two molecules in Figure 1 on page 2. These are effectively the sugar phosphate
backbones of the DNA molecule.
2 Cut out all 28 bases along the dashed lines in Figure 2 on page 2.
3 Decide how many different types of bases there are.
4 Divide the bases into 14 pairs. Each of the pairs must be the same width and the hydrogen
bonding must match. Each pair will provide one ‘rung’ of the DNA molecule.
5 Stick the pairs together using the central tabs as shown in Figure 3.
Stick the end flap of

the base pair to the
backbone here.
Figure 3 Figure 4
6 Use the section on the structure of DNA in your textbook to help you label each base with an
appropriate letter.
7 Bend the end flaps under and attach the base pairs to the backbone (Figure 4). Make sure that
the sugar-phosphate backbones are running in opposite directions, i.e. antiparallel. If put
together correctly, the model will wind into a double helix.
Questions
Q1 Which molecules make up the DNA ‘backbone’?
Q2 What do you notice about the base pairing?
Q3 What do you notice about the hydrogen bonding between the base pairs?
Q4 In what ways is your model similar to a molecule of DNA?
Q5 In what ways is your model different from a DNA molecule?
A2.12S
Activity 2.12 DNA model Student
hydrogen bonds
Figure 2
Figure 1
A2.13S
Student
Activity 2.13 Extraction of DNA
Purpose
You need
• To extract nucleic acids from onion tissue. • Small onion
• 3 g table salt
Safety
• 10 cm3 washing up liquid
No naked flames are allowed in the lab
while using ethanol. • 90 cm3 distilled water
Avoid skin contact with protease enzyme. • 9 cm3 very cold ethanol
• 2–3 drops protease enzyme
Procedure • Ice and water in a beaker or bowl
• Coffee filter papers
1 Dissolve 3 g of salt in 90 cm3 of distilled
• Sharp knife and chopping board
water in a 250 cm3 beaker. Add 10 cm3
• Large plastic funnel
of detergent (washing up liquid). Stir
gently. • 2 x 250 cm3 beakers
• Boiling tube
2 Chop up a small onion into pieces, • Glass rod
roughly 5 mm by 5 mm. Add the onion • Water bath at 60 °C
to the salt and washing up liquid
solution.
3 Stand the beaker in hot water at 60 °C for exactly 15 minutes.
4 Cool the mixture by placing the beaker in a bowl of ice for a few minutes. Stir the
mixture frequently.
5 Pour the mixture into a blender and blend for no more than 5 seconds.
6 Filter the mixture into a clean beaker, separating the chopped onion from the liquid
using a funnel and coffee filter paper.
7 Pour about 10 cm3 of the onion filtrate into a boiling tube and add 2–3 drops of
protease enzyme. Mix well.
8 Very carefully pour the ice-cold ethanol down the side of the boiling tube. It should
form a layer on top of the onion extract.
9 Leave the tube to stand for a few minutes. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) will
precipitate into the upper (ethanol) layer. Air bubbles carry the nucleic acids up into
the ethanol.
Questions
Q1 Suggest what the washing up liquid does to the cell membranes.
Q2 The hot conditions in the water bath help to destroy DNases that might break down the
DNA. What might happen if the DNA is left in the hot conditions for more than 15 minutes?
Q3 Why must you only blend the onion mixture for 5 seconds?
Q4 Why is protease added to the onion extract?
1 of 1
A2.14S
Student
Activity 2.14 Nucleic acids and protein synthesis
Purpose
z To describe the structure of DNA and complementary base pairing involving hydrogen
bonding.
z To outline the process of protein synthesis.
z To understand the nature of the genetic code.
Procedure
Use section 2.4 ‘How is the CFTR protein made?’ in the textbook and the interactive tutorial that
accompanies this activity to complete the activity.
DNA structure
The basic unit of DNA is a nucleotide.
Questions
Q1 Circle and label one nucleotide on the diagram of a DNA molecule (Figure 1), and label the sugar, phosphate
group and base which make up this nucleotide.
Q2 Label the hydrogen bonds between the DNA strands.
Q3 Nucleotides are linked together in ………………………reactions.
Figure 1 Diagram of a DNA molecule.
A2.14S
Activity 2.14 Nucleic acids and protein synthesis Student
Complementary base pairing in DNA

The bases on the two DNA strands pair with each other in a specific way. Adenine always pairs
with Thymine, and Cytosine and Guanine go together. The bases pair in this way because together
they need to be exactly the correct size and shape to form one of the ‘rungs’ of the DNA double
helix.
A Molecule of DNA
Strand 1 C C T G A A T C C G A T
Strand 2
Q4 Fill in the letters representing the bases of strand 2, making sure that you enter the correct complementary
base each time.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Q5 During protein synthesis, the sequence of bases on the DNA is copied by complementary
base-pairing of mRNA nucleotides in a process called …………………………… .
Q6 mRNA is another polynucleotide. Fill in the table below to show how mRNA differs in structure
from DNA.
DNA mRNA
Sugar presents in nucleotides deoxyribose
Number of strands in molecules 2
Bases presents in nucleotides AGCT
Complementary base-pairing in transcription
Q7 Fill in the correct letters on the mRNA strand in Figure 2 below.
Figure 2 Complementary base pairing.
A2.14S
The Genetic Code

The table of the genetic code gives:
z the three-letter base code for all mRNA codons
z the corresponding three-letter abbreviation for the amino acid coded by the codon.
Table of the Genetic Code for mRNA
2nd base in codon
U C A G
1st Phe Ser Tyr Cys U 3rd
b Phe Ser Tyr Cys C

a U Leu Ser STOP STOP A
b
a
s s
e Leu Ser STOP Trp G e
i Leu Pro His Arg U
i
n Leu Pro His Arg C n
c
C Leu Pro Gin Arg A
o c
Leu Pro Gin Arg G o
d
o Ile Thr Asm Ser d
U
n o
Ile Thr Asn Ser C n
A Ile Thr Lys Arg A
Met Thr Lys Arg G
Val Ala Asp Gly U
Val Ala Asp Gly C
G Val Ala Glu Gly A
Val Ala Glu Gly G
Q8 Write in the amino acids which will be coded for by this mRNA sequence:
Codons G U C C A C U U A A C A C C G
Amino acid
Translation
Q9 a In Figure 3, colour the dots in the key and using the same colours shade in the parts of the diagram
referred to by the key.
b Describe the process of protein synthesis in your own words, referring to the diagram.
A2.14S
Figure 3 Translation.
Q10 The base sequence in the section of mRNA that codes for one of the amino acids in
haemoglobin has the codon GAA.
a What is the DNA triplet which will have coded for this RNA codon?
In individuals who have sickle cell anaemia, this codon is changed from GAA to GUA.
b Using the table of the genetic code above, how will this alter the primary structure of amino acids in the
polypeptide chain?
c Suggest why individuals with this mutation have haemoglobin that has a different 3-D
structure to ‘normal’ haemoglobin.
d If this disease is passed on by inheritance, suggest which of the following is more likely to be true, and
explain your answer:
i There has been a mistake during transcription, where the DNA code is copied to form mRNA.
ii The mistake was made during DNA replication where DNA is copied to form new DNA
molecules before cell division.
A2.15S
Student
Activity 2.15 Meselson and Stahl’s experiment

on DNA replication
Purpose
z To describe the method of DNA replication by considering the different theories originally
proposed to explain the process, and the evidence which supports the theory that is now
accepted.
Procedure
Complete the interactive tutorial associated with the activity, and then complete this worksheet.
Matthew Meselson and Frank Stahl worked at the California Institute of Technology. In 1958 they
grew bacteria in growth medium containing ammonium ions (NH4+) as the source of nitrogen. The
type of DNA made by the cells depended on the type of nitrogen present in the bacteria’s growth
medium. They used two isotopes of nitrogen – 14N and 15N. 14N is the common, light form (isotope)
of nitrogen. 15N is the heavier form. They then extracted DNA from the bacterial cells and centrifuged
the resulting solution to isolate the DNA. The DNA made with 14N and the DNA made with 15N
accumulated at different levels in the centrifuged solutions, according to the DNA’s density.
Questions
Q1 In each of the label boxes in Figure 1 below, fill in the number to show the type of nitrogen present in
each band.
Q2 In each magnified circle in Figure 1, colour in the sections of DNA molecule found in each band to show
the type of DNA in each band. Use your own colour code, selecting one colour for DNA made with 14N
and another colour for DNA made with 15N. You will need a colour for medium DNA later, so red
(heavy), blue (light) and purple (medium DNA) would work.
Figure 1 Position of labelled nitrogen bands in the centrifuge tubes.
Q3 How did Meselson and Stahl produce bacterial cells containing only DNA
made with 15N?
Bacteria containing DNA made with 15N were allowed to divide once in a solution
containing only 14N. Any new DNA made would contain 14N. After a single
replication the DNA was extracted and centrifuged. Figure 2 DNA found after
first replication.
A2.15S
Activity 2.15 Meselson and Stahl’s experiment on DNA replication Student
Q4 Colour in the band(s) in the centrifuge tube in Figure 2 to show

the density of the DNA that Meselson and Stahl found after this
first replication. Use your colour codes for heavy, medium and
light DNA.
Q5 Figure 3 shows DNA replication according to the theory of

conservative replication, Explain why the bands found by
Meselson and Stahl after one replication (shown in Figure 2)
refute the theory of conservative replication.
Bacteria containing DNA made with 15N were allowed to
divide twice in a solution containing only 14N. Any new DNA
made would contain 14N. After two replications the DNA was
extracted and centrifuged.
Q6 Figure 4 shows DNA replication according to the ‘dispersive’
theory, where new (14N) and original (15N) DNA are dispersed
throughout any new DNA molecules synthesised. This is theory 1
in the Interactive tutorial.
Figure 2 Conservative replication.
i In Figure 4, colour in the DNA and DNA nucleotides using your

colour code from question 2.
ii Now draw in the four DNA molecules produced when the DNA replicates for the second time, according
to the dispersive theory. Use your colour code for this.
Figure 4 The dispersive theory for replication.
iii Draw bands on the centrifuge tubes in Figure 5 to show the DNA present after the first and second
‘dispersive’ replications. Assume all the DNA has replicated after each cell division.
Figure 5 Bands that would occur after dispersive replication.
A2.15S
Activity 2.15 Meselson and Stahl’s experiment on DNA replication Student
b i In Figure 6 showing the semi-conservative theory of replication colour in the DNA and DNA
nucleotides using your colour code from question 2.
ii Now draw in the four DNA molecules produced when the DNA replicates for the second time,
according to the semi-conservative theory. This is where new DNA molecules have one strand of the
original (15N) DNA and one strand of the (14N) DNA. This is theory 2 in the interactive tutorial. Use
your colour code from question 2.
Figure 6 The semi-conservative theory for replication.
iii Draw bands on the centrifuge tubes in Figure 7 to show the DNA present after each replication.
Assume all the DNA has replicated after each cell division.
Figure 7 Bands that would occur after each replication.
Q7 Meselson and Stahl found equal amounts of light and intermediate density (medium) DNA present after
two DNA replications. Explain which of these three theories for DNA replication is supported by this
evidence and which is refuted. Use a separate sheet of paper if you need more space for your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
A2.16S
Student
Activity 2.16 Reebops
Purpose
z To examine how characteristics are inherited.
z To illustrate one of the ways in which meiosis
is responsible for the tremendous variation that
exists in every sexual species.
z To confirm some key genetic terms.
Breeding Reebops
‘Reebops’ are imaginary animals, made out of marshmallows, pins and cocktail sticks!
They have 16 chromosomes (eight pairs) in their body cells.
Have a look at the parent Reebops. Note their characteristics, such as number of body segments,
antennae, etc. Both parents show the same features, except of course one is male and the other is
female.
You are going to carry out a breeding programme, using the same procedures as in a breeding
programme with real organisms, and applying the same rules that are found in genetics.
Read the information sheets before you start. It is important for this activity that you have a basic
understanding of how gametes or sex cells are formed.
Safety
Do not eat the Reebops.
Procedure
1 You are provided with two envelopes. One contains Reebop Mum chromosomes and the other
contains Reebop Dad chromosomes. There are 16 chromosomes (eight pairs) in each envelope.
Open the envelope and take out the pack of cards.
2 Turn the chromosome cards face down, so that you cannot see the genotypes (letters) on them.
Keep the Mum and Dad chromosomes separate, so that you have two groups of cards.
3 In each group of cards sort them into pairs of the same length.
4 Now randomly take one chromosome of each paired length from the Mum chromosomes and
place in the ‘female gamete’ pile. Repeat for each pair of Dad chromosomes and place them in
the ‘male gamete’ pile.
5 Now carry out ‘fertilisation’ by mixing the female gamete and male gamete piles to form a
‘baby gene’ pile.
6 Put the remaining chromosomes back into the envelopes.
You have now carried out sexual reproduction, whereby half the chromosomes from one parent
have been randomly mixed with half from the other parent to make a unique combination. Note
that each parent donated half the chromosome number (eight) that the adult cells contain, i.e.
16. Meiosis is responsible for halving the chromosome number in gametes so that when
gametes combine at fertilisation, the correct number is present in the new individual.
A2.16S
Activity 2.16 Reebops Student
7 Now, write in the phenotype table the letters that you have obtained in your ‘baby genes’. For
example, if you have one card with the letter A and another one with the letter a, put Aa in the
box for antennae, etc. When you have completed all the features in the grid, you are ready to
assemble your baby Reebop! Refer to the genotype decoding key to check what characteristics
your baby has inherited. Collect all the necessary body parts that your baby possesses. For
example, if it has the genes BB, you will need three white marshmallow body parts. Join them
together with two cocktail sticks.
Table 1 Genotype decoding key.
Antennae AA = 2 antennae Aa = 2 antennae aa = no antennae

Body segments BB = 3 body segments Bb = 3 body segments bb = 2 body segments
Tail TT = curly Tt = curly tt = straight
Nose NN = red nose Nn = orange nose nn = yellow nose
Legs LL = blue legs Ll = blue legs ll = red legs
Sex XX = female (pink body XY = male (white body
segments) segments)
Eyes EE = 2 eyes Ee = 2 eyes ee = one eye
Humps HH = 1 hump Hh = 1 hump hh = no humps
8 Assemble all the features that your baby possesses, and check that you have not
made a mistake (mutated a part!).
Now place your baby in the nursery provided. Have a look at the other babies present.
Remember that all the Mum Reebops had the same chromosomes as one another and
that each Dad Reebop had the same chromosomes as the other Dads.
Questions
Q1 What do you notice about the features that the babies have?
Q2 Are there any babies that are identical?
Q3 How many are the same as their parents?
Q4 How much genetic material does each parent provide?
Q5 Where is this genetic material in the parent?
Extension
You may wish to extend this exercise further by choosing two babies, which then grow up rather
rapidly, and are themselves used as parents for the next generation of Reebops.
Draw up a family tree to show how some of the original features are inherited.
Another idea would be to introduce a recessive mutation for some feature, and see how that is
passed on in subsequent generations.
Record your baby Reebop genotype and phenotype in this type of table.
A2.16S
Table 2 Phenotype table.
Characteristic Allele from Mum Allele from Dad Phenotype

Antennae
Body segments
Tail
Nose
Legs
Sex
Eyes
Humps
A2.16S
Genetics information sheet

All cells contain hereditary information that is encoded by a chemical called DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is an extremely long molecule, with up to a metre in every cell
(Figure 1). When a DNA molecule is all coiled up and bunched together just before the cell
divides it is called a chromosome.
Figure 1 DNA is coiled up
Each chromosome has a separate molecule of DNA, so a cell with eight chromosomes has
eight molecules of DNA. A gene is a segment on a DNA molecule. Different genes may be
very different lengths. Each gene codes for a certain protein molecule, which is then made in
the cell cytoplasm. The proteins produced by the genes can generally be sorted into two
different types: ones that run the chemical reactions in the body, and ones that will be the
structural components of the body. How an organism looks and functions are a result of the
cumulative effect of all of these proteins.
Any organism that has ‘parents’ has an even number of chromosomes, because one half of the
chromosomes come from the ‘father’ and the other half from the ‘mother’. The male and
female sex cells, gametes, contain the ‘father’s’ and ‘mother’s’ contribution. These two cells
combine to make a single cell, which grows into the offspring. Humans have 46 chromosomes
sorted into 23 pairs. One chromosome in each of the 23 pairs is from the person’s father, the
other from the person’s mother.
Since chromosomes come in pairs, genes do too. One gene is located on one member of a
chromosome pair; the other gene is in the same location on the matching chromosome.
The precise location where the gene is found on the chromosome is referred to as its locus.
A gene can consist of a variety of different forms, but only two forms are ever present in an
individual (one from the mother, the other from the father). Both members of the pair contribute to
the same feature, such as having hair on the middle segment of your fingers.
The two different gene forms on the pair of chromosomes may be identical or different.
A2.16S
For example, in the Reebops activity the gene for tail shape has a T form and a t form. If both
chromosomes have a T form, or if both have a t form, the gene is said to be homozygous (two of
the same form). If one chromosome has a T form and the other has a t form, the gene is said to be
heterozygous (two different forms).
The different forms that comprise a gene are called alleles. Therefore, T and t are alleles for the tail
shape gene.
If you look at the Key to Reebop features, you will notice that two Ts (TT) or a T and a t (Tt) code
for the same thing: a curly tail. If the Reebop has a small t on each chromosome, he or she will have
a straight tail. Because both the heterozygous (Tt) form and one of the homozygous (TT) forms
code for the same variation of tail shape, curly tail is said to be the dominant variation and straight
tail the recessive. In humans, the allele for hair on the middle segment of the fingers (H) is
dominant to the allele for no hair (h).
A2.17S
Student
Activity 2.17 Inheritance problems
Purpose
z To provide practice in using appropriate methods
to answer questions and solve problems about
monohybrid inheritance.
Questions
Q1 Some forms of albinism, a genetic disorder, may be due to a single gene mutation. The allele for
albinism is recessive to the allele for no albinism. A woman is heterozygous for albinism.
Her male partner is homozygous for the ‘normal’ allele.
a Does the woman suffer from the condition?
b What percentage of their children are likely to be carriers?
c Explain what is meant by the term ‘symptomless carrier’.
Q2 If parents are aware of a genetic disease within the family they may consult a genetic counsellor. If the
method of inheritance for the disease is understood, then examination of the genetic family tree,
sometimes called a pedigree diagram, will let the counsellor advise on the likelihood of any children
inheriting the disease. The family tree in Figure 1 shows the occurrence of sickle cell anaemia within one
family.
Figure 1 A pedigree diagram showing the occurrence of sickle cell anaemia within one family.
a Look at the family tree in Figure 1 above and using suitable symbols suggest what the genotype of
individual 6 might be. Give a reason for your answer.
b If individuals 7 and 8 have children, state what proportion of their children would be expected to be
carriers of the sickle cell anaemia allele.
Q3 Huntington’s disease (HD) causes cells in the brain to degenerate. A person with the disease gradually
loses control of his/her physical movements and mental abilities. The HD gene codes for a protein that
occurs in the brain. The HD allele produces a non-functioning protein and is dominant
to the allele for the functioning protein.
a What is the chance of a mother who is heterozygous for the condition passing it on to a child?
b A couple who both have the condition would like to have children. Explain what proportion
of their children are likely to inherit the disease.
Q4 In peas, spherical seeds are dominant to wrinkled seeds. Two pure-breeding (homozygous)
pea plants are crossed: one that produces spherical seeds and one that produces wrinkled seeds.
1
a What would be the phenotypes of the seeds produced by the F plants?
1
b If these F plants were self-fertilised, what is the expected ratio of spherical to wrinkled
seeds that would be produced?
A2.17S
Activity 2.17 Inheritance problems Student
c Plants with unknown genotypes were crossed and the seeds they produced collected and counted.
From the results below suggest what the genotypes of the parents are in each case. (Use R for
spherical and r for wrinkled – R and r are easier to distinguish than S and s.)
Parent phenotypes Offspring phenotypes

Male Female Spherical Wrinkled
A Spherical Wrinkled 63 58
B Spherical Spherical 87 29
C Wrinkled Wrinkled 0 40
D Spherical Wrinkled 75 0
E Spherical Spherical 94 0
Q5 A white patch of hair at the front of the head, known as a white forelock, is caused by a dominant allele.
The genetic family tree in Figure 2 shows the occurrence of this feature in one family.
Figure 2 Pedigree diagram for the occurrence of a white forelock in one family.
a Explain what the genotype of Maggie is.

b Will Mike and Sarah’s next child have a white forelock?
c Catherine marries a man with a white forelock and all their five children have a white forelock. What
does this suggest about the possible genotype of Catherine’s husband?
Extension questions
Some genes do not have a dominant allele. The heterozygotes have phenotypes influenced by both
the alleles they possess. There are also genes that only occur on the X chromosome; these are said
to be sex-linked. Female mammals have two X chromosomes whereas males have one X and one Y.
A boy’s Y chromosome is always inherited from his father and his X chromosome from his mother,
so males can only inherit X-linked conditions from their mothers.
Q6 A gardener crossed some red-flowered snapdragons with some white-flowered snapdragons.
He grew the seeds produced and found that all the F1 plants were a lovely pink colour. Deciding that he
wanted more of these pink flowers he self-pollinated the pink flowers thinking that this would only
produce pink flowers. Can you explain to this disappointed gardener why not all the offspring were pink?
Q7 The gene that causes Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy occurs on the X chromosome and is therefore
described as being sex-linked. It does not occur on the Y chromosome. Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy
is an example of a recessive inheritance. Explain why fathers cannot pass the condition onto their sons.
Q8 The inheritance of Vitamin D resistant rickets is determined by an X-linked dominant allele. Explain:
a why any child of a heterozygous female has a 50% chance of being affected, assuming the father is
unaffected
b why all daughters but no sons of affected fathers will have the disease, assuming the mother is
unaffected.
(Use the symbols XV, X and Y in your answers, where XV is the allele for Vitamin D resistant
rickets.)
A2.18S
Student
Activity 2.18 Gene therapy:another side to the story
Purpose
• To review gene therapy techniques using liposomes and viruses as vectors.
• To consider some problems that currently affect gene therapy trials.
• To appreciate the benefits and risks associated with gene therapy.
Gene therapy
Gene therapy would seem to be a straightforward way to prevent or cure genetic
diseases. What could be more logical than to solve the problem at its source? Some of
the results of gene therapy trials are promising, though progress is taking longer than
most had hoped. Gene therapy is being investigated as a treatment for a variety of
diseases and disorders including diabetes, haemophilia and even heart disease.
Q1 Read the section in the textbook on gene therapy and then make two flowcharts to explain
the steps involved when:
a liposomes
b viruses are used as vectors in gene therapy.
Problems with DNA insertion

In gene therapy, the new DNA ends up in the existing DNA in the nucleus. As you
might expect, the effect of the ‘therapy’ depends on where exactly the new DNA inserts
into the existing DNA, as demonstrated in X-SCID gene therapy trials in the 1990s.
In the late 1980s, a gene therapy trial was set up to treat a condition known as X-linked
severe combined immunodeficiency (X-SCID). People with this genetic disorder have a
mutation in the genes coding for a protein on the surface of their T-cells. These
specialised white blood cells no longer function correctly, making the immune system
ineffective. Without treatment, people with this disorder die within the first few years of
life unless kept in totally sterile surroundings. Attempts to keep the children free from
infection led to it being nicknamed the ‘boy in the bubble’ disease as the children often
have to exist in controlled purified atmospheres inside plastic ‘bubbles’, unable to touch
the outside world.
Early results from the gene therapy treatment for X-SCID were extremely promising.
The eleven children in the trial grew and prospered. However, in 1992, 3 years after
treatment, two of the boys developed leukaemia. Investigation showed that in both cases
the leukaemia developed because the inserted DNA sequence had disrupted one of the
genes that control cell division. This led to uncontrolled growth of the cells, resulting in
cancer. The two boys were treated for the cancer, and responded well. Somewhat
ironically, the drugs used in treatment severely reduce the function of the immune
system.
Q2 Using your knowledge of protein synthesis, explain why inserting a new piece of DNA in a
section that codes for a protein would be likely to cause a problem.
Q3 Why had it been thought to be unlikely that an inserted piece of DNA would affect a coding
sequence?
Q4 Using the information on this page as a starting point, produce a table to show the possible
benefits and risks associated with gene therapy.
A2.18S
Student
Activity 2.18 Gene therapy: another side to the story
Gene therapy crossword
1 2 3 4
10
11
12
13
14 15 16
17
18
19
20
Across Down
2. Viruses used as vectors must not be 1. Charge on a DNA molecule
allowed to do this inside the cells of the 3. Depends on genotype
patient receiving gene therapy 4. Genetic disorder that might one day be
5. Different forms of the same gene treatable with gene therapy
6. Term for cells such as sperm or eggs that 7. Process where RNA copies DNA
currently are not permitted to be treated 8. Loop of DNA from bacteria used in gene
via gene therapy as future generations therapy
would also be affected 9. This protein, needed to regulate ion
8. Sequence that initiates transcription movement, is faulty or absent in people
10. A kind of treatment that makes patients with cystic fibrosis
better 11. Can be used as a vector, but needs to be
13. Type of cell in the lung that is targeted in disabled first
gene therapy for cystic fibrosis 12. Liposomes and cell membranes contain
14. General term for type of cells (non-sex these molecules
cells) that are allowed to be treated with 15. In gene therapy, this is altered and hence
gene therapy the phenotype of cells affected by the
17. Possible way of delivering liposomes disease
containing normal genes into airways of 16. Channels that do not function correctly in
someone with cystic fibrosis cystic fibrosis
19. First condition in humans to have been 18. Effective gene therapy treats this, rather
successfully treated using gene therapy than the symptoms of a disease
20. May be used as a vector for normal gene
as it fuses with cell membranes
A2.19S
Student
Activity 2.19 Genetic screening
Purpose
• To consider the ethical issues raised by genetic screening.
Procedure
Read the section on genetic screening in your textbook and view the video clip that
accompanies this activity, then carefully read the articles below and answer the questions.
Gene screening ‘could cut There are around 7,500 sufferers in Britain,
with 250 more born each year. Mutations in the
cystic fibrosis by half’ gene involved are relatively common – one in
James Meek, Science correspondent
24 people have them – and if two carriers have
The Guardian, July 10 2000 a child, the chance of it having cystic fibrosis is
© Guardian Newspapers Ltd., 2000 one in four.
In Edinburgh, the only city in the UK where
A leading health researcher has attacked screening is offered to all expectant couples,
as a “scandal” the government’s failure to the number of children born with the disease
launch a genetic screening programme which has fallen sharply, from an average of 4.6 a
he said could cut the number of children born year to 1.6.
with the painful, life-shortening disease cystic Not all the fall can be accounted for by ter-
fibrosis by half. minations – the implication is that couples with
Howard Cuckle, professor of reproductive affected genes but a healthy baby choose not
epidemiology at Leeds University, said he was to have more children together.
angered that last month’s excitement at the Last year the government-appointed nation-
deciphering of the human genome glossed al screening committee rejected a report com-
over existing, medically important knowledge missioned by the NHS from Prof Cuckle and
of our genes which the NHS was refusing to colleagues which recommended screening.
use. But the committee will discuss the issue
“It’s quite scandalous that there’s been all again this year. Its director, Muir Gray, said it
this hype about the genome project and enor- supported offering parents an informed choice
mous expectations of how it’s going to change over abortion, but feared being seen as promot-
things, and yet we’ve known for more than 10 ing eugenics – the now discredited pseudo-
years the gene responsible for cystic fibrosis science of breeding “better” human populations.
and we’re not screening for it,” he said. Screening for Down’s syndrome is routine,
Prof Cuckle’s support for screening is con- and mass screening for spina bifida, intro-
troversial because abortion is used to reduce duced in the 1970s, cut the incidence of the
the number of cystic fibrosis cases. disabling disease by 95% through abortion.
“We should be offering all expectant Dr Gray questioned whether it would be so
couples pre-birth screening so they can easy to introduce spina bifida screening in
prevent the birth of a child with cystic fibrosis,” today’s social climate. “The eugenic dimension
he said. “There have been 11 studies of this of screening has become more of an issue. Is
and they’ve all shown a high uptake . . . We it right to give people the choice to abort those
can’t prevent the disease as such, but we can who are deemed less valuable by society?”
prevent people being born with this disease.” The Cystic Fibrosis Trust, the main charity
Sufferers from cystic fibrosis, which causes involved in work on the disease, is a passive
a thick build-up of easily infected mucus in the supporter of screening but is reluctant to lobby
lungs and prevents the digestion of food, have for it because of the link to abortion.
an average life expectancy of around30 years. Prof Cuckle said: “In the war against con-
They require constant medication and violent genital abnormalities, screening is a kind of
physical therapy, experience frequent holding operation. It’s temporary and we hope
infections, and, without a life-extending lung in the end to have cures, but meanwhile
transplant, usually die from respiratory failure. thousands of affected individuals are being
born every year.”
Q1 Compose a letter to The Guardian either supporting the position taken by Professor
Cuckle or opposing it. Your letter should concentrate on the social and ethical issues
raised in the article and be no longer than 500 words. When presenting your ideas on
the ethical issues you can refer to the ethical frameworks presented in the textbook.
A2.19S
Activity 2.19 Genetic screening Student
Embryo selection is not 'designing children'
Lord Winston of Imperial College London Of course, they always have had the
28/04/2007 perfectly legal option of antenatal
It seems that my colleagues at diagnosis and termination of an
University College Hospital will shortly established pregnancy – but how much
be allowed to screen human embryos better and more ethical to start a
from those families with the genetic pregnancy knowing that one's child will
mutation carrying a very high risk of not suffer from a fatal illness.
breast cancer.
It is true, of course, that some of these
I say 'it seems’ because the regulatory rare hereditary cancers do not present
body, the HFEA, does not yet appeared until a person is a young adult. But what
to have agreed that this is a good thing. is the difference in dying from muscular
It undoubtedly is because these dystrophy aged 25 or dying from
relatively rare hereditary cancers – one spreading breast cancer at the age of 30?
in the brain called retinoblastoma, a It is also true, of course, that some
certain type of bowel cancer, and this measures can occasionally be taken to
particular form of breast and ovary reduce the risk of these cancers - a
cancer, affect relatively young people, young woman, for example, can elect to
spread vigorously and, once established, have both breasts removed along with
are very difficult to treat. her ovaries – mutilation and ‘castration’
Why is the HFEA taking so long to – but even this is not necessarily
decide – seeing as it gave my unit entirely preventative.
permission to screen for genetic cancers One problem is that embryo screening is
as long ago as 1993? frequently presented as making
Embryo screening, or preimplantation ‘designer babies’.
genetic diagnosis, for non-cancerous It is regrettable that one newspaper
diseases, has been around in the UK yesterday announced this work in such
since 1990 and numerous healthy babies terms. All that happens is that embryos
have been produced, after screening for free of two or three fatal letters of the
cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, genetic alphabet – out of three billion in
Tay-Sachs disease and fragile X the entire human genetic recipe – are
syndrome, among many others. randomly selected.
Before this procedure was invented, This is not producing children with so-
couples carrying fatal mutations could called ‘desirable’ characteristics, such
either avoid having children completely, as blue eyes and blond hair, or high IQ -
or play sexual Russian roulette hoping indeed that would be quite impossible
that any pregnancy did not result in a using this procedure.
child that would die painfully and
prematurely.
Lord Winston of Imperial College London is one of the British team who unveiled
embryo screening in 1990
Q2 Professor Lord Robert Winston’s article is about the possibility of screening for human
embryos that have a high risk of one type of breast cancer. He writes that the ‘regulatory
body, the HFEA, does not yet appeared to have agreed that this is a good thing.’
a Find out what the acronym HFEA means and summarise the role of the organisation.
b Suggest why the HFEA may be taking time to reach a decision.
c Use the article and your own knowledge to list possible reasons for and against
screening out human embryos with this particular mutation for a high risk of breast
cancer.
A2.20S
Student
Activity 2.20 Passing it on
Purpose
● To review the ideas covered in Topic 2 using role play
Procedure
In this activity you are asked to prepare for a TV programme hosted by the well-
known TV presenter, Nikki Pond. Nikki hosts a regular programme, always tackling
controversial ‘human interest’ issues and inviting a response from the audience. You
may be asked to take on the role of one of the people appearing in the programme. In
preparing for the role, use as much information as you can from what you have
studied in this topic. Remember that the other participants will be asking you
searching questions and you need to come up with some clear and sensible answers if
you are to make your case convincing.
The current programme poses the question:
‘Should people with serious genetic conditions be allowed to have children?’
Appearing on the show will be:
● Nikki Pond, a well-known television presenter
● Mrs Jane Hewitt, a mother who has cystic fibrosis
● Mr John Hewitt, Jane’s husband
● Dr Sam Healham, a doctor who works in a hospital treating patients with CF
● Alex G Gnome, a genetic counsellor
● Dr Pat Swapham, a doctor researching gene therapy
● Chris Morrall, a member of a pressure group called Kids Have Rights.
A2.20S
Activity 2.20 Passing it on Student
You are Nikki Pond, a well-known television presenter. You are running a series
of discussion programmes dealing with controversial issues. The discussion needs to
be lively and challenging to maintain the high viewing figures the programme is
currently attracting. Your task is to chair the discussion and introduce the topic to the
audience. You will need to think of how you are going to introduce the topic to the
TV audience in a way that will engage their interest. Next, you should introduce the
people on the panel. You need to think about the order in which the people will appear
on your programme. You will need to give each expert a chance to speak, and then
you should ask them questions.
To do this, you will need to prepare a list of questions carefully, and think about who
should answer the questions. The invited family and experts may wish to ask each
other questions, as well, and you need to co-ordinate this. Finally, you should give the
members of the audience an opportunity to ask questions and express their own views.
At the end of the programme, ask the members of the audience to vote, by a show of
hands, whether they believe that this woman was right to have children, knowing she
suffers from cystic fibrosis, once they have heard all the arguments.
You are Mrs Jane Hewitt, a mother of three and have cystic fibrosis. You are now
30 years old, with two children aged 5 and 8. Cystic fibrosis has certainly affected
your life: you have had daily physiotherapy since you were a baby, and you have had
to make a very conscious effort to keep as fit as possible. On top of that, you have had
to spend periods of time in hospital, and you are unable to do many of the things that
normal people can do. You also had to have IVF to enable you to have children.
However, you think people are too negative about cystic fibrosis. You feel that it is
right for you to be able to choose whether to have a family. You don’t feel that cystic
fibrosis has affected your ability to be a good mother. If you do have to have a period
in hospital then your husband is able to look after the children, fortunately you are in
good health so this does not happen very often. There is also the hope that gene
therapy will become available to treat your condition, and if this is successful, there is
no reason why you should not live a full and healthy life.
You are Mr John Hewitt, Jane’s husband. You are 32 years old, and have a well-
paid job developing computer software. This means that you are able to work from
home a lot of the time, which is very useful if Jane has a bad day or has to go into
hospital. When you got married, you didn’t put Jane under any pressure to have
children. It was something you both discussed, and you both felt that you wanted to
go ahead and start a family even if it meant using IVF. Both of you realise that Jane
could die before the children reach adulthood, but then no parent can ever be certain
that this won’t happen to them. Furthermore, you have a very happy and stable
marriage. Many children at school with your own children come from single parent
families. If the worst were to happen, you would be in a good position to raise the
children yourself. You understand that, although your children do not have CF, they
both carry the CF allele and could pass it on to their children. This is something that
you and Jane talked about before having children. However, you know that prenatal
testing would be available and medical advances are being made in CF treatment, so
when the time comes for your children to think about having children themselves, the
situation could be much better.
A2.20S
You are Dr Sam Healham, a doctor who works in a hospital treating patients
with cystic fibrosis. You have been invited on to the television programme to tell the
audience about cystic fibrosis. You need to prepare a short presentation to tell people,
in clear and simple terms, what cystic fibrosis is, and what symptoms it causes.
Explain how the life of someone with CF will be different from normal people. You
should mention physiotherapy and the medication needed by CF people, including
antibiotics.
You are Alex G Gnome, a genetic counsellor. Your job is to talk to people who may
have genetic conditions in their family. You always explain to the people you see how
a condition is inherited, how it affects an individual, and what treatment is available
for the condition. However, you never express opinions about whether they should or
should not go ahead and have children, as that is a decision for the individual. You
really believe that there are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers, just decisions that are right
or wrong for particular individuals. Over the years, you have seen people in similar
circumstances making very different decisions for themselves.
You have been invited onto this TV programme to explain how cystic fibrosis is
inherited. You need to explain that two people with no family history of CF at all can
have a cystic fibrosis child, since 1 person in 25 in the Caucasian (white) population
of Britain is a carrier of the CF allele. You should also be prepared to talk about how
embryos can be screened for the presence of the CF allele, so that people who carry
CF can be enabled to have a child that does not suffer from CF.
You are Dr Pat Swapham, a doctor researching gene therapy. The only treatment
currently available for CF patients, apart from physiotherapy, antibiotics and a few
other drugs, is a heart–lung transplant. In the hospital where you work, you have seen
far too many CF patients who have died waiting for a transplant, because so few are
available. This is what is driving your team to research an effective method of gene
therapy. You are working on putting copies of the normal allele into liposomes which
are inhaled by CF sufferers, rather like an asthma inhaler. In early trials, this has not
yet been very effective, but you are working on ways to improve it. You are also in
touch with a team in the United States who are researching gene therapy. They are
using a disabled adenovirus to get the normal allele into cells. You need to be able to
explain, in simple terms, how heart–lung transplants can be used to treat CF patients,
and what gene therapy is.
You are Chris Morrall, a member of a pressure group called Kids Have Rights.
You think it is very wrong for the Hewitts to have had two children, knowing that Mrs
Hewitt has a potentially life-threatening condition. You believe that children need two
parents, and that the mother is particularly important. It will be very traumatic for the
children if they have to watch her getting worse and then dying. As they get older,
they may have to take on a caring role, and this is unfair at a time in their lives when
they should be enjoying themselves. You also feel that, by passing a copy of the CF
allele onto each of her children, Mrs Hewitt has put them in a very difficult position.
If they want to have children one day, they will have the dilemma of knowing that
they could pass the allele on to them. They could opt for embryo screening, but many
people find this ethically unacceptable, since embryos are created which are destroyed
if they carry the CF allele. You think that the Hewitts have been very selfish in
choosing to have children. If they had put the children’s interests first, they would
certainly have decided to remain childless or to adopt children.
A2.20S
Useful websites
You can find out more about cystic fibrosis on the websites listed in the weblinks for
this activity.
A2.21S
Student
Activity 2.21 Gene mutation: a personal story
PKU
PKU (phenyketonuria) was the first genetic disorder in humans to be shown to be due to a
missing enzyme. As a result of the missing, or sometimes defective enzyme, the amino acid
phenyalanine (phe) can not be converted to another amino acid, tyrosine (tyr). The formation of
tyrosine is needed to make the pigment melanin. With the metabolic pathway phe Æ tyr
blocked, melanin is reduced or absent. Affected children therefore often have blond hair and
blue eyes. The build up of tyrosine can have serious effects if not treated, such as severe
mental retardation and convulsions. If PKU is treated from birth, these serious effects can be
minimised. PKU affects approximately 1 in 10 000 persons of Western European origin.
Read Anna’s account and answer the questions that follow.
Anna was 17 when she wrote this account of how having PKU has affected her life.
Anna’s story
Every fiftieth person is a carrier of PKU and two of them are my parents. My chances of
having PKU were 25%. I have a sister who is a carrier, but she does not have PKU.
I have to check how much phe is in my food because I can not get rid of excess phe. I use a
data table to look up how much phe is in specific foods. Many foods contain protein and
therefore phe. I cannot eat any type of meat, fish, milk products, bread, eggs, beans, rice, nuts,
chocolate or cereal. My diet has more restrictions than a vegetarian!
Everyone with PKU has to take P-AM (phenylalanine amino acid mixture). This has no
phenylalanine, but contains other essential amino acids, non-essential amino acids, vitamins,
minerals and trace elements.
If P-AM is not taken or if a ‘normal’ diet is eaten, people with PKU will develop brain damage.
The powder is very expensive (1 tin costs 200 Euros), but the health services have to provide it
as a lot of people could not afford it for their children. If a PKU patient takes in too much phe
over a long time, they will get irreversible physical and mental damage. That is the reason why
every newborn in Germany (my home country) and the UK are tested for PKU on about the 5th
day of their life. In the UK parents are referred to a metabolism clinic if the test is positive.
A usual day for a PKU patient starts with special bread or cereal. Milk is made from a special
powder. Other products have to come from specialist firms which produce products for people
with PKU. You can not buy them in a supermarket. This food is very expensive, just like the
P-AM, so my parents have to spend a lot of money every year for my special food. A typical
lunch could be noodles with tomato sauce or potatoes with vegetable sauce. In the evening,
pasta or bread or potatoes are possible, but with every meal the P-AM powder must be taken.
Everyone has their own way of taking the powder. Some, like me, drink it with apple juice.
Coca cola or rice milk are also possible, but no one who takes P-AM likes it.
When you have PKU you have to be very strict with yourself because you always have to
check if you can eat the food or not, but you get used to it and I do not know how it is to eat
‘normal’ foods. Sometimes people who do not know that you have PKU want to offer food that
A2.21S
Activity 21 Gene mutation: a personal story Student
you can’t eat and so your amount of phe rises because it is difficult to say ‘no’. Also, normal
food smells very nice and you are jealous of friends who can eat it.
People who eat a normal diet do not realise how difficult it is to drink P-AM three times a day
everyday, but drink P-AM which tastes awful, your whole life, three times a day, and then you
would understand why sometimes I do not want to drink it. Sometimes it is really hard and I
want to be ‘normal’!
Questions
Q7 Draw a pedigree diagram for Anna’s family showing inheritance of the PKU gene.
Q8 Anna writes that her ‘chances of having PKU were 25%’, explain whether she is correct
using a genetic diagram.
Q9 If Anna’s parents had gone on to have more than two children, what would be the
chances of them having,
a a child that neither had PKU nor was a carrier
b a brother for Anna who had PKU, and
c another sister for Anna who was a carrier.
Q10 Write a short account of any ethical issues that may arise in the ways that Anna may be
treated differently from non-PKU people during her lifetime.
A2.22S
Student
Activity 2.22 Check your notes
Purpose
• To help you get your notes in order at the end
of this topic.
Topic 2 summary
Make sure your notes cover the following points. The points are listed in the order they
appear within the topic. All the points are covered in the textbook but where there is
supporting information within the activities this is indicated.
You should know the following points:
О The properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to
volume ratio, thickness of surface, differences in concentration) and how the structure
of the mammalian lung is adapted for rapid gas exchange. (Activities 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5)
(Checkpoint question 2.1)
О The basic structure of an amino acid (structure of specific amino acids is not required).
(Activity 2.6)
О The formation of polypeptides and proteins (as amino acid monomers linked by peptide
bonds in condensation reactions). (Activity 2.6)
О The significance of the protein’s primary structure in determining its three-dimensional
structure and properties (globular and fibrous proteins and types of bonds involved in
three-dimensional structure). (Activity 2.6) (Checkpoint question 2.2)
О How models such as the fluid mosaic model of cell membranes are interpretations of
data used to develop scientific explanations of the structure and properties of cell
membranes. (Activity 2.7)
О How membrane structure can be investigated practically, e.g. by the effect of alcohol
concentration or temperature on membrane permeability. (Activity 2.8)
О The meaning of osmosis in terms of the movement of free water molecules through a
partially permeable membrane (consideration of water potential is not required).
(Activity 2.9)
О Passive transport (diffusion, facilitated diffusion), active transport (including the role of
ATP), endocytosis and exocytosis and the involvement of carriers and channel proteins
in membrane transport. (Activity 2.9)
О How the expression of a gene mutation in people with cystic fibrosis impairs the
functioning of the gas exchange, digestive and reproductive systems. (Activity 2.10)
О Mechanism of action and specificity of enzymes in terms of their three-dimensional
structure; the understanding that enzymes are biological catalysts that reduce activation
energy, catalysing a wide range of intracellular and extracellular reactions. (Checkpoint
question 2.3 and 2.4)
О How enzyme concentration concentrations can affect the rates of reaction and how this
can be investigated practically by measuring the initial rate of reaction. (Activity 2.11)
A2.22S
Activity 2.22 Check your notes Student
О The basic structure of mononucleotides (as a deoxyribose or ribose linked to a

phosphate and a base, i.e. thymine, uracil, cytosine, adenine or gauanine). (Activities
2.12 and 2.14)
О The structure of DNA and RNA (as polynucleotides composed of mononucleotides
linked through condensation reactions). (Activities 2.12 and 2.14)
О How complementary base pairing and the hydrogen bonding between two
complementary strands are involved in the formation of the DNA double helix.
(Activities 2.12 and 2.14)
О The nature of the genetic code (triplet code only) and a gene is a sequence of bases on a
DNA molecule coding for a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. (Activities
2.14)
О Outline of protein synthesis, including the role of transcription, translation, messenger
RNA and the template (antisense) DNA strand (details of the mechanism of protein
synthesis on ribosomes are not required). (Activities 2.14)
О The process of DNA replication (including the role of DNA polymerase). (Activity
2.15)
О How Meselson and Stahl’s classic experiment provided new data that supported the
accepted theory of replication and refuted competing theories. (Activity 2.15)
О How errors in DNA replication can give rise to mutations and how cystic fibrosis
results from one of a number of possible gene mutations.
О The meanings of the terms: gene, allele, geneotype, phenotype, recessive, dominant,
homozygote, and heterozygote. (Activity 2.16) (Checkpoint question 2.6)
О Monohybrid inheritance, including the interpretation of genetic pedigree diagrams.
(Activity 2.16)
О The principles of gene therapy and the distinction between somatic and germ line
therapy. (Activity 2.18)
О The uses of genetic screening: identification of carriers, pre-implantation genetic
diagnosis and prenatal testing (amniocentesis and choronic villus sampling) and discuss
the implications of prenatal genetic screening. (Activity 2.19)
О Identify and discuss the social and ethical issues related to genetic screening from a
range of ethical viewpoints. (Activity 2.19) (Checkpoint question 2.7)
A3.01S
Student
Activity 3.1 Cell structure and function
Purpose
z To describe the ultrastructure of a typical eukaryotic animal cell.
z To recognise organelles from electron micrograph images.
3-D cell structure

In this activity you will look at the 3-D structure of cells, and at how structures in cells are related to
their functions. Use the textbook and the interactive cell to help you complete this activity.
Questions
Q1 For each of the 2-D shapes in Figure 1 below, decide which of the 3-D shapes could be
sectioned (cut through) to produce that 2-D shape. Write the letters of the appropriate 3-D shapes
beside the 2-D shapes. You may find you have more than one letter for some of the shapes.
Figure 1 2-D and 3-D shapes.
Q2 Look at the three electron micrographs of mitochondria in the interactive cell. Describe and explain any
differences that you observe between these three micrographs.
Q3 Here are five features associated with membranes in cells:
(1) contains pores
(2) selective permeability
(3) may be stacked or folded
(4) fluid
(5) may surround organelles.
a Write the appropriate number 1–5 beside each characteristic below to show which of the features are
associated with the features above.
Provides large surface area for attachment of enzymes

Determines which molecules enter or leave the cell
Allows passage of large molecules through the membrane
Can fuse with itself
Can change shape and fold
Forms an extensive channel system
Forms a separate compartment within a cell
A3.01S
Activity 3.1 Cell structure and function Student
b Which of these examples of functions associated with cell membranes are associated with features 1–5?
Write a number beside each function.
The balance of ions inside and outside a cell can be controlled

Membrane can pinch off sections and reseal itself
Enzymes can be isolated for specific chemical reactions at a particular location in the cell
mRNA can pass out of the nucleus
Large molecules can be directed and transported quickly about the cell
Components of ribosomes can pass to the cytoplasm from the nucleolus
c Write one or more numbers beside each example below to show which of the five features these may be
associated with.
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Vesicle formation
Exocytosis and endocytosis
Endoplasmic reticulum
Cell surface membrane
A3.01S
Look at the microscope images of organelles in the interactive cell before trying to identify the
organelles in the electron micrograph photographs shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4.
Q4 Identify the organelles A to E in the frog white blood cell (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Electron micrograph of a frog white blood cell.

Magnification x12 300.
Q5 Figure 3 shows a bat pancreas cell. Identify the organelles A to C.
Figure 3 Electron micrograph of bat pancreas cell. Magnification x12 300.
A3.01S
Q6 Identify the organelles labelled A to C.
Figure 4 Electron micrograph of part of a cell. Magnification x12 300.
A3.02S
Student
Activity 3.2 Protein transport within cells
Purpose
z To explain the role of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER) and the Golgi apparatus in
moving proteins around cells.
Moving proteins through the cell

In Topic 2 we saw how mRNA made it possible to
transfer the DNA code from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm. Here the instructions are used to make
polypeptides. In this activity you find out what
happens after a protein is made. You will see how
the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
are involved in processing and moving proteins
through the cell to where they are needed.
Procedure
Use the interactive tutorial or read the textbook
(pages 105–106) before completing the tasks that
follow.
1 The flowchart shows the sequence of events

that occur when a digestive enzyme is made,
processed and released from a cell. Answer
the questions in the flowchart to complete the
details of the sequence.
2 Indicate where each event in the sequence

occurs by adding arrows and the letters used
in the flowchart to the diagram.
Q1 What other proteins might be secreted from the cell?
A3.03S
Student
Activity 3.3 Gametes and fertilisation
Purpose
• To explain how mammalian gametes are specialised for their functions.
• To describe the acrosome reaction.
Use your textbook and the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity to complete
this worksheet.
Questions
Q1 Label and annotate in detail both the structures and the events on Figure 1 below which shows the
acrosome reaction.
Figure 1 The acrosome reaction and fertilisation.
Q2 Put scale bars onto Figure 1 for the egg and the sperm. Are the egg and sperm drawn to scale? If not, by
what factor is the sperm drawn out of scale?
Q3 In a woman, where does fertilisation normally take place?
Q4 Suggest reasons for the different sizes of egg and sperm cells.
Q5 What is the function of the middle section of a sperm?
Q6 In humans the sperm have to travel from the top of the vagina, where they are deposited during
intercourse, to the top of the Fallopian tube – a distance of about 15 cm. If the journey takes 2 hours, what
is the average speed of the sperm’s journey in cm per hour and metres per second?
Q7 The acrosome is a modified lysosome. Compare an acrosome with a lysosome in a normal body cell.
Q8 Explain why sperm do not approach and attempt to enter any cells apart from the egg cell.
A3.04S
Student
Activity 3.4 Fertilisation in a marine worm
Purpose 5mm
• To observe sperm, eggs and fertilisation.
Where to look
Pomatoceros is a marine worm found on rocky
shores around the UK coast. The worm lives
within a curved, white case, which is triangular in
cross-section. This distinctive casing is attached to
rocks – see Figure 1.
You can watch the video clip that accompanies
this activity or undertake the experiment yourself
to complete the tasks within the procedure. Figure
re 1 The worm’s triangular case is attached to rocks.
Safety
Do not use a daylight illuminated You need
microscope where direct sunlight may strike • Microscope
the mirror as this could damage your eyes. • Blunt seeker
• 6 Petri dishes
Wash your hands with soap and hot water after • 2 cavity slides
handling Pomatoceros and associated equipment. • Coverslips
• Fine pipette
Procedure • Sea water at 10 °C
Observing the production of gametes
• Live Pomatoceros on stones
1 Find a pebble or piece of rock with one or more
Pomatoceros worms attached. Using a pair of
forceps, break off the posterior (narrow) end of the tube of one of the worms, taking care not to
damage the animal.
2 Insert a blunt seeker into the anterior (front) end of the tube and gently push the worm out of
the broken end of its tube into a Petri dish of sea water at approximately 10 °C.
3 Identify whether the worm is male or female. Adult males are yellow at their rear ends, adult
females almost violet.
4 Repeat steps 1–3, using separate Petri dishes of sea water, until you have one adult male and
one adult female. Put to one side any worms of uncertain sex.
5 Observe the dishes at frequent intervals. Gametes will probably be shed very quickly, and almost
certainly within 40 minutes.
6 Remove a few eggs with a pipette and examine them on a cavity slide with a coverslip
under low power and high power.
7 Estimate approximately how many eggs were released by the female.
8 Make an annotated sketch of a single egg, showing the position of the pigmented area and the
nucleus.
9 Remove some sperm with a pipette and examine them on a cavity slide with a coverslip under
high power and low power. Do the sperm stick together? How do they move?
10 Estimate approximately how many sperm were released by the male.
11 Make a sketch of a single sperm as best you can.
A3.04S
Activity 3.4 Fertilisation in a marine worm Student
Observing fertilisation
Fertilisation usually occurs rapidly, so you will need to have everything ready in position before
adding the sperm in step 2 below.
1 By means of a fine pipette put some sea water containing one or two unfertilised eggs on a
cavity slide.
2 Add some water containing sperm. Put on a coverslip and examine under high power and low
power.
3 Make annotated sketches at intervals after fertilisation. Note particularly the behaviour of the
pigmented region of the egg and any changes that can be seen in the nuclei.
4 Compare fertilised eggs with others shed at the same time that remain unfertilised. Interpret your
findings as far as you are able.
The procedure is modified from Roberts, M.B.V and King, T.J. (1987) Biology: A functional
Approach, Student Manual, 2nd edn, Cheltenham, Nelson Thornes.
A3.05S
Student
Activity 3.5 Chromosome assortment
Purpose You need

• To see how chromosomes behave during • A length of string (approximately
meiosis. 60 cm long)
• To discover how meiosis introduces variation. • 12 ‘chromosome’ strands (straws,
pipe cleaners or string – four of
Procedure each size, small, medium and
1 Make an ovary or testis cell by laying out the large. Your teacher/lecturer will
string to represent the cell surface membrane. give you ‘chromosomes’ of the
(Half the group should be making ovary cells right colour – depending on
while the other half are making testes cells. All whether you start with a cell from
the cells come from two individuals – one male an ovary or from a testis.)
and one female.) • 6 paper clips
2 Place two ‘chromosome’ strands of each of the
three sizes randomly inside the cell.
3 Replicate all chromosomes in the cell by placing an additional strand alongside each. Link the
two strands with a paper clip to represent the centromere.
4 Pair up chromosomes of the same size so they lie next to each other across the centre of the cell
(called the equator).
5 Separate each pair of chromosomes with one chromosome going to opposite ends of the cell,
making a cluster of chromosomes at each end. Think of a way to ensure that which of the pair
goes to each end is completely random, for example by one person putting the pair behind their
back, one in each hand, and another person selecting one hand at random.
6 Draw the string together across the centre of the cell so that two cells are formed.
7 In each of the two new cells line the chromosomes up across the centre of the cell at right angles
to the line of the previous cell division.
8 Remove the paper clips and separate the two strands making up each chromosome. Move the
strands to opposite ends of the new cells.
9 Pinch the cells to create four cells in total.
10 Now each person randomly selects one of these four egg or sperm cells. Then randomly find
another person who has the opposite type of cell, sperm or egg, needed for fertilisation.
11 Together make a fertilised egg and place in one central ‘maternity unit’ (the front bench or
equivalent). The group should view all cells created and answer the following questions.
Questions
Q1 Do any of the fertilised egg cells contain the same combination of chromosomes?
Q2 What are the chances of there being two cells with the same combination of chromosomes?
Q3 How many different combinations of chromosomes are possible?
Q4 What would be the chances of two cells having the same combination if there were:
a four chromosomes in the cell
b 23 chromosomes in the cell?
Q5 Suggest how you would modify this model to illustrate the effect of crossing over.
Q6 Comment on the biological importance of variation caused by independent assortment and
crossing over.
A3.06S
Student
Activity 3.6 Observing pollen tube growth
Purpose
z To observe pollen tube growth.
z To develop skills in slide preparation,
microscopy techniques and observation.
Plant fertilisation
In order for plant fertilisation to occur, the nuclei of the pollen grain and ovule have to fuse.
However, when pollen lands on the stigma it is some way from the ovary, so a ‘delivery strategy’
has evolved. The pollen grain itself germinates, a tube grows, pushing down between the cells of
the style towards the ovary. This pollen tube growth is under the control of the pollen’s tube
nucleus.
Normally pollen tube growth cannot be viewed, as it is within the tissue of the style. But pollen
grains will germinate rapidly in solution, and with a microscope you can observe tube growth in
real time.
Safety
Take care when handling and mixing chemicals.
Wear eye protection when preparing the germination medium.
Do not use a daylight illuminated microscope where sunlight
may strike the mirror, as this could damage your eyes.
You need
z Brassica flowers with ripe stamens
z 1.2 M sucrose solution
z Mineral salt solution
z Dropper pipettes
z Clear film canister lids
z Microcope slides and coverslips
z Stage micrometer and eye piece graticule
z Forceps
z Blu-tack®
z Microscope
Procedure
1. First you must make the pollen grain germination medium. Using a dropper pipette, place 2
small drops of sucrose solution into a clean upturned canister lid made of clear plastic film.
2. With a second clean dropper pipette, add two small drops of mineral salt solution into the same
film canister lid.
A3.06S
Activity 3.6 Observing pollen tube growth Student
3. Mix the solutions well, and stick the film canister lid to a microscope slide with a bit of Blu-
tack®.
4. Put a drop of your germination medium onto the centre of a coverslip.
5. Using forceps, remove a ripe stamen from a young flower.
6. Gently dab the anther onto the drop on the coverslip. Make sure there is plenty of pollen
on the drop.
7. Invert the coverslip and put it on the film canister lid (this is stuck on the microscope slide).
Observe the pollen grains in the hanging drop of solution under low power.
8. Make a sketch of half a dozen pollen grains. Are they all the same?
9. Work out a way of estimating the size of a pollen grain, and use the method to make an
estimate. Compare your estimate with those of the rest of your class.
10. Keep the pollen grains under the microscope for an hour. Observe them every 10 minutes or so.
Compare what happens to your pollen grains with those set up by other members of your class.
11. Design a method for measuring the rate at which the pollen tubes grow. Record your results.
12. Go back to the flowers and measure the distance from the stigma to the bottom of the ovary in
10 different flowers. Work out approximately how long it will take for the pollen tube to reach
the ovule.
Questions
Q1 Why do you need to measure more than one flower and more than one pollen tube?
Q2 How do you think the pollen tubes grow in the right direction within the style?
Procedure based upon Science and Plants for Schools (SAPS) student worksheet 4
A3.07S
Student
Activity 3.7 Mitosis flick book
Purpose
z To see that mitosis is a continuous process.
z To discover how it can be separated into a series of distinct stages.
Procedure
You will be provided with a set of chromosome cards that make up a flick book showing the
chromosomes moving around the cell. The cell contains only four chromosomes. Ensure your cards
are fully shuffled before you start.
1 Place the cards in the correct order so that when the pack is ‘flicked’ the moving picture created
shows the chromosomes going through the process of mitosis and cytoplasmic division to form
two new cells each containing the same number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. The
cards can be held together with a large bulldog clip to make ‘flicking’ easier.
2 Flick the cards several times and then identify five stages in the sequence. Divide the cards into
these five groups that represent the four stages of mitosis plus cytoplasmic division.
3 Draw an annotated cell or write a short description of what appears to happen in each of the
stages.
4 Use the textbook (section 3.2 ‘From one to many: the cell cycle’) and the interactive tutorial in
Activity 3.8 to check if your stages are the same as the ones traditionally identified by
biologists.
A3.08S
Student
Activity 3.8 The cell cycle
Purpose
z To appreciate the role of DNA replication and
mitosis in the cell cycle.
Procedure
Watch the cell cycle interactive tutorial that
accompanies this activity or read the textbook
(section 3.2 ‘From one to many: the cell cycle’)
before attempting the following tasks.
Telophase
1 Draw on the graph a plot of the quantity
of DNA in a cell during the cell cycle.
Assume that a cell contains two arbitrary
units of DNA just after cell division.
Anaphase
2 Cut out the pictures of the cells below, and
stick them in the correct boxes below the
graph on the right or use a number key.
Metaphase
Prophase
A3.09S
CORE
Student
Activity 3.9 Observing mitosis
Purpose
• To prepare some slides of actively dividing plant tissue.
• To observe the stages of the cell cycle in living tissue.
• To consider the duration of the stages of mitosis in relation to the whole cell cycle.
• To develop certain experimental skills, namely safety, the use of microscopes,
producing reliable and valid results and recording results.
Preparing the cells
To see mitosis in action you need to look at living cells. Garlic bulbs grow roots that have actively
dividing cells in their tips. Each cell has only eight chromosomes so it is relatively easy to see the
chromosomes once they have condensed.
In order to see the chromosomes inside the cells, the cells must be separated and spread out into a layer
that is ideally just one-cell thick. Plant cells are glued together by a middle lamella of pectins.
Hydrochloric acid will break down these pectins that hold the cell together. Use Method 1 or 2 to stain
chromosomes.
Examine your preparation carefully for cells undergoing different stages of mitosis. Identify the
different stages by comparison with labelled pictures or photographs of cells during mitosis. Bear in
mind that mitosis is a dynamic process so cells may have been fixed in transition from one stage to the
next – you will have to interpret what you see.
Questions
Q1 Identify cells in the following stages of mitosis: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase. Draw one cell to illustrate each stage. Your drawings will be simple outlines of the cells and
the groups of chromosomes in them as few other structures will be visible. Aim to show the relative sizes
and positions of the chromosomes and the cell accurately. Annotate to describe what is happening.
Q2 Count the number of cells in the area visible under the microscope when viewed at x400 (the field of
view). Count the number of cells in each stage of mitosis. Record your results in a table.
Q3 Calculate the percentage of the cells in each stage of mitosis. Rank these values from highest to lowest.
Given that your preparation freezes the process of mitosis at one point of time, what do these values
suggest to you about the length of time a cell spends in each stage of mitosis? Explain how you arrive at
your conclusion.
Q4 If a group of cells is dividing rapidly, a high proportion of the cells will be undergoing mitosis. A group of
cells that is not dividing will have all cells in interphase of the cell cycle. The amount of cell division
occurring in a tissue can be quantified using the mitotic index. The mitotic index is used for studying
tumour growth in cancer patients. Using the formula below, calculate the mitotic index for your root tip. If
you have time, compare this value with the mitotic index of an area of cells away from the tip and
comment on your findings.
Mitotic index = number of cells containing visible chromosomes
total number of cells in the field of view
Q5 a Using a stage micrometer and eyepiece graticule make appropriate measurements to allow you to
compare the size of interphase cells with those that are undergoing cytoplasmic division. See
Practical Support Sheet 9 Size and Scale for information on the use of a stage micrometer and eye
piece graticule. Comment on your finding.
b Explain how you ensured, or could ensure, that the results are i reliable and ii valid.
Q6 Explain the safety precautions taken during this practical.
Q7 The cellulose walls of plant cells are held together by a cement called the middle lamella. Treatment with
hydrochloric acid breaks this down. Why is this helpful in your preparation?
Q8 You may have found few dividing cells in your root tip(s). Suggest possible reasons.
A3.09S
CORE
Activity 3.9 Observing mitosis Student
Method 1 Using toluidine blue stain

Safety You need
1 M hydrochloric acid is an irritant. Wear • Garlic roots
eye protection. • 1 M hydrochloric acid
Toluidine blue is harmful if ingested and • Toluidine blue stain
will also stain skin and clothes. • Cold distilled water
• 2 watch glasses or small sample
Procedure tubes
1 Cut off about 1 cm from several root tips of some • Hollow glass block or small
growing garlic roots. Choose root tips which sample tube
are white and have a firm, rounded end; tips • Pipettes (and pipette fillers) or
that are turning brown will give poor results. small measuring cylinders
• Microscope slides and coverslips
2 Put the root tips into a hollow glass block or • Pair of fine forceps
small sample tube containing 2 cm3 1 M • Filter paper or soft tissue paper
hydrochloric acid for exactly 5 minutes. • Microscope with magnifications of
3 Put the root tips in a watch glass containing x100 and x400
approximately 5 cm3 cold water. Leave the
root tips for 4–5 minutes, then dry them on
filter paper. Take care – the root tips will
be very fragile.
4 Transfer one of the root tips to a clean microscope slide. Cut about 2–3 mm from the rounded
growing tip. Make sure you keep this rounded tip; discard the rest.
5 Gently break up the root tip with a mounted needle (this is called maceration). Add one small
drop of toluidine blue and leave to stain for 2 minutes.
6 Cover with a coverslip, and blot firmly with several layers of tissue or filter paper. Press gently
to spread the root tip, or tap gently on the coverslip with the end of a pencil.
7 View under the microscope (x400 magnification) and look for cells with visible chromosomes. If
cells are overlapping, squash the slide again between two wads of filter paper. Avoid lateral
movement of the coverslip.
8 Look for regularly shaped, actively dividing cells. DNA stains dark blue with toluidine blue
stain so you should be able to see blue groups of chromosomes against a paler background.
9 If your preparation is not very successful, repeat with some of the other root tips from step 3.
Try to adjust your procedure to remedy the problem; for example if your cells are over- or
under-stained, adjust the time they are left in the stain.
A3.09S
CORE
Activity 3.9 Observing mitosis Student
Method 2 Using orcein ethanoic stain

Safety You need
1 M hydrochloric acid is an irritant. • Garlic roots
Wear eye protection. • 1 M hydrochloric acid
Orcein ethanoic stain is corrosive, irritant, causes • Acetic alcohol (ethanoic alcohol)
burns, has an irritating vapour and stains. Wear • Orcein ethanoic stain (acetic orcein)
eye protection and avoid contact with skin. If • Ice cold distilled water
contact does occur, wash the area thoroughly with • Water bath at 60 °C
water for 10 minutes. Mop up spillages • 2 watch glasses or small sample
immediately. glasses
• Test tube
Acetic alcohol is both corrosive and highly • 2 Pipettes (and pipette fillers) or
flammable. Wear eye protection and avoid skin small measuring cylinders
contact. • Microscope slides and coverslips
• Pair of fine forceps
Procedure
• Filter paper or soft tissue paper
1 Put a test tube containing 2 cm3 1 M • Microscope with magnifications of
hydrochloric acid into a water bath at 60 °C. x100 and x400
2 Cut off about 1 cm from several root tips of some
growing garlic roots. Choose root tips which
are white and have a firm, rounded end; tips
that are turning brown will give poor results.
3 Put the root tips in a watch glass containing approximately 2 cm3 of acetic alcohol for
a minimum of 10 minutes.
4 Remove the root tips and place them in a second watch glass with approximately
5 cm3 ice-cold water. Leave for 4–5 minutes, then dry the root tips on filter paper.
It is important to blot the tips well to remove the water at this stage, or a
precipitate may form when staining.
5 Put the root tips into the pre-heated hydrochloric acid for exactly 5 minutes.
6 Repeat step 3. Take care – the root tips will be very fragile.
7 Transfer one of the root tips to a clean microscope slide. Cut about 2–3 mm from the rounded
growing tip. Make sure you keep this rounded tip; discard the rest.
8 Gently break up the root tip cells with a mounted needle (this is called maceration).
Add one small drop of acetic orcein stain and leave to stain for 2 minutes.
9 Cover with a coverslip, and blot firmly with several layers of tissue or filter paper.
Press gently to spread the root tip, or tap gently on the coverslip with the end of a pencil.
10 View under the microscope (x400 magnification) and look for cells with visible chromosomes.
11 Look for regularly shaped, actively dividing cells. DNA stains dark red/black with acetic orcein
stain so you should be able to see red/purple groups of chromosomes against a paler pink
background.
12 If your preparation is not very successful, repeat with some of the other root tips from stage 6.
Try to adjust your procedure to remedy the problem; for example if your cells are over- or
under-stained, adjust the quantity of stain added.
A3.10S
Student
Activity 3.10 Mitosis cell count in an

onion root tip
Purpose
z To determine the length of time each stage of mitosis lasts in an onion root tip.
In this activity you will investigate the dynamic nature of mitosis.
Preparing for the activity

Counting the number of cells in one phase, e.g. telophase, and dividing this number by
the total number of cells, will give the proportion of cells in that phase. This allows the
length of each phase to be calculated if we assume that the proportion of cells in each
phase of the cell cycle represents the proportion of time spent by individual cells in each
phase.
The cell counts you will need to complete the calculation can come from practical work
completed in Activity 3.9, or from the first part of the interactive tutorial that
accompanies this activity. In the second part of the interactive tutorial a spreadsheet is
used to analyse the data. If you do not have access to a spreadsheet, the exercise can be done
without one.
Questions
Q1 Explain how the cells in an onion root tip photomicrograph (see the interactive tutorial that accompanies
this activity or the textbook (page 118) for an example) or in a root tip squash that you have prepared
suggest that there is a sequence of phases to mitosis.
Q2 Why is it fair to assume that the proportion of cells in each phase of the cell cycle represents the
proportion of time spent by individual cells in each phase?
Q3 Enter the figures for your cell count into a spreadsheet. Use the spreadsheet to answer the following:
a Calculate the % time spent by cells in each phase (cells in one phase divided by total number of
cells, multiplied by 100).
b Assume the cell cycle is completed in 15 hours. Calculate the actual time spent in each phase, and
produce a pie chart to show this.
Q4 In which phase of the cell cycle do the cells appear to spend most time? Suggest a reason for this.
Q5 Compare your recorded frequencies of the different stages of the cell cycle with the data below which
show the observed occurrence in representative microscopic fields. How are these results similar
/different from your own cell count?
Phase Number of cells % of total cells

Interphase 2250 83
Prophase 268 10
Metaphase 76 3
Anaphase 51 2
Telophase 79 3
Q6 Suggest a reason for any differences between the two sets of data.
A3.11S
CORE
Student
Activity 3.11 Plant tissue culture
Purpose
z To demonstrate the totipotency of plant cells.
Complete plants from cells

Plant tissue culture refers to the growth of individual cells or, as in this case, organs, on an artificial
medium.
In this practical you will take the tops of plant seedlings and grow them into complete plants on
agar. With most plant species this could take many weeks, but you will use ‘rapid-cycling’ plants.
(These are plants which grow and complete their life cycles quickly, not those that are speedy on a
bike!) Over a week or two you should see the explants (the parts of the seedlings you removed)
grow new leaves, a new stem and more leaves, and even new roots and flower buds.
Plant tissue culture is used in industry to develop improved plant and food crop species, increase the
disease resistance of plants and encourage plants to produce increased quantities of phytochemicals
used in drugs.
Procedure
Some of these steps may have previously been done for you. In this case start where your teacher
indicates.
1 Sprinkle some seeds of white mustard (Sinapsis alba) or rapid cycling brassica (Brassica rapa)
onto a damp sponge placed in a plastic tray. Cover with transparent cling film and place in a
warm, light place to germinate. When the seedlings have just started to unfold their cotyledons
(seed leaves), they are ready to culture.
2 Measure out 2.5 g of agar powder and add to 250 cm3 of distilled water. Heat and stir gently until
the agar dissolves.
3 Whilst the agar is still molten, pour about 2 cm depth into several short-necked test tubes or
McCartney bottles. Allow to cool and solidify.
4 With a sharp pair of scissors cut the tops off the seedlings just below the shoot apex (growing
tip). These are the explants. Leave the hypocotyls (the early stem) and roots behind on the
sponge.
5 Carefully push the cut end of each explant into the agar. Put one explant into each test tube or
bottle. Make sure the cotyledons do not touch the agar.
6 Cover the tubes with cling film or a clear lid. On each tube or bottle write your name or initials,
and the date. Place the tubes in a rack under a light bank or on a sunny windowsill. Do not open
the tubes again.
7 Observe the progress of your explants daily, and record when anything of note develops. If you
have a mobile phone and can use it at your school or college, set the alarm to remind you to visit
your explants every day at break or lunchtime. Try to observe over a period of 10 days or so.
Activity based on SAPS student sheet 12: Fast tissue culture ©SAPS
A3.11S
CORE
Activity 3.11 Plant tissue culture Student
Questions
Q1 What, if anything, would you expect the explants to obtain from the agar?
Q2 Why is it advised you use short-necked test tubes or McCartney bottles? If you only had long-necked
test tubes what should you do?
Q3 Why should you cover the tubes with a transparent lid?
Q4 Why should you not open the tubes again once you have set them up?
Q5 Suggest what measurements could be made as the explants grow.
Q6 Explain why the explants can grow and develop new leaves, stem and roots.
Q7 You could extend this experiment by just growing the shoot apex (no cotyledons), or isolated cotyledons
on their own, and comparing your results with growing the shoot apex/cotyledons together. What further
information would you gain by doing this?
A3.12S
Student
Activity 3.12 Ethical concerns about stem cell research
Purpose
z To discuss the ethical implications of stem cell research.
A variety of views
In this activity you will consider some of the different views expressed about the status of the
human embryo and the use of embryo stem cells for research. You will think about and decide
what your own position is on this issue.
Although most scientists believe that embryonic stem cells will be more valuable for research than
multipotent stem cells from adults there is, as yet, no consensus (agreement) for or against the use
of human embryos for research. Here is a selection of quotations from people for and against the
use of human embryos for research:
“This research is very pro-life. The life of a clump of cells smaller than a pin-head – the pre-14-day-old
embryo – does deserve some respect. But the lives of people with cancer, diseases such as Parkinson’s
and organ failure who could be saved by the development of stem cells deserve to be given a higher
value.”
Dr Evan Harris, Liberal Democrat MP and science spokesperson
“Those who oppose this development need to show good reason why people with chronic illnesses should
be denied advances in medical treatments that would substantially improve their quality of life.”
Parkinson’s Research Interest Group
“There is widespread agreement that the huge philosophical and ethical implications of these
developments have not been considered fully.”
A coalition of 11 religious leaders representing Church of England,
Free Church, Jewish, Muslim, Roman Catholic and Sikh traditions
“The human embryo has a special status, and we owe a measure of respect to the embryo. But we also
owe a measure of respect to the millions of people living with these devastating illnesses and the millions
who have yet to show signs of them.”
Lord Hunt, Junior Health Minister
“The cloning of human embryos would be like a bursting of a dam. . . . Once human embryos are cloned
and used for the breeding of organs, there would immediately be attempts to go further.”
Dr Piete Liese, Member of the European Parliament
“To rush to approve the destruction of embryos in order to harvest and experiment on ES cells is
inadvisable and unnecessary. We should address the ethical concerns first.”
Frank E. Young, Reformed Theological Seminary, Fourth Presbyterian Church, USA
“I may feel sorry about two or three cells but also I care about the millions of cells that are a human
person.”
Professor Julia Polak, Director of the Tissue Engineering Centre
at The Hammersmith Hospital, London
A3.12S
Activity 3.12 Ethical concerns about stem cell research Student
Procedure
Activity 1: Find out people’s views on human embryos in medical research
1 Produce a short summary leaflet about the arguments for and against using human embryos for
medical therapies suitable for a member of the general public. (Hint: think about designing it for
someone with a reading age of a typical 14-year-old and make sure it can be read in just 5
minutes!)
2 Show this leaflet to your teacher/lecturer and, once they have approved it, run off 20
photocopies.
3 Produce a short interview schedule with just five questions about people’s attitudes towards the
use of human embryos for medical therapies. (Hint: have some questions that can be answered
with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ – e.g. ‘Do you think the government should permit the use of human embryos
for medical therapies if it was likely that this would save some people’s lives?’ – and some
‘open’ questions that cannot be answered in this way – e.g. ‘How would you feel if you heard
that human embryos were being used for medical therapies?’)
4 Show this interview schedule to your teacher/lecturer and, once they have approved it, run off
20 photocopies.
5 Give the leaflet to 20 people who fall into two different categories – e.g. 10 adult women and 10
adult men, or 10 Advanced level Biology students and 10 Advanced level English students. Tell
them that the next day you would like to carry out a 5 minute interview with them about their
attitudes towards the use of human embryos for medical therapies (not their knowledge of the
science).
6 The next day, carry out the interview with these 20 people. (Hint: practise a couple of interviews
with your friends first. Ensure you can write down the important bits of what is said and ensure
you have more than enough copies of your interview schedule.)
7 Analyse your findings to see if there are interesting similarities or differences between your two
different categories of people. Discuss your findings with the rest of the group.
Activity 2: Debate about whether embryonic stem cells should be used for research
Organise a debate or discussion in which both sides of the issue are argued: whether the use of
embryonic stem cells for research should be permitted or not.
At the end of the debate or discussion take a vote to see how many people would approve of greater
use of stem cells in medical therapies.
A3.13S
Student
Activity 3.13 Acetabularia experiments
Purpose
z To encourage students to discuss the evidence
and conclusions drawn from a set of
experiments.
z To appreciate the influence of the nucleus and
cytoplasm on development.
Figure 1 The structure of
Why use Acetabularia? Acetabularia.
Acetabularia (Figure 1) is a green alga consisting of a single cell,
2–3 cm long. It has a rhizoid at one end, containing the nucleus, and a ‘hat’ at the other end.
Because Acetabularia is such a large cell, it is possible to perform microsurgery on it, dissecting the
sections, and transferring the nucleus from one section to another. It has been used to study the role
of the nucleus and cytoplasm in development.
Questions
Look at the figures and answer the questions that follow each one. To help you answer the questions,
perform the experiments yourself in the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity.
Figure 2 In Experiment 1,
Acetabularia was cut into three
sections which were then allowed to
develop separately
Q1 From the results of Experiment 1, what can you conclude about the position of the genetic
material in the Acetabularia cell?
Figure 3 In Experiment 2, the tip

was cut off a young cell and the
rhizoid was left attached for a
few days. The rhizoid was then
cut off, and the new tip
developed a hat.
A3.13S
Activity 3.13 Acetabularia experiments Student
Q2 Does Experiment 2 give you any evidence that either backs up or conflicts with the
conclusions you drew from Experiment 1?
Figure 4 In Experiment 3, the

rhizoid and hat were cut off; then
the nucleus was transferred from
the rhizoid into the stem of a
young cell. The stem grew into a
complete cell with hat and
rhizoid, and with the nucleus in
the rhizoid.
Q3 What extra information does the result of Experiment 3 give you that supports or modifies your answer to 1?
Figure 5 In Experiment 4, the

rhizoids and stems from
individuals of two different
species of Acetabularia were
separated and the stems
switched. The cells developed
hats which were intermediate
to the hats of the two species.
Q4 What can you conclude from Experiment 4 about what influences development of the tip of
the Acetabularia cell?
Q5 Explain how Experiment 4 supports the conclusions made from the first three experiments.
A3.13S
Activity 3.13 Acetabularia experiments Student
Q6 Outline the ‘story’ of how the nucleus in the rhizoid of Acetabularia controls cell processes at a distance, such
as development of a new hat. You could draw a flow diagram with sketches, or make brief notes. You should
include relevant information about transcription and translation (Topic 2) in addition to what you have learned
in Topic 3.
Extension activity
1 Summarise the conclusions that can be drawn from the four Acetabularia experiments in a table
similar to the one below. For each statement that you write into the conclusion column, you
should state the precise evidence from one or more of the experiments. If there is another piece
of evidence which conflicts with the conclusion, you should write this in the last column.
An example is given:
Conclusion Supporting evidence Conflicting evidence
1. All the genetic material is Experiment 1: The rhizoid is the Experiment 1: Some genetic
contained in the rhizoid. only section which develops into a material could be in the tip, as the
complete plant. Experiment 4: The tip can develop a hat even when
new hats that eventually develop the rhizoid is cut off.
correspond to the species of
Acetabularia of the rhizoid.
A3.14S
Student
Activity 3.14 Induction of β-galactosidase
Purpose You need

• To demonstrate practically the switching • Culture of E. coli in nutrient broth without
on of a gene. lactose
• To practise aseptic techniques. • Culture of E. coli in nutrient broth with
• To develop certain experimental skills, lactose
namely safety, presenting results and • ONPG solution
drawing conclusions. • Methylbenzene (toluene)
• Disinfectant – clear phenolic, ethanol or
ONPG as indicator hypochlorite
• 5 × 1 cm3 sterile pipettes with filler
Cells only express genes when the protein products
• 5 or 10 cm3 disposable syringe
they code for are needed, thus conserving energy
• Dropper
and resources within the cell. The bacterium
• 4 test tubes and rack
Escherichia coli (E. coli) can use different
• Bungs or Parafilm® for test tubes
carbohydrates as a food source. If lactose, the
• Water bath at 35 °C
disaccharide found in milk, is present in the growth
• Stopclock
medium it must be broken down into the
• Disposable gloves
monosaccharides glucose and galactose before it
• Access to a fume cupboard
can be utilised as an energy source in respiration.
• Marker pen
E. coli has a gene for an enzyme called β-
• If optical density is being measured:
galactosidase that breaks down the lactose. The
hairdryer and colorimeter
presence of lactose switches on this gene so the
enzyme is produced.
ONPG, a colourless synthetic compound, can also be broken down by β-galactosidase to give
galactose and ONP, a yellow compound. The formation of this yellow product is used in this
activity to indicate the presence of active β-galactosidase.
Safety
All enzymes should be treated as potential allergens; avoid contact and
ingestion or inhalation.
Methylbenzene is highly flammable and harmful by inhalation. Keep away from flames. The vapour
is irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes and evaporation should only be done in a fume
cupboard. Small quantities can be used with care at the bench. Avoid contact with skin and eyes.
Aseptic techniques should be employed when using microorganisms. See the Practical support on
plate pouring and aseptic techniques for detail.
Any spills should be cleared up quickly and correctly.
The disinfectant used may be toxic or harmful and likely to irritate the skin.
A3.14S
Activity 3.14 Induction of β-galactosidase Student
Student
Procedure
1 Wipe down the bench with disinfectant.
2 Label three test tubes 1 to 3.
3
3 Using aseptic techniques, transfer 1 cm of the E. coli in nutrient broth without lactose to test
tube 1.
3
4 Again using aseptic techniques, transfer 1 cm of the E. coli in nutrient broth with lactose to test
tube 2.
3
5 Using the same techniques, add 1 cm of distilled water to test tube 3. This is a control.
6 If the enzyme β-galactosidase is available, add 1 cm to a fourth test tube, labelled 4. This is a
3
second control, because the addition of the enzyme should change the colour in the test tube and
allow comparisons with the other tubes.
7 Add five drops of methylbenzene to each test tube.
3
8 Add 1 cm of the ONPG solution to each test tube.
® ® ®
9 Cover each test tube with Parafilm (Parafilm is a trade name, like Sellotape ) or a bung, and
shake to help disperse the ONPG.
10 Put all the test tubes in a water bath set at 35 °C.
11 Compare the colours of the tubes as any colours develop. Record your observations in an
appropriate way.
12 Explain your findings with supporting evidence from the experimental observations and using
your biological knowledge.
Estimating the quantity of β-galactosidase

The optical density of the sample can be measured using the following technique:
After adding the methylbenzene, transfer the tube to a fume cupboard. Use a hairdryer to evaporate
all the solvent. Then transfer the tube to a water bath and add ONPG as previously. Measure the
optical density of the sample at 420 or 440 nm.
Describe in detail how this procedure could be used to estimate the quantity of β-galactosidase in a
sample
A3.15S
Student
Activity 3.15 Modelling flowers
Purpose
• To understand that cells in the flower become
specialised through differential gene expression.
• To appreciate how the ABC model of flower
development was worked out.
Flower structure
Before completing this activity you need to recall the terms used to describe the parts of a flower.
You should have learned these at primary school or in your first years at secondary school, but as a
revision exercise label the parts of the diagram below and add each part’s function. Ensure you
include the terms: petal, sepal, style, stigma, ovule, carpel, stamen, filament, anther, ovary, and
receptacle. It may help to dissect the flower of a perennial geranium (Cranesbill) or a stargazer lily
and then draw it in cross section.
Safety
Lily pollen can cause allergic rhinitis (hay fever) in some individuals. It can stain if damp.
Avoid contact with skin or clothing.
Figure 1 Cross section of a Cranesbill flower
A3.15S
Activity 3.15 Modelling flowers Student
Genetic control of flower development

The parts of a dicotyledonous flower are arranged in four concentric whorls or circles of organs,
Figure 2. If you look down on an open flower, the outermost circle contains the sepals that protect
the flower bud. These are green when the flower is in bud, but often turn brown and shrivel once
the flower has opened. Moving in you will see the petals themselves, which are often brightly
coloured and showy to attract insect pollinators.
In some species, the sepals and petals are indistinguishable, in which case they are called tepals.
The two innermost whorls of the flower contain the reproductive organs. In the third whorl are the
stamens – the male reproductive parts which produce pollen in anthers at the end of filaments.
Finally, in the fourth whorl at the centre, are the carpels or female reproductive parts. Each carpel
consists of an ovary and stigma, and usually a style connects the two. Several carpels often fuse
together.
Figure 2 Flower parts are arranged in 4 concentric whorls.
Flowers develop at the apical meristems; these growing tips of shoots consist of rapidly dividing,
undifferentiated cells that differentiate into sepals, petals and so on. In the late 1980s several
research groups used mutant snapdragon (Antirrhinum) and mustard (Arabidopsis) flowers to
develop the ‘ABC model of flowering’ to explain the control of flower development.
It was proposed that there were three groups of genes: A, B and C controlling the flower
development. When all three groups of genes are expressed the flower forms correctly. In the
mutant plants the flower parts develop in the wrong whorl.
You are going to construct the wild type and three mutant flowers and use them to work out how
genes A, B and C determine the development of flowers.
A3.15S
Procedure
1 Complete the top row of the table overleaf showing what the normal or ‘wild type’ flower
should have in each whorl.
Genes expressed Whorl 1 Whorl 2 Whorl 3 Whorl 4

A + B + C (‘wild type’ i.e. normal)
A + C (B - mutants) sepals sepals carpels carpels
B + C (A - mutants) carpels stamens stamens carpels
A + B (C - mutants) sepals petals petals sepals
Table 1 The appearance of wild type and mutant Antirrhinum flowers.
2 Using the ‘cut and stick’ flower parts or by drawing the parts, construct the longitudinal section
‘half-flower’ for the wild type. Stick your completed ‘half-flower’ in the correct place on the
table at the end of this Activity sheet. Remember that the complete half-flower will have 8 parts
since each whorl appears twice across the flower: 1,2,3,4,4,3,2,1, or sepal, petal, stamen, carpel,
carpel, stamen, petal, sepal.
3 Repeat step two for each of the three mutants.
4 Look at your model flowers, and identify the flower parts that do appear in the correct positions
for each of the three mutants. Shade in the appropriate boxes of the table above to indicate
where these occur.
5 Use the information in the table to complete these summary statements:
Whorl 1 should contain ____________________. Gene group_______ must be expressed for these to
form.
Whorl 2 should contain ____________________. Gene groups _____ and _____ must be expressed for
these to form.
Whorl 3 should contain ____________________. Gene groups _____ and _____ must be expressed for
these to form.
Whorl 4 should contain ____________________. Gene group _______ must be expressed for these to
form.
Each group of genes is active in ___adjacent whorls. Group __genes are active in whorls 1 and 2.
Group __genes are active in whorls 2 and 3. Group ___genes are active in whorls 3 and 4.
In the absence of gene A, gene C is expressed in all whorls, and in the absence of gene C, gene A is
expressed in all whorls.
A3.15S
6 Figure 4 shows the regions where the three gene groups are active. Using a different colour for
each gene group shade in the parts where each gene is expressed in the wild type flower. You
will need to use hatched colours for the expression of two gene groups. Complete the key with
your colours.
Key
Gene group A expressed
Gene group B expressed
Gene group C expressed
Figure 4 A diagram showing how the three gene groups A, B and C control the development of flower parts.
References
Lohmann, J. U. and Weigel, D. ‘Building beauty: The genetic control of floral patterning.’ Developmental cell, 2, 135–
142. (A summary or review article)
Mendoza, L., Thieffry, D and Alvarez-Buylla, E.R. ‘Genetic control of flower morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana: a
logical analysis’. Bioinformatics, 15, 593-606.
A3.15S
Table 2 Structure of the wild type and mutant flowers in the ABC model of flowering.
Wild type flower Mutant A– (genes B and C expressed)
Mutant B– (genes A and C expressed) Mutant C– (genes A and B expressed)
A3.15S
Sepals
Petals
Stamens
Carpels
A3.16S
Student
Activity 3.16 Many genes can affect
a single characteristic
Purpose
• To examine how some characteristics are affected by alleles at many loci.
• To show how polygenic inheritance can give rise to phenotypes which show
continuous variation.
Alleles at many loci

You have already met monohybrid inheritance where each locus is responsible for a single
heritable feature. Some characteristics are affected by alleles at many loci. Each allele has a
small effect on the characteristic, and the effects of several alleles jointly contribute to the
phenotype of an individual.
Any characteristic that shows continuous variation may be partly the result of polygenic
inheritance, for example skin colour, height, weight and intelligence. Look through the worked
example on inheritance of height and then answer the questions that follow.
Inheritance of height
Suppose that only two genes A/a and B/b were involved in the determination of height. The
alleles a and b each contribute 5 cm to the height above a baseline. The alleles A and B each
contribute 10 cm to the height – so the homozygous AABB would give a height of 40 cm above
our baseline.
If two homozygotes were crossed they would produce heterozygous individuals, all of the same
height.
Remember: A and B each contribute 10 cm
a and b each contribute 5 cm
Parent phenotypes (height above baseline): 20 cm 40 cm
Parent genotypes: aabb AABB
Gametes: ab AB
F1 offspring genotypes: AaBb
F1 offspring phenotypes: 30 cm
If two heterozygotes were crossed there would be a range of phenotypes as shown below:
Gametes from one parent
AB Ab aB ab
AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb
Gametes Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb

from other
parent
aB AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb
ab AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb
A3.16S
Activity 3.16 Many genes can affect Student
a single characteristic
Q1 Fill in the phenotypes for each of the genotypes in the table on page 1 to check that the range of
heights obtained is the same as the data presented on the graph in Figure 1 below.
Number of offspring with that height

6
20 25 30 35 40
Height above baseline/cm
Figure 1 Graph showing height distribution of offspring.
If, instead of two loci, there were many, each contributing a smaller increase in height, the
number of height phenotypes would increase. The more loci, the greater the number of height
classes, and the smaller the differences between neighbouring classes. This, combined with the
effects of the environment, for example diet, results in the sort of smooth height curve seen in
Topic 3, page 134.
Many characteristics whose inheritance is polygenic are also affected by the environment.
Many genetically inherited diseases are thought to be polygenic but are triggered by factors in the
environment, or have the severity of their expression affected by factors in the environment.
Q2 The colour of a plant’s flowers is controlled by alleles at three loci. The flowers show a range of
colours from deep red to white; the larger the number of R alleles inherited, the darker the colour of
the flowers.
If a deep red homozygous plant is crossed with a white homozygous plant it produces plants that are
pink. What will the genotypes of the parents and offspring be, assuming that the deep red alleles are
R1, R2, and R3, and the white alleles are r1, r2 and r3?
Q3 Coronary heart disease is thought to be the result of alleles at several loci, but the effect of these
alleles is combined with environmental factors that increase the risk of developing the disease. Such
diseases are known as multifactoral. What factors have been identified as increasing the risk of
CHD?
A3.17S
Student
Activity 3.17 Are we still getting taller?
Purpose
z To demonstrate that certain characteristics (in this case human height) may be affected by both
genotype and environment.
z To give experience of using a spreadsheet and comparing means using statistical methods.
Collecting evidence
Few people reach the height of Nigel Fingleton from Durham. At 2.33 m (7 feet 7 inches) he is one
of the tallest men in the world. But there is evidence that the population is getting taller. It is
estimated that the average height in the UK has risen by about 8 cm in 250 years.
Figure 1 Average height of army recruits.
Figure 1 shows the average height of recruits to the Dutch, Belgian and Spanish armies
between 1960 and 1990 indicating an increase in height of more than a centimetre per
decade. In 1981 the average height of adults in the UK was 173.8 cm for males and
160.9 cm for females. In 1993 the Health Survey for England recorded a mean height of
174.4 cm for men and 161.1 cm for women. In 12 years males had increased in height by
an average of 0.6 cm and females by an average of 0.2 cm.
In 2005 the mean heights for UK males and females aged 16–24 years were 177.0 cm (standard
error of the mean 0.40 cm) and 163.20 cm (standard error of the mean 0.33 cm) respectively. In the
time since these data were collected has there been an increase in the height of this age group?
To answer this question, you can take part in the SNAB Height Survey and also find recent data on
the Internet.
A3.17S
Activity 3.17 Are we still getting taller? Student
1 The SNAB Height Survey

You can enter your height into the survey as an individual or as a class set. But any one
individual should only be entered on one occasion. To ensure that the all the data are
collected in the same way you need to follow the height measuring procedure outlined
below.
Height measuring
If a height-measuring stand is available this should be used. If not, a
measuring tape should be attached to a wall or an accurate scale marked
on a wall. This scale should have 1 mm divisions. A right-angled block
is brought down so that it lightly rests on the head. Ensure that the back
of the block is flat against the wall, and that the person being measured
is standing straight, not leaning back against the wall. The height
measurement in centimetres is read from the scale to the nearest cm.
The measurements are then entered into the database. Enter a figure like
151.4 cm as 151 cm and 151.5 or 151.6 cm as 152 cm.
The data can be accessed for use by any centre by going to the online
spreadsheet that accompanies this activity.
Analysing the data
The data can be analysed by hand or by using an Excel spreadsheet as
explained on pages 3–7.
1 Check that the data are normally distributed by working out the Figure 2 Measuring height.
frequencies of the heights and plotting the data. For height
measurements you should get a bell-shaped, normal distribution curve. This should
also show that height exhibits continuous variation.
2 Calculate the mean male and female heights.
3 Calculate standard deviations and errors for the male and female height data. The
standard deviation is a measure of how much variation there is in the sample. The
standard error provides an estimate of how close the sample mean probably is to the
mean for the whole population. (See the Maths/stats support if you need help.)
Questions on the SNAB Height Survey

Q1 Compare the mean values you have obtained with those from the 2005 Health Survey of England for
16 to 24-year-olds. Is there any significant difference between the two sets of values?
You could test this using a t-test. (See the Maths/stats support for statistics help.)
Q2 Comment on your findings. Give possible reasons for the increase, lack of change or decrease in
height. You should include biological explanations and comment on the reliability of the data.
Q3 How could this activity be extended to investigate causes of any height differences over time or in
different locations?
2 Finding recent data on the internet

Look for data on the Government national statistics site, Statbase®, or the Department
for Health website. The weblinks for this activity has a link to the best place to start.
Once there, click on the list of tables.
A3.17S
Calculations using an Excel spreadsheet

Calculating frequencies
1 Select all the student heights (click on the first height value and then drag the cursor over the
rest until they are all highlighted – Figure 3).
Figure 3 Select all the height data.
2 Press the icon on the tool bar to put the heights in order, from smallest to largest (Figure 4).
Figure 4 Put the data in size order.
A3.17S
Screenshots reproduced with permission of Microsoft Corporation.

3 In the first cell of the column alongside the data enter the smallest value rounded down to the
closest 5 cm; for example if the smallest value was 124 you enter 120. Then enter values in the
column below at 5 cm intervals; for example 125, 130, 135, 140 etc. Continue until you have
entered the 5 cm value above the largest result e.g.165 for 162 (Figure 5).
Figure 5 Define interval categories.

4 You can now use the frequency function to work out the number of values in each of the
5 cm intervals you have defined. For example, 120, 125, 130, 135 and 140 would give intervals
of 0–120, 121–125, 126–130, 131–135 and 136–140. Click on the cell adjacent to the first cell
of your interval data. Drag down and select a column of cells that is one cell longer than the
interval data (Figure 6).
Figure 6 Selecting cells for the frequency values data in each size category.
A3.17S
5 Click on the ƒx (function) icon on the tool bar. Select the function category ‘Statistical’ and then
the function name ‘Frequency’. Click OK (Figure 7).
Figure 7 Using the function icon to work out frequency.

6 A box appears asking you to enter data_array. Click on the red arrow at the end of the box
(Figure 8). This takes you to the spreadsheet. Click on the first height data value and drag down
until all the student height data are selected.
Figure 8 Working out the frequency.
A3.17S
Open the frequency dialog box again by clicking on the red arrow (Figure 9).

The selected cells will have appeared as the Data_array. Click the Bins_array red arrow and select
all the values in your interval data column. Return to the frequency dialog box and you should see
the cell numbers as the Bins_array (Figure 10).
A3.17S
7 Hold CONTROL + SHIFT down and click OK. The number of values that are in each of the
interval classes you defined will appear in the cells that you selected in step 4 (Figure 11).
Figure 11 Drawing a graph.
8 Still with this set of data selected click on the graph button on the tool bar (Figure 11) and draw
a line graph to display the trend.
For height measurements you should get a bell-shaped, normal distribution curve.
Calculating the mean male and female heights
9 Click in the cell you want the answer to appear in.
x
10 Click on the ƒ icon on the tool bar. Select ‘Statistical function’ category and ‘Average function’
name. Click OK.
11 The average dialog box will open. Press the red arrow alongside ‘Number 1’ to go to the
spreadsheet. Select all the cells with data for male heights. Return to the dialogue box by
clicking the red arrow. Click OK and the calculated average will appear in the answer cell.
Calculating standard deviations and errors
x
12 Open the STDEV dialog box using the ƒ icon on the tool bar. In the STDEV dialog box enter
details in the ‘Number 1’ box by going to the spreadsheet and selecting all the values that were
used to calculate the average in step 11.
13 To work out standard error divide the standard deviations by √n where n is the number of items
of data.
Repeat steps 9 to 13 for the female data.
A3.18S
Student
Activity 3.18 Genes or the environment
Purpose
z To appreciate the difficulty of determining the
extent to which characteristics in organisms are
caused by genetic or environmental factors.
A case study
In this activity you consider the relationship between monoamine oxidase A deficiency, childhood
maltreatment, and anti-social behaviour.
Watch the video clip of a news report and read the ‘Nature or nurture?’ article below about
Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), childhood maltreatment and anti-social behaviour that appears on
the Ethical Emporium website that accompanies this activity, and answer the questions. Use full
sentences so as to produce some notes on this topic. To answer the last two questions
comprehensively will require extended writing.
The amended version of the article ‘Nature and nurture?’ that is the case study overview on the
Ethical Emporium website for Genes and anti-social behaviour can be found at the following URL:
http://www.windfalldigital.com/ethicalemporium/.
Questions
Q1 The New Zealand Dunedin study described in the ‘Nature or nurture?’ article is an example of a
‘longitudinal’ study. Look back at the information on epidemiological studies in Topic 1 section 1.3.
Which type of epidemiological study is similar to the Dunedin study? In what way is the Dunedin study
different from the epidemiological studies described in Topic 1?
Q2 Why was it important that the medical researchers in Dunedin tracked all the children born between
1972 and 1973, and not just some?
Q3 A retention rate of 97% after 26 years is very high for this type of study. Suggest why the Dunedin
study might have achieved this high retention rate.
Q4 Outline the function of neurotransmitters, and the role of the enzyme Monoamine oxidase A, in the
passage of nerve impulses.
Q5 Draw a series of annotated diagrams to show what is happening at a synapse in a person with
a normal levels of MAOA and
b a person with low levels of MAOA.
Q6 Using XM for the allele on the X chromosome which results in normal levels of MAOA, and Xm for the
mutant allele, explain why males are more likely to be affected by low levels of MAOA than females.
Q7 Why did the MAOA ‘knock out’ mice have very high levels of neurotransmitter compared with normal
mice?
Q8 How might researchers have decided that the ‘knock out’ mice were ‘fearless and aggressive’?
Q9 Why were males of Maori descent excluded from the King’s College analysis?
Q10 Why is it important that the Dunedin study’s findings have been confirmed by several other studies?
Q11 Can we conclude from the Dutch research and the King’s analysis of the Dunedin study that anti-social
behaviour is caused by a genetic mutation? Explain and justify your answer.
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Activity 3.18 Genes or the environment Student
Extension
Q12 When this scientific study was published in August 2002, its findings were widely reported in
mainstream newspapers and magazines. Look up some of news reports. What social, moral and
ethical issues do these reports raise?
To find out what some real scientists and researchers think about these issues, visit the Ethical Emporium
website and read the ‘Options and ethics: commentators’ section”.
Q13 You are a social worker working with a foster family looking after and supporting Jason. Jason was
maltreated as a child and exhibits quite severe anti-social behaviour. His foster family are finding him
increasingly hard to cope with. Jason’s natural mother maintains contact, although his father is in
prison. You have a colleague who is a genetic counsellor and she thinks Jason should be genetically
tested to see if he has the MAOA allele mutation. Discuss the questions below with another student
and note down what you think. There are no ‘right answers’!
• Do you think Jason should be tested?
• Who will benefit from knowing the results of the test?
• How would you explain about MAOA to his foster parents?
• How would you deal with the maltreatment issue?
• What sort of concerns and worries might all the involved parties have?
• How would you reassure them?
To find out more about Jason’s situation see the clips on the Ethical Emporium website.
News clip (from Genetic influences section)

Introduction to MAOA (from Options and ethics: testing and treatment section)
Explanation of genetics (from Options and ethics: testing and treatment section)
Jason’s options (from Options and ethics: testing and treatment section)
What a counsellor does (from Options and ethics: testing and treatment section)
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Student

The voice of the genome
Purpose
• To help you get your notes in order at the end of this topic.
Topic 3 summary
Make sure your notes cover the following points. The points are listed in the order they appear
within the topic. All the points are covered in the textbook but where there is supporting
information within the activities this is indicated.
o distinguish between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells in terms of their structure and
ultrastructure. (Checkpoint question 3.1)
o describe the ultrastructure of an animal (eukaryotic) cell (nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes,
rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, centrioles, lysosomes, and Golgi
apparatus) and recognise these organelles from EM images. (Activity 3.1)
o explain the role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) and the Golgi apparatus in protein
transport within cells and including its role in formation of extracellular enzymes. (Activity
3.2)
o explain how mammalian gametes are specialised for their functions. (Activity 3.3)
o explain the role of meiosis in the production of gametes and genetic variation through
recombination of alleles and genes including independent assortment and crossing over
(details of the stages of meiosis are not required). (Activity 3.5) (Checkpoint question 3.3)
o describe the process of fertilisation in mammals and flowering plants (starting with the
acrosome reaction in mammals and pollen tube growth in plants and ending with the fusion
of the nuclei). (Activities 3.3 and 3.6)
o explain the importance of fertilisation in sexual reproduction.
o explain the role of mitosis and the cell cycle for growth and asexual reproduction.
(Activities 3.7, 3.8 and 3.10)
o describe the stages of mitosis and how to prepare and stain a root tip squash in order to
observe them practically. (Activity 3.9) (Checkpoint question 3.4)
o explain what is meant by the terms stem cell, pluripotency and totipotency and discuss the
way society uses scientific knowledge to make decisions about the use of stem cells in
medical therapies (e.g. regulatory authorities relating to human embryo research, ability of
stem cells to develop into specialised tissues, potential sources of stem cells, who could
benefit from the therapies, procedures to obtain stem cells and their risks). (Activity 3.12)
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Activity 3.19 Check your notes for Topic 3: Student
The voice of the genome
o describe how totipotency can be demonstrated practically using plant tissue culture
techniques. (Activity 3.11)
o explain how cells become specialised through differential gene expression, producing active
mRNA leading to synthesis of proteins, which in turn control cell processes or determine
cell structure in animals and plants (details of transcription factors are not required at AS).
(Activity 3.13, 14 and 15) (Checkpoint question 3.6)
o describe how the cells of multicellular organisms can be organised into tissues, tissues into
organs and organs into systems.
o explain how some phenotypes are affected by alleles at many loci (polygenic inheritance) as
well as the environment (e.g. height) and how this can give rise to phenotypes that show
continuous variation. (Activity 3.16)
o explain how phenotype is the result of an interaction between genotype and the environment
(e.g. animal hair colour, human height, monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) and cancers), but
the data on the relative contributions of genes and environment is often difficult to interpret.
(Activity 3.17 and 3.18)
o demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the practical and investigative skills identified
in the table of How Science Works in the specification.
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Student
Activity 4.1 The Galapagos Islands
Purpose
• To introduce some of the biological ideas
covered in the topic.
Darwin and the Galapagos – then and now

Darwin spent five years travelling around the world on the Beagle. The wealth of animals and
plants he encountered and the adaptations they exhibited were the stimulus for the theory he
developed over the next 20 years and published in his book The Origin of Species. The Galapagos
Islands are estimated to have between 5500 and 6000 identified species, and most importantly a
particularly high level of endemism (species found here and nowhere else)
Look at the interactive map and factfile in the tutorial that accompanies this activity to learn more
about the Galapagos and discover some of the species to be found on the islands. Listen to the
interview with Sarah Darwin, botanist and great-great-granddaughter of Charles Darwin. Visit the
websites in the weblinks that accompany this activity, then answer the questions that follow.
Questions
Q1 The Galapagos Islands lie 1000 km off the west coast of Ecuador. The islands are bathed in cool polar
ocean currents, and receive rain from the South East winds. What would the climate be like in the
Galapagos Islands and why?
Q2 The Galapagos Islands are volcanic, having erupted from the seabed around 3 km below the sea surface.
How would the origin of the islands affect the animal and plant life that has become established here?
Q3 Galapagos Island tortoises can grow to over 1.5 m in length and weigh over 250 kg. What advantages
could there be to this large size?
Q4 Iguanas are cold-blooded and need to regulate their body temperature by moving in and out of the sun.
Suggest why species such as this are more common in the tropics than in temperate climates.
Q5 What adaptations do large cacti such as Opuntia spp. seem to have for life on the islands?
Q6 Do you think there is any adaptive reason why the blue feet in the blue-footed booby could have
evolved?
Q7 The marine iguana is the only truly marine lizard, spending much of its time in the water. What physical
adaptations would this species require that would differ from its land-living relative?
Q8 Although they spend most of their lives at sea, female turtles return to lay eggs on the beach on which
they were born, often travelling thousands of miles in the process. Why do you think this behaviour has
evolved instead of the turtles stopping at the first beach they come to?
Q9 What could be the purpose of the large throat pouch in the magnificent male frigate bird (Fregata
magnificens)?
Q10 Galapagos finches are unique to the Galapagos Islands and yet birds such as the frigate bird and the
green turtle are found throughout the Pacific. Why could this be?
Q11 Four species of Galapagos finches were sketched by Darwin during his voyage. What clues do you
have that these are distinct species, and why might these differences have evolved within the same
group of islands?
Q12 Terrestrial mammals on the Galapagos have suffered high levels of extinction, 8 of the original 11
species having disappeared. What might have caused these extinctions and may continue to threaten
many of the animal and plant species on the islands?
Q13 What are the possible conflicts that may arise between human and wildlife populations in the
Galapagos?
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Student
Activity 4.2 What is it?

Purpose
• To introduce some of the biological ideas covered later in the topic.
• To develop observation and interpretation skills.
• To highlight the need for detailed information about a species if it is to be conserved.
Identifying organisms
Biologists in the field have to use their observation and interpretation skills to make
deductions about the organisms they discover. This lets them build up an accurate picture of
their lives, how they interact with their surroundings and what threats they may face now or in
the future. This observation and interpretation is as important to biologists today as it was for
Darwin. In this exercise your task is to make some deductions about the animal in the field
sketch provided.
Questions
Study the field sketch and try to answer the following questions, giving a reason for each of
your answers. Do not worry if you get the answers wrong, but try to make an intelligent
attempt.
Q1 a What animals do you think it is most closely related to?
b Can you suggest anything about what it eats, or how it gets its food?
c What sort of habitat do you think it occupies?
d Is it likely to be active at night or during the day?
Q2 You have less information than most taxonomists would have about a new organism.
Normally they would have an actual specimen (usually dead). If they are lucky they have a
chance to observe it alive as well. What information could you get from a dead specimen that you
could not get from a live one and vice versa?
Q3 Would a (living) captive specimen give you more or less information than a free-living one?
Explain your answer.
Q4 If biologists do not recognise this animal they would use a key to help them identify it. A key lets
you name the animal, which is vital if you are going to find out more information about it. It is an aye-
aye; this is its common name, its scientific name is Daubentonia madagascariensis. Aye-ayes are
found on only one island; suggest where this might be (the Latin name provides a big clue, if you
cannot spot where use the weblinks
that accompany this activity to find
Large mobile ears
their location).
Coarse black hair with
Q5 The first part of the scientific white tips and a soft
name is shared by the aye-aye’s white undercoat.
closest relatives. Do some research
and find out how many other species
share the name Daubentonia. Specialised middle Large, ever-growing
finger – long and chisel-like incisors.
Q6 If you look it up on the World needle-like
Conservation Union (IUCN) Red Data
List you will find that it is classified as
endangered. Find out what being
classed as endangered really means
by visiting the IUCN website.
Q7 Aye-ayes live in rainforest, Length: body 400mm;
deciduous forest and dry scrub forest. tail 400 mm Large eyes reflect
The biggest threat to these organisms Weight: 2575–2800 g light (tapetum)
is the destruction of their habitat. Find
out what, if anything, is being done to Figure 1 Field sketch Source: Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust
protect the aye-aye and its habitat.
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Student
Activity 4.3 Ecological niche of a leaf-cutter bee
Purpose
• To consider the ecological niche of a leaf-cutter bee.
Working out the niche

In this activity you will be a nature detective and work out one way the leaf-cutter bee is exploiting
its environment – an aspect of this type of bee’s ecological niche.
Figure 1 shows a leaf-cutter bee holding a piece of leaf which it has cut from a rose bush. Figure 2
shows rose leaves after a visit by leaf cutter bees. These bees eat nectar and pollen, so they are not
using the leaves for food.
Figure 1 Leaf-cutter bee and piece of leaf Figure 2 Rose leaves cut by leaf-cutter bee.
cut from a rose bush
Questions
Q1 Look at the shape of the leaf pieces cut from the rose bush. There are two main kinds of shape. Draw a
diagram of the two shapes. Work out the approximate ratio of one shape to the other.
Q2 Suggest what sort of structure the bee could make from these leaf pieces.
Q3 Suggest how the bee might use the structures created.
Q4 Comment on whether these bees should be considered garden pests.
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Student
Activity 4.4 Well-behaved beetles
Purpose
• To investigate behaviour of seed beetles as an
example of behavioural adaptation.
Callosobruchus maculatus, the seed beetle

The natural habitat of seed beetles is a field crop of beans (azuki, mung or black-eyed beans) in a
tropical or sub-tropical country. When adult seed beetles (Figure 1), emerge from the bean in which
they have developed, they live for 2–4 weeks. Amazingly, they neither eat nor drink during their
adult lifetime! This is just one fascinating aspect of their behaviour which can be witnessed in the
classroom.
Figure 1 Male (left) and female (right) adult seed beetles .
A beetle begins life as an egg, laid on a bean. The egg hatches 4–6 days later, and the larva eats its
way into the bean until it is about 18 days old, when it pupates. About one week later, the adult
emerges and searches for a mate.
Seed beetles engage in multiple mating. In fact, males appear to do nothing other than mate, recover
and look for more mates! Like males, females are also eager to mate, after which they identify good
egg-laying sites on beans. This is to ensure that their offspring survive, mate and make a genetic
contribution to future generations. Females subsequently mate again and lay more eggs, repeating
this pattern of behaviour until they die.
Investigating the behaviour of seed beetles
Seed beetles are remarkably easy to keep, so are perfect for behaviour studies. Most of us know that
woodlice seek out dark places during daylight – but what about seed beetles? Are seed beetles
positively or negatively phototactic (move towards or away from high light intensity)? Do beetles
move as fast on vertical surfaces as they do on horizontal surfaces? Can females recognise a good
egg-laying site, what happens if the seed coat of a bean is removed – do females still lay eggs on it?
Select one of the questions posed above. Design an experiment to answer the question. Your plan
should include a detailed description of the procedure you will use.
Complete the experiment and explain the advantage in the field of the behavioural adaptations
exhibited by the beetles.
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Student
Activity 4.5 Adaptations
Purpose
z To communicate knowledge and ideas about adaptation.
z To develop presentation skills in combining a range of media and exhibits.
An exhibition on adaptation
In this activity you will work in collaboration with other students to produce an exhibit about a
named organism.
Your exhibit will form part of a whole-class exhibition featuring a range of different organisms. The
aim of the exhibition is to communicate the concept of adaptation. Some examples of adaptations
are described on pages 3–6 of this activity sheet with questions for you to answer.
Before the exhibition

Discuss as a class:
• what might be the features of a successful exhibit?
• how many students will prepare each exhibit?
• how and where you will most effectively set up the whole exhibition?
• who you will invite to see it?
• how each student will most effectively learn from others’ exhibits?
• Are there any health and safety implications in setting up the exhibition?
Planning your exhibit

Use the questions below to plan your group’s exhibit and allocate tasks for your group.
What are the aims of your exhibit?

These may be, for example, to communicate information using a variety of media, to communicate
specific points about the subject content, communicate to a specific audience etc.
What are the main adaptations to be featured?

Think about the organism’s environment, and how the adaptation helps them to survive.
What objects or media will best illustrate the main points you are trying to communicate?
You could use real whole or part specimens, microscope slides, drawings, photos, looped video
clips, posters, PowerPoint, text labels, leaflets etc.
What type of space is available for your exhibit?
Draw a plan of your exhibit to fit the space you have been allocated, showing what you will include.
Annotate the plan with details of each aspect, for example, any objects, photos, labels or text to be
used. A planning form like the one shown over the page would help you organise these details.
A4.05S
Activity 4.5 Adaptations Student
Add to your planning form details of who is responsible for each part of the exhibit. One additional
task for your group is to make an evaluation form for other students to evaluate your exhibit. The
evaluation should refer to your aims.
Table 1 Example of an exhibition planning form.
Planning form
Title of exhibit:
Aims of the exhibition:
Date, time and venue:

Name of item Description of item Who is Deadline for
responsible? work to be
completed
Evaluation A form which collects feedback on
form whether the exhibit has
successfully fulfilled its aims
Leave plenty of time to set your exhibit up, and make sure you know who is responsible for
dismantling it at the end of the exhibition.
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Barn owls
Hearing
Barn owls catch their prey – mostly voles and mice – in complete darkness, using hearing alone.
Birds have no external ears like a mammal – just simple openings. The ear openings of the barn owl
are hidden in the disc of feathers around the face (Figure 1). The left ear hole is slightly higher and
at a different angle from the right one. When it hears potential prey, the barn owl tilts its head and
moves the ruff of feathers surrounding the facial disc.
Q1 Suggest why the barn owl has a disc of feathers surrounding its facial disc.
Q2 Explain why the owl moves its head when it hears prey.
Q3 Give a reason why an owl has two ears.
Q4 What selective advantage is there for the owl:
• in having two ears
• in moving its head when it hears prey.
Figure 1 Face of a young barn owl.
Feathers
The flight of an owl is very quiet. It achieves this by having very soft feathers. In addition, the
leading edge of the first primary feather on each wing is serrated (Figure 2). This helps to reduce
the turbulence caused by the wing as it cuts through the air. (Think of the noise made by a swan’s
wings for comparison).
Figure 2 The serrations of the first primary Figure 3 Feather structure

feather of a barn owl
Q5 Give two advantages of an owl’s silent flight.

Look at Figure 3, or try pulling the vanes of a bird’s flight feather apart. What do you notice? Pull it
firmly until the barbs separate. Now smooth the feather back into shape until the barbs rejoin.
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Use a hand lens or microscope to study the fine structure of the barbs. To get the best view through
a hand lens, hold the lens close to one eye, then bring the object nearer until it comes in to focus. Do
not lean over the object, but hold it up in a good light source.
Q6 Suggest the function of the feather barbs.
Q7 What advantage is this structural adaptation to the bird?
Colour
The barn owl’s spotted, buff-coloured back may help to camouflage the female when on the nest, as
this species often nests in hollows in trees lined with yellowish rotting wood.
Barn owls are found worldwide. They have even reached the Galapagos Islands, 400 miles off the
coast of Ecuador. The Galapagos barn owl (Figure 4) looks a bit different from the British one.
Figure 4 A Galapagos barn owl. This barn owl was in a restaurant with an open veranda on Santa Cruz island. Although
completely wild, it was nesting above the bar next to the speakers of the sound system and had no fear of people.
Normally the owls would nest in caves within the dark volcanic rock that makes up the island.
Q8 Suggest reasons for the differences in appearance between a British and a Galapagos barn owl.
Eggs and incubation
Barn owls feed on small mammals, especially field voles. Field voles vary in numbers from year to
year, with a peak population every fourth year, followed by a crash. The owls can not predict how
many voles there will be to feed their young when they start laying their eggs.
Many birds start to incubate their eggs only after the whole clutch is laid, so the chicks all hatch at
about the same time. Barn owls start to incubate as soon as the first egg is laid. One egg is laid
every 2-3 days, so the young hatch at 2-3 day intervals, and the chicks differ considerably in size
(Figure 5). This staggered egg laying is controlled by hormones.
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A B
Figure 5 A Four newly-ringed barn owl chicks. Notice the range of sizes. These owls are sleepy because it is daytime.
B Older barn owl young (owlets) in a nest-box, nearly ready to fly. These owlets were produced in a good
vole year, and four have survived. By this stage they show some anxiety and make themselves as tall and imposing as
possible (and make a hissing noise). Two are trying to hide behind the others.
Q9 If it turned out to be a bad vole year, which of the owlets would survive? Why?
Q10 What might happen in a bad vole year, if all the owlets were the same size?
Adaptations of the feet
Figure 6 The third toe of a barn owl, seen from below

Q11 Use Figure 6, and your biological knowledge, to suggest how the middle toe of a barn owl is adapted
to its functions.
Types of owl adaptation
Q12 We can classify adaptations as physiological (P), behavioural (B), or anatomical (A). State which of
these three types of adaptation each of the following exemplifies.
a Good hearing
b Feather structure
c Competing for food
d Laying eggs at 2-3 day intervals
e Incubating immediately the first egg is laid
f Toe structure
Mimicry
Many of us have been stung by a wasp and have learnt to associate yellow and black stripes with a
sting. We therefore tend to avoid touching any insect with this colour pattern. But do all insects
with yellow and black stripes have a sting? The answer is no. Many insects mimic the bee and wasp
colouring but are quite harmless. These include many kinds of hoverflies, You may see these in a
garden, collecting pollen from flowers.
Q13 What advantage does a hoverfly gain from mimicking the colour pattern of a wasp?
Stinging species are called the ‘models’. The harmless insects which look like the models are called
the ‘mimics’. The models are mostly those with ‘wasp’ or ‘bee’ at the end of their name. Mimicry
is an anatomical adaptation, but is closely linked to the behaviour of the predator. In this case the
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behaviour (avoiding insects with warning colouration) is probably not inherited, but is learned by
experience, so it is not a genetic adaptation.
Q14 Suggest what might happen if the mimics became much more common than the models.
Q15 Many plants and fungi are poisonous, yet they do not usually have warning colouration. Suggest why
plants and fungi do not usually warn herbivores in this way.
Note: Some poisonous plants do have colours that may be warning to herbivores, for example henbane has purple veins
on its flowers, and the famous poisonous fly agaric toadstool, Amanita muscaria, is red with white spots. But most
poisonous plants and fungi have no warning colouration at all. The deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) purple
flowers look uninviting to humans, but the berries look quite tasty. Eating two or three berries would kill you!
Carnivorous plants
Carnivorous plants, such as sundews, pitcher plants and bladderworts, obtain their mineral nutrients
– such as nitrates – by trapping and digesting small animals such as insects. They are well adapted
to their habitat.
Q16 Suggest where carnivorous plants might grow, and why.
Q17 Which molecules in an animal’s body will provide nitrates to the plant when digested?
Q18 Suggest how the plants are able to break down all the molecules in the bodies of the captured
animals.
Q19 Carnivorous plants do not grow in grassland and scrubland in the general countryside. Suggest why not.
Q20 Describe how does a pitcher plant trap its prey.
Q21 Suggest why carnivorous plants usually have their flowers on a long stalk.
Try this
You can buy commercially grown carnivorous plants, such as sun-dew, venus fly-trap or pitcher plants. You
can also buy seeds of some of these plants. Try growing them yourself. You will find out a lot about how they
are adapted to their niche.
You will need a humid place to grow them, such as a shady kitchen window ledge, and a supply of insects to
feed them – for example a colony of fruit flies or crickets. You must not give them fertilizer or even tap water
– rain water is best.
Spider’s web
A spider can construct a very complex sticky web using silk glands in its abdomen. Many spiders never see
their parents, so this is a genetically inherited behavioural adaptation. They do not learn by copying the
behaviour of other spiders. A garden spider can destroy her damaged web and make a new one in less than
one hour. She usually makes a new one every day (Figure 7).
Figure 7 Web of a garden spider

Q22 Explain how the production of a web helps the spider survive.
Q23 Suggest why a spider eats the old web as she removes it to build a new one.
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Niches and adaptations – True or false quiz?

For each of the following statements decide if it is true or false.
1 Mice have adapted to living in frozen food stores by growing extra thick fur.
2 Hedgehogs living near roads have stopped rolling up in to a ball when they are alarmed – helping them
to avoid being squashed by vehicles.
3 Some arctic fish have antifreeze in their blood.
4 There is a species of nematode worm which has only been found in German felt beer mats.
5 Midwife toads carry and hatch their spawn on their backs.
6 Hardy’s swift lays its eggs on the male’s back in the air, and the young are reared entirely in the air.
7 A fungus which grows on old cow pats is able to fire its spores accurately towards chinks of light
between the grass blades.
8 When alarmed, the woodcock (a wading bird) flies off carrying its young between its legs.
9 When plaice are put in an aquarium with chess boards covering the bottom, the plaice change their
colour pattern to mimic the black and white squares.
10 Chameleons can swivel each eye independently when searching for insect prey.
11 A shark can detect blood in the water at the concentration of ten drops of blood in a large swimming
pool.
12 Racing pigeons use landmarks to find their way home. Studies of marked birds have shown that they
follow the M25 and turn off at major junctions leading towards their home.
13 The wild arum produces heat by metabolising starch in part of its flower, called the spadix. The heat
helps to disperse a smell which attracts pollinating insects.
14 The strangler fig has been known to entwine sleeping people in Africa and squeeze them to death.
15 Jellyfish have specialised cells which shoot out a poison dart, paralysing their prey.
16 Starfish digest their prey by turning their stomachs inside out.
17 If two species of sponge are mixed together in a blender, they can reassemble themselves into sponges
of separate species.
18 Slime moulds live as single amoeba-like cells most of their lives, but when they reproduce sexually all
the cells join up to form a sporangium.
19 Some bacteria glow in the dark using an enzyme called luciferase.
20 Tropical fireflies flash in the dark to attract mates. Some species flash in unison like Christmas lights,
helping to make the signals more effective.
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Student
Activity 4.6 Natural selection in action
Purpose
● To demonstrate natural selection.
1 Natural selection card sort

You need
Confirm your understanding of the principles of natural ● Large piece of patterned paper
selection by putting the cards describing the adaptation of
● 50 cut-out pieces of the same patterned
head lice to head lice shampoos in the correct order. Then
paper
look at pages 152–153 in the AS textbook to check that you
got the order right. ● 50 cut-out pieces of white paper (of the
same size and weight as the patterned
paper)
2 Natural selection in the classroom ● Partner to lay out the equipment and
In this activity a predator (you) is presented with a prey time the activity
population with two different phenotypes, one camouflaged ● Pair of forceps
and one which stands out from the habitat background. The
● Stopclock
predator is given a fixed length of time to find as many prey
items as they can. ● Beaker
Procedure
1 Lay out the patterned paper, pattern side up; this represents the habitat.
2 Mix the coloured and uncoloured paper pieces together and put them on the patterned paper. Ensure
that the patterned pieces are pattern side up.
3 Give the ‘predator’ 15 seconds to pick up as many pieces of paper as possible using the forceps, and
put them in a beaker.
4 Count the number of each colour of paper in the beaker and record your results.
5 Replace the ‘eaten’ pieces of paper and rearrange the pieces of paper on the background.
6 Repeat steps 2 to 4 several times.
7 Comment on your results and answer the questions that follow.
Questions
Q1 How many coloured and uncoloured pieces of paper were picked up and put in the beaker over the
course of the whole experiment (this is your observed value)?
Q2 How many of each colour would you expect if there were no advantage to being camouflaged (this is
your expected value)?
Q3 How could you tell if the difference is statistically significant?
3 Using pastry ‘maggots’ and birds as predators

Pastry maggots can be made quite easily using a flour, fat and water dough; your teacher/lecturer can give
you a recipe. Design (and you may get a chance to carry out) an experiment to investigate natural selection
using different coloured pastry ‘maggots’ for garden birds to ‘prey’ upon. The maggots can either be put
out on coloured backgrounds or directly on grass for birds to be the predators.
While you are planning, be aware of the need for controls, and the need to keep the ratio of maggots of
different colours presented to the birds roughly the same over the course of the investigation.
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Activity 4.6 Natural selection in action Student
Head lice cards
a The few remaining head lice survive because b There is a lot of genetic variation in the head
they happen to have alleles which make them louse population due to the large number of
resistant to the chemicals. different alleles.
c The survivors get together and breed. They

Head lice and
produce offspring that inherit the alleles that
natural selection
makes them resistant to the chemical.
d Over the centuries many different mutations e Soon virtually all head lice are resistant to the
have produced different alleles. chemicals.
f The alleles for resistance to the chemical g Now when people use the shampoo it does not
become more common in the population. kill the head lice.
h Head lice have become a problem once again. i Head lice have been infesting peoples’ heads
This is an example of natural selection at work. for millennia.
k For a while, all but a very few head lice get

j Drug companies develop shampoos containing
killed by the chemicals in the shampoo. Head
chemicals which kill the head lice.
lice are no longer a problem.
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Activity 4.6 Natural selection in action Student
4 Elephant tusks
Tusks are the upper incisor teeth of elephants which have evolved into long tools used for
ripping bark, pushing over trees and defending the herd. Occasionally elephants are born
which grow no tusks or only very small tusks. In protected populations of African elephants
in well managed national parks and reserves, only 1–2% of elephants have no tusks.
In Zambia's North Luangwa National Park there has been a severe problem with ivory
poaching, and nearly 40% of elephants were found to be tusk-less in the 1990s. A similar
change has occurred in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park and in the Kruger National
Park.
Questions
Q1 Outline the probable sequence of events which led to reduction of tusk size and an increase in
tusk-less elephants in poached populations.
Q2 Explain what is likely to happen to tusk growth in elephant populations when poaching is
controlled.
Q3 Comment on whether elephants are a typical species to show rapid adaptations of this kind.
Frog evolution
In this activity you will use the Newbyte Natural selection: Frogs software to investigate how
predation can lead to evolution by natural selection of a prey species.
1 Load the software and read the information on the help wizard and the background
information from the help button.
2 Start by using the default settings, where you act as a predator catching frogs from a
population of 30 frogs. Half of the frogs have camouflaged colouration, and the other half
are red.
3 Work through about 10 generations, then look at the graph by clicking on the graph button
at the top right of the screen. You can print the graph if you wish.
4 Now investigate what happens when you repeat the experiment with 7% poisonous frogs,
then again when the poisonous allele is linked to the allele for red ‘warning’ coloration.
Linkage means that the genes are on the same chromosome so are inherited together – in
this case it means that the red frogs will mostly be poisonous.
5 You can add a mimic species, so that you add red frogs that are not poisonous, and see
what effect this has on the population after several generations.
Questions
Q1 a Describe how camouflage, warning coloration and mimicry affect the genetic make up of a
population.
b Explain the effect in each case in terms of natural selection.
Q2 In this software you can only start with a population of 30 frogs. How do you think the results
would differ if the frog population was much bigger to start with?
Q3 Explain why, even if all the red frogs are consumed by predators in one generation, red frogs may
appear in the next generation.
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Student
Activity 4.7. What is biodiversity?
Purpose
• To explore the range of meanings for the term biodiversity.
• To investigate biodiversity in terms of the number of known species of different
organisms.
Defining biodiversity
Biodiversity is a very difficult idea to define in words and people use it to mean a
number of different things. Lots of people just use the term as the number of different
species, but there is a range of definitions and although we do not need to learn them
all it is useful to be aware of them when discussing biodiversity and the conservation
of biodiversity.
1 Look up the word biodiversity in your AS textbook and write down any definitions
it gives for biodiversity.
2 Look up the word in any biological dictionaries you have access to and make a
note of the definition.
3 Using the Natural History Museum website ‘Exploring Biodiversity’, look at the
section on biodiversity definitions accessed as supplementary information. The
website is in the weblinks that accompany this activity.
4 Using all the information you have collected, put together your own definition of
biodiversity that accurately reflects the different interpretations of the term, using
no more than 30 words.
Questions
How many species?
Q1 Read the key biological principles box on pages 144–145 of your AS textbook and make
a note of what is meant by the term ‘species’.
Table 1 on page 2 gives data for the number of species described and the estimated totals in
some groups of organisms.
Q2 Use these data to answer the following questions:
a Which is the group with the largest proportion of the likely total number of species that
have been described to date?
b Can you suggest why this group has the largest proportion of species described?
c Which two groups have the lowest proportion of species described?
d Can you suggest why these groups are not being described as quickly as other groups?
If you have time

Q3 Explore the ‘species-scape’ on the Natural History Museum Exploring Biodiversity
website and find out why it is drawn as it is.
Q4 The numbers of species described on the Natural History Museum ‘species-scape’ do
not always agree with those in Table 1. Suggest a reason why this is the case.
1 of 2
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Activity 4.7 What is biodiversity? Student

Table 1 Estimated number of species
Group Number of species Estimated total
described
Bacteria 4000 1 000 000
Protoctista 80 000 600 000
Animalia
Vertebrates total 52 000 55 000
Mammals 4630 n/a
Birds 9946 n/a
Reptiles 7400 n/a
Amphibians 4950 n/a
Fishes 25 000 n/a
Insects and myriapods 963 000 8 000 000

Arachnids 75 000 750 000
Molluscs 70 000 200 000
Crustaceans 40 000 150 000
Nematodes 25 000 400 000
Fungi 72 000 1 500 000
Plantae 270 000 320 000
Total in the five kingdoms 1 750 000 14 000 000
Source: Data from UNEP-WCMC; n/a – data not available
2 of 2
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Student
Activity 4.8 The next bug thing
Purpose
• To provide practice in reading and analysing extended text.
• To introduce binomial nomenclature and taxonomy.
Beetle mania
Many of the scientists who work on cataloguing biodiversity are specialists in one group
of organisms. Much of their work goes on hidden behind the scenes in museums and research
institutes around the world. Get an idea of the scale of biodiversity and the challenge faced by
the biologists researching just one group by reading the extract of the article ‘The next bug
thing’. This is about two beetle taxonomists, Martin Brendell and Peter Hammond, who work
at the Natural History Museum in London.
Look up any words that you are unfamiliar with before answering the following questions
based on the text.
Questions
Q1 What does Martin Brendell mean when he says that the beetle found in the Kalahari is probably
an ‘unrecorded species’?
Q2 How many species of beetle have been ‘described’ by scientists so far and what does this term
mean?
Q3 Using Peter Hammond’s lowest estimate of total number of beetle species, calculate what
percentage of the estimated total number of beetle species have been described so far.
Q4 Describe the characteristic features that all beetles have in common.
Q5 How many scientific names does each beetle species have? State one example.
Q6 Who devised the system of naming used by all biologists today?
Q7 What are holotypes?
Q8 Why do you think that the process of describing and naming organisms is actually one of the
constraints in cataloguing global biodiversity?
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Activity 4.8 The next bug thing Student
THE NEXT BUG THING

They’re stoic, skilful and brave and on Brompton Road. It is the closest thing
have no hang-ups about sex. this city possesses to a humanist
A A Gill falls for the beetle, the pantheon. To get to beetles, you go through
most ardent survivor in the world. the terracotta hall, up the grand staircase,
The Kalahari is a place of few words. There left past the bust of the remarkable
are rules here, and you had better Frederick Selous, on through monkeys and
understand them. It is unforgiving of the “Darwin Experience”, past the stuffed
innocent mistakes. Things that do decide drongo, until you come to large double
to make a life for themselves here tend doors marked “entomology library”. Here,
to be curmudgeonly, suspicious, tooled-up you step into the secret part of the
specialists. museum. Museum is not the right word for
I love it here. At its heart, a day’s slow, this building – less than 1% of its collection
tooth-jarring, thorn-whipped drive from any is on display. It employs 900 people, 350 of
direction, are the Makarikari salt pans. This them natural scientists. This isn’t merely a
is an extraordinary place, so flat and temple or a museum, or even a resource,
featureless you can turn 360 degrees and it’s an ark. Up another flight of stairs –
see nothing but the curve of the globe. In through a locked door with a sign asking
the wet season it becomes a shallow soda you not to bring in unwanted live
lake, overrun with flamingos. For most of specimens – are beetles. Row upon row of
the year, though, it’s a baked crust of salt. cabinets that reach twice as high as a man,
Nothing lives here, things only die. Flocks each filled with thin, wooden, colour-coded
of exhausted finches lie preserved in bas- drawers. From a Hobbit-like den in a corner
relief. Elephants’ footprints, perhaps a popped Martin Brendell. He has the
decade old, pad nowhere. For thousands of personable manner of a man whose
years, the San people, the bushmen, have inquisitiveness is at odds with a natural
trekked out here to collect salt, which they reluctance to socialise. I’d guess that he
barter for tobacco and beads. Salt – the was once a solitary foraging boy with
oldest currency in the world, the origin of disgusting pockets.
our word “salary”. Its main value is as a To say he’s obsessed with beetles is not
preservative, but it’s also a poison. It enough. He is possessed, and has been
sickens the earth, turns men mad, and since he was 17, in the 1960s, when he
burns and sucks the moisture from the came to the museum and wanted to work on
living and the dead. mammals. “But there wasn’t an opening, so
So while picking over the glittering white I got beetles”, he says, with a shudder of
crust, I was surprised to come across a someone who narrowly escaped a life-
beetle. A couple of centimetres of questing, deforming accident. He has been here ever
streamlined black oval. How had it got since. In a couple of years he’ll have to retire,
here? Had it been blown from the relative and it doesn’t bear thinking about, so he
fecundity of the desert by the hot wind? doesn’t, and burrows on. I gave him my little
And then there was another. And another. beetle and waited. “Yes, well, it’s
This was no unlucky shipwreck – the carnivorous, a predator”. Called? “Oh, I don’t
beetles must live here. But why, and how? know. It’s probably an unrecorded species.”
It was one of the little mysteries of a desert You mean I’ve discovered a new beetle?
where all life is something of a mystery. I “Perhaps, I’ll have to check.” My mind races
collected a couple in a film canister, put – a new species. I see papers in serious
them in my pocket and forgot about them. magazines, lecture tours, awards, honorary
Weeks later, back home, with nothing fellowships. A grateful nation. A beard – and
better to do, I went to the Natural History a name: my name, appended to the great
Museum in South Kensington to see Martin roll call of life. “Gill’s salt beetle.” And I can’t
Brendell, the lead curator of beetles. understand why he isn’t slapping me on the
I’ve always adored Waterhouse’s back, reaching for the dusty bottle of
monumental mausoleum to Mother Earth amontillado kept for just such occasions.
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This is exciting – a new beetle. It’s more one knows where anything is. This museum
an observation than a question. “Ah,” he has more variety, from more habitats, in
says, with the apologetic reserve of a man more places than anywhere else. Let me
who’s about to piss on a stranger’s show you.”
fireworks. “Let me show you something.” And he’s off again, pulling open drawers.
And he goes to a filing cabinet and starts “Beetles have colonised every conceivable
pulling open drawers. Dozens of them. habitat, from the edge of the polar ice cap
Inside each are hundreds of beetles, like a to the middle of the hottest desert. The only
fairy’s jewel case. Glossy big ones, bright place they don’t live is sea water. There are
little ones, ones with horns and flanges. beetles that live in ants’ nests, imitating
Ones with stripes, spots and runic filigree. ants; there are thousands of plants that
There are beetles that look like leaves and have their own specifically adapted beetles.
twigs, and one or two that just look like There are beetles that look like bird sh**
beetles. “All these beetles,” he jerks a and ones that are smaller than dust
foreleg, “are unnamed. They came from particles. There is one which is the size of
one corner of the Venezuelan rainforest last a hot dog. There are beetles that eat opium
year.” He looks at my offering. and strychnine. There are beetles that
“About your beetle – we’ll give you a specialise only in beaver hair. The whirligig
call.” And two weeks later, I got a terse call beetle has an eye that’s bisected – the top
from an assistant: “It’s a Pogonus of some half sees in air, the bottom half underwater.
sort.” And that was that. There are beetles that live in collections of
Over the next four years, once in a while, beetles, the museum beetle. And one,
I thought of Pogonus and the metropolis of Blaps gigantean, lived for seven years in a
beetles, and promised that one day I’d go goldfish bowl on my fridge; it was called
back and find out more. And then one wet Barnacle.”
afternoon with nothing better to do, I did. I Stop, stop. Look, I’ve got to get a
sat in Brendell’s little higgledy-piggledy mandible on all this – how many species of
den, with its piles of papers and books, beetle are there altogether in the world?
curling postcards, paperweight beetles, “Ah,” he said, “you need to speak to Peter
jokey fridge-magnet beetles; the first-world- Hammond.” Hammond pops out of another
war army knife with its spike for horses’ den.
hooves and its blade sharpened down to a “It’s an interesting question. Up until now,
nub, the little magnifying glass and the there are about 450,000 described
bottles of pins. And I said: “Tell me about species. There will definitely be 1m beetles,
beetles.” probably 2m, possibly 5m, conceivably 10.”
It was, I now realise, not a question to be So let’s get this straight – at the most
bandied about lightly, a question that conservative estimate, we know of less
should have come with the unspoken than half the beetle population of the
caveat of not how long have you got, but world? “Very conservatively, yes. There are
how long do you propose we live? It was only 2,000 people in the world working on
like asking someone to bottle Niagara Falls Coleoptera [beetles].” Christ, then beetles
with a spoon. He took a deep breath, must be Darwinishly mutating at a rate of
rubbed a mandible on his thorax and said: knots? They look at each other, then at me,
“Beetles are by far and away the most with a fathomless pity. “Beetles” says
successful creatures in the world. One in Brendell, “were perfect . . .” “. . . 10m years
every four animals is a beetle. Every fifth ago,” finishes Hammond.
living thing is a beetle. In one genus of So, with that much diversity, what makes
weevils, there are 2,000 species. That’s a beetle a beetle? There is no one thing
equal to half the total number of known that all beetles have that no other insect
mammals. In the beetle department, there has. But the general definition includes an
are 10m named specimens, and 2m exoskeleton, biting mandibles, six legs, and
unidentified ones. This is the most elytra – that is, the hard wing coverings.
comprehensive collection in the world. The Incidentally, beetles, though not generally
Smithsonian may be larger, but it’s got a lot great flyers, have wings that can be five
of repeats. Paris may have more, but no times the size of their cases. They fold them
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up like origami umbrellas. And they have the world. He called beetles Coleoptera –
four distinct lives – as eggs, grubs, pupae “sheath wing”. But it wasn’t until 1758 that
and adults, though not all beetles the Swede, Carolus Linnaeus, later
necessarily have all of them. Brendell’s off ennobled Baron Karl von Linné, devised
again: “Some beetles that live in the desert the binominal nomenclature system – a
have fused elytra, and form an air- generic name coupled with a specific name
conditioning system. Some are soft-bodied, – and set out to name everything all over
some are hairy. There’s one that never again. So, for instance, my beetle is
really develops from the larval stage . . .” organised as, first, a family name:
Stop, stop. We pass a man working at a Carabidae of which there are 30,000 to
desk, surrounded by specimens. What’s he 40,000 members (beetles have over 200
doing? “Well, all the beetles in the families), then a generic name: Pogonus –
collection – which, by the way, started with which is quite small, only about 30 known
Joseph Banks’s specimens from Captain species, all Halophilous (salt-loving), then,
Cook’s Endeavour – are stuck on pins, set a species name: gillae. Except it’s not
at a specific height through their right called that yet, because a drawing of its
elytron. But the old pins are brass, and willy has to be made and reputably
have copper in them, and the copper reacts published first. Beetle willies are like Yale
with the fatty tissue of the beetles and keys – no two species are the same. And
causes verdigris – which makes gas, which it’s not the done thing to name a species
in turn can make the beetles explode. It’s a after yourself, although Brendell has more
problem, so they all have to be re-pinned than 15 named after him, including a hawk
and labelled. It’s a delicate job. “But there moth. Your peers do it for you –
are 12m.” “Hmmm.” Good grief. Imagine coleopterists look after each other in the
a lifetime spent defusing exploding beetles. immortality stakes.
I realise the more I know, the less I For 200 years after the Linnean system,
understand. So Brendell gives me a beetles were discovered and named in an
duffer’s guide to Coleoptera, the standard amateur way. Since the war, it has all been
work, a reference book of scientific terms, more purposeful and scientific. Still, there
a couple of papers and a chair. It’s all have been enough species discovered
beginner’s stuff, and after an hour I’m since the beginning of the 18th century to
drowning in the vastness of the subject. So account for one every six hours. In the
I go and look at more beetles. trays, some specimens wear the discreet
What none of us has mentioned is how award of a small red dot. This means they
awesomely, arrestingly beautiful they are. are holotypes, original examples, against
Each tray is an aesthetic wonder. With their which all other contenders have to be
neatly written labels and amazing patterns, measured. In some species, only one has
they bridge the chasm between science ever been found. The Natural History
and art. Museum holds more holotypes from across
And as I pull out drawers, I slowly the natural world than anywhere else. They
become aware of the importance of a are of huge value, and are sent to other
corner of science I haven’t ever paid scientists to study. This collection is, in fact,
attention to: taxonomy. The science of a priceless resource. Brendell once asked
naming. From the Greek taxos, an obscure German museum for a
“arrangement”, and nomos, “law”. With holotype specimen, and got the curt reply:
something as vast and varied as the “Your RAF bombed it.”
Coleoptera, precision in name is vital. The Hammond has a theory – he thinks that
Aborigines believe that a thing without a the success of beetles can be put down to
name doesn’t really exist. And what we call two things: sex and crunchiness. I don’t
biodiversity is a meaningless and formless entirely understand the sex bit, but I think
emotion if we can’t put a name to its parts. it’s something to do with the fact that
If you order red snapper in a restaurant, beetles are apparently easy lays. They
you could get one of 30 different fish, all don’t go in for complicated displays and
called red snapper. Aristotle tried to courtship; they’re not picky. And the
organise the haphazard colloquialism of crunchiness is the ergonomic robustness
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of most beetles. They’re utilitarian and can Being a coleopterist is as close as

live in places that would put off other anyone can get to living the dream of being
orders. They have a tough confidence. on the Starship Enterprise. You boldly go
I could have, should have, finished this and find new habitats and weird life forms,
story in a day. But I drag it out. The truth is, then kill them. Beetles are as strange,
I’m hooked. There is a trendy new scientific marvellous and varied as the most vivid
word – biophilia, the innate emotional sci-fi imagination. We tend to think that the
affiliation of human beings for other living brightest edge of science is quantum
things. Until now, I’ve been pretty immune physics, but there’s so much left
to biophilic tendencies. I’m a city boy – the undiscovered and unanswered right here.
only natural world I’m drawn to are things The last frontier is at your feet, under a
that come off plates. But there’s something rock.
about beetles, a connection. A pheromone Brendell and Hammond look at the
of empathy. Perhaps it’s a recognition of beetle collection and see a resource, a
fellow bourgeoisie. Then, one morning, record of diversity and a monument to the
Brendell pops out, beaming: “I’ve awesome achievement of beetles. I see
discovered something about your Pogonus. something perhaps they don’t: it’s also a
I’ve found a paper published about a similar monument to human achievement. Mostly
one in Tanzania. Pogonus rodolphi. It’s a unremarked and unregarded – lives
predator that has regressed to eating devoted to the fundamentals of life on
algae. Were your salt pans wet Earth, minute and inconsequential, but also
underneath? That’ll be it, then. I expect it’ll transcendent. Brendell and Hammond find
still be a new species.” Even after all these God in small things. Every one of the 12m
years, he’s shiny with pleasure. During specimens here in South Kensington
Brendell’s time here, the collection has carries with it a story of huge diligence,
doubled. He and Hammond have collected inquiry and the open-mindedness that is
everywhere, from the dank rainforest to the the defining characteristic of our species,
high Himalayas. Always with difficulty, often Homo sapiens. Sapiens, the ability to think,
with danger, and with a passionate to question. If the world were to end
patience. They collect using light traps, nets tomorrow and we could choose to save
and sieves, smoking the canopy and using only one thing as the explanation and
cadavers. “I find a goat’s entrails are memorial to who we were, then we couldn’t
particularly effective. And sh**, human do better than the Natural History Museum,
sh**’s marvellous.” They use a specialist although it wouldn’t contain a single
piece of equipment called a pooter – a human. There is, oddly, no Linnaean
glass jar with two tubes. You suck on one, holotype for man. But there doesn’t need to
and the beetle is pulled up the other. You be. The systematic order, the vast
mean you suck at rotten entrails and sh**? inquisitiveness and range of collated
“Yes, it’s disgusting.” Brendell laughs. How knowledge and its consequent beauty
many beetles do you think you’ve killed? would tell all that is the best of us, and
“Oh, thousands and thousands.” They use pinned into a corner of this encyclopaedic
a fumigating poison that smells like nail- wonder would be my little beetle,
varnish remover, or a syringe for the larger Carabidae pogonus (sod the orthodox
specimens. “But I mind it more and more. I procedure and proper channels) gillae.
find myself picking individuals, and being
pleased when they get away. I’m getting
old. When I was young I collected like a
madman, but now, well, they’re so © AA Gill/The Sunday Times Magazine
wonderful.” 7 April 2002
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Student
Activity 4.9 Being Darwin
Purpose
• To consider the scientific classification of organisms
• To look in detail at naming organisms.
Organising organisms
Imagine trying to find your favourite brand of biscuit in a supermarket where they just randomly
put all the items on the shelves. Most supermarkets are pretty well organised; items are arranged
in groups with common features – biscuits, beverages, confectionary, toiletries, ready meals, etc.
You can quickly find the ginger snaps! Biologists faced with the huge number of organisms that
have so far been described also need to organise them in a logical way. In the same way that all
the different brands of decaffeinated coffee might be shelved together, within the coffee section,
which is within the hot drinks section that can be found in the drinks aisle, organisms are placed
into a hierarchy of groups called taxa (singular taxon). Members of a taxon share common
features.
In this activity you consider the taxonomic hierarchy developed by Whittaker in 1959 and
modified by Margulis and Schwartz in 1982 and try putting some of the organisms that Darwin
found in the Galapagos Islands into their appropriate taxonomic groups. Read pages 159–161 of
the AS textbook before continuing with this sheet.
Q1 What are the names of the five kingdoms?
Q2 What are the other groupings found in the hierarchy?
Use your biological knowledge to assign each of two key feature cards provided to the correct kingdom. Cut
out the cards, if this has not been done already. Lay out the kingdom cards as column headings. Then place
the key features cards in the appropriate columns. Note that some features are shared by more than one
kingdom so there are some cards with the same features. Then complete the questions below using the
description of the five kingdoms in the columns or in Figure 1 on page 2 of this activity. These summarise
the common features of the organisms in the five kingdoms and some animal phyla and classes. Note
that the diagram does not show all of the phyla, nor all of the classes.
Q3 Colour all the phyla on the sheet one colour and all the classes another colour.
Q4 What do all the classes in the phylum Chordata have in common?
Q5 What do spiders, centipedes and insects have in common?
Q6 If you have time, look at the organisms shown in the virtual tour of the Galapagos islands in the
Interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity (or the ones provided by your teacher/lecturer) and see
if you can assign them to one of the five kingdoms and, where appropriate, to the correct phylum and
class.
For a long time the five kingdoms were considered to be the top level in the taxonomic hierarchy, this is no
longer the case. Read page 161–163 of the AS textbook and then answer the questions below.
Q7 a Who proposed a new system of classification?
b What are the main groups that make up the top level of this classification?
c What feature is used to assign organisms to these groups?
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Activity 4.9 Being Darwin Student
All organisms
Prokaryotae Animalia Plantae

No nucleus. No membrane- Eukaryotic, multicellular Eukaryotic and multicellular.
bound organelles. Bacteria and have no cell walls. Have cellulose cell walls.
and blue-green bacteria. Cannot photosynthesise. Can photosynthesise.
Protoctista Fungi
Eukaryotic simple Eukaryotic. Can be single-
organisms. Include algae celled or multicellular. Have
and unicellular organisms. cell walls made of chitin.
Cannot photosynthesise.
Porifera Platyhelminthes Annelida Mollusca Chordata

Sponges. Unsegmented flat Segmented worms. Unsegmented, muscular Have spinal cord.
worms. (flukes) Include earthworms, foot. (e.g. snails,
ragworms and leeches. octopus, clams, etc.)
Cnidaria Nematoda Arthropoda

Jellyfish, sea anemones, Unsegmented Segmented body, and
hydra and corals. Only roundworms. (e.g. pin chitinous exoskeleton.
one mouth/anus. worms, ascarid worms)
Echinodermata
Marine, spiny skinned,
have five-fold radial
symmetry. (e.g. star fish,
brittle stars, sea urchins,
sea cucumbers)
Insecta Myriapoda Arachnida Crustacea
3 body segments, wings, Centipedes, 2 body segments, 8 legs. Calcareous exoskeleton,
1 pair antennae, 6 legs. millipedes. (e.g. spiders, scorpions) many body segments,
(e.g. flies) 2 pairs antennae.
(e.g. shrimps)
Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia

Fish with Have scales, fins, Smooth moist skin, Scales, lungs, Feathers, beak, Fur, mammary
cartilaginous and gills. (bony metamorphosis. lay eggs with lungs. Lay eggs glands,
skeletons. (e.g. fish, e.g. herring, leathery shells. with hard shell. homeothermic.
sharks, rays) pike, tuna) Homeothermic.
Figure 1 Taxonomic groups using the five kingdoms classification Margulis and Schwartz. All kingdoms and animal phyla are
shown but only some other taxa.
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Activity 4.9 Being Darwin Student
Naming organisms
The taxonomic classification of humans and tigers is shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Human Tiger
Kingdom Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata
Class Mammalia Mammalia
Order Primata Carnivora
Family Hominidae Felidae
Genus Homo Felis
Species H. sapiens F. tigris
Frequently one species will have many different common names, so when biologists, be they research
scientists or keen gardeners, want to refer to a particular species they use the scientific name to avoid
confusion. The scientific name for humans is Homo sapiens and that of tigers is Felis tigris. The first part
of the name, the genus, is shared by all closely related species. The second part of the name is the
particular species in the genus. They are written in italics or underlined to identify them as scientific
names. The first time a scientific name is used it is given in full, after that it can be shortened, thus tiger
would be F. tigris.
The scientific names for some common wild flowers are shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Common name Scientific name

red clover Trifolium pratense
creeping buttercup Ranunculus repens
herb robert Geranium robertianum
Cut-leaved cranesbill Geranium dissectum
Meadow thistle Cirsium dissectum
Q8 Look at the list of scientific names. In addition to writing the name in italics, what other common
convention is used?
Q9 What genus does red clover belong to?
Q10 What is the species name for creeping buttercup?
Q11 Which two plants are most closely related: meadow thistle and cut-leaved cranesbill, or herb robert
and cut-leaved cranesbill? Explain your answer.
A4.10S
Student
Activity 4.10 New ideas in biology
Purpose
• To consider how new ideas in science are assessed and
tested by other scientists.
• To recall how species are defined, and how evidence is
used to make decisions about classification of species.
Brilliant idea or simply crazy – what’s the evidence?

In this activity you think about how scientists work when a new idea comes forward. How are new
ideas tested by scientists, and how do they move from being extreme to being mainstream?
Below are examples of some biological ideas, some new and some older, which have varying
degrees of evidence to support them. How can we decide whether they are brilliant ideas or simply
crazy?
To do
Read the following accounts, then research each of the ideas. For each idea:
• Produce a list of evidence that supports the idea.
• Consider whether you can trust the ‘evidence’ you have quoted. Is it based on ‘peer-reviewed’
scientific papers (ie subjected to scrutiny by other experts in that field before publication)? If it
is information from the Internet, is the source reliable? Is the writer trying to persuade you to
accept their ideas for commercial or political reasons?
• Place the ideas you researched in a rank order, with the one with the greatest support number 1,
and the one that you consider to be on the shakiest ground last. Give reasons for your selection.
• Consider how the ideas could be tested further. Remember that there is no such thing as a
‘scientific fact’ – all scientific ideas are only as good as the evidence that supports them, and
even accepted ideas can be overturned. Ideas which cannot be tested by experiment or
observation (for example some religious ideas) are beyond the scope of science.
A4.10S
Activity 4.10 New ideas in biology Student
The ideas
Endosymbiosis
Endosymbiosis is the idea that eukaryotic cells are associations of different types of cell which
joined forces many millions of years ago. Prokaryotes are thought to have been engulfed by larger
cells, giving rise to modern eukaryotic cells. They developed a mutualistic relationship. The
eukaryotes probably benefited from the products of the metabolism of the prokaryotes: sugar and
oxygen from the photosynthetic prokaryotes that became chloroplasts, and ATP from the non-
photosynthetic prokaryotes that became mitochondria. Lynn Margulis and others in America
developed these ideas in the 1960s.
Three Domains
The idea that all living organisms can be classified under three domains – Archaea, Bacteria and
Eukaryotes – was put forward in the 1970s by Carl Woese in America. The prokaryotes are
separated into two distinct groups. It is claimed that Archaea, which look very like conventional
bacteria on the outside, are as different from bacteria as we are! The reasoning comes from their
ribosomal RNA. Since ribosomes have a role in protein synthesis, they tend to remain unchanged in
evolution. This is because any mutation is likely to impair their function. But mutations do
accumulate very slowly, in subtle and random ways which don’t affect them too much. The
Archaea live in all sorts of odd places, such as oil deposits deep in the earth, in hot springs and very
salty water.
Formative causation
The idea of formative causation is an idea proposed in the 1980s by British scientist Rupert
Sheldrake. Morphogenesis (the development of an organism) not only depends on genes and gene
products but also on organizing fields. He proposes that morphogentic fields are shared by members
of the species through a kind of non-local resonance, called morphic resonance. Each individual
both draws upon and contributes to the collective memory of the species. This means that the form
and behaviour of organisms is influenced by past events. As a result, new patterns of behaviour can
spread more rapidly than would otherwise be possible. For example, if all your class learned the
SNAB course very thoroughly it would make it easier for everyone else studying the course to learn
the same course in the future. Sheldrake has made strenuous efforts to test the hypothesis and New
Scientist magazine held a competition in the 1980s offering a prize for the best ideas to test it
further.
A4.10S
Activity 4.10 New ideas in biology Student
How do we classify our nearest (extinct) relatives?

Read the passage below and then answer the questions.
Neanderthals, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, have traditionally been classified as a subspecies of
modern humans, the third word added to its binomial name denotes the subspecies – we are Homo
sapiens sapiens. A sub-species means that the Neanderthals were distinct in anatomy from modern
people, but not so distinct that we can be sure they did not interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Figure 1 shows the skulls of both Neanderthal and modern man.
Figure 1 Compare the Neanderthal and modern skull. Can you tell the difference?
Typical Neanderthals are known from fossils to have lived in Europe and Asia during the Ice Age
(from about 100 000 years ago). They were well adapted to a hunter-gatherer life in the cold
climate. They had more robust skeletons and muscles than modern humans, with prominent brow
ridges and wide nostrils. They made beautiful stone and bone tools, buried their dead, and possibly
made simple shelters and wore clothes. It is not known whether they had language. They do not
seem to have made cave paintings, unlike the Cro-Magnon people in Spain and France, who were
fully modern, appearing in Europe about 40 000 years ago. Neanderthals lived alongside Cro-
Magnon people for 10–15 000 years, and died out only 20–30 000 years ago.
Questions
Q1 What is a sub-species? How does it differ from a species and from a genus?
Q2 Why are all modern people, of all races, considered to be the same species?
Q3 Suggest why it is difficult to tell from fossil and archaeological evidence alone whether we are the same
species as the Neanderthals.
Q4 Nuclear DNA has recently been sequenced from Neanderthals. How could this be used to determine if
the Neanderthals are a separate species?
Q5 When looking at how closely related two species might be, why is nuclear DNA more useful than
mitochondrial DNA?
Q6 Neanderthals may have competed with modern humans for the same ecological niche. What is likely to
happen when two (sub) species compete for the same niche?
Q7 If we find evidence that Neanderthals used different tools from other populations living at the same time,
can this be taken as evidence that they are different species/subspecies?
3 of 3
A4.11S
Student
Activity 4.11 Exploring biodiversity
Purpose
• To consider how biodiversity can be measured.
Measuring biodiversity
Measures of species richness are normally used to talk about biodiversity. In this activity you
investigate the plant biodiversity of hedges and you also compare the biodiversity of six sites on
Pocklington Beck using species richness and species evenness. There are other measures of
biodiversity and you can compare the values of biodiversity given by three different measures and
evaluate them.
Biodiversity and dating hedges

In Britain, fields are often bounded by hedges, which can be hundreds or even thousands of years
old. From the 1400s, many areas of open common land were enclosed by hedges, and brought under
individual ownership. The process accelerated during the 18th and 19th Centuries, when many
enclosure plans were enforced through parliamentary act.
In the 1960s and 70s, concern about the loss of hedges through agricultural intensification prompted
government scientists to study hedges. They chose hedges whose ages were known from historical
records. They then counted the number of shrub species present in the hedges and plotted a graph of
their results (see Figure 1). In order to make fair comparisons, the scientists counted the number of
shrub species in a fixed length – 30 yards – of hedge.
From: Hedges, E Pollard, MD Hooper and NW Moore 1974 William Collins and Sons, p80.
A graph to show hedge age and the number of shrub and tree species in 30 yard lengths.
The relative frequency of hedges in a class are shown by the size of the circle. 277 hedges were
sampled in total.
A4.11S
Activity 4.11 Exploring biodiversity Student
Q1 Describe any correlation shown by the data in Figure 1.

Q2 Suggest possible reasons why older hedges have more shrub species than younger hedges.
Q3 Explain whether you would expect older hedges to also have more insect biodiversity.
Date your own hedge

Procedure
Select one or two hedges near your school, college or home to study. Choose a parish boundary
hedge if you can. Find a representative 30 yard section of your hedge. It is sufficient to measure
this by striding out 30 long paces. Do not choose a section near a field corner, wood or other major
feature. A section somewhere in the middle of a long stretch is best.
Identify all the shrub and tree species in your 30-yard section. If you have time measure several 30-
yard lengths so you can take an average. You may need an identification guide to help you identify
the shrubs and trees in your hedge. The following are the shrub species you are most likely to find:
Hawthorn, blackthorn, hazel, elder, dog rose, field rose, ash, oak, field maple, holly, privet,
buckthorn, dogwood, sycamore, elm, crab apple, gorse.
Include trees of all sizes, but do not count bramble, honeysuckle or any herbaceous plants such as
nettles and hogweed.
If you are unable to identify all the shrubs on the spot, collect a small twig (with leaves) from each
shrub species, take the samples back in a plastic bag and use an identification guide or the online
tree identification key. The website accompanies this activity.
When you have your figure for the number of shrub species in your 30-yard section, use the graph
above to estimate the age of the hedge.
Questions
Q4 Suggest reasons why the estimate of your hedge’s age could be a) too young b) too old.
Q5 The evenness of shrub species composition in the hedge is another measure of biodiversity. Explain
how you could measure the species evenness of your hedge.
The sample data in Table 1 on page 3 gives the number of individuals counted at each of six sites on
Pocklington Beck. Use the data to complete the questions that follow.
Q6 Work out the species richness for each site and decide which site has the greatest biodiversity.
Q7 Compare species evenness for the six sites. Comment on whether this affects which site is considered
to have the greatest biodiversity
A4.11S
Pocklington Beck: Exploring biodiversity

Table 1 Sample data for Pocklington Beck. Numbers of individuals counted at each site. The data below is also available
as an Excel spreadsheet which can be accessed through the activity page.
Taxonomic group Name Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 Site 6

Platyhelminthes
Polycelis nigra 14 * * * * *
Polycelis feline 8 * * * * *
Annelida
True worms Horsehair worms * 175 * * * 6
Tubifex tubifex 9 * 428 48 * 11
Other worms 1 46 * * * 3
Leeches Erpobdella octoculata 6 21 7 1
Glossiphonia complanata 2 1 * * * *
Mollusca
Spire shell snail 1 34 * 1 2 8
Ramshorn snail 9 1 1 * * *
Fresh water limpet 1 1 * 12 * *
Arthropoda
Crustacea Cyclops * 1 * * * *
Water hoglouse 1 * * * 1 4
Gammarus pulex 263 659 4 56 18 58
Insecta Large water boatman 17 2 * * * *
Olive mayfly nymph 419 213 17 13 * 43
Burrowing mayfly nymph 4 * * * * *
Flattened mayfly nymph * 31 * * * *
Striped mayfly nymph 47 37 * 3 * 14
Swimming mayfly nymph 2 * * * * 1
Sand cased caddis larvae 6 17 * * * 5
Stone cased caddis 4 * * * * *
larvae
Green caseless caddis 5 4 * * * 12
Midge larvae 24 671 6 1037 92 164
Chironomid midge larvae 7 43 28 * 2 3
Dicranota larvae * 1 * * * *
Tipula larvae 7 33 * * * 35
Elmid beetle/larvae 2 22 * * * 15
Halipid type beetle 1 * * * * 7
Agabus type beetle 2 19 * * * *
Other beetle * 9 * * * 1
Arachnida Red mite 7 51 * * * 6
Brown mite 9 18 * * * 17
Other mite * * * * * 5
Chordata * * * * * *
Fish Bullhead fish 1 * * * * *
Brown trout * * * * * *
3 of 4
A4.11S
Using the Natural History Museum Exploring Biodiversity website, navigate to measuring
biodiversity hotspots. (The website is in the weblinks that accompany this activity.) Your task is
to explore the virtual landscape and investigate the biodiversity of each grid square using three
different biodiversity measurements.
Q8 First, look at the imaginary landscape and decide which grid squares you think would be biodiversity
hot spots. Suggest a reason for your selection.
Q9 Hover the cursor over one of the species symbols and see where this species exists on the grid. Look
at the distribution of ground beetles, bullheads and black grouse, and for each species suggest an
explanation for the pattern of distribution. The information that appears by using the drop down
species menu may help.
Q10 Check to see if the hotspots you suggested agree with those in the programme by clicking on ‘show
measures’ and then select each of the three ways of measuring biodiversity (species richness, taxic
richness and range-size rarity) in turn. Note the way in which the distribution of biodiversity and in
particular the hotspots (in red) change. If you go to the bottom of the screen and click on the name of
each method you get background information describing how each method of measuring biodiversity
works. Write a short summary for each of the biodiversity measures.
Q11 Using this information, explain why the hotspots are not the same when using the different measures
of biodiversity. Which do you think is the most commonly used measure of biodiversity and why?
4 of 4
A4.12S
Student
Activity 4.12 Natterjack toads and
genetic diversity
Purpose
• To consider how genetic diversity can be measured
• To calculate and compare the heterozygosity index for two populations
Heterozygosity index
The natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) is Britain’s rarest amphibian. It is very restricted in
distribution, due to loss of its preferred habitat of heath or sand dunes. In Britain there are
now very few populations, with a stronghold around Formby and Ainsdale on Merseyside.
Trevor Beebee and his research group at the University of Sussex have investigated the
genetic diversity of natterjack toad populations and attempted to correlate this diversity with
the genetic fitness of the animals.
The genetic fitness of a population reflects the average ‘fitness’ (the likelihood of survival
and successful breeding) of the individuals within it. Measurable quantities such as rate of
growth, resistance to disease and spawn size will all affect genetic fitness.
Genetic diversity has been measured by preparing DNA fingerprints for individuals within
the populations. (You will discover exactly how these fingerprints are made in Topic 6.) By
examining the prepared DNA fingerprints it is possible to calculate how many of the
different gene loci are heterozygous, i.e. have more than one allele present. The proportion of
genes which are present in heterozygous form can be expressed as a number called the
heterozygosity index.
Figure 1 represents the DNA fingerprint of 10 DNA microsatellite sequences for one
individual. Note that sequences I, VI and VII give only a single band, indicating that the
individual is homozygous for these sequences. The other seven sequences each have two
bands showing that the individual is heterozygous for each of these sequences.
Figure 1 The banding pattern for 10 DNA microsatellite sequences in an individual.
A4.12S
Activity 4.12 Natterjack toads and genetic diversity Student
A heterozygosity index for each sequence can be calculated using the equation:
number of heterozygotes
heterozygosity index =
number of individuals in the population
The DNA fingerprint banding patterns for sequence VII in a population of 21 individuals is
shown in Figure 2. The heterozygosity index for this sequence is:
heterozygosity index (VII) = 7/21 = 0.333
An average heterozygosity index for the population is determined by taking the mean of all
of the heterozygosity index values for each of the microsatellite sequences studied in the
individuals of this population.
The heterozygosity index is a useful measure of genetic diversity. Because it is a proportion
rather than an absolute number, it is unaffected by the sample size.
Figure 2 Fingerprints for microsatellite VII in 21 individuals.
The research group let by Trevor Beebee obtained the results in Table 1 below.
Table 1
Population number 1 2 3 4 5 6
Population size/number of 33 11 146 17 87 20

clumps of spawn laid
Tadpole growth rate/mm per 5.0 2.8 4.6 4.1 5.6 5.0
week
Average heterozygosity 0.269 0.189 0.293 0.257 0.336 0.325
Questions
Q1 Plot tadpole growth rate against average heterozygosity. You could use an automated
programme such as Microsoft Excel® to do this, or you can plot the data by hand.
Q2 What do these results suggest about the benefits for genetic diversity (heterozygosity) in terms
of genetic fitness? Use results from the table and from your graph to support your conclusions.
Q3 Two other small populations of toads were studied. DNA fingerprints were prepared and are
shown in Figure 3. Use these DNA fingerprints to calculate the heterozygosity index for these
two populations.
Q4 Use your results to predict the approximate tadpole growth rate for members of these
populations. Which of the two populations is more likely to succeed over a lengthy period of
time? Suggest three environmental factors which should be controlled if these growth rate
results are to be compared in a valid way.
If you are interested in natterjack toad conservation, why not conduct an Internet search for
information on these animals? You will find more data on their distribution and on conservation
measures being taken to protect them.
A4.12S
Activity 4.12 Natterjack toads and genetic diversity Student
Figure 3 DNA fingerprints for microsatellites in two toad populations.
A4.13S
Student
Activity 4.13 Plant and animal cells
Purpose
• To compare the typical ultrastructure of a plant and an animal cell.
Use the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity to complete this worksheet.
Questions
Q1 Use the following terms to complete the passage below. Some terms may be used more than once.
cell surface membrane cell wall chlorophyll chloroplasts chromosomes

cytoplasm endoplasmic reticulum eukaryotic nuclear membrane
nucleus tonoplast vacuole amyloplasts
Animal and plant cells have many features in common. Each is surrounded by a
and each cell has a single , which itself is
surrounded by a . Animal and plant cells are both types of
cell.
Viewed through an optical microscope the nucleus contains darkly stained material which
condenses to form separate visible during nuclear division.
There are other membrane-bound structures common to both animals and plants such as the
. These organelles are situated in the cell .
Plant cells possess a number of unique structures which do not occur in animals cells. They are
surrounded by a fairly rigid outside the . They
also have a large surrounded by a membrane called the
. Also present are which are involved in
photosynthesis. Glucose produced in photosynthesis is stored as starch within
A4.13S
Activity 4.13 Plant and animal cells Student
Q2 Using ticks and crosses, indicate which of the structures in Table 1 are found in each cell type.
Table 1
Structure Plant cell Animal cell
Chloroplast
Chromosome
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Amyloplast
Large cental vacuole
Tonoplast
Cell wall
Nuclear membrane
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondrion
Q3 a Decide which of the electron micrographs in Figure 1 shows an animal cell and which a plant cell.
b Identify the parts labelled 1 to 5.
4
2
5
A B
Figure 1 Electron micrographs of cells
Q4 a In which part of the cell are: b State which part of the cell is involved in:
i proteins synthesised i photosynthesis
ii DNA molecules transcribed ii respiration
iii glycoprotein molecules assembled iii modification of lipids
iv lysosomes formed iv endocytosis
A4.14S
Student
Activity 4.14 Cellulose structure
Purpose
• To describe the structure of cellulose
Questions
Q1 Use the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity and then annotate Figure 1 below,
to explain how β-glucose units can be joined to form a strong, structural carbohydrate.
Figure 1 Formation of cellulose from β-glucose.
1 of 2
Activity 4.14 Cellulose structure Student A4.14S
Q2 In Figure 2, in which direction is cellulose stronger: AB or XY? Explain your answer.
Figure 2 Cellulose strength is due to bonding.
Q3 Use Biochemistry Support 11 Carbohydrates and 14 Cellulose to produce a table to

compare the structures and functions of starch and cellulose.
A4.15S
Student
Activity 4.15 Looking at plant stems
Purpose
• To look at the structure of xylem vessels and sclerenchyma fibres.
• To locate the position of these tissues within the stem.
• To investigate the transport route of the xylem vessels through the plant.
Part A Looking at tissues

The procedure below lets you look at the structure of xylem vessels and sclerenchyma
fibres in rhubarb.
You need
Safety
• Small piece of tinned rhubarb
Wear eye protection. • Microscope slide
Avoid contact with methylene blue as it • Coverslip
stains clothes and skin. • 2 mounted needles
If liquid comes in contact with skin, flood area • Forceps
with water and then wash thoroughly with soap • Watch glass
and water. • Methylene blue (1% solution)
• 50% glycerol
Procedure • Filter paper
1 Place a small piece of tinned rhubarb on a watch
glass. Use forceps to pick out one or two vascular
bundles from this block of tissue and place them
on a microscope slide.
2 Use mounted needles to tease the vascular bundles apart. Cover the tissue with a drop of
methylene blue, and leave for 5 minutes.
3 Draw off the extra stain with filter paper. Place a drop of dilute glycerol on the fibres and mount
under a coverslip.
4 Examine your preparation under low, medium and high magnification. If the tissues are not
separated enough you may be able to separate them more by placing your slide on a piece of
filter paper and then pressing down with your thumb on the coverslip covered by a filter paper
pad. Do not move your coverslip sideways at all. You may need to re-irrigate the slide with
glycerol after squashing it. To do this, place a drop of glycerol on the slide next to the coverslip.
It will be drawn under the coverslip by capillary action. Blot off any excess and re-examine the
slide.
5 Look for xylem vessels amongst the separated tissues. Use Figures 4.49 and 4.50 in the textbook
to help you identify these tissues. The xylem vessels may show different types of wall
thickening, for example spiral or annular (in rings) thickening or, in some cases, virtually
complete lignification of the walls. Make drawings of a few xylem vessel elements.
A4.15S
Activity 4.15 Looking at plant stems Student
Part B Exactly where are the ‘fibres’ found?

You can either make your own sections of a plant stem or look at ready prepared slides. The
procedure given below is for cutting hand sections of buttercup or any herbaceous stem.
Safety You need

Acidified phloroglucinol is • Piece of stem from herbaceous plant
corrosive and highly flammable. • Acidified phloroglucinol – benzene-
Wear eye protection and avoid 1, 3, 5-triol in ethanol with
inhalation and skin contact. concentrated hydrochloric acid
If the liquid comes in contact with skin, flood • Sharp scalpel
area with cold water for 10 minutes and then • New razor blade
wash thoroughly with soap and cold water. • Watch glass
• Paintbrush
Take care when using a scalpel or razor blade.
• Pipette
Procedure • Microscope
• Microscope slide
1 Use a sharp scalpel to cut out a piece of stem. • Coverslip
2 Hold the stem as shown in Figure 1 and cut • Wax crayon
thin transverse sections across it using a
moistened new razor blade.
Figure 1 Cutting thin transverse sections of a stem using a razor blade.
3 Cut a lot of sections. You do not need a complete section across the stem, as a small
segment will be sufficient. Use a paintbrush to transfer your sections to a watch glass
of water.
4 Select the thinnest sections and transfer to a slide. Using a wax crayon, draw a line
from top to bottom of the slide on both sides of the specimen to stop the dye
spreading.
5 Add a few drops of acidified phloroglucinol and a coverslip.
6 Examine under a microscope.
7 Use your sections and/or a prepared slide of a cross-section across a dicotyledonous
stem such as Helianthus to draw a low-power plan drawing. Label the position of the
vascular bundles (xylem, cambium and phloem and any sclerenchyma).
A4.15S
Activity 4.15 Looking at plant stems Student
Part C Investigating support in plants stems

Look at Figure 4.41 on page 176 of the AS textbook. Notice how the vascular tissue in the
stem is in a ring near the outside edge. In this investigation we will look at how the
distribution of vascular tissue provides resistance to the different forces acting on stem.
Procedure
Roll one piece of A4 into a simple tube long-ways
and join the edges together using sticky tape. Make You need
three more paper rolls in the same way. Arrange them • 8 pieces of A4 paper
to make four legs, like a table. Place one large book • Sticky tape
or magazine on top of the four legs, making sure the • Books or magazines
legs are near the corners and are not kinked. Now • Rubber bands.
make a guess about how many similar
books/magazines you could pile on top of the first one before the structure collapses.
Add books/ magazines one at a time, and test it to destruction.
How near was your guess? Were you surprised how much weight could be supported by
tubular pieces of paper?
Repeat the investigation, but place rubber bands at intervals along the length of the legs,
making sure they are not too tight and do not kink the legs. Run the trial again.
Explain any differences you found between the two trials, and make comparisons with the
structure and role of xylem vessels in the plant stem.
Part D Route of xylem vessels through the stem

A cross-section of the stem gives a two-dimensional image of where the vascular tissue is
located within the stem. To get a three-dimensional picture you either have to cut a series of
longitudinal sections of the stem or dissect out the stained vessels. Both of these procedures
can conveniently be done with broad bean plants.
You need
Safety
• Broad bean plant about 15–20 cm
Take care when using a scalpel or tall with several leaves
razor blade. • Beaker of dye e.g. eosin
• Sharp scalpel or new razor blade
Procedure • Hand lens
1 Cut a broad bean plant just above soil level.
2 Place the cut end in a beaker of dye for
approximately half an hour.
3 With a great deal of care, scrape away the outer layers of tissue from the stem to reveal
the xylem vessels which have taken up the dye. Careful dissection of the stem should
reveal the route that the xylem vessels take up the plant and into the leaves.
A4.16S
Student
Activity 4.16 Water transport in plants
Purpose
• To explain the role of xylem vessels and transpiration
in the movement of water through a plant.
Xylem and water transport

Work through the interactive tutorial that accompanies this activity and read the section
on water transport in plants in the textbook before completing the task below.
Task
Write a short passage (around 100 words) explaining how water moves through a plant,
highlighting the role of xylem vessels. (It may be easiest to start with transpiration from
the leaves.) Ensure that you have explained what is happening at each of the places
numbered on the plant in Figure 1. Use the list of key words below Figure 1 in your
account.
xylem cohesion hydrogen bond

diffusion stomata cell walls
substomatal cavity transpiration evaporation
capillary action lignin
A4.16S
Activity 4.16 Water transport in plants Student
Water loss in plants

You need
The majority of the mass of a plant is water.
• Tree with a trunk about the same diameter
Water helps support the plant, particularly as a street light
in non-woody plants. It also maintains the • Datalogger and sensors (force, temperature
shape of the plant. Wilting, for example, is and light)
caused when the plant cells lose water to the • Bungee cord or steel spring
point where they cannot hold their shape
and the plant collapses.
A tree loses many litres of water per hour in transpiration. You can check out how much
might be lost by doing a transpirometer experiment. Does this water loss produce a
change in the trunk dimensions (girth)?
It should be possible to measure any change in size of the plant. The difficulty is that the
changes are very small and fall outside the accuracy of many conventional measuring
instruments (e.g. rulers). This experiment uses a force sensor to measure the changes in
size of a tree trunk.
Safety
The springs or bungees may be under high tension. Care should
be taken when connecting and disconnecting.
Procedure
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1. The spring/bungee cord should be
positioned around the trunk and attached to the force sensor.
spring/bungee
cord trunk
force sensor
Figure 1 Measuring the girth of a tree trunk.
2 Connect the sensor to the datalogger with a long cord (1.5 m or longer). This
enables the sensor to be placed away from the trunk.
3 Select the appropriate function on the logger and start recording. If appropriate
sensors are available, record other environmental conditions at the same time, for
example light and temperature.
A4.16S
Activity 4.16 Water transport in plants Student
4 Check that data are being collected. Place the logger in a polythene bag
and place it somewhere secure for the datalogging period. It is best not to place
the unit directly on the ground; this helps to reduce the chances of rain getting
into the bag.
5 The data should be collected over a 3-day period.
Analysing the results

Download the data from the logger.
Produce a trace from the data. The axis will need to be adjusted as the changes in
force are very small.
Questions
Q1 Describe any patterns in the data.
Q2 Relate any patterns observed to changes in environmental conditions that have
occurred over the same period.
Q3 Explain why the change in size takes place. Think of what is happening within the plant
at a cellular level.
Q4 How much did the girth of the tree change? (You will need to produce a calibration of
force against distance.)
Q5 The changes in force measured by the spring may be due to the effect of temperature
on the spring. Suggest a control that could be used to check if this is the case.
3 of 3
A4.17S
CORE
Student
Activity 4.17 Sick plants
Purpose
z To put together ideas about the transport and use
of plant minerals
z To investigate the effect of plant mineral
deficiencies.
Identifying sick plants

How are minerals, such as nitrate, calcium and magnesium ions, transported and used in plants?
What happens if the plant isn’t getting enough? Gardeners and fruit growers need to be alert to
signs of deficiency and give appropriate treatments.
Figure 1 shows part of an orange plant. The newer leaves in front are a lighter green colour than the
older leaves behind. The new leaves look blotchy, which suggests that the plant is unhealthy.
Figure 1 An orange plant
Use the photo and the SNAB AS textbook to answer the questions below.
Q1 Describe the pattern of dark and light shades of green on the new leaves (look at this sheet online to see
the photo in colour.
Q2 From your knowledge of plant anatomy, explain how the pattern you have described compares with the
distribution of xylem vessels in a plant leaf.
Q3 Name the green pigment, present in plant leaves, which is needed for photosynthesis.
Q4 Name the mineral ion which is needed in the synthesis of this pigment.
Q5 Putting all the ideas together from questions 1–4:
a explain the pattern of dark and light green in the new leaves of this orange plant.
b suggest a treatment for the plant which will help it to make uniformly dark green leaves.
c suggest why it is only the newer leaves which show symptoms.
A4.17S
Activity 4.17 Sick plants Student
Investigating plant mineral deficiencies

The Mexican hat plant (Bryophyllum) reproduces asexually. Plantlets grow from buds along the leaf
edge. After a while they fall off and establish new plants. These miniature plants are ideal for
investigating the effect of plant mineral deficiencies. Alternatively germinated mung beans could be
used.
Planning
Using Mexican hat plantlets or germinated mung beans, design an experiment to investigate mineral
deficiencies.
You are provided with the following equipment:

• Mexican hat (Bryophyllum) plantlets or germinated mung beans
• a range of nutrient solutions, including solutions with:
– all nutrients present
– lacking nitrogen
– lacking magnesium
– lacking calcium
– lacking all nutrients.
• Standard laboratory equipment.
Make sure your plan includes:

• a hypothesis about the effect of mineral deficiency with a scientific explanation to support your
idea
• a procedure that will validly test your hypothesis
• identification of the variables – dependent and independent – and, where possible, controls or
allows for them
• a fully explained control
• replicates, and an explanation of why these are necessary
• a statement of exactly what observations and measurements you will make and how they will
be made
• information about how you will make sure the results are valid and reliable
• a risk assessment
Have your plan and risk assessment checked by your teacher/lecturer before starting your practical
work.
A4.18S
CORE
Student
Activity 4.18 Extraction of ‘fibres’ from plants
Purpose
• To extract ‘commercially useful fibres’ from a plant stem and investigate their
properties.
• To develop certain experimental skills, namely planning an experiment that will
produce appropriate results to test a hypothesis or idea, using apparatus and a
procedure that is suitable to produce valid results.
Using plant fibres

In this activity you extract the fibres from plants and then test their strength.
‘Fibres’ have been extracted from plant stems for centuries and used in the commercial
manufacture of a wide range of textiles and paper. The term ‘fibres’ does not just refer
to the sclerenchyma but is used to describe a range of ‘fibre-like’ structures. These
plant fibres have been used for different purposes, as indicated in Table 1. Their use is
dependent on their properties.
Table 1 Fibres and their uses
Fibre Useful part of Applications
the plant
Flax Stem of flax Linen for clothing
plant
Cotton Hairs on the seeds of plant Cotton for clothing
belonging to the mallow family
Hemp Fibres from the stem/leaves of Used for ropes,
the hemp plant backing for carpets
Coir Fibre from the husks of the fruit Floor coverings, ropes
of the coconut
Jute Fibre from the stem of the jute Hessian, sacking and
plant carpets
Manila Hard fibres from the leaves of a Marine cables and
type of banana other ropes, nets and
matting
Pulp Softwood trunks Paper, cardboard
Fibres can be removed from plant stems by simply scraping away the upper layers of
tissue or by retting. This can be field retting – plant stems are cut or pulled up and left
in the field to rot; microbial action breaks down the stalks. Alternatively water retting
may be used – stems are immersed in water. The latter produces more uniform, higher
quality fibres but is more expensive and produces nitrogen-rich waste-water that must
be treated before discharge. During soaking, bacteria and fungi break down the soft
tissues of the stems leaving the cellulose intact. It is then relatively easy to remove the
cellulose-rich fibres. The procedures on the next page use these techniques to extract
the fibres from New Zealand flax leaves or nettle stems.
A4.18S
Activity 4.18 Extraction of ‘fibres’ from plants CORE
Student
Extracting fibres from New Zealand flax
Safety
You need
Take care when using a scalpel or razor blade • Leaf of New Zealand flax plant
• White tile
Procedure • Scalpel or razor blade
1 Carefully scrape the surface layer of tissue • Forceps
from each side of the leaf.
2 Separate the fibres using forceps. These ‘fibres’ are made up of the vascular tissue;
they contain both the xylem vessels and the sclerenchyma fibres.
Extracting fibres from mature nettle stems
Safety
You need
Wear eye protection and gloves when • Stems of mature stinging nettles or
handling the unretted nettles to avoid other plant stems
being stung. • Bucket or bowl
Wash your hands after handling the • Rubber gloves
soaked fibres. • Paper towels
Procedure
1 Remove the leaves and any flowers from stems of mature stinging nettles. Place
the stems in a bowl/bucket of water so that they are completely submerged. This
may have already been done for you. The stems are soaked for at least a week;
leave them outdoors because they are very smelly.
2 Remove the stems from the water. Wash the stems to remove the softened tissue
and then dry the remaining fibres. The outside cuticle and epidermal layer will rub
away and the central pith will be left when you peel away the fibres. These
‘fibres’ are made up of the vascular tissue; they contain both the xylem vessels
and the sclerenchyma fibres.
How strong are the extracted fibres? Are they as strong as the intact stem?
Devise an experiment to test the strength of the fibres
Strength can be defined as the maximum stress a material can withstand without failing
(breaking). Tensile strength is the maximum stress caused by a pulling force that a
material can withstand without failing. Compression strength is the maximum stress
caused by a pushing force that a material can withstand without crushing.
You could investigate whether the strength of the stem is entirely due to the fibres or
whether the epidermis and packing tissue make a major contribution. You could
extract and compare some different fibres.
You could design an experiment to find out if the plant fibres under tension are
stronger or weaker than synthetic fibres.
Your plan should include a detailed description of the procedure used to test the fibres.
It should use apparatus that will provide valid results. The method should produce
precise repeatable measurements that reduce any systematic or random errors.
A4.18S
Activity 4.18 Extraction of ‘fibres’ from plants CORE
Student
Can you think of any other important properties you could test for?
Plant stems must not only be strong but often they must able to bend in the wind and
return to their original shape without any permanent distortion. They must not be too
stiff. How stiff are the extracted fibres and plant stems? Is it the fibres that make the
stem stiff? Does stiffness vary between different plant fibres and stems?
A4.19S
CORE
Student
Activity 4.19 Why do they put mint in toothpaste?

Would garlic be better?
Purpose You need

• To investigate the antibacterial properties of plants. • Agar plate seeded with bacteria
• To develop certain experimental skills, such as • Plant material (garlic cloves and
working safely, producing valid reliable results, mint leaves)
recording results and drawing valid conclusions • Pestle and mortar
from results. • 10 cm3 industrial methylated spirits
• Pipette (sterile)
Antibacterial chemicals • Paper discs (e.g. Whatman
antibiotic assay paper discs)
Plants are susceptible to infection by bacteria and • Sterile Petri dish
fungi; they do everything to repel such attacks. Several • Sterile forceps
plants are known to, or thought to, destroy or inhibit • Tape
the growth of certain bacteria. A plant with this • Marker pen
property is known as antibacterial. • Incubator set at 25 °C
Chemicals in their cells are toxic to bacteria or
interfere with their metabolism in some other way.
You can probably guess why there is mint in toothpaste, but would garlic be better?
Mint may numb our gums but is it lethal to bacteria? In this activity you will
investigate whether two plants contain antibacterial chemicals and their effectiveness
by looking at the growth of bacteria on agar plates.
Before you start, read through the procedure and suggest what you might expect to
observe on the plates. Decide how you would take precise measurements to enable you
to make valid conclusions from the data.
Safety
Methylated spirits is toxic and highly flammable and because of the latter
hazard should not be used while naked flames are in use – which happens in
the preparation and pouring of agar plates.
Use aseptic techniques. Do not open Petri dishes containing growing microorganisms.
Only bin used Petri dishes after they have been autoclaved.
Procedure
1 Agar plates seeded with suitable bacteria need to be prepared. This may have been done for
you in advance; if not, follow the instructions on the sheet Pouring agar plates (page 3). The
Practical Support has a sheet on plate pouring and aseptic technique.
2 Obtain a plant extract by crushing 3 g of plant material with 10 cm3 of industrial methylated
spirit and shake it from time to time for 10 minutes. The advantage of using methylated spirits
instead of water is that it kills any bacteria that might otherwise contaminate the extract.
3 Pipette 0.1 cm3 of extract onto a sterile 13 mm Whatman antibiotic assay paper disc. (If these
are not available, discs cut from new filter paper using a hole punch can be used.)
A4.19S
Activity 4.19 Why do they put mint in toothpaste? CORE
Student
4 Let the paper discs dry for 10 minutes on open sterile Petri dishes.
5 Repeat steps 1 to 4 for other plants, making separate test discs for each extract.
6 Decide within your group what a ‘suitable control’ should be. Check with your
teacher/lecturer before proceeding. Use sterile forceps to place the test discs onto the
bacterial plate together with the suitable control per plate. Three test discs and a control
can be placed on a single Petri dish. Ensure that you can distinguish between the
different discs by marking the underside of the Petri dish.
7 Close the Petri dish and tape it as shown in Figure 1. Do not tape all round the dish
because this can lead to the growth of anaerobic bacteria, some of which may be
harmful. Make sure your name, the date, the plant and bacteria used are recorded on the
plate.
clear tape
Figure 1 A convenient way of taping a Petri dish without allowing

anaerobic conditions to develop.
8 Incubate the plates for 24 hours at 25 °C.

9 Observe the plates without opening them. Bacterial growth on an agar plate looks
cloudy. Make any appropriate measurements that will enable you to compare the
antibacterial properties of the different plant extracts.
10 Do not throw the plates in the bin. (The unopened Petri dishes will need to be autoclaved
before disposal in the dustbin.)
11 Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water after completing the practical.
12 Present your results in the most appropriate way.
13 Write up your experiment, making sure your report includes:
• a discussion of any safety precautions taken
• results presented in the most appropriate way
• an explanation of any patterns in the data using evidence from the data
and your own biological knowledge
• comments on how valid your conclusion is
• comments on how you ensured that the results obtained in this
experiment were reasonably reliable
• suggestions for how you could have obtained more reliable results.
A4.19S
Activity 4.19 Why do they put mint in toothpaste? CORE
Student
Pouring agar plates
You need
Safety
• 15 cm3 of sterile agar in an agar bottle
Do not do this procedure if methylated or test tube
spirits is in use as part of this activity. • Beaker into which the agar bottle will fit
Aseptic techniques should be used throughout • Sterile Petri dish
to avoid contamination. • 1 cm3 sterile pipette
Procedure
1 Collect a bottle or test tube containing 15 cm3 of sterile nutrient agar.
2 Melt the agar by placing the bottle or tube in a hot water bath (agar melts at 97 °C).
If the bottle has a screw cap it should be loosened to allow air to escape.
3 Once all the agar has melted remove the bottle. You will need to use a cloth to do
this. Allow the agar to cool to about 50 °C, a temperature at which you can handle
the bottle. The agar will start to solidify at about 42 °C. Take care not to let it cool
too much or it will set as you pour it into the Petri dish.
4 Pipette 1 cm3 of bacterial broth into a sterile Petri dish using an aseptic technique.
The lid of the Petri dish should only be lifted enough to allow entry of the pipette.
See Figure 2 below.
5 Pour the 15 cm3 of molten agar into the Petri dish and replace the lid. Gently push
the plate back and forth, N–S, NE–SW and NW–SE to mix the bacteria with the
agar and allow the agar to set.
6 Please note: It is essential that the plates are used for the investigation an hour or so
after the agar has set, otherwise once the bacteria have started to grow they will be
unaffected by the antimicrobial agent.
Flame neck of
culture tube.
cotton plug sterile pipette

from tube
Take sample.
Raise just enough

to give access.
Flame neck of
culture and replace
plug.
Pipette into Replace lid and

Petri dish. tape as shown.
Figure 2 Aseptic techniques.
A4.20S
Student
Activity 4.20 Testing a new drug
Purpose
To compare William Withering’s approach to drug development with methods used by drug
companies today.
Digitalis
Digitalis is a natural toxin found in foxgloves. Although digitalis can be fatal in even quite small
doses it was used for centuries in herbal remedies to treat some heart conditions. The man
responsible for bringing the use of digitalis into conventional medicine in the 1700s was William
Withering.
Read through sections in the textbook titled ‘Digitalis and drug development’ (page 185)
and ‘Drug testing today’ (page 186) before attempting the questions.
Q1 Make two flow charts: one outlining the Q6 Many people in the UK use ‘alternative’
stages that William Withering went through therapies such as aromatherapy, homeopathy,
when he was working on digitalis, and a and reflexology.
second showing the steps involved in
Only a few of these have been subjected to clinical
developing a new drug today. Try to use
trials, and in many cases where trials have been run
the same layout to make comparisons
the results have been ambiguous. However, some
easier.
rigorous acupuncture trials have produced very
Q2 Compare the two flow charts. What positive findings.
similarities and differences do you notice?
Read the brief descriptions of a few alternative
Q3 In what way is the current system of drug therapies below. (You can find out more details in the
testing safer and more reliable? New Scientist 26th May 2001 edition; it has several
Q4 What do we gain nowadays from testing articles in a special section on this subject and is
the drug on healthy volunteers first? accessible on the New Scientist Archive website.
See the weblinks for this activity for more details.)
Q5 Why is it important to:
a randomly assign patients to the Choose one ‘alternative’ therapy and design a trial to
treatments test its efficacy (effectiveness). Remember that the
b have a double blind trial? placebo effect, where the patient’s belief in the
(Assume the researchers are well procedure affects the outcome, is thought to be
meaning and honest!) particularly strong in this area, so you will need to
design your placebo with care.
In acupuncture, very fine needles are stuck into the patient at special sites. Skill is needed to
make sure the needles are accurately sited. The needles are said to influence the flow of energy
in the patient and vibrations of the needles can change the effects.
Aromatherapy is the use of volatile plant oils for physical and psychological wellbeing. In
aromatherapy, patients are treated with ‘essential oils’ from plants. These may be inhaled, or
diluted in other oils and massaged onto the skin. Different essential oils are used to treat different
conditions. For example, rosemary can be used for muscle pains and dandruff, while lavender
can be used for acne, asthma and hypertension.
Reflexology is based on the idea that specific areas of a person’s feet influence parts of the rest
of the body. The feet are massaged, concentrating on the areas which are thought to affect the
afflicted part.
In homeopathy, the patient uses minute quantities of substances which would, if given in much
larger amounts, produce similar effects to the patient’s symptoms. (For example, red onions may
be used to treat watery eyes.) The substances are diluted to extremely low concentrations. It is
believed that the more they are diluted the more effective they are.
A4.21S
Student
Activity 4.21 Superheating starch
You need
Purpose
• 2 or 3 kernels of popping corn
• To describe the use of starch as a packaging • Teaspoonful of cooking oil
material. • Cooking pan
Heating starch under pressure
Ever wondered how they make savoury corn puffs (such as ‘Wotsits’)?
It’s simply done by heating starch under pressure. Superheating causes starch to
gelatinise: as the starch is heated, hydrogen bonds within the granules break. If water is
present the granule absorbs the water and starts to swell. If very little water is present
and heating occurs under pressure the starch forms a plastic mass. If water is
superheated under pressure and then the pressure is released the water turns to steam.
What happens when the starch in corn kernels is superheated? You get popcorn. Here
you can have a go at popping some corn and then try to explain what has happened.
Safety
Care must be taken when heating oil and popping corn without a lid. Only
a small amount of oil is used. Do not use any more than a teaspoon of oil.
Heated from cold with the corn, the oil is less likely to spit. However, wear
eye protection and do not stand over the pan. Do not place the corn straight
into hot oil.
You must not eat the popped corn unless you do the practical with ‘food use only’ utensils.
Procedure
1 Place a teaspoonful of oil into a cooking pan.
2 Place two or three corn kernels in the oil. Heat the pan gently over a medium
heat. Making pop corn in the kitchen would be done with a lid covering the pan.
Here, without a lid, care must be taken to avoid any burns from spitting fat or
popping corn. Observe the corn as it heats, taking care to stand well clear in case
the oil spits. You could use a plane mirror, held in a clamp and angled so that
you can see down into the pan from a safe distance.
3 Once the corn has ‘popped’, remove the pan from the heat and allow it to cool.
4 Observe the corn carefully.
5 Explain your observations.
Starch extruders
Making puffed breakfast cereal, corn snacks or starch foam packaging uses exactly the
same principle as popping corn. Figure 1 is from a guidebook for a factory tour. It
shows a diagrammatic representation of a starch extruder that is used to make starch
foam packaging. The results look just like snacks but don’t try to eat them! The
guidebook had failed to include labels on the diagram to explain the process. Add some
annotated labels that could be included when they reprint the book.
A4.21S
Activity 4.21 Superheating starch
Student
starch
water
Figure 1 A starch extruder used to make starch foam packaging.
Not only can starch be made into foam pellets, it can also be moulded into shapes
and made into transparent films. So, the foam box that fruit is sometimes packed in
at a supermarket and the clear film that covers it can both be made of starch. To find
out more about starch foams and films see the weblinks for this activity.
Think back
Some science equipment comes packed in starch packaging. How would you check
that it was starch packaging? (Eating it is not a test!)
A4.22S
Student
Activity 4.22 Is your lifestyle sustainable?
Purpose
z To calculate your own ecological footprint.
z To consider ways of achieving greater
sustainability.
Human impacts on the world

The world population is estimated to rise by 40% in the next 50 years. So the impact we have on
our planet will also rise. What impact do we have on the planet now?
As individuals or in groups, list the negative and positive impacts that humans have on the world.
Identify those impacts that you contribute to directly or indirectly.
Your ecological footprint
Measure your own demands on the planet and to calculate your individual ecological footprint. Do
this by completing one of the on-line questionnaires that can be found in the weblinks
accompanying this activity.
Your footprint is given in terms of Earth units i.e. the number of planet-Earths we would need to
support everyone now alive if they all had your particular lifestyle. You will almost certainly find
that your footprint is greater than one planet, and probably more than two.
Making our lifestyles more sustainable
In 1987 the Brundtland report highlighted the need for development that could be sustained without
depleting natural resources or harming the environment. The 1992 United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development, or ‘Earth Summit’, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, saw international
agreements to increase sustainability. These included Agenda 21, this requires each country to draw
up a national strategy of sustainable development and is implemented by UK local authorities. The
aim is to encourage people to think globally but act locally.
Make a list of 5 ways you could make your lifestyle more sustainable. But remember that it not as
simple as changing to using plant-based products if natural forest and all its biodiversity has been
destroyed to plant the crops.
A4.23S
Student
Activity 4.23 Animal dating agency
Purpose
• To examine the use of studbooks to manage captive populations of endangered animals.
What are studbooks?

Studbooks are kept by zoos involved in breeding endangered species. They keep a record of the
history of all captive individuals, their parents, location and any movements between zoos. In this
activity, using real data from a lemur studbook, you have to identify key individuals involved in the
captive breeding programme. This should highlight the complexity of animal management in a
modern zoo. Names of the actual zoos and the species of lemur have been removed for reasons of
privacy.
Managing captive lemur populations
Read pages 195–197 of the AS textbook and then use the data in Table 1 taken from a lemur
studbook to answer the questions that follow.
Stud No. Sex *Sire *Dam Date of Event Event Location

L1 F *Wild Wild Aug 1985 Capture Malagasy
Aug 1985 Transfer to Zoo G
Nov 1996 Death Zoo G
L4 M Wild Wild Nov 1990 Capture Malagasy

Dec 1990 Loan to Zoo A
Nov 1996 Transfer to Zoo B
Jul 1999 Transfer to Zoo A

L8 F Wild Wild Nov 1990 Capture Malagasy


Dec 1992 Transfer to Zoo G
Apr 1998 Transfer to Zoo A
Jul 1999 Transfer to Zoo B

May 1998 Transfer to Zoo D
L13 M L5 L8 Aug 1993 Birth Zoo A

Dec 1998 Transfer to Zoo C
L15 F L5 L8 Aug 1994 Birth Zoo A


L20 F L10 L1 Mar 1995 Birth Zoo G
L21 F L5 L8 Jul 1995 Birth Zoo A
Nov 1996 Loan to Zoo B
A4.23S
Activity 4.23 Animal dating agency Student
L22 F L5 L8 Apr 1996 Birth Zoo A

Jun 1998 Transfer to Zoo E
L24 M L11 L15 May 1996 Birth Zoo A
L25 M L11 L15 May 1996 Birth Zoo A
L26 M L5 L8 Jan 1997 Birth Zoo A
L27 M L5 L8 Jan 1997 Birth Zoo A
L28 M Wild Wild Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy
Dec 1998 Transfer to Zoo F
Jan 2001 Death Zoo F
L29 M L28 Wild Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy
Oct 1998 Transfer to Zoo C
Oct 2001 Transfer to Zoo E
L32 F Wild Wild Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy
Jan 2001 Death Zoo F
L34 M L33 L32 Mar 1997 Capture Malagasy
Jun 1998 Transfer to Zoo E
Nov 2001 Death Zoo A
L42 F L5 L8 Jan 1998 Birth Zoo A
L44 M L38 L39 Jun 1998 Birth Zoo A
Feb 2002 Transfer to Zoo H
L46 M L31 L40 Jul 1998 Birth Zoo A
L47 M L5 L8 Oct 1998 Birth Zoo A
A4.23S
Activity 4.23 Animal dating agency Student
L49 M L38 L39 Apr 1999 Birth Zoo A

L50 F L5 L8 Aug 1999 Birth Zoo A
Jul 2001 Transfer to Zoo H
L52 M L31 L40 May 1999 Birth Zoo F
L57 M L29 L20 Mar 2000 Birth Zoo A
L75 M L5 L8 Jul 2001 Birth Zoo A
*Note Wild-caught animals: an assumption is made that wild-caught animals are not related.
Sire = father.
Dam = mother.
Source: DWCT/Jersey Zoo.
Questions
Q1 Which female lemur in Zoo A has had the most offspring?
Q2 L21 needs a new mate. Which males must she not be paired with and why?
Q3 Wild-caught animals are genetically important.
a Why do you think this is the case?
b Which lemur(s) in the studbook extract are the most important to breed from?
Q4 Give reasons for the use of studbooks in captive-breeding programmes?
Websites for further information

• The American Zoo and Aquaria website gives a good description of what a studbook is and how
it works. The website is in the weblinks that accompany this activity.
• Other studbooks can also be accessed on the web by conducting a search with the terms
‘studbook’ and ‘zoo’.
A4.24S
Student
Activity 4.24 Putting them back
Purpose
• To highlight some of the complications of releasing captive-bred animals back into the wild
using the example of the release of captive-bred black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia
variegata variegata) back into their native forests of Eastern Madagascar.
• To examine some data on the captive breeding of the Mauritius kestrel which provides an
example of how captive breeding can be highly effective.
Ruffed lemur reintroduction
Figure 1 Varecia variegata variegata ready for release.
In order to ensure that a reintroduction programme is going to work it is vital that research is
conducted to find out exactly how well captive-bred individuals can survive in the wild. Back in
1997 a plan was put into action to release some captive-bred black-and-white ruffed lemurs
(Varecia variegata variegata) back into their native forest in the northwest of Madagascar. The plan
was drawn up by the Madagascar Fauna Group, a collection of conservation organisations
concerned with biodiversity conservation on the island. The group includes the Durrell Wildlife
Conservation Trust based at Jersey Zoo.
The Betampona forest reserve was chosen as the release site as it was a protected site and research
had shown that the area could benefit from an increase in the wild Varecia population. The
following is an extract from Lemur News, a web-based journal produced by the Madagascar Fauna
Group. Study this report on the release of captive-bred black-and-white ruffed lemurs before
completing the questions that follow.
A4.24S
Activity 4.24 Putting them back Student
Extract
As previously reported the Madagascar Fauna Group have been attempting an experimental
reinforcement of captive-bred black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia v. variegata) in the
Betampona Reserve since 1997 (Britt et al. 1998, 2000). Whilst some individuals have shown
encouraging signs of adaptation to a wild existence, others have adapted poorly. However,
regardless of the degree of adaptation it is clear that captive-bred individuals of this species are
extremely vulnerable to predation by a cat-like carnivore [actually a civet, family: Viverridae]
called the fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox). This paper will discuss the impact of this predator on the
success of the project and its implications for future reinforcement or reintroduction efforts.
The release programme
Of the 13 captive-bred V. v. variegata released to date, five (two males, three females) have been
killed by C. ferox. Of these five, one pair produced triplets in October 1999, and at least one of
these offspring is also presumed to have fallen victim to C. ferox predation. It is particularly
disappointing that this pair who had been able to reproduce and raise triplets were killed. Of the
remaining animals one male died as a result of injuries sustained during a fall or possibly
malnutrition and another female simply disappeared. One male from the November 1997 release is
integrated into a wild group and thriving. A female released in November 1998 has been withdrawn
from the programme following the killing of her two fellow releasees by C. ferox, but also due to
her poor adaptation over a period of 2 years in the forest. Three males and one female released in
January 2001 are still surviving and showing good signs of adaptation in terms of food location,
travel and navigation within the forest.
Preliminary analyses of behavioural data indicate that individuals with early or long-term
experience in enclosures that simulate the natural forest environment of this species adapt better to
life in the wild. This has been the case for both the first and third release groups. For both groups it
has been possible to stop supplemental feeding within a few months of release. Also both groups
have shown similar ranging patterns to wild V. v. variegata and have established territories of
comparable size. However, the second release group had very limited experience (a few months) in
‘natural habitat enclosures’ and remained reliant on provisioning throughout their 2 years in the
forest. This group showed no inclination to range far from their release site in search of food.
Extract from Britt, A., Welch, C. and Katz, A. (2001), The impact of Cryptoprocta ferox on the
Varecia v. variegata Reinforcement Project at Betampona, Lemur News 6, 35–37.
Lemur News provides reports on other lemur species and conservation work being conducted in
Madagascar on this unique group of mammals. The website for Lemur News can be found in the
weblinks that accompany this activity.
Q1 What was the fate of the released captive-bred lemurs?

Q2 What percentage of the released lemurs survived?
Q3 Why was ‘supplemental feeding’ carried out on the release group?
Q4 Do the results give any indication that captive-bred lemurs can be successfully released into the wild?
Q5 Suggest what modifications a zoo could make to their reintroduction programme to increase the
chances of successful release into the wild.
Q6 Give reasons for the inclusion (or non-inclusion) of juvenile or adult lemurs in the release programme.
A4.24S
Activity 4.24 Putting them back Student
Saving the Mauritius kestrel

Table 1 shows the changes in population size for the Mauritius kestrel (Falco punctatus) from its
low point in 1973, with only two known pairs surviving in the wild, up to 1990. Direct management
of the wild population began in 1983. This involved a combination of fostering captive-bred
kestrels by wild pairs and release of captive-bred fledglings. By 2002 the wild population was over
350 pairs and the population had stabilised. The species was reclassified, from endangered to
vulnerable.
Using a spreadsheet (or graph paper) draw a graph of the data to illustrate the changes that took
place between 1973 and 1990. Use this to answer the questions that follow.
Table 1 Changes in population size of the Mauritius kestrel.
Season Total population Natural Number of captive Number

production fledglings released fostered
1973 4 0
1974 6 2
1975 6 0
1976 12 6
1977 15 6
1978 16 5
1979 18 4
1980 20 4
1981 17 3
1982 20 8
1983 20 5 5
1984 34 12 12 12
1985 35 8 13 8
1986 34 8 12 8
1987 48 8 24 10
1988 62 8 26 12
1989 110 10 55 28
1990 135 12 53 24
Source: The data are from a paper by Carl Jones, Mauritius Wildlife Fund (Dodo Journal, published by DWCT).
Q7 Explain the impact of releasing captive-bred kestrels on the total wild population.
Q8 Based on the shape of the graph for natural production do you think that the species would have gone
extinct over time without the release of captive-bred stock?
Q9 What natural events could have caused the natural population to go extinct if numbers had remained
low over a long period?
Q10 One argument for increasing population size rapidly when the original population of a species is low is
that it generates more individuals, some of which should be able to survive the impact of inbreeding.
What could have happened to the wild kestrel population as a result of inbreeding?
The Mauritius Wildlife Foundation website provides additional information on the kestrel and other
species currently being brought back from the brink of extinction on the island of the dodo. The
website is in the weblinks that accompany this activity.
A4.25S
Student
Activity 4.25 More than just saving seeds
Purpose
• To discuss and evaluate the methods used by seed
banks in the conservation of endangered plants.
Seed banks
Watch the video about the Millennium Seed Bank (MSB) that accompanies this activity, read the
SNAB AS textbook and visit the MSB website and find out more about the creation of a worldwide
seed conservation network to safeguard wild plant species. Then answer the questions that follow.
Questions
Q1 Draw a flow chart to summarise the processes involved in the storage of seeds in a seed bank.
Q2 The scientists operating the seed bank need their seeds to remain viable while in storage. Seeds are
considered viable if they can germinate and produce a radicle (young root) which protrudes through the
seed coat (testa). However, with time all seeds lose their ability to germinate. Why may seeds lose their
viability with time?
Q3 Some plant species’ seeds are longer-lived than others. Seed longevity is measured as the time for
viability to fall to 50%. For example, seeds of wood anemone, Anemone nemerosa, a British woodland
herb only survive seed bank storage for a year or two at best, whereas sunflower seeds and oil-seed
rape have predicted longevity of 165 years and 843 years respectively.
a What are the advantages of seeds being long-lived in the wild?
b Why is it useful for researchers at the seed bank to know the longevity of the seeds in their care?
Q4 The Millenium Seed Bank Project (MSBP) is conducting research to determine the longevity of the seeds
they store. Figure 1 shows the results some of the results research completed as part of the Save our
Seeds project. Look at the results on page 2.
a Identify the shortest-lived and longest-lived species.
b Comment on the longevity of the buttercup (Ranunculus sceleratus), and the chrysanthemum
(Chrysanthemum leucanthemum).
M yosotis arvensis Figure 1 Results of an
H ypericum perforatum experiment to
100 Prunella vulgaris investigate longevity of
Plantago lanceolata
R anunculus sceleratus 10 species.
C hrysanthem um leucanthem um
O riganum vulgare
80 D ipsacus fullonum
Brassica napus
R um ex acetosa
Germination (%)
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Storage tim e (days)
Source: Millenium Seed Bank Save Our Seeds Project
A4.25S
Activity 4.25 More than just saving seeds Student
Q5 The MSB Project identifies habitats and species that are a priority for seed conservation. Many partners
within the Project focus seed collection on particular species. What features are used to decide which
species are collected?
Q6 MSBP collections are being used for the reintroduction of species to the wild. Describe one example
from the UK and one from aboard.
Q7 International partnerships are an important feature of conservation and reintroduction programmes.
Explain why the priorities of the scientists at the MSB need to be balanced with those of international
partners.
Q8 Describe how seed bank collections can be used for research and education..
Q9 There is much discussion about the role of zoos in the conservation of endangered species. People
express views both for and against. Discuss whether the concerns that many people have about zoos
also apply to seed banks.
A4.26S
Student

Biodiversity and natural resources
Purpose
• To help you get your notes in order at the end of this
topic.
Topic 4 summary
Make sure your notes cover the following points. The points are listed in the approximate order they
appear within the topic. All the points are covered in the textbook but where there is supporting
information within the activities this is indicated.
o Describe the concept of niche. (Activities 4.3 and 4.5)
o Discuss examples of adaptation of organisms to their environment (behavioural,
physiological and anatomical). (Checkpoint question 4.1) (Activities 4.4 and 4.5)
o Describe how natural selection can lead to adaptation and evolution. (Checkpoint question
4.2) (Activity 4.6)
o Explain the terms biodiversity and endemism. (Activity 4.7)
o Discuss the process and importance of critical evaluation of new data by the scientific
community, which leads to new taxonomic groupings (i.e. three domains based on molecular
phylogeny). (Checkpoint question 4.3) (Activities 4.9 and 4.10)
o Describe how biodiversity can be measured within a habitat using species richness and
within a species using genetic diversity, e.g. variety of alleles in a gene pool. (Activities 4.11
and 4.12)
o Compare the structure and ultrastructure of plant cells (cell wall, chloroplasts, amyloplasts,
vacuole, tonoplast, plasmodesmata, pits and middle lamella) with that of animal cells.
o Compare the structure and function of the polysaccharides starch and cellulose including the
role of hydrogen bonds between α-glucose molecules in the formation of cellulose
microfibrils. (Checkpoint question 4.5) (Activity 4.14)
o Compare the structures, position in the stem and function of sclerenchyma fibres (support)
and xylem vessels (support and transport of water and mineral ions). (Activities 4.15 and
4.16)
o Identify sclerenchyma fibres and xylem vessels as seen through a light microscope.
(Activity 4.15)
o Explain how the arrangement of cellulose microfibrils in plant cell walls and secondary
thickening contribute to the physical properties of plant fibres, which can be exploited by
humans. (Checkpoint question 4.6) (Activities 4.14, 4.15 and 4.18)
A4.26S
Activity 4.26 Check your notes for Topic 4 Student
o Describe how to determine the tensile strength of plant fibres practically. (Activity 4.18)
o Describe how the uses of plant fibres and starch may contribute to sustainability, e.g. plant-
based products to replace oil-based plastics. (Activity 4.22)
o Explain the importance of water and inorganic ions (nitrate, calcium ions and magnesium
ions) to plants. (Activity 4.17)
o Describe how to investigate plant mineral deficiencies practically. (Activity 4.17)
o Compare historic drug testing with contemporary drug testing protocols, e.g. William
Withering’s digitalis soup; double blind trials; placebo; three-phased testing. (Activity 4.20)
o Describe how to investigate the antimicrobial properties of plants. (Activity 4.19)
o Discuss and evaluate the methods used by zoos and seedbanks in the conservation of
endangered species and their genetic diversity (e.g. scientific research, captive breeding
programmes, reintroduction programmes and education). (Checkpoint question 4.7)
(Activities 4.23, 4.24 and 4.25)

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A1.

Activity 1.1 Mark’s and Peter’s stories

Activity 1.1 Mark’s and Peter’s stories Student

Thank you for reading this.

Activity 1.1 Mark’s and Peter’s stories Student

Activity 1.1 Mark’s and Peter’s stories Student

Activity 1.2 Demonstrating mass flow

Activity 1.3 Structure of the heart (Dissection)

Purpose You need

Wash your hands carefully after completing the dissection

Take care with sharp dissecting instruments.

4 Draw a sketch of the heart

Q2 a Can you distinguish coronary

Activity 1.3 Structure of the heart (Dissection) Student

Q3 In this case from which vessel will the water emerge?

Q5 Look carefully inside each ventricle and answer these questions:

Activity 1.3 Structure of the heart (Dissection) Student

Vertical section of the heart

Figure 2 Vertical section of the heart.

Activity 1.4 Structure of the heart (simulated dissection)

● To revise knowledge of the structure of the heart.

Q2 What are the functions of the coronary arteries and veins?

Q5 Which ventricle has thicker walls?

Q8 What is the function of the atrioventricular valves?

Activity 1.4 Structure of the heart (simulated dissection) Student

Vertical section of the heart

Figure 1 Vertical section of the heart.

Properties and polarity

Figure 1 Why water is a liquid at room temperature

Q3 a Vitamin C is water-soluble. Vitamin A is fat-insoluble. Give a possible explanation for this

Property Explanation Role in blood

Solvent for ionic and

Blood helps to regulate body

Activity 1.6 Investigating arteries and veins

Purpose You need

Figure 1 Measuring the length of the ring.

5 Calculate % change in length:

Activity 1.6 Investigating arteries and veins Student

Activity 1.6 Investigating arteries and veins Student

Part B: Histology of blood vessels

Activity 1.6 Investigating arteries and veins Student

Q2 What are the main properties of:

Q6 What is the role of smooth muscle in blood vessel walls?

Q8 Suggest variables that should ideally be controlled in this experiment.

Activity 1.7 The cardiac cycle

Use the section on the cardiac cycle in your textbook or

Atrial and ventricular diastole

Activity 1.8 Atherosclerosis

1 Fibrin 12 A blood clot forms

Activity 1.9 Estimating risk

Estimating risks and analysing data

Cause of death in Estimated Actual

Correlation and causation

Country Life People per Country Life People per

Using the risk calculator model

Activity 1.10 Identifying health risks

MMR vaccination and autism

Activity 1.10 Identifying health risks Student

Activity 1.10 Identifying health risks Student

Cholesterol and risk of stroke

Activity 1.11 Analysis of cardiovascular disease data

Analysis of risk: haemorrhagic stroke

Age Male Female