Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Definition: Disruptions of the lips and soft tissues of the oral cavity
Defining Characteristics: Purulent drainage or exudates; gingival recession, pockets deeper than 4 mm; enlarged
tonsils beyond what is developmentally appropriate; smooth atrophic, sensitive tongue; geographic tongue; mucosal
denudation; presence of pathogens; difficult speech; self-report of bad taste; gingival or mucosal pallor; oral
pain/discomfort; xerostomia (dry mouth); vesicles, nodules, or papules; white patches/plaques, spongy patches, or white
curd-like exudate; oral lesions or ulcers; halitosis; edema; hyperemia; desquamation; coated tongue; stomatitis; self-
report of difficult eating or swallowing; self-report of diminished or absent taste; bleeding; macroplasia; gingival
. hyperplasia; fissures, cheilitis; red or bluish masses
Related Factors: Chemotherapy; chemical (e.g., alcohol, tobacco, acidic foods, regular use of inhalers); depression;
immunosuppression; aging-related loss of connective, adipose, or bone tissue; barriers to professional care; cleft lip or
palate; medication side effects; lack of or decreased salivation; chemical trauma (e.g., acidicfoods , drugs, noxious
agents, alcohol); pathological conditions—oral cavity (radiation to head or neck); NPO for more than 24 hours; mouth
breathing; malnutrition or vitamin deficiency; dehydration; infection; ineffective oral hygiene; mechanical (e.g., ill-
fitting dentures, braces, tubes [endotracheal/nasogastric], surgery in oral cavity); decreased platelets;
immunocompromised; impaired salivation; radiation therapy; barriers to oral self-care; diminished hormone levels
(women); stress; loss of supportive structures
Top of Form
Cough Enhancement •
Airway Management •
Airway Suctioning •
NANDA Definition: Inability to clear secretions or obstructions from the respiratory tract to maintain airway patency
Maintaining a patent airway is vital to life. Coughing is the main mechanism for clearing the airway. However, the
cough may be ineffective in both normal and disease states secondary to factors such as pain from surgical incisions/
trauma, respiratory muscle fatigue, or neuromuscular weakness. Other mechanisms that exist in the lower bronchioles
and alveoli to maintain the airway include the mucociliary system, macrophages, and the lymphatics. Factors such as
anesthesia and dehydration can affect function of the mucociliary system. Likewise, conditions that cause increased
production of secretions (e.g., pneumonia, bronchitis, and chemical irritants) can overtax these mechanisms. Ineffective
airway clearance can be an acute (e.g., postoperative recovery) or chronic (e.g., from cerebrovascular accident [CVA] or
spinal cord injury) problem. Elderly patients, who have an increased incidence of emphysema and a higher prevalence of
.chronic cough or sputum production, are at high risk
:Defining Characteristics
(Abnormal breath sounds (crackles, rhonchi, wheezes•
Changes in respiratory rate or depth•
Cough•
Hypoxemia/cyanosis•
Dyspnea•
Chest wheezing•
Fever•
Tachycardia•
:Related Factors
Decreased energy and fatigue•
Ineffective cough•
Tracheobronchial infection•
(Tracheobronchial obstruction (including foreign body aspiration•
Copious tracheobronchial secretions•
Perceptual/cognitive impairment•
Impaired respiratory muscle function•
Trauma•
Expected Outcomes
Patient's secretions are mobilized and airway is maintained free of secretions, as evidenced by clear lung sounds,•
.eupnea, and ability to effectively cough up secretions after treatments and deep breaths
Ongoing Assessment
Assess airway for patency. Maintaining the airway is always the first priority, especially in cases of trauma, •
.acute neurological decompensation, or cardiac arrest
:Auscultate lungs for presence of normal or adventitious breath sounds, as in the following •
Decreased or absent breath sounds These may indicate presence of mucus plug or other major airway ○
.obstruction
.Wheezing These may indicate increasing airway resistance ○
.Coarse sounds These may indicate presence of fluid along larger airways ○
Assess respirations; note quality, rate, pattern, depth, flaring of nostrils, dyspnea on exertion, evidence of •
.splinting, use of accessory muscles, and position for breathing. Abnormality indicates respiratory compromise
Assess changes in mental status. Increasing lethargy, confusion, restlessness, and/or irritability can be early •
.signs of cerebral hypoxia
Assess changes in vital signs and temperature. Tachycardia and hypertension may be related to increased •
.work of breathing. Fever may develop in response to retained secretions/atelectasis
Assess cough for effectiveness and productivity. Consider possible causes for ineffective cough (e.g., •
.(respiratory muscle fatigue, severe bronchospasm, or thick tenacious secretions
Note presence of sputum; assess quality, color, amount, odor, and consistency. This may be a result of •
infection, bronchitis, chronic smoking, or other condition. A sign of infection is discolored sputum (no longer
.clear or white); an odor may be present
Send a sputum specimen for culture and sensitivity as appropriate. Respiratory infections increase the work of
.breathing; antibiotic treatment is indicated
Monitor arterial blood gases (ABGs). Increasing PaCO2 and decreasing PaO2 are signs of respiratory •
.failure
.Assess for pain. Postoperative pain can result in shallow breathing and an ineffective cough •
If patient is on mechanical ventilation, monitor for peak airway pressures and airway resistance. Increases in •
.these parameters signal accumulation of secretions/ fluid and possibility for ineffective ventilation
Assess patient’s knowledge of disease process. Patient education will vary depending on the acute or •
.chronic disease state as well as the patient’s cognitive level
Therapeutic Interventions
.Assist patient in performing coughing and breathing maneuvers. These improve productivity of the cough •
Use positioning (if tolerated, head of bed at 45 degrees; sitting in chair, ambulation). These promote better •
.lung expansion and improved air exchange
If patient is bedridden, routinely check the patient’s position so he or she does not slide down in bed. This •
.may cause the abdomen to compress the diaphragm, which would cause respiratory embarrassment
Institute appropriate isolation precautions for positive cultures (e.g., methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus •
.(aureus [MRSA] or tuberculosis
Administer medications (e.g., antibiotics, mucolytic agents, bronchodilators, expectorants) as ordered, noting •
.effectiveness and side effects
For patients with chronic problems with bronchoconstriction, instruct in use of metered-dose inhaler (MDI) •
.or nebulizer as prescribed
Consult respiratory therapist for chest physiotherapy and nebulizer treatments as indicated (hospital and •
home care/rehabilitation environments). Chest physiotherapy includes the techniques of postural drainage and
.chest percussion to mobilize secretions in smaller airways that cannot be removed by coughing or suctioning
Coordinate optimal time for postural drainage and percussion (i.e., at least 1 hour after eating). This prevents
.aspiration
For patients with reduced energy, pace activities. Maintain planned rest periods. Promote energy- •
.conservation techniques. Fatigue is a contributing factor to ineffective coughing
For acute problem, assist with bronchoscopy. This obtains lavage samples for culture and sensitivity, and •
.removes mucus plugs
:If secretions cannot be cleared, anticipate the need for an artificial airway (intubation). After intubation •
.Institute suctioning of airway as determined by presence of adventitious sounds○
.Use sterile saline instillations during suctioning. This helps facilitate removal of tenacious sputum ○
.For patients with complete airway obstruction, institute cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) maneuvers •
Education/Continuity of Care
Demonstrate and teach coughing, deep breathing, and splinting techniques. Patient will understand the •
.rationale and appropriate techniques to keep the airway clear of secretions
.In home setting, instruct caregivers regarding cough enhancement techniques and need for humidification •
Instruct caregivers in suctioning techniques. Provide opportunity for return demonstration. Adapt technique •
.for home setting
For patients with debilitating disease being cared for at home (CVA, neuromuscular impairment, and others), •
instruct caregiver in chest physiotherapy as appropriate. This may also be useful for the patient with
bronchiectasis who is ambulatory but requires chest physiotherapy because of the volume of secretions and the
.inability to adequately clear them
.Teach patient about environmental factors that can precipitate respiratory problems •
Explain effects of smoking, including second-hand smoke. Smoking contributes to bronchospasm and •
.increased mucus production in the airways
Refer patient and/or significant others to smoking-cessation group, as appropriate, and discuss potential use •
.of smoking-cessation aids (e.g., Nicorette Gum, Nicoderm, or Habitrol) to wean off the effects of nicotine
.Refer to pulmonary clinical nurse specialist, home health nurse, or respiratory therapist as indicated •
Top of Form
Cough Enhancement •
Airway Management •
Airway Suctioning •
NANDA Definition: Inability to clear secretions or obstructions from the respiratory tract to maintain airway patency
Maintaining a patent airway is vital to life. Coughing is the main mechanism for clearing the airway. However, the
cough may be ineffective in both normal and disease states secondary to factors such as pain from surgical incisions/
trauma, respiratory muscle fatigue, or neuromuscular weakness. Other mechanisms that exist in the lower bronchioles
and alveoli to maintain the airway include the mucociliary system, macrophages, and the lymphatics. Factors such as
anesthesia and dehydration can affect function of the mucociliary system. Likewise, conditions that cause increased
production of secretions (e.g., pneumonia, bronchitis, and chemical irritants) can overtax these mechanisms. Ineffective
airway clearance can be an acute (e.g., postoperative recovery) or chronic (e.g., from cerebrovascular accident [CVA] or
spinal cord injury) problem. Elderly patients, who have an increased incidence of emphysema and a higher prevalence of
.chronic cough or sputum production, are at high risk
:Defining Characteristics
(Abnormal breath sounds (crackles, rhonchi, wheezes•
Changes in respiratory rate or depth•
Cough•
Hypoxemia/cyanosis•
Dyspnea•
Chest wheezing•
Fever•
Tachycardia•
:Related Factors
Decreased energy and fatigue•
Ineffective cough•
Tracheobronchial infection•
(Tracheobronchial obstruction (including foreign body aspiration•
Copious tracheobronchial secretions•
Perceptual/cognitive impairment•
Impaired respiratory muscle function•
Trauma•
Expected Outcomes
Patient's secretions are mobilized and airway is maintained free of secretions, as evidenced by clear lung sounds,•
.eupnea, and ability to effectively cough up secretions after treatments and deep breaths
Ongoing Assessment
Assess airway for patency. Maintaining the airway is always the first priority, especially in cases of trauma, •
.acute neurological decompensation, or cardiac arrest
:Auscultate lungs for presence of normal or adventitious breath sounds, as in the following •
Decreased or absent breath sounds These may indicate presence of mucus plug or other major airway ○
.obstruction
.Wheezing These may indicate increasing airway resistance ○
.Coarse sounds These may indicate presence of fluid along larger airways ○
Assess respirations; note quality, rate, pattern, depth, flaring of nostrils, dyspnea on exertion, evidence of •
.splinting, use of accessory muscles, and position for breathing. Abnormality indicates respiratory compromise
Assess changes in mental status. Increasing lethargy, confusion, restlessness, and/or irritability can be early •
.signs of cerebral hypoxia
Assess changes in vital signs and temperature. Tachycardia and hypertension may be related to increased •
.work of breathing. Fever may develop in response to retained secretions/atelectasis
Assess cough for effectiveness and productivity. Consider possible causes for ineffective cough (e.g., •
.(respiratory muscle fatigue, severe bronchospasm, or thick tenacious secretions
Note presence of sputum; assess quality, color, amount, odor, and consistency. This may be a result of •
infection, bronchitis, chronic smoking, or other condition. A sign of infection is discolored sputum (no longer
.clear or white); an odor may be present
Send a sputum specimen for culture and sensitivity as appropriate. Respiratory infections increase the work of
.breathing; antibiotic treatment is indicated
Monitor arterial blood gases (ABGs). Increasing PaCO2 and decreasing PaO2 are signs of respiratory •
.failure
.Assess for pain. Postoperative pain can result in shallow breathing and an ineffective cough •
If patient is on mechanical ventilation, monitor for peak airway pressures and airway resistance. Increases in •
.these parameters signal accumulation of secretions/ fluid and possibility for ineffective ventilation
Assess patient’s knowledge of disease process. Patient education will vary depending on the acute or •
.chronic disease state as well as the patient’s cognitive level
Therapeutic Interventions
.Assist patient in performing coughing and breathing maneuvers. These improve productivity of the cough •
Use positioning (if tolerated, head of bed at 45 degrees; sitting in chair, ambulation). These promote better •
.lung expansion and improved air exchange
If patient is bedridden, routinely check the patient’s position so he or she does not slide down in bed. This •
.may cause the abdomen to compress the diaphragm, which would cause respiratory embarrassment
Institute appropriate isolation precautions for positive cultures (e.g., methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus •
.(aureus [MRSA] or tuberculosis
Encourage oral intake of fluids within the limits of cardiac reserve. Increased fluid intake reduces the •
viscosity of mucus produced by the goblet cells in the airways. It is easier for the patient to mobilize thinner
.secretions with coughing
Administer medications (e.g., antibiotics, mucolytic agents, bronchodilators, expectorants) as ordered, noting •
.effectiveness and side effects
For patients with chronic problems with bronchoconstriction, instruct in use of metered-dose inhaler (MDI) •
.or nebulizer as prescribed
Consult respiratory therapist for chest physiotherapy and nebulizer treatments as indicated (hospital and •
home care/rehabilitation environments). Chest physiotherapy includes the techniques of postural drainage and
.chest percussion to mobilize secretions in smaller airways that cannot be removed by coughing or suctioning
Coordinate optimal time for postural drainage and percussion (i.e., at least 1 hour after eating). This prevents
.aspiration
For patients with reduced energy, pace activities. Maintain planned rest periods. Promote energy- •
.conservation techniques. Fatigue is a contributing factor to ineffective coughing
For acute problem, assist with bronchoscopy. This obtains lavage samples for culture and sensitivity, and •
.removes mucus plugs
:If secretions cannot be cleared, anticipate the need for an artificial airway (intubation). After intubation •
.Institute suctioning of airway as determined by presence of adventitious sounds○
.Use sterile saline instillations during suctioning. This helps facilitate removal of tenacious sputum ○
.For patients with complete airway obstruction, institute cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) maneuvers •
Education/Continuity of Care
Demonstrate and teach coughing, deep breathing, and splinting techniques. Patient will understand the •
.rationale and appropriate techniques to keep the airway clear of secretions
.In home setting, instruct caregivers regarding cough enhancement techniques and need for humidification •
Instruct caregivers in suctioning techniques. Provide opportunity for return demonstration. Adapt technique •
.for home setting
For patients with debilitating disease being cared for at home (CVA, neuromuscular impairment, and others), •
instruct caregiver in chest physiotherapy as appropriate. This may also be useful for the patient with
bronchiectasis who is ambulatory but requires chest physiotherapy because of the volume of secretions and the
.inability to adequately clear them
.Teach patient about environmental factors that can precipitate respiratory problems •
Explain effects of smoking, including second-hand smoke. Smoking contributes to bronchospasm and •
.increased mucus production in the airways
Refer patient and/or significant others to smoking-cessation group, as appropriate, and discuss potential use •
.of smoking-cessation aids (e.g., Nicorette Gum, Nicoderm, or Habitrol) to wean off the effects of nicotine
.Refer to pulmonary clinical nurse specialist, home health nurse, or respiratory therapist as indicated •
•
(Nursing Care Plan of patient with Respiratory Acidosis (Primary Carbonic Acid Excess•
RESPIRATORY ACID-BASE IMBALANCES•
The body has the remarkable ability to maintain plasma pH within a narrow range of 7.35–7.45. It does so
by means of chemical buffering mechanisms involving the lungs and kidneys. Although simple acid-base
imbalances (e.g., respiratory acidosis) do occur, mixed acid-base imbalances are more common (e.g., the
.(respiratory acidosis/metabolic acidosis that occurs with cardiac arrest
Respiratory acidosis (elevated PaCO2 level) is caused by hypoventilation with resultant excess carbonic
acid (H2CO3). acidosis can be due to/associated with primary defects in lung function or changes in normal
.respiratory pattern. The disorder may be acute or chronic
Compensatory mechanisms include (1) an increased respiratory rate; (2) hemoglobin (Hb) buffering,
forming bicarbonate ions and deoxygenated Hb; and (3) increased renal ammonia acid excretions with
.reabsorption of bicarbonate
Acute respiratory acidosis: Associated with acute pulmonary edema, aspiration of foreign body, overdose of
sedatives/barbiturate poisoning, smoke inhalation, acute laryngospasm, hemothorax/pneumothorax,
atelectasis, adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), anesthesia/surgery, mechanical ventilators,
excessive CO2 intake (e.g., use of rebreathing mask, cerebral vascular accident [CVA] therapy), Pickwickian
.syndrome
Chronic respiratory acidosis: Associated with emphysema, asthma, bronchiectasis; neuromuscular disorders
.(such as Guillain-Barré syndrome and myasthenia gravis); botulism; spinal cord injuries
CARE SETTING
This condition does not occur in isolation, but rather is a complication of a broader health problem/disease
or condition for which the severely compromised patient requires admission to a medical-surgical or
.subacute unit
RELATED CONCERNS
Surgical intervention
OTHER CONCERNS
Metabolic acidosis
Metabolic alkalosis
Patient Assessment Database
ACTIVITY/REST
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Low BP/hypotension with bounding pulses, pinkish color, warm skin (reflects vasodilation of
(severe acidosis
FOOD/FLUID
NEUROSENSORY
RESPIRATION
May exhibit: respiratory rate dependent on underlying cause, i.e., decreased in respiratory center
depression/ muscle paralysis; otherwise rate is rapid/shallow
Increased respiratory effort with nasal flaring/yawning, use of neck and upper body muscles
TEACHING/LEARNING
Discharge plan
May require assistance with changes in therapies for underlying disease process/condition
NURSING PRIORITIES
.Achieve homeostasis .1
.Prevent/minimize complications .2
.Provide information about condition/prognosis and treatment needs as appropriate .3
DISCHARGE GOALS
•
•
Catechol•
•
•
dopamine•
•
•
(norepinephrine (noradrenaline•
•
•
(epinephrine (adrenaline•
Catecholamines are "fight-or-flight" hormones released by the adrenal glands in response to stress.[1] They are•
.part of the sympathetic nervous system
They are called catecholamines because they contain a catechol or 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl group. They are derived•
[
from the amino acid tyrosine.[2
In the human body, the most abundant catecholamines are epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine•
(noradrenaline) and dopamine, all of which are produced from phenylalanine and tyrosine. Various stimulant
.drugs are catecholamine analogs
.Catecholamines are water-soluble and are 50% bound to plasma proteins, so they circulate in the bloodstream•
Tyrosine is created from phenylalanine by hydroxylation by the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. (Tyrosine is•
also ingested directly from dietary protein). It is then sent to catecholamine-secreting neurons. Here, several
reactions serially convert tyrosine to L-DOPA, to dopamine, to norepinephrine, and eventually to epinep
Bottom of
Bottom of Form