Underground Distribution System Design Guide

november 2008 project 03-08
Underground Distribution
System Design Guide
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PROJECT 03-08
Underground Distribution
System Design Guide
Prepared by
Edward S. Thomas, PE
Utility Electrical Consultants, PC
620 N.West St., Suite 103
Raleigh, NC 27603-5938
and
Bill Dorsett
Booth & Associates, Inc.
1011 Schaub Drive
Raleigh, NC 27606
for
Cooperative Research Network

National Rural Electric Cooperative Association
4301 Wilson Boulevard
Arlington, Virginia 22203-1860
The National Rural Electric Cooperative Association
The National Rural Electric Cooperative Association (NRECA), founded in 1942, is the national service organization supporting
more than 900 electric cooperatives and public power districts in 47 states. Electric cooperatives own and operate more than
42 percent of the distribution lines in the nation and provide power to 40 million people (12 percent of the population).
© Underground Distribution System Design Guide

Copyright © 2008, by the National Rural Electric Cooperative Association.
Reproduction in whole or in part is strictly prohibited without prior written approval of the National Rural Electric Cooperative
Association, except that reasonable portions may be reproduced or quoted as part of a review or other story about this
publication.
Legal Notice
This work contains findings that are general in nature. Readers are reminded to perform due diligence in applying these
findings to their specific needs, as it is not possible for NRECA to have sufficient understanding of any specific situation
to ensure applicability of the findings in all cases.
Neither the authors nor NRECA assume liability for how readers may use, interpret, or apply the information, analysis,
templates, and guidance herein or with respect to the use of, or damages resulting from the use of, any information,
apparatus, method, or process contained herein. In addition, the authors and NRECA make no warranty or representation
that the use of these contents does not infringe on privately held rights.
This work product constitutes the intellectual property of NRECA and its suppliers, as the case may be, and contains
Confidential Information. As such, this work product must be handled in accordance with the CRN Policy Statement
on Confidential Information.
Contact:
Edward S. Thomas, PE Bill Dorsett

Utility Electrical Consultants, PC Booth & Associates, Inc.
620 N.West St., Suite 103 1011 Schaub Drive
Raleigh, NC 27603-5938 Raleigh, NC 27606
Phone: 919.821.1410 Phone: 919.851.8770
Fax: 919.821.2417 Fax: 919.859.5918
Contents – iii
con t e n t s
Section 1 Design of an Underground Distribution System 1

System Components 2
Types of UD Systems 6
Reliability of UD Systems 14
Design Considerations for System Operation and Maintenance 17
Future Upgrades and Replacements 19
Economic Comparison of System Configurations 20
UD Loss Economics 32
Steps for Layout of a UD System 38
Summary and Recommendations 50
Section 2 Cable Selection 51

Typical Cable Configuration 51
Conductor Size Designations 53
Conductor Materials and Configuration 53
Cable Insulation Materials 57
Insulation Fabrication 60
Conductor Shields and Insulation Shields 64
Cable Specification and Purchasing 74
Cable Acceptance 77
Section 3 Underground System Sectionalizing 79

General Sectionalizing Philosophy 79
Overcurrent Protection of Cable System 88
Effect of Inrush Current on Sectionalizing Devices 96
Selection of Underground Sectionalizing Equipment 100
Faulted-Circuit Indicators 105
Section 4 Equipment Loading 121

Primary Cable Ampacity 121
Pad-Mounted Transformer Sizing 144
Section 5 Grounding and Surge Protection 165

Cable Grounding System Function 166
Factors Affecting Cable Grounding System Performance 177
Counterpoise Application for Insulated Jacketed Cable 188
System Ground Resistance Measurement and Calculation 192
Underground System Surge Protection 207
i v – C o n t en t s
c o n te n t s
Section 6 Ferroresonance 239

Allowable Overvoltages During Ferroresonance 240
Distribution Transformer Connections 241
Qualitative Description of Ferroresonance 242
Ferroresonance When Switching at the Primary Terminals of Overhead
and Underground Transformer Banks 252
Ferroresonance with Cable-Fed Three-Phase Transformers with Delta
or Ungrounded-Wye Connected Primary Windings 254
Ferroresonance with Cable-Fed Three-Phase Transformers with
Grounded-Wye Primary Winding and Five-Legged Core 260
Grounded-Wye Primary Windings and Triplex Construction 266
Ferroresonance in Underground Feeders Having More Than
One Transformer 270
Summary of Techniques for Preventing Ferroresonance in
Underground Systems 273
References 279
Section 7 Cathodic Protection Requirements 281

Special Note 281
Introduction 281
What to Protect 282
Where to Protect 282
Types of Cathodic Protection Systems 285
Amount of Cathodic Protection 286
Cathodic Protection Design with Galvanic Anodes 287
Cathodic Protection Installation and Follow-Up 294
Calculation of Resistence to Ground 296
Section 8 Direct-Buried System Design 299

Trench Construction Considerations 299
Trench Design Components 300
Trench Layout/Routing Considerations 303
Depth of Burial 304
Joint-Occupancy Trenches 307
Section 9 Conduit System Design 311

Conduit System Design 311
Cable Pulling 332
Contents – v
con t e n t s
Section 10 Joints, Elbows, and Terminations 343

Joints, Elbows, and Terminations for 200-Ampere Primary Circuits 344
Joints, Elbows, and Terminations for 600-Ampere Primary Circuits 353
Joints, and Terminations for Secondary Circuits 355
Section 11 Cable Testing 359

Reasons for and Benefits of Cable Testing by the User 359
Primary Cable Tests by the User 359
Secondary Cable Tests by the User 369
Tests by the Cable Manufacturer 370
Appendix A Calculations for Reliability Studies 373

Reliability Index 373
Acceptability Criteria 374
Calculation of Reliability 374
Importance of Sectionalizing 375
Appendix B Transformer and Secondary Voltage Drop 377

Voltage Flicker 385
Appendix C Sample Specification UGC2 for 600-Volt

Secondary Underground Power Cable 389
Scope 389
General Specifications 390
Referenced Specifications 390
Conductor 391
Insulation 391
Tests 392
Miscellaneous 393
Markings 393
Multiconductor Cable Assemblies 393
Appendix D Checklist for Information Requirements 395

Project Information Checklist 395
v i – C o n t en t s
c o n t e nt s
Appendix E Sample Specification for 15-, 25-, and 35-kV Primary Underground
Medium Voltage Concentric Neutral Cable (Specification UGC1) 397
Purpose 397
General Specifications 397
Referenced Specifications 398
Conductor 399
Conductor Shield (Stress Control Layer) 400
Insulation 400
Insulation Shielding 400
Concentric Neutral Conductor 401
Overall Outer Jacket 401
Dimensional Tolerances 402
Tests 402
Miscellaneous 403
Appendix F Allowable Short Circuit Currents for Solid Dielectric Insulated Cables 405
Appendix G Ampacity Tables 415
Appendix H Industry Specifications 425
Appendix I Component Manufacturers 427
Appendix J Cable-Pulling Examples 431
Abbreviations 435
Illust r a ti o n s – v i i
illustra t i o ns
FIGURE PAGE
1.1 UD System Components 2

1.2 Schematics for Different Types of Switchgear 3
1.3 Flat Pad for Equipment Mounting 5
1.4 Ground Sleeve 5
1.5 Box Pad for Equipment Mounting 5
1.6 Underground Substation Circuit Exit 6
1.7 Radial Main Feeder 7
1.8 Radial Main Feeder with Faulted Cable Section 8
1.9 Open-Loop Feeder 9
1.10 Open-Loop Feeder with Faulted Cable Section 9
1.11 Radial Feeder 10
1.12 Open-Loop Feeder in Shopping Center 11
1.13 Multiple-Loop System 11
1.14 Area Lighting System 12
1.15 Loop-Feed Design of UD System Under Normal Conditions 16
1.16 Loop-Feed Design of UD System with Damaged Cable Section 16
1.17 Open-Loop System, 37-Lot Subdivision 21
1.18 Open-Loop System, Single Residential Consumer 22
1.19 Single-Phase Sub-Feeder 24
1.20 Three-Phase Sub-Feeder 25
1.21 Front Property Placement 28
1.22 Back Property Placement 28
1.23 Methods for Providing Secondary Service 31
1.24 Road Crossing to Feed Secondary Pedestal 40
1.25 Service and Transformer Layout for 75-Lot Subdivision 40
1.26 Primary Cable Layout for 75-Lot Subdivision 42
1.27 Minimum Required Working Space 43
1.28 Sample Easement 47
1.29 Staking Sheet for Service to a Commercial Consumer 49
2.1 Jacketed Concentric Neutral Cable 52

2.2 Bare Concentric Neutral Cable 52
2.3 Medium-Voltage Power Cable with Tape Shield and L.C. Shield 52
2.4 Concentric Lay Strand Options 56
2.5 Standard Strand Arrangements for Multilayer Conductors 56
2.6 Comparative Hot Creep vs. Temperatures for Cable Insulation Materials 60
2.7 General Layout of a Cable Extrusion Line 62
2.8 Typical Extrusion Methods 63
2.9 Capacitive and Dielectric Loss Current Flow in Insulation Shield 66
2.10 Cable Identification Markings 73
v i i i – Il l u st r a t i o n s
i l l us t r a tions
FIGURE PAGE
3.1 Symmetrical Current 82

3.2 Asymmetrical Short-Circuit Current 82
3.3 Sample Distribution Circuit with Typical Locations of Sectionalizing
Devices Show 86
3.4 Cross Section of Cable Showing Components Subject to
Through-Fault Damage 88
3.5 Example of 70-Ampere, Type “L” Recloser Curves for Cable Protection 90
3.6 Current Limiting Fuses for Padmounted Switching Cabinets 104
3.7 Inrush Current Resulting from Operation of Three-Phase Recloser 107
3.8 Inrush Current Resulting from Operation of Single-Phase Recloser 107
3.9 Trip Response for Peak-Current-Sensitive Units 108
3.10 Trip Response for 450A and 800A FCIs 109
3.11 Trip-Set Characteristics for Adaptive-Trip FCI 110
3.12 FCI Placement on Overhead Feeder with Underground Segment 111
3.13 FCI Placement on Three-Phase Underground Feeder 111
3.14 FCI Placement for Single-Phase Open Loop 112
3.15 FCI Placement for Underground Subdivision with Three-Phase Source 112
3.16 Current-Reset FCI 113
3.17 Low-Voltage-Reset FCI 114
3.18 High-Voltage-Reset FCI 114
3.19 Time-Reset FCI 115
3.20 Correct Placement of FCI Sensor 116
3.21 Incorrect Placement of FCI Sensor 116
3.22 Reset FCI 117
4.1 Ratio of Shield Loss to Conductor DC Loss at 90°C as a Function

of Shield Resistance, 1/C 35-kV Aluminum Power Cables in
Triplexed Formation 124
4.2 Relationship Between Load Factor and Loss Factor Per Unit 125
4.3 Thermal Resistivity vs. Moisture Content for Various Soil Types 127
4.4 Thermal Resistivity of Soil at Various Locations 127
4.5 Effect of Depth on Soil Temperatures as Influenced by Seasonal
Temperature Variations 128
4.6 Trefoil or Triangular Cable Configuration 130
4.7 Flat Conductor Configuration, Maintained Spacing 130
4.8 Direct-Buried Duct Bank Installation Using Rigid Nonmetallic Conduit 132
4.9 Single-Phase U-Guard Installation with Vented Base 136
4.10 Three-Phase Cable Installation Configurations 138, 423
4.11 Typical Dead-Front, Single-Phase, Pad-Mounted Transformer 145
4.12 Actual Load Cycle and Equivalent Load Cycle 147
4.13 Thermal Equivalent Load Cycle 147
4.14 Case Temperature Measurement Location—Pad-Mounted Distribution
Transformer 159
4.15 Relationship Among NEMA Starting Code Letters, Starts per Hour, and
Transformer kVA per Motor HP for Transformer Thermal Considerations 160
4.16 Maximum Motor Starts per Hour for Transformer Mechanical Considerations 162
Illus t r at i o n s – i x
illustra t i o ns
FIGURE PAGE
5.1 Typical Distribution Transformer Core Form Design and Neutral

Grounding Circuit 169
5.2 Variation of Surge Impedance with Surge Current for Various Values
of 60-Cycle Resistance 171
5.3 Surge Characteristics of Various Ground Rods 171
5.4 Arrester Lead Length for Two Riser Pole Installations 173
5.5 Three-Phase Installation Showing Optimum Riser Pole Arrester
Lead Connections 173
5.6 Typical Primary and Secondary Underground Installation 174
5.7 Schematic Diagram Showing Surge Current Paths After Lightning
Arrester Discharge 175
5.8 Maximum Jacket Voltage (Neutral to Ground) Produced by Lightning
Current Surge in Ground Rod 175
5.9 BCN Cable Riser Pole Installation Surge Arrester Discharge Paths 178
5.10 Ground Rod Being Driven by Hydraulic Tool 180
5.11 Resistance of Vertical Ground Rods as a Function of Length
and Diameter 181
5.12 Resistance of Multiple Ground Rods 182
5.13 Installation of Three Rods for a Riser Pole Ground 183
5.14 Installation of Four Rods for a Riser Pole Ground 183
5.15 Grounding Assembly for Pad-Mounted Single-Phase Transformers 185
5.16 Grounding Grid for Pad-Mounted Equipment Installation 185
5.17 Installation of JCN Connection in Above-Grade Pedestal 186
5.18 Grounding Assembly for JCN Underground Primary Cable 187
5.19 Intermediate Grounding Assembly, Underground Primary Cable 187
5.20 Counterpoise 60-Hz Resistance Variation with Length and Different
Soil Resistivities 188
5.21. Effect of Length on Transient Surge Impedance of Counterpoise 189
5.22 Counterpoise Application to Reduce Jacket Voltage 190
5.23 Earth Resistance 193
5.24 Correct Ground Resistance Test Setup 193
5.25 Incorrect Ground Resistance Test Setup 193
5.26 Clamp-On Ground Resistance Tester 195
5.27 Circuit Diagram for Multigrounded System 195
5.28 Ground Resistance Test Setup for Clamp-On Tester 195
5.29 Setup for Soil Resistivity Test 196
5.30 Effects of Moisture on Soil Resistivity 198
5.31 Effects of Salt Content on Resistivity in Soil Containing
30 Percent Moisture 198
5.32 Coefficient K1 for Ground Resistance Calculations 201
5.33 Grouping of Four Ground Rods with 16-Foot Spacing 203
5.34 Grouping of Four Ground Rods with 5-Foot Spacing 203
5.35 Types of Arresters and Their Construction 208
5.36 Comparison of Nonlinear Characteristics of SiC and MOV Valve Elements 209
5.37 Effect of Fast Rise Times on IR Discharge 210
5.38 Series- and Shunt-Gapped MOV Distribution Arresters 210
x – Il lu s t ra t io n s
FIGURE PAGE
5.39 Dead-Front Arrester Elbow Configuration 211

5.40 Dead-Front Surge Arresters 212
5.41 Temporary 60-Hz Overvoltage Capability Curves—Typical MOV
Distribution Arrester 215
5.42 Typical Test Current Waveshape—Sinusoidal Wavefront 217
5.43 Lightning Rise Time to Peak 218
5.44 Arrester Lead Length Equal to Three Feet 219
5.45 Arrester Lead Length Equal to 1.5 Feet 220
5.46 Zero Arrester Lead Length 221
5.47 Representation of Distributed Parameter Distribution Line 222
5.48 Change in Surge Impedance at a Junction Point—Effect on Traveling
Voltage Wave 223
5.49 Traveling Wave Behavior at Junction Points Terminated with Various
Surge Impedances 224
5.50 Traveling Waves at a Cable Open-End Point Terminated by an
MOV Arrester 225
5.51 Arrester Locations 227
5.52 Cable-End Arresters at Open Point 230
5.53 Arrester Upstream from Open Point (Third Arrester) 231
5.54 Two Elbow Arresters and a Feed-Through 231
5.55 Elbow Arrester and Parking Stand Arrester 232
5.56 Bushing Arrester and Parking Stand Arrester 232
5.57 Elbow Arrester on Feed-Through Insert on Transformer Upstream
from Open Point 232
5.58 Bushing Arrester on Transformer Upstream from Open Point 232
5.59 Lateral Tap Cable-End Arrester (Radial Feed Circuit) 232
5.60 Tap-Point Arrester 232
5.61 Typical Underground Subdivision Loop Feed with Open Point 232
6.1 Transformer Connections for Four-Wire Wye and Four-Wire

Delta Services 242
6.2 Series RLC Circuit with Sinusoidal Excitation 243
6.3 Cable-Fed Three-Phase Transformer Susceptible to Ferroresonance 245
6.4 Conductor Spacings for an Overhead Line on an Eight-Foot Crossarm 247
6.5 Equivalent Capacitance Network for an Overhead Multigrounded
Neutral Line 247
6.6 Cross Section of a Multiwire Concentric Neutral Cable 248
6.7 Floating-Wye/Delta Transformer Bank with Fused Cutouts at
Primary Terminals 253
6.8 Three-Phase Cable-Fed Transformer with a Delta-Connected
Primary Winding 255
6.9 Voltage and Current Waveforms During Ferroresonance with
a 150-kVA Delta Grounded-Wye Bank 255
6.10 Five-Legged Wound-Type Core with Grounded-Wye Primary Windings 260
6.11 Three-Phase Cable-Fed Transformer with a Grounded-Wye Primary
Winding on a Five-Legged Core 262
Illus t r at i o n s – x i
illustra t i o ns
FIGURE PAGE
6.12 Open-Phase Voltage Waveforms with Five-Legged Core

Grounded-Wye Transformers 262
6.13 Overhead System Supplying a Cable-Fed Grounded-Wye
Transformer on a Five-Legged Core 267
6.14 Triplex-Type Wound Core with Grounded-Wye Primary Windings 269
6.15 Cable-Fed Triplex-Core Transformer with Grounded-Wye
Primary Windings 269
6.16 Circuit with “S” Cable Sections and “N” Five-Legged Core
Grounded-Wye Primary Transformers 270
6.17 Circuit Configuration for Switching Example 6.2 271
6.18 Single-Line Diagram of a Portion of a UD System 274
7.1 Dissimilar Metal Effects Between Buried Metals Connected to the

Neutral of an Electric Distribution Line 282
7.2 Electric System Map Shaded to Show Corrosive Soil Locations 283
7.3 Measurement of Potential to a Copper-Copper Sulfate Half Cell 283
7.4 Dissimilar Metal Effects Between Copper and Steel 284
7.5 Dissimilar Soil Effects on Buried Copper Wires 284
7.6 Measurement of Earth Resistivity with a Four-Terminal Ground Tester 284
7.7 Potentials of a Copper-Steel Couple Before and After Connecting
a Zinc Anode 285
7.8 Equivalent Circuit for a Galvanic Anode Connected to the Electric Neutral 287
7.9 Anode Positioning 295
7.10 Anode Connector 295
7.11 Test Station Connector 295
8.1 Typical Trench Warning Tape 301

8.2 Cable Route Marker 302
8.3 Burial Depth Requirements 305
8.4 Joint Trench Use 308
9.1 Typical Duct Configurations 316

9.2 Typical Duct Line and Manhole Arrangement 319
9.3 Typical Arrangements for System in Figure 9.2 319
9.4 Preferred Location of Duct Lines in Roadways 326
9.5 Typical Manhole Configurations 326
9.6 Rectangular Manhole Construction Details 327

9.7 Rectangular Manhole Installation Details 328
9.8 Octagonal Manhole Construction Details 329
9.9 Octagonal Manhole Installation Details 330
9.10 Cable/Conduit Friction and Pulling Tension 333
9.11 Cable Configurations in Conduit 334
9.12 Sidewall Bearing Pressure 336
x i i – Il l u s t r at i o n s
FIGURE PAGE
10.1 Voltage Stress Concentration 344

10.2 Voltage Stress Distribution in a Typical Premolded Joint Housing 344
10.3 Premolded Permanent Straight Joint for Primary Cables 345
10.4 Jacket Replacement Assembly (Method C) 346
10.5 Premolded Permanent Wye Joint for Primary Cables 347
10.6 Dead-Break Elbow for Primary Cables 348
10.7 Load-Break Elbow for Primary Cables 348
10.8 Typical 200-Ampere Elbow Accessories 349
10.9 Heat-Shrink Jacket Seal at Elbow 349
10.10 Premolded Indoor Termination (Slip-On Stress Cone) for Primary Cables 351
10.11 Premolded Integral Indoor/Outdoor Termination for Primary Cables 351
10.12 Premolded Modular Indoor/Outdoor Termination with Separate Skirts
for Primary Cables 351
10.13 Porcelain Indoor/Outdoor Terminal for Primary Cables 352
10.14 Cold-Shrink Indoor/Outdoor Termination for Primary Cables 352
10.15 Stick-Operable, Dead-Break Elbows 353
10.16 Dead-Break 600-Ampere Elbow Connector and Accessories for
Primary Cables 354
10.17 Housing Assembly Joint for Secondary Cables 355
10.18 Cold-Shrink Joint for Secondary Cables 355
10.19 Heat-Shrink Joint for Secondary Cables 355
10.20 Sealed Stud Termination for Secondary Cables 356
10.21 Bus and Rubber Cover Termination for Secondary Cables 356
10.22 Housing and Sleeve Assembly Termination for Secondary Cables 356
11.1 Test Setup for the Hot Silicone Oil Test 364
11.2 Typical Test Setup for the Stripping Test of the Insulation Shield 365
11.3 Typical High-Voltage Proof Tester Showing a Sectionalized Discharge
Stick for Grounding the Cable 368
A.1 Components Affecting Outage Rate to the Consumer 374

A.2 Sectionalized UD Area 376
B.1 Distance for Various Conductor Arrangements 381

B.2 Permissible Voltage Flicker Limits 386
Illustr a ti o n s – x i ii
illustra t i o ns
FIGURE PAGE
F.1 Aluminum Conductor/Thermoplastic Insulation (PE/HMWPE)—

Allowable Short Circuit Currents Based on 75°C Initial Conductor
Temperature and 150°C Final Temperature 406
F.2 Copper Conductor/Thermoplastic Insulation (PE/HMWPE)—
Temperature and 150°C Final Temperature 407
F.3 Aluminum Conductor/Thermoset Insulation (TR-XLPE/EPR)—
Temperature and 250°C Final Conductor Temperature 408
F.4 Copper Conductor/Thermoset Insulation (TR-XLPE/EPR)—
Allowable Short Circuit Currents for 90°C Rated Insulation
Based on 90°C Initial Conductor Temperature and 250°C Final
Conductor Temperature 409
F.5 Aluminum Conductor/Thermoplastic Insulation (PE/HMWPE)—
Allowable Short Circuit Currents for Conductor to Not Exceed
Insulation Emergency Operating Temperature Rating Based
on 75°C Initial Conductor Temperature and 90°C Final
F.6 Copper Conductor/Thermoplastic Insulation (PE/HMWPE)—
F.7 Aluminum Conductor/Thermoset Insulation (TR-XLPE/EPR)—
F.8 Copper Conductor/Thermoset Insulation (TR-XLPE/EPR)—
x i v – Ta b l e s
tables
TABLE PAGE
1.1 Lamp and Ballast Characteristics—240 Volts 14

1.2 Front Versus Rear Property Line Placement 17
1.3 Additional Materials for an Open-Loop System 20
1.4 Sample Spare Cable Cost, Single Residential Consumer 22
1.5 Sample Radial System Cost, Commercial Consumer 23
1.6 Additional Cost per Kilowatt, Open-Loop and Spare Cable Systems 23
1.7 Single-Phase Sub-Feeder Cost 24
1.8 Three-Phase Sub-Feeder Cost 25
1.9 25-kV Versus 15-kV Cable and Components 26
1.10 Added Cost of Dual-Voltage Transformers 26
1.11 Voltage Conversion Cost at Year 10 26
1.12 Voltage Conversion Cost at Year 20 27
1.13 Option 1—Direct-Buried Cable 30
1.14 Option 2—PVC Rigid Conduit 30
1.15 Option 3—Cable in HDPE Flexible Conduit 31
1.16 Present Worth of Cable Installation Options 31
1.17 Separate Service Cables 32
1.18 Secondary Pedestal 32
1.19 Sample Cable Loss Analysis 35
1.20 Sample Secondary Cable Data 36
1.21 Savings from Deferred Transformer Energization 37
1.22 Savings from Deferred Transformer Installation 38
2.1 Dimensional Characteristics of Common Conductors

(Standard Concentric-Lay) 53
2.2 Conductor Physical and Electrical Characteristics 54
2.3 Configurations of 4/0 AWG Aluminum Conductor 57
2.4 RUS Insulation Thickness 59
2.5 Insulation Shield Strippability Ratings 66
2.6 Concentric Neutral Configurations for Common Aluminum Cables 67
2.7 Comparison of Jacketing Material Test Data 71
2.8 Static Coefficient of Friction for Jacketing Materials in PVC Conduit 72
3.1 Multiplying Factors to Determine Asymmetrical Fault Currents

Where Symmetrical Fault Currents Are Known 83
3.2 Effective Cross-Sectional Area of Shield 91
3.3 Values of T1, Approximate Shield Operating Temperature, °C, at
Various Conductor Temperatures 92
3.4 Values of T2, Maximum Allowable Shield Transient Temperature, °C 92
3.5 Values of M for the Limiting Condition Where T2 = 200°C 92
3.6 Values of M for the Limiting Condition Where T2 = 350°C 92
3.7 Approximate Levels of I2t (Amperes2 x Seconds) That May Result in
Destructive Transformer Failure for Internal Faults 95
3.8 Approximate Levels of Fault Current Symmetrical (Amperes) That May
Result in Destructive Transformer Failure for Internal Faults 95
Ta b l e s – x v
tables
TABLE PAGE
4.1 Ampacities for Single-Phase Primary Underground Distribution Cable—

XLPE, TR-XLPE, and EPR Insulated 123
4.2 Typical Ambient Soil Temperatures at a Depth of 3.5 Feet 128
4.3 Ampacity for 15-kV Copper Conductor, Direct Buried, Single Circuit,
75% and 100% Load Factor 130
4.4 Ampacity Table for 15-kV Aluminum Conductor, Direct Buried, Single
Circuit, 75% and 100% Load Factor 131
4.5 Pros and Cons of Installing Cable Circuits in Conduit 133
4.6. Ampacity Values—15-kV Cable, Trefoil Configuration,
Copper Conductor 135
4.7 Ampacity Values—15-kV Cable, Trefoil Configuration,
Aluminum Conductor 135
4.8 Abstract of ICEA Standards for Maximum Emergency-Load and
Short-Circuit-Load Temperatures for Various Insulations 137
4.9 Correction Factors to Convert from 25°C Ambient Soil Temperature
to 20°C and 30°C 139
4.10 Correction Factors for Various Ambient Air Temperatures 139
4.11 Typical Ampacities for Various Sizes and Types of 600-Volt Secondary
UD Cable—Stranded Aluminum Conductors 143
4.12 Average Temperatures for July and August Averaged for the Previous
10 Years 146
4.13 Daily Peak Loads Per Unit of Nameplate Rating for Self-Cooled
Oil-Immersed Transformers to Give Minimum 20-Year Life Expectancy 148
4.14 Application of Single-Phase Distribution Transformers to Serve
Residential Consumers—Sample Loading Guide 150
4.15 Typical Watts-Per-Square-Foot Factors for Commercial Buildings 153
4.16 Typical Electrical Load Power Factor Values 153
4.17 Typical Electrical Load Demand Diversity Factor Values 154
4.18 Estimated Electrical Demand (Summer) and Energy Consumption
(Sample Family Restaurant) 155
4.19 Estimated Peak Duration 156
4.20 Transformer Loading Capability Table 156
4.21 Typical Three-Phase Pad-Mounted Transformer Capacities—
Short-Term Overload Capabilities (in kVA) 156
4.22 Surface Temperatures Measured at Various Locations on the
Cases of Pad-Mounted Transformers. 159
4.23 Surface Contact Time to Produce Burning 160
4.24 NEMA Starting Code Letters 161
5.1 Surge Withstand Strengths of Polyethylene Insulating Jackets for

15-kV, 25-kV, and 35-kV Class JCN Cable 176
5.2 2007 NESC Ground Rod Requirements for JCN Cable Installations 184
5.3 Spacing of Test Probes for Testing Resistance of a Single Ground Rod 194
5.4 Spacing of Test Probes for Testing Resistance of an Electrode System 194
5.5 Soil Resistivities for Different Soil Types and Geological Formations 197
5.6 Effect of Temperature on Soil Resistivity 198
x v i – Ta b l e s
tables
TABLE PAGE
5.7 Ground Resistance in Varying Soil Resistivities 204

5.8 Comparison of Protective Characteristics of Heavy-Duty Distribution
Class Silicon Carbide, MOV, and Riser Pole MOV Arresters 209
5.9 Typical Electrical Ratings and Characteristics of Dead-Front
Surge Arresters 213
5.10 Comparison of Standard Requirements for Surge Arrester Classifications 214
5.11 Metal Oxide Surge Arrester Ratings in (kV) rms 215
5.12 Protective Margin, 24.9-kV Underground Distribution System:
125-kV BIL Insulation, 18-kV Arresters at Riser Pole Only,
10-kA Lightning Discharge, Surge Voltage Doubled by Reflection 219
5.13 Protective Margin, 12.47-kV Underground Distribution System:
95-kV BIL Insulation, 9-kV Arresters at Riser Pole Only,
10-kA Lightning Discharge, Surge Voltage Doubled by Reflection 220
5.14 Recommended Arrester Locations 229
5.15 MOV Riser Pole Arrester: Arrester Rating, 10 kV; Equipment BIL,
95 kV; Aged BIL, 76 kV 234
5.16 MOV Riser Pole Arrester and Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester (No. 4):
Arrester Rating, 10 kV; Equipment BIL, 95 kV; Aged BIL, 76 kV 234
5.17 MOV Riser Pole Arrester: Arrester Rating, 21 kV; Equipment BIL,
125 kV; Aged BIL, 100 kV 235
5.18 MOV Riser Pole Arrester and Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester (No. 4):
Arrester Rating, 21 kV; Equipment BIL, 125 kV; Aged BIL, 100 kV 235
5.19 MOV Riser Pole Arrester Plus Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester (No. 4)
and Dead-Front Third Arrester (No. 3): Arrester Rating, 21 kV;
Equipment BIL, 125 kV; Aged BIL, 100 kV 236
5.20 Ground Resistance Testers 237
6.1 Values for Equivalent Capacitances of an Overhead Line with

4/0 ACSR Phase Conductors and a 1/0 ACSR Neutral Conductor 248
6.2 Representative Capacitance and Three-Phase Charging for XLPE
Insulated Cables with 175 Mils Insulation 249
6.3 Representative Capacitance and Three-Phase Charging or XLPE
6.6 Phase-to-Ground Capacitance of Three-Phase Grounded-Wye
Capacitor Banks 251
6.7 Maximum Allowed Cable Lengths in 12.47-kV Systems to Limit
Open-Phase Voltages to 1.25 PU 265
6.10 Transformer and Cable Data for the System of Figure 6.17 272
Ta b l e s – x v i i
tables
TABLE PAGE
7.1 Typical DC Potentials in Soil 283

7.2 Suggested DC Potentials for Cathodic Protection 286
7.3 Calculated Resistance and Conductance to Ground of Individual
Ground Rods as Related to Soil Resistivity 288
7.4 Potentials to a Copper-Copper Sulfate Half Cell 289
7.5 Sacrificial Anode Resistance, Output Current, and Estimated Life 290
7.6 Conductance to Ground of BCNs with Effective Diameters as Indicated 291
8.1 Minimum Cover Requirements 304

8.2 Requirements for Random-Lay Joint Trench 309
9.1 Classifications of Plastic Conduit 314

9.2 PVC Duct Dimensions—Minimum Wall Thickness 314
9.3 Comparison of Characteristics for Four-Inch Size PVC Duct 314
9.4 PVC Duct—Impact Strength (Foot-Pounds) 315
9.5 PVC Duct Collapse Pressure (PSI) 318
9.6 Conduit Fill 320
9.7 Conductor Shield Thickness 320
9.8 Insulation Shield Thickness 320
9.9 Concentric Neutral Thickness—Aluminum Cables 320
9.10 Concentric Neutral Thickness—Copper Cables 321
9.11 Secondary Cable Insulation Thickness 321
9.12 220-Mil Primary Cable: Minimum Size of Conduit Necessary to
Accommodate Primary Underground Power Cable: 15-kV Cable—
220-Mil Insulation Wall, Concentric Neutral Construction 322
Accommodate Primary Underground Power Cable: 25-kV Cable—
260-Mil Insulation Wall, Concentric Neutral Construction 323
Accommodate Primary Underground Power Cable: 34.5-kV Cable—
345-Mil Insulation Wall 324
9.15 Conduit Fill—Secondary Cable: Minimum Size of Conduit Necessary
to Accommodate 600-Volt Secondary Underground Power Cable 325
9.16 Recommended Dynamic Friction Coefficients for Straight Pulls and
Bends Using Soap/Water or Polymer Lubricants 333
9.17 Inside Bend Radius for 90° Schedule 40 Conduits 335
9.18 Recommended Maximum Sidewall Bearing Pressures 337
9.19 Cable Configuration for Various Jam Ratios 338
9.20 Recommended Maximum Pulling Tension Stress for Pulling Eyes
on Copper and Aluminum Conductors 339
9.21 Recommended Maximum Pulling Tension Limits for Basket-Type
Pulling Grips 339
x v i i i – Ta b l e s
tables
TABLE PAGE
10.1 Electrical Rating of Elbows 350

10.2 Relative Corrosion Resistance of Metal Combinations for
Outdoor Terminations 353
11.1 Dimensions for Primary Cables to ICEA Specification S-94-649-2000

with Concentric Neutral (Concentric Stranding) 361
11.2 Dimensions for Primary Cables to ICEA Specification S-94-649-2000
with Concentric Neutral (Compressed Stranding) 362
11.3 Cable Diameter Tolerances 363
11.4 Adders for Extruded Insulation Shield (Mils) to Obtain Nominal
Diameter Over Insulation Shield of Cable 363
11.5 DC Proof-Test Voltages (Conductor to Ground) for Primary Cables 367
11.6 Insulation Thickness of Secondary Cables 369
11.7 Manufacturers’ Voltage Withstand Tests on Completed Cable 371
11.8 Manufacturers’ Voltage Tests on Cables Rated 0 to 600 Volts 371
A.1 Acceptable Outage Hours Per Year Per Consumer 374
B.1 Allowable Voltage Drop on a 120-Volt Base 377

B.2 Resistance of Class B Concentric-Strand Aluminum Cable with
Thermosetting and Thermoplastic Insulation for Secondary
Distribution Voltages (to 1 kV) at Various Temperatures and
Typical Conditions of Installation 380
B.3 Corrections for Multiconductor Cables 382
B.4 Comparison of Conductor Diameter and Approximate Cable
Outside Diameter of Typical Single, Class B Concentric-Strand
Aluminum Cables 382
B.5 60 Hz Reactance of Conductors in the Same Conduit 384
C.1 Nominal Composite Insulation Layer Thickness (Ruggedized) 392

C.2 Nominal Insulation Thickness (Non-Ruggedized) 392
E.1 Extruded Conductor Shield Thickness 400

E.2 Nominal, Minimum, and Maximum Insulation Thickness 400
E.3 Insulation Shield Thickness for Cables with Wire Neutral 401
E.4 Extruded-to-Fill Jacket Thickness 402
Ta b l e s – x i x
tables
TABLE PAGE
G.1 Configuration No. 1—15-kV Copper 415

G.2 Configuration No. 1—15-kV Aluminum 415
G.9 Configuration No. 2, 3-Inch Type DB Conduit—15-kV Aluminum 417
G.10 Configuration No. 2, 3.5-Inch Type DB Conduit—25-kV Aluminum 417
G.27 Configuration No. 6, 6-Inch Type EB Conduit—15-kV Aluminum 422
G.28 Configuration No. 6, 6-Inch Type EB Conduit—25-kV Aluminum 422
I.1 Cable Installation Equipment Manufacturers (Trenchers, Backhoes,

Cable Plow, Guided Boring Tools, Piercing Tools, Hydraulic
Pipe Pusher, Track-Mounted Cable Plows, Trench Compactors,
Auger-Type Boring Tools) 427
I.2 Cable Installation Equipment Manufacturers (Primary Circuit Joints,
Elbows, and Terminations; Secondary Circuit Joints and Terminations) 428
I.3 Manufacturers of Joint, Elbow, and Termination Accessories and Kits 429
I.4 Partial Listing of Cable Testing Equipment Suppliers 429
x x – Ex am p l e s
e x a m p l es
EXAMPLE PAGE
1.1 Cable Loss Calculations 35

1.2 Calculating Losses on Secondary Cables 36
1.3 Typical Costs Associated with Transformer Losses 37
3.1 Device Rated in Maximum Asymmetrical Current Capacity 83

3.2 Device Rated for Maximum Circuit X/R Ratio 84
3.3 Determine Minimum Shield Size for Known Through-Fault Current 93
4.1 Comparing the Ampacity of Trefoil and Flat-Spaced Configurations 131

4.2 Single-Phase UD Cable Ampacities 140
4.3 Emergency Overload Rating Cable in Protective Riser 141
4.4 Three-Phase Substation Exit Ampacity 141
4.5 Average Daily Temperature Selection for a Summer-Peaking Utility 146
4.6 Selection of Maximum Permissible Transformer Per-Unit Loading 149
4.7 Pad-Mounted Transformer Sizing for New UD Residential Consumers 151
4.8 Sizing Commercial Transformers 157
4.9 Dedicated Transformer Load 160
5.1 No Counterpoise Added (Switches S1, S2, and S3 Open) 191

5.2 Attaching a 100-Foot Counterpoise to the Riser Pole Ground Rod and
the Other End to a Remote, Smaller Resistance (Switch S2 Closed;
S1 and S3 Open) 191
5.3 Continuous or Full-Length Counterpoise (Switches S1 and S3 Closed;
S2 Open) 191
5.4 A Single 8-Foot × 3/4-Inch Ground Rod Driven in Soil with a
Resistivity of 250 Ohm-M 201
5.5 Two 8-Foot × 3/4-Inch Ground Rods Placed 5 Feet Apart 202
5.6 Two Rods Spaced 16 Feet Apart 202
5.7 Group of Four Rods 203
5.8 Increase in Rod Length 204
5.9 Change in Soil Resistivity 204
5.10 The Effect of a Two-Layer Soil with a Top-Layer Resistivity of
250 Ohm-M and a Bottom-Layer Soil Resistivity of 50 Ohm-M 205
5.11 Counterpoise of #2 AWG Conductor Buried 30 Inches Deep for a
Distance of 100 Feet 206
5.12 More Conductive Soil 206
5.13 Counterpoise Burial Depth 206
5.14 Protective Margin Calculation for Riser Pole Application—
Industry Standard 4 kA/µs Average Rise Time for Lightning
Strokes Assumed 217
5.15 MOV Riser Pole Arrester: Arrester Rating, 10 kV 234
5.16 MOV Riser Pole Arrester and Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester
(No. 4): Arrester Rating, 10 kV 234
5.17 MOV Riser Pole Arrester: Arrester Rating, 21 kV 235
Exa m p l e s – x x i
exa m p l e s
EXAMPLE PAGE
5.18 MOV Riser Pole Arrester and Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester

(No. 4): Arrester Rating, 21 kV 235
5.19 MOV Riser Pole Arrester Plus Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester (No. 4)
and Dead-Front Third Arrester (No. 3): Arrester Rating, 21 kV 236
6.1 Maximum Lengths of Cable Circuit Possible 264

6.2 Energizing Multiple-Transformer System with Single-Pole 272
7.1 Measuring Earth Resistivity 284

7.2 Calculating the Neutral Conductance to Ground Per 1,000 Feet of Cable 288
7.3 Determining Required Shift in Potential 289
7.4 Calculating Required Anode Output Current 289
7.5 Selecting Anode Types, Sizes, and Numbers 291
7.6 Estimating Neutral Conductance to Ground of BCN Cable 292
7.7 Determining Required Shift in Neutral Potential 292
7.8 Determining Output Current and Anodes Required 293
11.1 Diameter Calculation 363
B.1 Transformer Voltage Drop Calculation 379

B.2 Secondary Cable Resistance and Reactance 383
B.3 Complete Secondary Voltage Drop Calculation 385
B.4 Voltage Flicker Calculation 387
G.1 Ampacity Reduction for Direct-Buried Versus Conduit Encasement

for Flat-Spaced Installation 417
G.2 Increase in Ampacity for Duct Bank Installation When Type EB
Conduit is Used Versus Schedule 40 422
J.1 Cable Pulling Example 1: Maximum Straight-Pull Distance for Three

25-kV Cables Installed in Five-Inch PVC Conduit 431
J.2 Cable Pulling Example 2: Feasibility of Pulling Three 25-kV Cables
into a Six-Inch PVC Conduit 432
Design of an Underground Distribution Sy s t e m – 1
1 Design of an Underground
Distribution System
In This Section: System Components Economic Comparison of System

Types of UD Systems Configurations
Reliability of UD Systems UD Loss Economics
Design Considerations Steps for Layout of a UD System
Future Upgrades and Replacements Summary and Recommendations
Since their introduction, underground distribution This section gives the engineer guidelines
(UD) systems have proved generally popular with for designing a high-quality UD system. Before
electric consumers. Although some of this popu- starting a design, the engineer must have com-
larity is due to aesthetics—eliminating pole lines prehensive knowledge of the components of a
and overhead conductors and “ugly” tree trim- UD system. Next, the engineer must under-
ming—greater reliability is the greater attraction. stand how these components can be config-
Consumers facing outages due to wildlife, falling ured to form different types of UD systems and
tree limbs, and ice storms think underground sys- the special design concerns of each. During
tems more desirable. Unfortunately, many of the the design process, the engineer must consider
present UD systems are less reliable and have the following:
more operational problems than do comparable
overhead distribution systems. To reverse this • UD system safety,
trend, cooperatives must undertake several • UD system reliability,
comprehensive steps: • UD system operation and maintenance,
• Future upgrades or replacement,
1. Specify high-quality materials and components, • The economics of different system
2. Stipulate every safety provision to ensure configurations, and
reliability of the system, • The economics of UD losses.
3. Design efficient systems that will have the
lowest reasonable cost for both installation The final design task is layout of the UD
and operation, and system. On completing this task, the engineer
4. Plan carefully to minimize problems during will have a final plan and staking sheets to give
construction and provide for future opera- to construction crews.
tion and replacement of these systems.
2 – Se c t io n 1
1
System In the past, some UD systems anyone enters. This require-
Components were total underground systems A typical UD system ment increases the time
with all components located needed to access the equip-
below ground. Placing trans- consists of buried ment and, thus, also increases
formers, sectionalizing devices, cables and the duration of any outage.
and switches below ground re- Because of these problems,
pad-mounted
quires buried vaults. Because a total underground system is
water often accumulates in equipment. impractical and unreliable. A
these vaults, the equipment more reliable system consists
has to be suitable for operation of underground cables and
under water. Moisture also ac- pad-mounted equipment
celerates the corrosion of this equipment and (transformers, sectionalizing devices, and
leads to premature equipment failure. switches). The pad-mounted equipment is
This type of system is very difficult to operate placed on the surface instead of below ground.
and maintain. Maintenance and operation of the As a result, the equipment is easier to operate
equipment usually require a person to enter the and subject to fewer corrosion problems. This
underground enclosure. If the enclosure is full type of UD system, with its major system com-
of water, the water must be pumped out before ponents, is shown in Figure 1.1.
Cable Termination
Surge Arrester
Underground Cable Riser
Pad-Mounted
Switchgear/ Pad-Mounted
Junction Cabinet Transformer Dead-Front
Cable Terminations Surge Arrester
Flat Pad
Box Pad
Ground Line
Underground Cable,
Cable Splice Secondary Voltage
Ground Electrode Ground Electrode Service Ground
Underground Cable,
Primary Voltage
FIGURE 1.1: UD System Components.

1
UNDERGROUND CABLE configurations possible, this component pro-
The most extensive component of a UD system vides the engineer with many options in the
is the underground cable. The primary-voltage design of a UD system.
(15-, 25-, or 35-kV class) cable carries power
from a source to the primary bushing of a trans- CABLE TERMINATIONS AND JOINTS
former. The secondary-voltage (600-Volt class) Cable terminations and joints are other impor-
cable carries power from the secondary bushings tant components of a UD system. The joints pro-
of the transformer to the consumer. Section 2, vide a way to connect two underground cables.
Cable Selection, describes cable construction and The terminations provide a way to connect
gives guidelines for specifying high-quality cable. underground cables to transformer bushings,
switches, fuses, and other devices. Section 10
PAD-MOUNTED EQUIPMENT describes the different types of terminations and
The main types of pad-mounted equipment are how to use them on a UD system.
transformers, protective devices, and switching
devices. Pad-mounted transformers function the SURGE ARRESTERS AND
same as those overhead. Pad-mounted switchgear GROUNDING ELECTRODES
usually functions as a combination of switches Surge arresters are used to protect underground
and sectionalizing devices. For example, a single systems from overvoltages induced by lightning
enclosure can provide switching on the main and other transients. To operate effectively, ar-
feed and fusing on two taps off the main feed. resters must be properly connected to the cable
Figure 1.2 shows the schematics for several types grounding system. The grounding system must
of switchgear. Section 3, Underground System have ground electrodes that are in optimum
Sectionalizing, reviews the different types of contact with the soil. Examples of ground
pad-mounted switchgear. Because of the many electrodes are:
COMPARTMENT -2 COMPARTMENT -2 COMPARTMENT -3 COMPARTMENT -4

kV Ampere, RMS Short-Circuit
Fuse Mini-Rupter MVA 3-Phase
Nom. Max BIL Load Sym. at
Max Cont. Dropping Rated Voltage
14.4 17.0 95 200 600 600 350
25 27 125 200 600 400 540

COMPARTMENT -1 COMPARTMENT -1 COMPARTMENT -2 COMPARTMENT -1
PME-4 PME-5 PMH-6
COMPARTMENT -3 COMPARTMENT -4 COMPARTMENT -3 COMPARTMENT -4 COMPARTMENT -3 COMPARTMENT -4 COMPARTMENT -3 COMPARTMENT -4
COMPARTMENT -2 COMPARTMENT -1 COMPARTMENT -2 COMPARTMENT -1 COMPARTMENT -2 COMPARTMENT -1 COMPARTMENT -2 COMPARTMENT -1

PME-9 PME-10 PME-11 PME-12
FIGURE 1.2: Schematics for Different Types of Switchgear. Adapted from S&C Electric Company, 2005.
4 – Se c t io n 1
1
• Driven ground rods, compartments of transformers, fuse cabinets,
• Buried counterpoise wires, or switchgear. If the settling is severe, the pad
• Semiconducting jacketed cables, and may not support all the equipment weight. If
• Metallic water or sewer systems. some of the equipment weight is transferred to
the attached cables, this settling can damage
Figure 1.1 shows driven ground rods as the transformer bushings, connectors, and switch
ground electrodes. Detailed information on terminals.
cable grounding systems and surge protection is
contained in Section 5. Types of Equipment Mountings
The most basic type of equipment mounting is a
EQUIPMENT MOUNTINGS flat, or monolithic, pad. The flat pad provides a
Equipment mountings provide a flat, rigid sur- uniform surface for mounting equipment and has
face for supporting pad-mounted equipment. It openings for cable access into the equipment en-
is very important to mount the closure as shown in Figure
bottom edge of pad-mounted 1.3. Because this pad is placed
equipment flush to the flat sur- directly on the ground, there
face of the supporting pad. The soil beneath is limited space for cable train-
Doing so prevents persons the pad must be ing and cable terminations.
from poking a wire or other However, this type of pad is
object into the interior com-
well compacted. usually adequate for single-
partment of pad-mounted phase pad-mounted transform-
equipment and meets the ers and small single-phase
requirements of American National Standards sectionalizing devices.
Institute/Institute of Electrical and Electronics Some types of cable installations require more
Engineers (ANSI/IEEE) C57.12.28 (Standard for space than is available with a flat pad. For ex-
Pad-Mounted Equipment-Enclosure Integrity) ample, large-diameter cables are stiffer and have
and ANSI/IEEE37.74 (Standard Requirements a larger minimum bending radius than do small-
for Subsurface, Vault and Pad-Mounted Load diameter cables. Thus, the large-diameter cables
Interrupter Switchgear and Fused Load-Inter- require more space for cable training. Another
rupter Switchgear for Alternating Current Sys- consideration is cold weather. Low temperatures
tems Up to 38 kV). The former code has make cables stiffer and more difficult to install
become a standard for specifying tamper-resis- or operate. Providing additional cable space
tant pad-mounted equipment enclosures. This helps minimize these problems. Therefore, co-
tamper-resistant design helps prevent vandalism operatives in areas with extended periods of
to utility equipment and protect the public from cold weather may prefer using a ground sleeve
contact with energized parts. (“basement”) or a box pad instead of a flat pad.
The equipment must also attach securely to A ground sleeve or box pad also provides the
the mounting surface to prevent it from being extra space needed for large-diameter cables.
moved or tipped over by people, animals, lawn Typical installation of a ground sleeve is
mowers, or vehicles. Secure attachment is partic- shown in Figure 1.4. The ground sleeve is in-
ularly important when polyethylene pads are stalled below the ground surface, with the
used. The pad’s slick surface makes it easy for equipment mounting surface elevated two to
an unsecured piece of equipment to slide. three inches above final grade. This type of
Another important factor in a stable installa- mounting provides additional space for cables
tion is proper soil compaction beneath the pad. below grade, but is suitable for equipment with
Without proper compaction, the soil will settle only one entry compartment such as three-phase
and erode, leaving the pad with little support. pad-mounted transformers and junction cabinets.
When this happens, pads can tilt or warp (if Ground sleeves are generally limited in their
made of polyethylene) and expose the interior ability to support heavier pieces of equipment.
FIGURE 1.3: Flat Pad for Equipment Mounting.
FIGURE 1.5: Box Pad for Equipment Mounting.
provides plenty of room to work with the ca-

bles. This type of pad is ideal for supporting
pad-mounted switchgear that has multiple cable
entry compartments.
Pad Materials
Manufacturers offer a varied selection of pad
materials, including the following:
• Steel-reinforced concrete,
• Fiberglass-reinforced concrete,
• Fiberglass, and
• Polyethylene.
Because these materials have very different

properties, the engineer must carefully select
the material type suitable for the intended ap-
plication. The material and pad design must
FIGURE 1.4: Ground Sleeve. Source: Nordic have the strength required to support the
Fiberglass Inc., Warren, Minn., 2002. equipment weight. This is of particular con-
cern with box pads, because all the equipment
weight is supported by the outside pad walls,
The third type of mounting and is especially important,
is a box pad (see Figure 1.5). for example, when box pads
The box pad is placed in the are used for transformers
ground rather than on the sur-
Pad material must 500-kilovolt amperes (kVA)
face, with typically three to six be suitable for the and larger. Care must be ex-
inches exposed above grade. ercised in making sure the
intended application.
A perimeter lip supports the box pad manufacturer clearly
pad-mounted equipment. The states the strength rating of
remaining space is open and the box pad walls.
6 – Se c t io n 1
1
Also of concern are polyethylene pads with A final property to review is pad buoyancy.
wooden braces. A puncture through the poly- Some of the polyethylene pads tend to float and
ethylene allows water to enter the pad and rot can overturn pad-mounted equipment. There-
the wooden braces. When the wooden braces fore, these pads would not be suitable for use in
rot, part of the pad strength is lost, and war- areas that are subject to flooding.
page results. In summary, pads must be of a design that
A second property to review is the performance will have long-term durability under adverse
of the material outdoors where it is exposed to conditions, meet system operating needs, and
frost and ultraviolet radiation. The pad materials maintain equipment security. All these factors
must not break down or crack from ultraviolet must be balanced when selecting a pad design
exposure or frigid conditions. Cracks or material for a particular UD system.
breakdown lead to a loss of mechanical strength.
Types of UD SUBSTATION CIRCUIT EXITS

Disconnect Switches
Systems Underground cable is often used for substation
circuit exits from distribution substations. Under-
ground circuit exits help reduce congestion on
poles just outside a substation, making the area
around a substation more attractive and work-
able. As an added benefit, underground substa- Surge Cable
Arrester Termination
tion circuit exits are protected from ice loading,
wildlife contacts, and vehicle damage, and, thus,
may be more reliable than overhead exits. Neutral
In most cases, each underground substation
circuit exit will terminate on a riser pole and
feed overhead circuit conductors. Therefore, this
type of UD system consists of underground pri-
mary-voltage cable, cable terminations, surge ar-
resters, and grounding electrodes. The conduit,
cable terminations, surge arresters, grounding
electrodes, and disconnect switches are commonly
referred to as a riser assembly. See Figure 1.6. Riser Vent
When designing underground substation circuit

exits, the engineer must be particularly concerned
with reliability. If the underground cable fails, the Undergroung Circuit
Exit Cable
circuit outage interrupts power to many consumers.
Ground
Placing the cable in a conduit system or concrete- Electrode
encased duct bank helps protect it from mechan-
ical damage. Section 9 contains information on FIGURE 1.6: Underground Substation
duct bank installations. Another way to improve Circuit Exit.
reliability is to install a spare
cable or provide backup capa-
bility from another source. Al- Design concerns for A special concern for un-
though spare cables or backup derground circuit exits is cable
options do not change the risk substation circuit exits
ampacity. These cables carry
of cable failure, they do reduce are reliability, system large loads and may operate
the power restoration time if close to their ampacity rating.
only one cable is damaged.
growth, and ampacity.
Therefore, the engineer must
1
carefully determine the cable operating condi- and choose the 200-ampere or 600-ampere class
tions, system growth, and the resulting ampacity. of cable terminations. Section 4 provides de-
tailed information on cable ampacity, and Sec-
MAIN FEEDERS tion 10 provides information on the types of
Underground cable can serve as a distribution cable terminations.
main feeder. A main feeder is that portion of a
distribution circuit between the substation and Radial Main Feeder
the first in-line overcurrent protective device. The radial main feeder has one source and de-
The protective device in the substation clears a livers power to a load area along a single path.
fault on a main feeder. Therefore, a main feeder This feeder can also serve several load areas by
fault causes an outage to the entire circuit. Be- using a junction box or sectionalizing switch
cause most faults on an underground main with fused taps. This type of arrangement is
feeder are cable failures and are permanent, shown in Figure 1.7 and may have the following
power to the circuit may remain off until the components:
cable is repaired. The utility engineer must con-
sider this characteristic when designing a main • Underground primary-voltage cable,
feeder, particularly when deciding between a ra- • Cable terminations,
dial or open-loop feeder. • Pad-mounted junction box or sectional-
The engineer must also determine the maxi- izing switch,
mum load to be carried by the main feeder in • Surge arresters, and
order to select a cable with adequate ampacity • Grounding electrodes.
To
Load
Area
Junction Box or
Switching Cabinet
Junction Box or
Sectionalizing Switch
Primary Voltage Cable
To Load Area
Substation
Junction Box or
To
Load
Area
FIGURE 1.7: Radial Main Feeder.

8 – Se c t io n 1
1
Power On
Open
Load-Side Switch Junction Box or
Open Fault
Power On Power Off
Substation
Power Off
FIGURE 1.8: Radial Main Feeder with Faulted Cable Section.
The junction box or sectionalizing switch substantial mechanical protection from dig-ins
provides sectionalizing of the load areas and and should be considered in areas congested
limited sectionalizing of the main feeder. For ex- with other underground utilities. A conduit sys-
ample, consider a fault in the second line sec- tem provides limited mechanical protection.
tion as shown in Figure 1.8. This fault trips the However, it does decrease outage time by allow-
protective device at the substation and interrupts ing the cooperative to replace a section of
power to all consumers on the faulted circuit. faulted cable without disturbing the earth sur-
The cooperative can restore power to the first face. This saves substantial time, particularly
load area by placing the faulted cable(s) in a when the main feeder is located beneath a road-
parking stand, or by opening the load-side way. The spare cable or conduit provides no
switch on the first sectionalizing switch to isolate mechanical protection but does decrease
the faulted cable. Figure 1.8 shows this option. restoration time if only one cable is faulted. Be-
Because the radial feeder has no alternative cause the costs of these installation methods
source or path, the cooperative cannot restore vary significantly, each cooperative must weigh
power to the other consumers until crews repair the advantages of these more expensive installa-
the cable fault. tions against their costs.
It is possible to improve the reliability of a Under any circumstance, the simple radial
radial system by installing the cable in a con- does have limited operational flexibility and
crete-encased duct bank or in a conduit system, should not be used to serve a large number of
or by installing a spare cable or conduit in the consumers. Information on comparative system
trench. A concrete-encased duct bank provides reliability may be found in Appendix A.
1
Open-Loop Feeder stand. In a sectionalizing switch, leaving one of
In dense load areas, an underground main feeder the switches open creates an open point.
may tie together two substations. A main feeder The open-loop feeder (see Figure 1.9) provides
may also tie two circuits from the same substation. much higher system availability than does the
This type of arrangement would operate as an radial system. With an open-loop system, utility
open-loop system. The components of this system crews can isolate a faulted cable section and re-
are the same as those of a radial system. However, store power to all consumers. A cable fault in
the open-loop feeder has two sources, unlike the the second line section interrupts power to all
radial feeder that has only one source. Each source consumers on that circuit. After isolating the
provides power along a single path to the desig- faulted cable section, as shown in Figure 1.10,
nated open point in a junction box or a section- crews can feed the first section from Substation
alizing switch. In a junction box, the open point No. 1 and remaining line sections from Substation
results from placing one set of cables in a parking No. 2. Because crews can restore power to all
Substation No. 1 Substation No. 2

Looped-Primary
Circuit
N.O.
N.O. = Normally Open Point
Three-Phase,
Pad-Mounted
Transformer
FIGURE 1.9: Open-Loop Feeder.
Substation No. 1 Substation No. 2

Looped-Primary
Circuit
Fault
N.O.
N.O.
N.O. = Normally Open Point
Three-Phase,
Pad-Mounted
Transformer
FIGURE 1.10: Open-Loop Feeder with Faulted Cable Section.

1 0 – Se c t io n 1
1
load areas before repairing the cable fault, the deliver power to consumers. Therefore, sections
outage time is much shorter than with a radial of cable on a sub-feeder often terminate in pad-
feeder. As a result, it is not critical to install the mounted transformers. The sub-feeder can have
cable in a concrete-encased duct bank or conduit. several configurations ranging from a simple ra-
However, as already noted, in areas congested dial feeder to a complex multiloop feeder.
with underground utilities, the concrete-encased
duct bank will help protect cables from dig-ins. Radial Feeder
Again, it is important to judge the benefits of in- The simplest type of load area feeder is a radial
stalling duct bank or conduit against the addi- feeder. The radial feeder is usually the most
tional cost. An open-loop feeder also requires practical way to serve a single consumer. How-
that the designer consider the ampacity of the ever, a single consumer with critical loads, such
feeder cables while serving all possible loop as a hospital or police station, often requires a
segments, which may dictate the use of a larger more reliable system. Methods for improving re-
cable size than otherwise needed. liability include the following:
Open-loop feeders provide much more oper-
ating flexibility than do simple radial feeders. • Changing to an open-loop configuration,
System reliability considerations generally dictate • Adding a spare cable or conduit to the
open-loop feeders as the preferred design. trench, and
• Placing the cable in a conduit or duct bank.
SUB-FEEDERS
The more common underground feeder is the sub- The radial feeder can be extended to serve
feeder, also called a load area feeder. This type multiple consumers as shown in Figure 1.11.
of feeder has at least one stage of sectionalizing However, a cable fault interrupts power to all
between it and the protective device at the sub- consumers beyond the fault location. For exam-
station. As a result, a fault on a sub-feeder does ple, a fault between transformers T1 and T2 re-
not interrupt power to the en- sults in a power outage to
tire circuit and, thus, affects transformers T2 through T5.
fewer consumers than does a A cable fault on a The power remains off until
similar fault on a main feeder. the cable is repaired. As the
The two types of feeders sub-feeder affects number of consumers increases,
also have different functions. fewer consumers than it becomes more practical to
The basic function of a main consider an open-loop system.
feeder is to deliver power to
does a similar fault The subsection Economic
load area feeders. The main on a main feeder. Comparison of System Con-
function of a sub-feeder is to figurations, which comes later
Single-Phase, Pad-Mounted Transformers
Fault
Riser Pole
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Power On Power Off
FIGURE 1.11: Radial Feeder.

Design of an Underground Distribution Sy s t e m – 1 1
1
Riser Pole Three-Phase Feeder Riser Pole
Three-Phase, Pad-Mounted Transformers
Normally Open Point
FIGURE 1.12: Open-Loop Feeder in Shopping Center.
Riser Pole Riser Pole
Sectionalizing Sectionalizing
Switch Switch
N.O.
N.O.
N.O.
Legend
N.O. Three-Phase, Pad-Mounted
Transformer
Single-Phase, Pad-Mounted
Transformer
N.O. Normally Open Point N.O.
FIGURE 1.13: Multiple-Loop System.
in this section, provides information on the for UD systems serving multiple or critical
economics of radial versus open-loop systems. consumers. An open-loop feeder also requires
that the designer consider the ampacity of the
Open-Loop Feeder primary cables and devices while serving all
As mentioned earlier, the open-loop feeder possible loop segments, which may dictate the
has two sources and, therefore, provides better use of a larger cable size than otherwise needed.
system availability. Large subdivisions or com-
mercial shopping areas are ideal applications of Multiple-Loop Feeder
open-loop systems. Figure 1.12 shows an open- In heavy load areas, multiple-loop feeders are
loop feeder in a shopping center. Utility crews necessary to improve sectionalizing and to allow
can isolate any section of faulted cable and the coordination of overcurrent protective devices.
restore power to all transformers. This feature A typical multiple-loop system is shown in Fig-
makes the open-loop feeder a preferred design ure 1.13. This type of system usually has a sub-
1 2 – Se c t io n 1
1
feeder that serves as an open-loop system be- or self-healing insulating jacket (see Section 2).
tween two sources. The sectionalizing switches Cable dig-ins by other utilities or consumers also
on the sub-feeder have fused taps that serve damage cable. To minimize dig-ins by con-
other open-loop feeders. This arrangement sumers, cable should be installed two to three
provides excellent system availability. It also feet off the property line. Doing so helps pre-
speeds up fault location because the large load vent cable damage if the consumer installs a
area has been sectionalized into small load fence on the property line. Another method for
groups. A multiple-loop feeder also requires that minimizing dig-in damage is to use conduit. The
the designer consider the ampacity of the feeder conduit offers some mechanical protection, par-
cables and devices while serving all possible ticularly from hand digging. As noted, the coop-
loop segments, which may dictate the use of a erative may particularly want to use conduit in
larger cable size than otherwise needed. areas congested with other utilities.
A third design concern with secondary systems
TRANSFORMER AND SECONDARY SYSTEMS is voltage drop and voltage flicker. The engineer
Pad-mounted transformers and underground must design a system that provides the consumer
secondary-voltage cable constitute the final seg- with acceptable voltage levels throughout the
ment of a UD system. To properly design this day and during motor starting. Appendix B lists
part of the system, the engineer must first select the acceptable voltage levels and gives methods
the appropriate equipment rating and cable for calculating voltage drop and flicker.
ampacity. Section 4 provides information for
making these selections. STREET AND AREA LIGHTING
Second, the engineer must consider reliability. Public safety and consumer convenience require
Most secondary cable faults are the result of me- street and area lighting in the area served by a
chanical damage to the cable. Utilities can mini- large percentage of underground projects. Most
mize mechanical damage by following the prop- cooperatives furnish this service, so the engineer
er installation techniques described in Section 9 must make accommodations in underground sys-
and by specifying cable with an abrasion-resistant tems to include it. The engineer needs to devel-
op a plan at the start of the project for eventual
(if not actual) street and area lighting. Conduits
Lighting Package and pedestals can then be installed at strategic
locations that will minimize future trenching in
lawns or around consumer facilities.
This type of UD system is shown in Figure 1.14.
It uses a combination of overhead components
(poles and a lighting package) and underground
Pole components (underground secondary-voltage
cable, surge arresters, and grounding electrodes).
Cable Riser
Street and area lights are generally self-con-
tained units with an integral photoelectric cell for
control. These standard light packages usually
operate from 120-Volts single phase or 120/240-
Volts single phase. The cooperative may want
to consider using the same lighting package that
it uses in overhead areas. Doing so will avoid
unnecessary duplication of stock and minimize
Underground confusion during installation and maintenance.
Secondary-Voltage
Ground Electrode Cable
If the lighting package requires a 120-Volt,
two-wire power supply, service may be pro-
FIGURE 1.14: Area Lighting System. vided through a two-wire duplex underground
1
cable. If the cooperative has a current will travel along the
large amount of underground Metallic lighting poles lighting conductors and be
street lighting, purchasing a propagated into the secondary
twisted duplex cable with a must be grounded of the transformer and into all
ruggedized insulation system and bonded to the connected services. In areas
will be most economical. This with intense lightning activity,
cable will essentially comply
system neutral for the cooperative should consider
with the secondary cable spec- lightning protection installing secondary lightning
ification presented in Appen- arresters on each transformer
and for public safety.
dix C. When this duplex is that serves a lighting installation.
used, the conductor may be Where aesthetics are of prime
either copper or aluminum. importance, cooperatives may
When aluminum is used, the size should not be choose to install metal lighting poles. In such
smaller than No. 6 American Wire Gauge (AWG). cases, the height of the fixture mounting should
Satisfactory performance may be achieved with not be compromised; it should be installed in
copper conductors as small as No. 10 AWG. In accordance with standard practices for the partic-
areas where deep frost lines are routine, larger ular type of light and the size of the area to be
aluminum conductors, possibly No. 2 AWG, lighted. With metal poles, the pole interior may
might be considered as a minimum gauge. generally be used as a raceway to conceal the
In cases of infrequent use or where ruggedi- conductor along its entire length. In these cases,
zed duplex cable is not readily available, sunlight resistance will not be required on Type
Type UF (underground feeder) commercial UF cables if the cables are shielded from sun-
cable may be substituted. This cable should be light along their entire length. Metal poles will
purchased only with copper conductors No. 10 still require adequate grounding to avoid prob-
AWG or larger. The Type UF cable must be lems with lightning surges. Metallic poles should
rated as sunlight-resistant. Otherwise, the cable also be directly connected to this same ground-
may deteriorate where it is exposed to sunlight ing system, which is also positively connected to
between the pole riser conduit and the bottom the neutral of the secondary supply conductors.
of the lighting support bracket. If the poles are direct buried, they generally
Lighting packages may be installed on wood have an insulating coating for corrosion protec-
poles at a height appropriate for the size of the tion. If direct-buried poles are installed or if the
lamp and the area to be lighted. On wood poles are installed on poured concrete founda-
poles, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) conduit should tions, a ground rod is also recommended. If
be used to protect the cable riser. Schedule 40 poles are installed on a metal screw anchor
PVC is recommended as a minimum. U-guards base, the ground rod may be eliminated.
are not recommended because irregularities in The main limitation on the layout of street
wood poles may allow the smaller cable used lighting conductors is voltage drop. As most
for lighting service to protrude or be pinched contemporary lighting systems are either mer-
between the U-guard and the pole surface. Each cury vapor, metal halide, or high-pressure
wood pole installation must be equipped with a sodium systems, the most critical case is during
pole-grounding conductor (No. 6 AWG copper) starting of the most distant light. This is the time
that is attached to a driven ground rod. This is of highest current draw and lowest power factor.
particularly important because street and area The magnitude and power factor of the starting
lights are often among the highest objects in a current depend on the type of ballast, as does
subdivision served by an underground system. the acceptable voltage range for satisfactory op-
In cases of lightning strikes, the lightning must eration. Table 1.1 gives examples of typical light
have a relatively low impedance path into the characteristics. It is obvious that the regulator
earth. If pole grounding conductors are not in- ballasts offer a substantial advantage in allowing
stalled, a much larger portion of the lightning long runs of small secondary voltage conductors
1 4 – Se c t io n 1
1
TABLE 1.1: Lamp and Ballast Characteristics—240 Volts. Source: General Electric Lighting Systems Product Catalog 1985.
Allowable Operating Starting

Voltage Current Current Allowable
Size and Type Lumens Fluctuation (amperes) (amperes) Power Factor Voltage Dip
175-watt mercury vapor, normal power 7,950 240V±5% 1.6 2.6 55% 20%
factor reactor ballast
400-watt mercury vapor, normal power 21,000 240V±5% 3.4 5.1 54% 20%
factor reactor ballast
400-watt mercury vapor, regulator ballast 21,000 240V±13% 2.1 0.9 90% 50%
100-watt high-pressure sodium, normal 9,500 240V±5% 1.6 1.9 34% 10%
power factor reactor
250-watt high-pressure sodium, normal 27,500 240V±5% 2.8 3.6 42% 10%
100-watt high-pressure sodium, high 9,500 240V±5% 0.6 0.9 90% 10%
250-watt metal halide floodlight, normal 20,500 240V±10% 1.3 1.0 90% 10%
power factor reactor ballast
400-watt metal halide floodlight, normal 36,000 240V±10% 2.0 1.7 90% 10%
power factor reactor ballast
without unstable lamp operation. Moreover, all no more than 10 percent when the largest proba-
types of high-pressure sodium and metal halide ble lamp is started. Consideration should also be
lamps are more sensitive than are mercury vapor given to selecting 240-volt ballasts as opposed to
lamps to voltage dips. Therefore, all lighting cir- 120-volt units, because they draw less current
cuits should be designed for a voltage drop of and generally create decreased operating losses.
Reliability of One of the most important advantages of a well- overhead systems. These experiences have
UD Systems designed UD system is greater reliability for con- made it clear that reliability engineering is a
sumers compared to an overhead system. UD necessary part of UD system design.
lines and equipment are located where they are
not vulnerable to most of the common hazards MEASUREMENT OF RELIABILITY
that cause outages on overhead facilities, such Reliability is usually measured in two ways. The
as trees, weather, some animals, and vehicles. first is the frequency of interruptions occurring
However, material or design defects in a UD sys- at a particular point on a system, referred to as
tem may reverse the reliability advantage of un- the interruption rate or outage rate. Outage rates
derground distribution. In fact, many early UD are measured in outages per year. The second
systems installed by cooperatives and other utili- measure is the average duration of an interrup-
ties turned out to be less reliable than comparable tion, also referred to as the restoration time.
1
Outage duration is usually measured in hours. A CABLE FAILURE RATES
combination of these two measurements yields In the mid-1980s, the failure rates for common-
the percentage of availability for a particular lo- ly used UD primary cables were unacceptable.
cation on a distribution system. A simple index The failure rates for cross-linked polyethylene
of reliability used by many utilities is hours of (XLPE) and high-molecular-weight polyethylene
outage per year, per consumer. (HMWPE) cables were approaching 0.02 and
For this discussion, outages are considered to 0.08 per mile per year, respectively. Further-
be sustained interruptions. Reliability calculations more, studies revealed that these failure rates
of this type usually do not consider momentary were continuing to worsen as the cables aged.
interruptions that are successfully cleared by au- The most common causes of failure were elec-
tomatic circuit reclosing operations. This analysis trochemical treeing of the insulation layer and
considers only those outages that require man- corrosion of the exposed neutral conductors.
ual intervention to restore service. Furthermore, In December 1987, the Rural Electrification
almost all faults attributable to underground sys- Administration (REA), currently called Rural Util-
tem components are permanent. ity Services (RUS), responded to the cable failure
System reliability undeniably affects many as- problem by issuing a revision of Bulletin 50-70
pects of a cooperative’s service. Although the (U-1), REA Specification for 15-kV and 25-kV
order of importance may vary with individual Primary Underground Power Cable. The main
situations, the results of distribution system out- specification changes were the following:
ages include the following:
• Removing all HMWPE cable from approval,
• Consumer dissatisfaction; • Increasing minimum insulation thickness to
• Consumer financial losses resulting from 220 mils for 15-kV cable and to 345 mils for
interrupted production, equipment damage, 25-kV cable, and
or other causes; • Requiring cable to be jacketed.
• Impairment of other cooperative facilities;
• Costs to the cooperative of service restora- At that time, RUS did not disapprove the use
tion; and of XLPE cable. Nevertheless, concerns about
• Lost cooperative revenue. XLPE were raised in studies, leading to the bul-
letin’s revision.
All these factors have a serious impact on satis- As a consequence of these experiences in the
factory cooperative system operation. Engineers, 1980s, cooperatives should procure new cable
therefore, must be aware of the basic principles with the requirement that the revised RUS specifi-
of reliability assessment so they can achieve cations be met. Any XLPE cable acquired should
satisfactory but economical UD system designs. also be tree retardant (TR-XLPE). As a result of
Appendix A provides a method for calculating recent vastly improved quality control in cable
UD system reliability. manufacturing processes, both TR-XLPE- and
Comprehensive reliability analysis also con- ethylene propylene rubber- (EPR) insulated ca-
siders the number of consumers or kVA of load bles provide improved reliability. Industry tests
each outage affects. Thus, facilities serving many are continuing to develop information on the
consumers (or kVA) may need to be designed expected failure rates for different insulation sys-
for higher reliability than should facilities serving tems. RUS is currently preparing an even further
few consumers (or kVA). The analysis presented refined U-1 specification to reflect these continu-
in this manual, however, does not consider this ing cable insulation improvements. Section 2
parameter because most cooperative UD sys- discusses cable selection in detail.
tems are fairly uniform in design and consumer
concentration. There is generally no need to dis- LOOP-FEED DESIGN
criminate in design quality between some parts The time spent to locate an underground cable
of the system and others. fault, excavate to the point of its failure, and
1 6 – Se c t io n 1
1
install a UD cable repair joint is typically much
longer than that required to perform a compara-
ble repair on an overhead line. Therefore, if the
overhead type of radial distribution system con-
T1 T6
figuration were used for UD, the restoration time
for most UD outages would be much longer
Legend than is typical on overhead systems.
T2 T5 This difficulty is overcome by using loop-feed
Transformer
design for UD systems. Under loop-feed design,
N.O. Normally Open Point
each cable run serving several pad-mounted
T3 T4 transformers is connected with a power supply
N.O. point on both ends (see Figure 1.15). This
Transformer T4 formed loop is opened at some point to allow
Parking Stand use of radial overcurrent protection methods and
Surge
Arresters to prevent unwanted power transfers through
X3
the cable. If the cable fails, a repair crew can
X1
disconnect both ends of the failed cable section
X2 and close the circuit at the normal open point
Copper (see Figure 1.16). These actions promptly restore
Ground service to all consumers on the cable run. The
Conductor To T5
To T3 damaged cable can then be repaired or replaced
To Ground Rod
later without causing additional outage time.
FIGURE 1.15: Loop-Feed Design of UD System Under Normal Conditions. It must be noted that it is vitally important for
loop-feed UD systems to be fed from two
sources of the same feeder circuit out of a sub-
station, with no switching or sectionalizing de-
vices in between. Having the two sources fed
from different feeder circuits could cause unex-
pected high-power flow through the UD system
T1 T6
if the sources were tied together during switch-
Damaged Cable Section ing operations on the UD loop. These high cur-
rent levels could result in exceeding cable
Legend
T2 T5 and/or termination current-carrying ratings, or
could create outages on source fusing devices.
Transformer Furthermore, on single-phase UD looped sys-
T3 T4
tems, it is vitally important that both sources be
connected to the same phase for safe operation.
Transformer T5 Transformer T6
Parking Stand Parking Stand
Surge Surge UD SYSTEM RELIABILITY STUDY
Arresters Arresters
X3 X3 Well-designed UD systems can provide improved
X1 X1 reliability relative to overhead systems. However,
X2 X2 to achieve high reliability, the cooperative needs
Copper
To To to apply the specialized engineering knowledge
Ground Cable Fault Ground
Ground Rod To T4 Rod To gained from many years of experience with under-
Conductor Riser
Plate ground power distribution. This knowledge covers
Front View Showing Isolated, Damaged Cable Section the field performance records of different types of
cables, the proper application of surge arresters,
FIGURE 1.16: Loop-Feed Design of UD System with Damaged appropriate sectionalizing, and loop-feed de-
Cable Section. signs, all of which are treated by this manual.
1
Design The cooperative’s involvement with a UD system appearance of the property so they prefer the
Considerations does not end after installation; the cooperative utility to locate facilities along the rear property
for System must operate and maintain the system through- line instead of in front of their houses. However,
out its life. Because many components of a UD equipment along the rear property line is usually
Operation and
system are difficult to access, operation and main- difficult to access and thus difficult to operate
Maintenance tenance of the system can also be difficult. For and maintain, particularly when there is no
example, it is difficult to access a pad-mounted service alley or backyards are fenced and have
transformer that is surrounded by shrubbery or no access gate large enough to accommodate
located too close to fences or buildings. Like- a trencher or backhoe.
wise, it is difficult to repair a faulted cable that is In addition, the rear property line is not usual-
buried beneath landscaped areas or utility build- ly cleared of trees and may not be to final grade
ings. The engineer needs to be aware of these when cable is installed. As a result, preparing
problems when considering whether to place the rear of the lot for cable installation can be
facilities along the front or rear property line more costly and time-consuming than preparing
and also must consider the effect of joint-use the front property line. The installation cost also
trench on operation and maintenance activities. depends on the subdivision layout and the loca-
tion of other underground utilities. An economic
FRONT VERSUS REAR PROPERTY comparison of front versus rear property line
LINE PLACEMENT installation is covered later in this section under
One of the fundamental choices in UD system Economic Comparison of System Configurations.
design is whether to locate facilities along the A final consideration is the power restoration
front property line or along the rear property line. time following an outage. When facilities are
Usually, this is a joint decision between the utility located on the front property line, it is much
and the consumer or developer. Consumers or faster for utility crews to check for tripped fault
developers will have some authority because they indicators and to perform cable switching to
must normally give the utility an easement that isolate the faulted cable section. It is important
allows the installation of underground facilities. that the utility engineer inform the consumer of
Often the consumers or developers believe this advantage of front-line placement.
that pad-mounted equipment detracts from the Table 1.2 summarizes the advantages and dis-
advantages of front and rear property line place-
TABLE 1.2: Front Versus Rear Property Line Placement. ment. The engineer can be guided by this table
in selecting the cable route. In most cases, place-
Location Advantages Disadvantages ment along the front property line is more ad-
Placement along 1. More accessible for 1. More unsightly to consumer vantageous. However, subdivision layout, the
front property line operation and maintenance location of other utilities, or consumer relations
2. Greater potential for dig-ins may require placement along the rear property
2. Usually more accessible line. In these cases, installing the cable in con-
for installation 3. Potential for damage from duit or installing a spare conduit allows the utili-
vehicles ty better access when cables have to be repaired
3. Often reduces outage time
or replaced.
4. Reduces cable replacement
costs JOINT-USE TRENCH
Placement along 1. Consumers preference for 1. Often requires more tree/ In some areas, the space allocated for under-
rear property line equipment in backyard brush clearing ground utilities is very limited. In these areas,
the utilities may agree to place facilities in a
2. Possible more economical 2. Difficult to access for common trench. Within this common (joint-use)
installation if lots share rear operation and maintenance trench, the different utilities usually maintain a
property lines
3. Usually higher cable minimum separation of 12 inches. The 2007 Na-
replacement costs tional Electrical Safety Code (NESC), Section 354,
1 8 – Se c t io n 1
1
does allow the random separation (less than 12 dimensions and arrangement of all utility lines.
inches) of some utilities. Section 8 of this guide, The utility that opens the trench must abide by
Direct-Buried System Design, contains informa- these dimensions. Second, the contract should
tion on the NESC requirements and installation define who is responsible for installing the facili-
guidelines for joint-use trench. ties. If each utility installs its own facilities, then
the contract needs to state the required notifica-
Operational Precautions tion period before opening and backfilling a
Before agreeing to share a common trench, the trench. If the other utilities receive proper notifi-
cooperative should consider the potential for cation but fail to send crews, the contract should
operational problems. Each utility will have to stipulate any consequences, such as those below:
maintain its own facilities, which may require
crossing other utilities to reach its facilities. To • Will the trench be closed or covered
minimize the risk of damaging other facilities temporarily?
during excavation, operation crews need a • Will the delinquent utility be charged?
drawing that shows a trench cross section and • Will a closed trench be reopened?
the location of all facilities within the trench. It
is also helpful to show the presence of joint-use Third, the contract should state who is re-
trench on the operating map for the area. sponsible for acquiring easements and any per-
A joint-use trench with ran- mits. The utility that opens the
dom lay of electric, telephone, trench should require copies
and cable television (CATV) of the easements and permits
cables creates additional oper-
Joint-use trench with before starting construction.
ating problems. This type of random separation Also before construction, any
trench requires telephone and existing underground facilities
often creates
CATV personnel to work next must be located. The contract
to power cables. Jacketed operating problems. must identify who is responsi-
power cables resemble tele- ble for requesting the location
phone cables. The cables must of these utilities. Special back-
be well marked to prevent fill and compaction needs
mistaken identity. The NESC requires all direct- must be addressed. If select backfill is required,
buried, jacketed, primary-voltage cable to have a the contract should identify the party responsi-
specific marking on its jacket. This marking is ble for acquiring the backfill material and decide
shown as Figure 350-1 in the 2007 NESC. The how the additional cost will be shared among
NESC also has special requirements for bonding the utilities.
and grounding of electric, telephone, and CATV Fourth, the contract should address shared
systems using random separation in Section costs. These costs include the following:
354D. Grounding and bonding are discussed
further in Section 8. • Cost to open and close the trench,
• Cost of the service if one utility installs
Typical Contractual Arrangements all facilities,
Joint-occupancy trenches require tremendous • Penalties for reopening a trench,
coordination and cooperation from each utility • Penalties for temporarily covering or
involved. To help structure these efforts and barricading an open trench, and
provide proper agreements on liability, the coop- • Cost adders for select backfill.
erative must prepare a contract for joint trench
use. This contract would be similar to the con- Fifth, the contract should state that it is trans-
tract for joint pole use. ferable to a new owner. This transferability is
First, the contract should address construc- particularly important for joint-use contracts with
tion concerns. It must state the required trench CATV utilities.
1
Future Upgrades The cooperative engineer can improve the de- install dual-voltage transformers and sectionaliz-
and Replacements sign of a UD system by anticipating and providing devices rated for the higher voltage level.
ing for future system upgrades. Changes to a The economics of these changes depend on the
system in established yards, parking lots, or subdivision layout and the number of years be-
roadways are very expensive. If trenching meth- fore the voltage conversion. Before making
ods are used, the utility must these design changes, the en-
also restore the soil surface. gineer needs to do an eco-
Such restoration could include nomic study similar to the one
A UD system design
reseeding grass, repaving, or described in Future Voltage
pouring new concrete side- should provide for Conversions under the Eco-
walks or driveways. Trenching future upgrades. nomic Comparison of System
in established yards also tends Configurations subsection be-
to create conflicts with prop- ginning on the next page.
erty owners.
The engineer can help avoid these problems THREE-PHASE VERSUS
by planning for future conversions to three-phase SINGLE-PHASE INSTALLATION
circuits and higher voltage levels. The engineer Most large subdivisions are developed in stages
can also plan for future cable replacements by over time. For these types of subdivisions, the
considering the use of conduit systems. engineer should determine if a three-phase
feeder is required. A three-phase feeder is often
FUTURE VOLTAGE CONVERSIONS helpful for balancing a large amount of single-
Many utilities are converting to higher distribu- phase load and for providing better sectionaliz-
tion system voltages to decrease line losses, im- ing. The future subdivision plans may show a
prove circuit voltage profile, and increase clubhouse or sewer lift station. These types of
system capacity. These conversions are typically loads are often three-phase and, thus, require a
scheduled to occur over an extended time. The three-phase primary circuit.
engineer will, therefore, need to refer to the If the engineer thinks the subdivision will
long-range work plan to locate those areas des- eventually require three-phase power, he should
ignated for future voltage increases. For UD sys- consider installing a three-phase feeder instead
tems in these areas, the engineer needs to adapt of a single-phase feeder. It is much easier to in-
the design to minimize material and equipment stall three cables initially than to install one ini-
changeout at the time of voltage conversion. tially and two later. The subsection immediately
A simple design change involves installing following, titled Economic Comparison of Sys-
cable and cable terminations that are rated for tem Configurations, presents an economic com-
the higher voltage level. These two components parison of an initial versus delayed installation
will operate properly at the lower voltage and of a three-phase feeder. The engineer can per-
will not have to be changed when the voltage form a similar economic comparison for the UD
level is increased. This simple design change system he or she is designing.
eliminates the need to replace all the under-
ground primary voltage cable—a very expensive DIRECT-BURIED VERSUS
and time-consuming task. An economic evalua- PLACEMENT IN CONDUIT
tion under the subsection Economic Comparison At some point, most cables need to be replaced
of System Configurations (next page) shows that because of a cable failure or external damage.
the cooperative will save money by initially in- Replacing cable in a conduit system is less ex-
stalling the higher voltage cable. pensive than replacing direct-buried cable and
Voltage conversion also requires an increase does not disturb the ground surface. However,
in the insulation level of pad-mounted trans- the initial installation costs are higher than those
formers and sectionalizing devices. To avoid fu- for direct-buried cable. To determine which sys-
ture changeouts, the cooperative can initially tem is more economical, the engineer needs to
2 0 – Se c t i on 1
1
perform an analysis similar to the one described congested with other utilities. If a dig-in should
later in the Direct-Buried Versus Cable in Conduit occur, however, the conduit system will be more
subsection. This evaluation is difficult because it difficult to repair. Conduit systems may also re-
must quantify the expected life of the cable. quire larger cable sizes to offset de-rating factors
A conduit system can provide some benefits as a result of cable heating. Conduit can also
that are difficult to assign a value to. A conduit protect cable from gophers and prairie dogs;
system does provide some mechanical protec- therefore, conduit use in rodent-infested areas
tion to the cable and, therefore, could help pro- will likely prolong cable life.
long cable life in areas with rocky soils or areas
Economic To design an underground distribution system, costs require use of a carrying charge. The carry-
Comparison the cooperative engineer needs to compare vari- ing charges are annual payments needed to sup-
of System ous system configurations. Points of comparison port construction funds, including loan interest,
include the following: taxes, and insurance. The examples in this sec-
Configurations
tion use a carrying charge of 12 percent. How-
• Service reliability,
ever, when doing comparisons, a carrying charge
• Present and future load requirements,
should be selected appropriate to current econom-
• System maintenance and operation, and
ics. Only a few examples consider an inflation rate.
• Economics.
The inflation rate used is three percent per year
Economics is not usually the deciding aspect and is not included in the carrying charges. Again,
when comparing different configurations. How- an appropriate value needs to be selected.
ever, being aware of the different system costs The installed-material costs used in these ex-
can help the cooperative engineer make eco- amples can vary significantly from region to re-
nomically sound design decisions. gion. Therefore, the examples should be used as
The following examples compare several sys- guidelines only. Economic decisions should be
tem configurations and show suitable methods for based on the cooperative’s own cost data and
calculating the relative economics of each. Some not on the costs shown in this subsection.
of these economic evaluations compare only ini-
tial costs—the purchase cost of the materials and LOOP VERSUS RADIAL
the installation cost for placing these materials As noted earlier in this section, an open-loop
into service. Other evaluations consider initial and system provides better system availability than a
future costs—operating, maintenance, and re- comparable radial system does. However, an
placement costs. Evaluations that consider future open-loop system requires additional under-
ground facilities—at a minimum, those listed in
Table 1.3. This table also shows the additional
TABLE 1.3: Additional Materials for an Open-Loop System.
costs of these materials. The single-phase riser
Additional Installed Installed assembly listed in Table 1.3 includes all materials
Item Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost (conduit, cable terminations, surge arresters, and
fused disconnect switches) for terminating un-
Single-Phase Riser Assembly, 25 kV 1 $ 460.00 $ 460.00
derground cable on a riser pole. This assembly
Trench and Backfill 500 ft 3.00 1,500.00 does not include the pole. The riser assembly in
subsequent tables is defined in the same way.
1/0 AWG A1, 25-kV 500 ft 2.50 1,250.00
Because an open-loop system always re-
Underground Cable
quires more materials than a similar radial sys-
Elbow Terminator 1 63.00 63.00 tem, the initial cost is greater than that of a ra-
Elbow Arrester 1 237.00 237.00 dial system. In the following examples, this cost
difference is calculated for several types of un-
Feed-Through Standoff 1 175.00 175.00
derground systems.
TOTAL $ 3,685.00
1
Subdivisions This incremental cost for an open-loop system
Subdivisions usually have a high consumer den- could decrease considerably for a large subdivi-
sity. A cable failure here can interrupt power to sion. For example, consider a 100-lot subdivision
many consumers. As noted, power can be re- with lot sizes similar to those in Figure 1.17. The
stored to these consumers much faster on an cost for installing underground facilities will also
open-loop system than on a radial system. For- be similar, about $1,000 per lot, so the project
tunately, most subdivision layouts can be easily cost would be $100,000 for a radial system. If an
adapted to the installation of an open-loop sys- open-loop system can be established with 500
tem by extending the underground cable from or fewer feet of cable, then the additional cost
the last transformer to a second riser pole or un- remains $3,685. However, instead of $100 per
derground feeder source. lot, the cost is $36.85 per lot, with a levelized
To illustrate this, a 37-lot subdivision is shown annual cost of only $5.20 per consumer.
in Figure 1.17. The approximate cost for a radial In both of these examples, the cooperative
system is $37,145. The additional materials for can provide a more reliable system with an ad-
an open-loop system are highlighted and are ditional investment of 10 percent or less. This
consistent with those listed in Table 1.3. This in- improvement will increase consumer satisfaction
creases the project cost by $3,685, an additional and promotes a better relationship between the
cost of approximately $100 per lot. Assuming a cooperative and the consumer.
carrying charge of 12 percent and an amortiza-
tion period of 20 years, this $100 investment has Single Residential Consumer
a levelized annual cost of $13.40 per lot. To pro- It is usually practical to install an open-loop sys-
vide a more reliable electric system through a tem for a subdivision. In contrast, an open-loop
loop design, the cooperative will spend $13.40 a system to serve a single residential consumer
year for each consumer in the subdivision. may not be practical. For example, consider a
560'
N.O.
OL
50
DC
50
AS
KW
AY
560'
50 50 50 kVA
460' 460'
520
'
NEW DOVER ROAD 50

0'
400' 400' 400'
50 50 50 37.5 28
5'
ROW
Legend OW) ROW

00' R
35 (1
SR 14
Single-Phase, Pad-Mounted Transformer ROW
Single-Phase, Primary Voltage, UD Cable ROW
Three-Phase Overhead Line

FIGURE 1.17: Open-Loop System, 37-Lot Subdivision.

2 2 – Se c t i on 1
1
single residential consumer served by 500 feet of of the cost of the radial system, a substantial in-
1/0 AWG Al primary underground cable. Figure crease over the 10 percent additional cost for the
1.18 shows this radial system and also highlights subdivision.
the materials required for an open-loop system. A more economical system for a single cus-
The radial system costs $4,792. Conversion to an tomer would be a spare cable placed in the
open-loop system requires the same materials same trench and on the same riser pole. The
listed in Table 1.3, at a cost of $3,685. Here, an cost of a spare cable with terminations and ar-
open-loop system costs an additional 77 percent resters is shown in Table 1.4.
This reduces the additional cost to $1,953,
which is 41 percent of the total project cost.
N.O.
However, this system is less reliable than is an
open-loop system with separate trenches. Be-
cause the spare cable is in the same ditch as the
normal feed cable, both cables are exposed to
simultaneous damage during a dig-in. The open-
loop system in Figure 1.18 has two separate
trenches; therefore, a dig-in will usually damage
only one cable. Likewise, placing both cables in
500’
500’
the same riser exposes both cables to damage

whenever the pole is damaged.
Riser Pole Riser Pole Instead of serving only one consumer, a single
transformer may serve several consumers. Al-
though the cost for an open-loop or spare-cable
system will be the same, the cost is divided
Legend among more consumers. If the transformer is
Single-Phase, Pad-Mounted Transformer serving six consumers, then the cost drops to
Single-Phase, Primary Voltage, UD Cable
$614 per consumer for an open-loop system,
and $326 per consumer for a spare-cable system.
For these situations, the cooperative must de-
FIGURE 1.18: Open-Loop System, Single cide if the benefits of improved reliability make
Residential Consumer. the open-loop or spare-cable system a practical
choice. Factors entering into this decision should
include the type of customer and the difficulty of
TABLE 1.4: Sample Spare Cable Cost, Single Residential Consumer. effecting repairs in a timely manner.
Additional Installed Installed Commercial Consumers

Item Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost
Commercial consumers are a very diverse group,
1/0 AWG A1, 25-kV Underground Cable 500 ft $ 2.50 $ 1,250.00 ranging from small single-phase consumers to
large three-phase consumers. For this reason,
Elbow Terminator 1 63.00 63.00
there is not a single simple example to show an
Feed-Through Standoff 1 175.00 175.00 economic comparison of a loop versus radial
system. Instead, the cooperative engineer needs
Elbow Arrester 1 237.00 237.00
to examine each case to determine the cost of
25-kV O.D. Termination 1 66.00 66.00 the desired level of reliability. As a guideline for
Cutout 1 73.00 73.00 this evaluation, the following example will com-
pare the costs of a radial system, an open-loop
Riser Pole Arrester 1 89.00 89.00 system, and a spare-cable system
TOTAL $ 1,953.00 The example in Table 1.5 considers a 500-foot
radial feed to a 300-kVA pad-mounted transformer.
Note. O.D. = outside diameter This system provides a 277/480-Volt four-wire
1
It is often helpful to consider the cost per kilo-
TABLE 1.5: Sample Radial System Cost, Commercial Consumer.
watt (kW). Doing so also provides a way to com-
Installed Installed pare residential and commercial costs. For exam-
Item Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost ple, assume this three-phase installation has a
load of 225 kW and the 37-lot subdivision has a
Three-Phase Riser Assembly, 25 kV 1 $ 1,332.00 $ 1,332.00
diversified load of 7 kW per lot for a total of 259
Trench and Backfill 500 ft 3.00 1,500.00 kW. For purposes of comparison, each single
residential consumer is assumed to have a peak
1/0 AWG A1, 25-kV Underground Cable 1,500 ft 2.50 3,750.00
(non-diversified) load of 15 kW. Table 1.6 com-
24.9/14.4-kV – 480/277-V, 1 6,505.00 6,505.00 pares the added cost per kilowatt for installing
300-kVA Transformer an open-loop system and a spare cable system.
Elbow Terminator 3 63.00 189.00 Providing an open-loop system for the single
commercial consumer costs 2.5 times that for the
Elbow Arrester 3 237.00 711.00 residential consumer in a small subdivision.
Bushing Inserts 3 57.00 171.00 However, for the installation of a spare cable, a
single residential installation costs nearly 15
Transformer Pad 1 364.00 364.00
times as much per kilowatt.
TOTAL $ 14,522.00 If the open-loop three-phase system serves
several commercial consumers, then the addi-
tional cost per kilowatt would decrease. An
TABLE 1.6: Additional Cost Per Kilowatt, Open-Loop and Spare open-loop system that serves three 225-kW de-
Cable Systems.
liveries has an additional cost of $11.86/kW in-
Consumer Type Open-Loop System Spare Cable System* stead of $35.59/kW. Therefore, an open-loop
system for several three-phase consumers is
Residential $3,685/259 kW = $14.22/kW $1,953/15 kW = $130.02/kW more practical than is an open-loop system for a
Commercial $8,007/225 kW = $35.59/kW $1,953/225 kW = $8.68/kW single three-phase consumer.
*Spare cable system usually practical only for single transformer installations.
Other Options to Consider
In addition to an open-loop design and spare
service to a three-phase consumer. Table 1.5 cable design, other options may be considered
shows the cost of a radial system to be $14,522. for service to particular consumers or for some
An open-loop system requires an additional cooperatives whose underground installation en-
riser assembly, a second trench, and a separate vironment requires other strategies. In some cas-
three-phase run of underground primary cable. es, it may be economically prudent to install the
These additional materials will cost $8,007, thus primary cable in duct to a single commercial or
increasing the radial system cost by 55 percent. residential customer to simplify cable replace-
A second option places one spare cable in ment in case of failure. This would, of course,
the same trench as the radial feed. This single depend on the length of the primary cable later-
spare cable does not provide total redundancy al, the likelihood of future paving over the cable
for the three-phase cable, but would be useful if route, and the rock or debris content of the pri-
one phase of the circuit faulted. The spare cable mary cable route excavation. A similar strategy
has terminations and arresters at each end. The would be to place an empty capped duct along-
cost of this option is $1,953, as shown in Table side the primary cable in the trench, or to install
1.4. Instead of 55 percent, this option is only a a cable-in-conduit system for selected installa-
13 percent increase over the radial cost. As tions. These options, in addition to the spare ca-
noted before, this system is less reliable than an ble installation, may be the most economical in
open-loop system because the spare cable could the long-term because retrenching a cable route
be damaged by a fault in an adjacent cable, a after the site has developed is many times more
dig-in, or damage to the riser pole. expensive that the original trenching.
2 4 – Se c t i on 1
BRIDG
Y
WA
TH
EHAM
OU
RM
YA
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WAY
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OL
DC
T.
DC
AS
EA
KW
ST
ELM
AY
CHARINGTON CT.
NEW DOVER ROAD
IP IP
ROW
o
Tw
se
Pha Riser Pole Riser Pole OW)
00' R ROW
435 (1
SR 1
Legend ROW
IP Single-Phase Sectionalizing Cabinet ROW

. 1/0 AWG, 25-kV, UD Cable
FIGURE 1.19: Single-Phase Sub-Feeder.
Although economics is not the only deciding

TABLE 1.7: Single-Phase Sub-Feeder Cost.
factor, it is useful to know the cost difference be-
Installed Installed tween installing single- and three-phase systems.
Item Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost As an example, consider a 1,600-foot under-
ground sub-feeder of 1/0 AWG A1 25-kV cable.
Single-Phase Riser Assembly, 25 kV 2 $ 460.00 $ 920.00
Figure 1.19 shows a single-phase sub-feeder
Trench and Backfill 1,600 ft 3.00 4,800.00 with two single-phase sectionalizing cabinets.
The sectionalizing cabinet allows the sub-feeder
to feed through and also provides two fused
Single-Phase Sectionalizing Cabinet 2 2,608.00 5,216.00 taps. This cabinet costs about $2,600. The total
Cabinet Pad 2 217.00 434.00 project cost is $15,898, or $9.94 per foot, as
shown in Table 1.7.
1/0 AWG Terminations 8 66.00 528.00 The cost for a similar three-phase sub-feeder
TOTAL $ 15,898.00 increases considerably. Figure 1.20 shows a
three-phase sub-feeder with two three-phase
sectionalizing cabinets. The three-phase section-
THREE-PHASE VERSUS SINGLE-PHASE alizing cabinet has three-phase group-operated
The decision to install three-phase facilities switches on the incoming and outgoing sub-
instead of single-phase is usually based on feeder cables. It also has two sets of three-phase
the following: fused taps. This cabinet costs $10,000, and the
total project cost is $41,752 or $26.10 per foot.
• Three-phase load requirements, Table 1.8 shows these costs. For this example,
• Load balancing, and a three-phase sub-feeder is 2.6 times the cost of
• Sectionalizing and protection requirements. a single-phase sub-feeder.
BRIDG
Y
WA
TH
EHAM
OU
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YA
W
NE
WAY
OL
DC
T.
DC
AS
EA
KW
ST
ELM
AY
CHARINGTON CT.
NEW DOVER ROAD
3P 3P
ROW
o
Tw
se
Pha Riser Pole Riser Pole OW)
00' R ROW
35 (1
SR 14
Legend ROW
3P Single-Phase Sectionalizing Cabinet ROW

. 1/0 AWG, 25-kV, UD Cable
FIGURE 1.20: Three-Phase Sub-Feeder.
trenching in established (landscaped) yards.

TABLE 1.8: Three-Phase Sub-Feeder Cost.
Trenching in an established yard is very costly.
Additional Installed Installed The cooperative must remove sod and obstruc-
Item Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost tions (fences, shrubbery, and utility buildings)
before trenching. After trenching, the coopera-
Three-Phase Riser Assembly, 25 kV 2 $ 1,332.00 $ 2,664.00
tive will need to replace sod or reseed. All this
Trench and Backfill 1,600 ft 3.00 4,800.00 work increases the trenching cost from $3 per
foot to $8 per foot.
Assume a three-phase feeder is installed five
Three-Phase Sectionalizing Cabinet 2 10,216.00 20,432.00 years after the single-phase feeder is installed.
Cabinet Pad 2 400.00 800.00 The trenching cost is $8 per foot, an increase of
$5 per foot over the cost shown in Table 1.8.
1/0 AWG Terminations 16 66.00 1,056.00 Therefore, the trench and backfill cost increases
TOTAL $ 41,752.00 by $8,000, and the total future cost to install this
three-phase feeder is $49,752. With a carrying
charge of 12 percent, this cost has a present
This comparison rather conclusively demon- worth of $28,229. This cost added to the cost of
strates that the decision to install a three-phase a single-phase sub-feeder adds up to a present
sub-feeder should not be made lightly. How- worth of $44,127. These results show that ini-
ever, if future development plans may require tially installing a three-phase sub-feeder costs
the addition of a three-phase feeder along the less than does delaying the three-phase installa-
same route within a few years, the comparison tion. In addition, the conversion of the feeder
changes dramatically. The delayed installation of will require consumer outages that would have
the underground three-phase line will require been avoided if the three-phase installation had
2 6 – Se c t i on 1
1
been made initially. Therefore, level of system components.
if future loads may require a Where a future For an underground distribu-
three-phase sub-feeder, the co- tion system, these components
operative should strongly con- voltage conversion is are the following:
sider installing it as part of the possible, it is wise to
initial installation. • Underground primary cable,
install 25-kV instead • Cable terminators,
FUTURE VOLTAGE CONVERSION of 15-kV cable. • Pad-mounted transformers,
Conversion to a higher distrib- • Sectionalizing equipment,
ution system voltage requires • Transformer bushing well
an increase in the insulation inserts, and
• Surge arresters.
TABLE 1.9: 25-kV Versus 15-kV Cable and Components. The changeout of these
components at the time of
25-kV 15-kV Unit Cost Total Cost
Item Unit Cost Unit Cost Increase Quantity Increase
voltage conversion is very ex-
pensive and requires either a
1/0 AWG A1 Underground Cable $ 2.28/ft $ 1.69/ft $ 0.59/ft 4,045 ft $ 2,387.00 long outage or a series of
Elbow Terminator $ 36.00 $ 24.00 $ 12.00 18 216.00 shorter outages. This is partic-
ularly true of cable replace-
Bushing Insert 48.00 25.00 23.00 18 414.00 ment in established subdivi-
Riser Terminator 30.00 30.00 0.00 2 0.00 sions. Recent surveys show
that the labor for cable re-
TOTAL $ 3,017.00 placement often costs $8 per
foot or more. In an attempt to
TABLE 1.10: Added Cost of Dual-Voltage Transformers. avoid the excessive cost of ca-
ble replacement, 25-kV cable
25-kV 15-kV Unit Cost Total Cost and terminations could be in-
Item Unit Cost Unit Cost Increase Quantity Increase stalled initially. Doing so does
increase the initial material
50-kVA Transformer $ 1,393.00 $ 1,160.00 $ 233.00 8 $ 1,864.00
cost over that for 15-kV cable
37.5-kVA Transformer 1,349.00 1,066.00 $ 282.00 1 283.00 and components. However,
TOTAL $ 2,147.00
the labor cost remains the
same. In light of the relatively
low incremental cost for higher
TABLE 1.11: Voltage Conversion Cost at Year 10. voltage cables and accessories,
it is generally advisable to in-
Unit Quantity Total Cost stall a cable suitable for any
Item Labor Cost Unit Cost Salvage Installed Removed Increase distribution voltage expected
50-kVA, 7.2-kV $ 94.00 $ 0.00 $ (580.00) — 8 $ (3,888.00) for the area.
Transformer For an economic analysis,
consider the 37-lot subdivision
37.5-kVA, 7.2-kV 94.00 0.00 (533.00) — 1 (439.00)
of Figure 1.17. Table 1.9
Transformer
shows the increase in material
50-kVA, 14.4-kV 94.00 1,574.00 — 8 — 13,344.00 cost to be $3,017, or $0.75 per
Transformer foot. Determining the future
37.5-kVA, 14.4-kV 94.00 1,525.00 — 1 — 1,619.00 value of this additional invest-
Transformer ment requires use of a com-
pound amount factor.
TOTAL $ 10,636.00
1
former changeout cost of
TABLE 1.12: Voltage Conversion Cost at Year 20.
$10,636 has a present worth
Unit Quantity Total Cost of $3,425. The present worth
Item Labor Cost Unit Cost Salvage Installed Removed Increase of installing dual-voltage
transformers is $2,147, which
50-kVA, 7.2-kV $ 115.00 $ 0.00 $ (348.00) — 8 $ (1,864.00)
makes it the economical
Transformer
choice.
37.5-kVA, 7.2-kV 115.00 0.00 (320.00) — 1 (205.00) Table 1.12 shows a similar
Transformer analysis for a voltage conver-
50-kVA, 14.4-kV 115.00 1,938.00 — 8 — 16,424.00 sion at 20 years instead of
Transformer 10 years. The assumed infla-
tion rate is three percent per
37.5-kVA, 14.4-kV 115.00 1,877.00 — 1 — 1,992.00
year and the salvage value on
Transformer
the removed transformers is
TOTAL $ 16,347.00 30 percent.
For a carrying charge of 12
percent, the present worth fac-
If one assumes a voltage conversion in 10 tor at 20 years is 0.1037. The transformer change-
years and a carrying charge of 12 percent, the out cost of $16,347 has a present worth of $1,695.
compound amount factor is 3.1058. The initial On the basis of this analysis, it is more economi-
investment of $3,017 has a future value of cal to change out the transformers in the future
$3,017 × 3.1058 = $9,370, or $2.32 per foot. This rather than install dual-voltage transformers.
amount is approximately equal to the present These economic analyses show that it is im-
cost of 1/0 AWG Al, 25-kV underground cable. It portant to plan for future voltage conversions. If
is very unlikely that this amount will cover even a voltage conversion is planned within 10 years
the purchase cost of the cable in 10 years. For a of the initial installation, then the cooperative
voltage conversion in 20 years, the initial invest- should install 25-kV cable, 25-kV components, and
ment of $3,017 has a future value of $3,017 × dual-voltage transformers. For conversions occur-
9.6463 = $29,103, or $7.19 per foot. This amount ring after 10 years, the cooperative should install
is less than the present labor cost ($8) for cable 25-kV cable and components. To see if dual-volt-
replacement. Therefore, in areas where a future age transformers are economically feasible, the
voltage conversion is possible, installing 25-kV cooperative engineer will need to do an analysis
cable instead of 15-kV cable is a wise investment. similar to that shown in Tables 1.10 and 1.12.
Another option to consider is installing dual-
voltage transformers along with the 25-kV cable FRONT VERSUS REAR PROPERTY
and components. The dual-voltage transformers are As covered earlier in this section, consumers and
more costly than the 7.2-kV transformers. How- the utility often disagree about placement of elec-
ever, the labor cost to install either transformer tric facilities. The utility often prefers to place fa-
is the same. For the 37-lot subdivision, the total cilities along the front property line where they
material cost increase for installing dual-voltage are easier to maintain and operate, thus provid-
transformers is $2,147, as shown in Table 1.10. ing better reliability. In contrast, consumers often
Again, consider a voltage conversion 10 years prefer placing facilities along the rear property
after the initial installation. Table 1.11 shows the line. This conflict will rarely, if ever, be solved
cost at the time of conversion assuming an infla- by an economic analysis. However, cost is al-
tion rate of three percent per year and a 50 per- ways an aspect to consider. The following exam-
cent salvage on the removed transformers. ples show a method to compare the cost of
Determining the present worth of this total re- front-lot versus rear-lot placement of facilities.
quires a present worth factor. For a carrying The economics of front versus rear place-
charge of 12 percent and a conversion at 10 ment will vary significantly depending on the
years, this factor is 0.322. Therefore, the trans- subdivision lot layout. The 37-lot subdivision of
2 8 – Se c t i on 1
BRIDG
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605
EHAM
HW
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WAY
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NE
W 50
50
OL
'
400
DC
T.
DC
AS
5
37. EA
KW
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AY
640
'
5
605
37.
'
CHARINGTON CT.
400'
420'
50 50
NEW DOVER ROAD
ROW
Legend 00' R
OW)
35 (1 ROW
SR 14
. 1/0 AWG, 25-kV, UD Cable ROW
600-V Service Cable
FIGURE 1.21: Front Property Placement.

BRIDG
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EHAM
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'
300
DC
T.
DC
AS
75 75 TE
A
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240
400'
50
180' 37.5
'
160
CHARINGTON CT.
50
NEW DOVER ROAD
ROW
Legend 00' R
OW)
35 (1 ROW
SR 14
. 1/0 AWG, 25-kV, UD Cable ROW
600-V Service Cable
FIGURE 1.22: Back Property Placement.

1
Figure 1.17 shows front-lot placement. For this polyethylene (HDPE) flexible cable in conduit.
particular subdivision, placement along the rear Because the price of conduit and cable fluctu-
lot lines will actually require more cable and ates, it is important that the cooperative engi-
increase the total project cost. For this type of sub- neer perform an economic analysis based on
division, front-line placement is a practical choice. this example but using current costs. In addition,
In contrast, Figures 1.21 and 1.22 show a subdi- the cost for replacement of direct-buried cable
vision where lots share back property lines. With will vary greatly. If $8 per foot is not reasonable,
this type of lot arrangement, placement along the the engineer needs to insert an appropriate cost.
rear property lines requires less cable and fewer This example uses the 37-lot subdivision of
transformers. In this particular example, place- Figure 1.17. Tables 1.13, 1.14, and 1.15 show the
ment along the front property line requires 1,886 present, 25-year replacement, and 30-year replace-
additional feet of cable and one additional pad- ment costs for the three options. This long-term
mounted transformer. These extra materials in- analysis includes an inflation rate of three per-
crease the project cost by $11,496, or 75 percent. cent per year. Therefore, the cost to replace di-
Most subdivisions will be a combination of the rect-buried cable will be as follows:
two extremes shown in Figures 1.17 and 1.22.
Because subdivision layouts differ, an accurate
comparison of costs requires a case-by-case study. $14.00 per foot ($8.00 per foot × 1.75) at 25 years
Calculating the installed project cost is straight- $15.20 per foot ($8.00 per foot × 1.90) at 30 years
forward; however, it is difficult to calculate the
cost advantage of operating and maintaining fa-
cilities along the front-lot lines. As a result, it is These costs are shown in Table 1.13 as Trench,
impossible to set a dollar amount on the reliabil- Backfill, Restore Surface.
ity and operational convenience gained by plac- A present worth factor needs to be used to
ing facilities along the front-lot lines. compare these three options. For a carrying
charge of 12 percent, the single payment present
DIRECT-BURIED VERSUS CABLE IN CONDUIT worth factor from standard tables for 25 years is
Many utilities are now replacing underground 0.0588 and for 30 years is 0.0334. For example,
cable that was installed only 15 to 20 years ago. for HDPE flexible conduit, the 25- and 30-year
Much of this cable is direct buried. To replace it replacement costs are the following:
will require opening a new trench or tunneling
with long-distance boring equipment. Both of
these methods are expensive: $24,675 + .0588($20,185) = $25,862
$24,675 + .0334($21,924) = $25,407
• Trench and backfill labor costs are about
$8 per foot.
• Long-distance boring costs are about
Table 1.16 summarizes the present worth for
$9 to $10 per foot.
each option.
These costs will vary significantly depending For cable replacement at 25 years, a flexible
on soil conditions, other utility congestion, land- conduit system has the lowest present worth
scape, and homeowner obstacles. and is the most economical choice. For cable re-
One way to reduce these cable replacement placement at 30 years, a direct-buried system is
costs is to install cable in a conduit system. When the most economical. However, a small change
the cable is in a conduit system, the replacement in the cost for cable replacement can affect the
cost is the cost of pulling out the failed cable and economic choice. For example, if the cost to re-
pulling in the new cable plus the cost of the new place direct-buried cable is $10 per foot instead
cable. The soil does not have to be disturbed of $8 per foot, then the 25-year cost is $10(1.75)
and other utilities do not have to be located and = $17.50 per foot, and the 30-year cost is $10(1.90)
avoided. Cost savings are tremendous. = $19.00 per foot. Thus, the total values in Table
The following example compares the cost of 1.13 change to $88,505 at 25 years, and $96,069
direct-buried, PVC rigid conduit with high-density at 30 years.
3 0 – Se c t i on 1
1
TABLE 1.13: Option 1—Direct-Buried Cable.
Item Quantity Unit Installed Cost Total Installed Cost

Trench and Backfill 4,045 ft $ 3.00/ft $ 12,135.00
Present Cost 1/0 AWG A1, 25-kV Underground Cable 4,045 ft 2.50/ft 10,113.00
TOTAL $ 22,248.00
Trench, Backfill, Restore Surface 4,045 ft $ 14.00/ft $ 56,630.00
25-Year
1/0 AWG A1, 25-kV Underground Cable 4,045 ft 4.38/ft 17,717.00
Replacement
TOTAL $ 74,347.00
Trench, Backfill, Restore Surface 4,045 ft $ 15.20/ft $ 61,484.00
30-Year
Replacement
TOTAL $ 80,698.00
TABLE 1.14: Option 2—PVC Rigid Conduit.

2-Inch Conduit 4,045 ft 1.55/ft 6,270.00
Present Cost
1/0 AWG A1, 25-kV Underground Cable 4,045 ft 2.60/ft $ 10,517.00
TOTAL $ 28,922.00
Remove Cable From Duct 4,045 ft $ 0.44/ft $ 1,780.00
25-Year
Replacement
TOTAL $ 20,185.00
30-Year
Replacement
TOTAL $ 21,924.00
For the 30-year replacement, these values result • Added cable protection provided by a
in a present worth of $22,248 + .0334($96,069) conduit system.
= $25,457.
Therefore, the flexible conduit is the economical Another consideration for this analysis is the
choice for replacement at 30 years. For this reason, type of native soil. If the soil is rocky, it is not
it is important for the engineer to select an appro- suitable for backfill of a direct-buried cable. In
priate cable replacement cost for the economic this case, select fill material must be used for a
analysis. Of course, this economic analysis could two-inch minimum of cable bedding and a four-
not assign a monetary value to the following: inch cable cover. The cost of this select fill mate-
rial can substantially increase the initial project
• Consumer inconvenience and irritation that cost for a direct-buried system. In contrast, the use
results from trenching across established of a conduit system, flexible or rigid, protects
lawns, and the cable from rocky soils; in most cases, select
1
TABLE 1.15: Option 3—Cable in HDPE Flexible Conduit.

Present Cost Cable in Conduit 4,045 ft 3.10/ft 12,540.00
TOTAL $ 24,675.00
25-Year
Replacement
TOTAL $ 20,185.00
30-Year
Replacement
TOTAL $ 21,924.00
get accurate results, each cooperative will need

TABLE 1.16: Present Worth of Cable Installation Options.
to conduct a similar analysis using its cost data.
Present Worth
Installation Method 25-Year Replacement 30-Year Replacement SEPARATE SERVICES VERSUS
SECONDARY PEDESTALS
Direct Buried $ 26,620.00 $ 24,943.00 In a residential subdivision, a single pad-mounted
PVC Rigid Conduit 30,109.00 29,654.00 transformer often provides electrical service to
several consumers. Service may be provided di-
HDPE Flexible Conduit 25,862.00 25,407.00
rectly from the transformer or from a secondary
pedestal. Figure 1.23 shows both methods. The
backfill is not required. Therefore, the initial pro- arrangement that uses a secondary pedestal is
ject cost for the two conduit systems will not in- less reliable than direct service from the trans-
crease. Adverse soil conditions can quickly shift former. A cable fault on the secondary cable will
system economics to favor conduit installations. interrupt power to multiple consumers. In con-
Although this analysis is based on a small 37-lot trast, a cable fault on an individual service will
subdivision, the results show that a conduit sys- interrupt power to that consumer only.
tem can be an economical choice. The prices for This analysis compares the initial installation
conduit, trenching, surface restoration, and long- cost only. Table 1.17 lists the cost of providing
distance boring vary from region to region. To separate services as shown in method A of
Secondary Pedestal
200’ #6 10’ #6
150’
150’ 250’ 4/0
’
50
50
Transformer Transformer
’
4/0 4/0 4/0 4/0
Method A—Seperate Services Method B—Secondary Pedestal
FIGURE 1.23: Methods for Providing Secondary Service.

3 2 – Se c t i on 1
1
Figure 1.23. The separate services do share a
TABLE 1.17: Separate Service Cables.
common trench along the front property line.
Quantity Installed Installed Method B of Figure 1.23 shows the use of a sec-
Item (ft) Unit Cost Total Cost ondary pedestal. This cost is shown in Table 1.18.
As this example shows, the use of separate
Trench and Backfill 300 $ 3.00/ft $ 900.00
service cables is often the economical choice for
4/0, 600-V Triplexed Cable 400 1.25/ft 500.00 lots located on the same side of the road as the
transformer if the lots are developed at the same
No. 6, 600-V Triplexed Cable 200 0.25/ft 50.00
time. However, the use of a secondary pedestal
TOTAL $ 1,450.00 across the road from the transformer may be the
economical choice since it requires trenching or
TABLE 1.18: Secondary Pedestal. tunneling across the road in only one location.
Quantity Installed Installed

Item (ft) Unit Cost Total Cost
Trench and Backfill 300 $ 3.00/ft $ 900.00
4/0, 600-V Triplexed Cable 300 1.25/ft 375.00
No. 6, 600-V Triplexed Cable 10 0.25/ft 2.50
Secondary Pedestal 1 172.00 172.00
Insulated Connectors 3 14.00 42.00
TOTAL $ 1,491.50
UD Loss The inevitable loss of some of the power deliv- COST OF LOSSES
Economics ered through underground cables is an expense In a sample analysis of the cost of losses on
for the cooperative. Optimal economic design of distribution primary lines, the Distribution
the system requires that this expense be known System Loss Management Manual provides cost
and evaluated. figures for a typical cooperative. The sample
Cable losses are classified as either load-de- cooperative purchases wholesale power at $10
pendent or non-load-dependent. For UD cables, per kW per month at a 100 percent ratchet, and
most of the loss is load-dependent; it is only in the wholesale energy rate is $0.03 per kilowatt-
unusual circumstances that non-load-dependent hour (kWh).
loss becomes significant. The cost of losses is Non-load-dependent losses are constant as
derived from a combination of peak-load long as the cable is energized. Load-dependent
demand costs and accumulated losses change with the square
annual energy costs. A thor- of the loading level, which
ough coverage of the types of makes it difficult to determine
losses and their costs to coop- For UD cables, their average level. A quantity
eratives is contained in the most power loss is referred to as a loss factor is
National Rural Electric used to estimate the average
Cooperative Association’s load dependent. of load-dependent losses when
Distribution System Loss their peak value is known.
Management Manual A value of 0.3 (30 percent)
(NRECA Research Project 90-7). is suggested as typical for
1
primary distribution lines when calculating losses are calculated by the formula shown in
loss factors. Equation 1.1.
The cost per peak kilowatt for line losses for
the sample cooperative is then determined as Primary Cable Sheath Losses
follows: The normal UD practice is to ground cable
sheaths at both ends. When this is done on
three-phase cable runs, a small amount of circu-
Annual Demand Cost lating current will be induced in the cable
per kW of Peak Losses sheaths. The flow of this current produces a
$10/kW/month × 12 months = $120/kW
small loss in the sheaths, calculated as shown in
Equation 1.2.
Annual Energy Cost per kW XM is determined using Equation 1.3.
of Non-Load-Dependent Peak Losses
8,760 hours × $0.03/kWh = $263/kW
Equation 1.1
Annual Energy Cost per kW
of Load-Dependent Peak Losses
0.3 × 860 hours × $0.03/kWh = $79/kW WR=3 I2 R L
Total Annual Cost per kW where: WR = Total loss, in watts

of Non-Load-Dependent Peak Losses I = Load current, in amperes
$120/kW + $263/kW = $383/kW
R = Phase conductor resistance, in
ohms per kilofoot (kft)
Total Annual Cost per kW
of Load-Dependent Peak Losses L = Circuit length, in kft
$120/kW + $79/kW = $199/kW
Equation 1.2
The resulting expense per kilowatt of loss can
be used to quickly estimate the savings that will 3 I2 RS L X2M
WS =
result from using UD designs that operate at R2S + X2M
lower losses. The loss savings can be compared
with the annual carrying charges on the extra in- where: WS = Total sheath loss, in watts
vestment costs required to achieve lower losses. I = Load current, in amperes
This type of economic comparison is discussed RS = Sheath resistance, in ohms per kft
in detail in the Distribution System Loss Manage-
L = Circuit length, in kft
ment Manual.
XM = Sheath reactance, in ohms per kft
CABLE SYSTEM LOSSES
An essential step in the economic evaluation of
Equation 1.3
losses is calculating the expected electrical losses
for alternative designs. For a primary UD cable,
S
losses occur in the conductor, sheath, and di- XM = 0.05292 log10
rM
electric, and as a result of cable charging current.
Primary Cable Conductor Losses where: XM = Sheath reactance, in ohms per kft
The losses resulting from load current interact- S = Center-to-center spacing, in mils,
ing with the conductor resistance (I2R losses) for equilaterally spaced cables
are by far the most significant losses in primary rM = Mean radius, in mils, to the sheath
UD cables. For a run of three-phase cable, these for each cable
3 4 – Se c t i on 1
1
Equation 1.4 Equation 1.5
8.28 E2 L εt cosφ 7.354 εt

WD = C=
log10 2T+D log10 2T+D
D D
where: WD = Total three-phase dielectric loss, where: C = Cable capacitance, in nanoFarads

in watts (nF) per kft
E = Line-to-ground operating voltage, εt = Dielectric constant of the insulation
in kV T = Insulation thickness, in mils
L = Circuit length, in kft D = Conductor diameter, in mils
εt = Dielectric constant of the insulation
cosφ = Insulation power factor, per unit Next, charging current per kilofoot of cable
length is calculated with Equation 1.6.
T = Insulation thickness, in mils
D = Conductor diameter, in mils
Equation 1.6
IC = 0.000377 C E
Primary Cable Dielectric Losses
Voltage stress on cable insulation produces a
slight heating effect that leads to power losses. where: IC = Charging current, in amperes per kft
These dielectric losses can be calculated using C = Cable capacitance, in nF per kft
Equation 1.4.
E = Line-to-ground operating voltage,
The formula in Equation 1.4 shows that di-
in kV
electric losses are directly proportional to the
product of εt and cosφ. Cable engineers refer to
the product εt cosφ as the cable loss factor. This Finally, the charging-current loss is calculated
use of the term loss factor is completely different as shown in Equation 1.7.
from the use of loss factor earlier in this section.
Dielectric losses are a consequence of the cable Equation 1.7
being energized and are, therefore, continuous;
whereas the more common use of the term loss WC = R I2C L3
factor deals with losses due to the resistance of
the conductor and, therefore, vary with the mag-
where: WC = Total three-phase charging current
nitude of the load being carried by the cable.
loss, in watts
R = Phase conductor resistance, in ohms
Primary Cable Charging-Current Losses
per kft
The capacitance of an underground cable draws
charging current that interacts with the conduc- IC = Charging current, in amperes per kft
tor resistance to produce a small loss. If the L = Circuit length, in kft
cable is delivering current to low power factor
load, the charging current will be beneficial be- Data for Cable Loss Calculations
cause its leading nature will cancel out some of Many items of technical data are needed on the
the lagging load current. Therefore, charging- cables involved to calculate losses from the
current losses are of concern for only unloaded above formulas. Physical measurements such as
cables or those carrying unity power factor loads. diameter and insulation thickness are usually
The procedure for calculating charging-cur- shown on manufacturers’ catalog sheets. Basic
rent losses begins with determining the cable electrical data such as voltage, amperes, and
capacitance per phase with Equation 1.5. resistance are known from the system or can
1
easily be found from catalog sheets or standard be sure that the correct values are known, it is
references. usually necessary to contact engineering special-
The insulation dielectric constant, εt, and ists on the staff of the manufacturer of each spe-
power factor, cosφ, are sometimes difficult to cific cable type. There are often large differences
determine. Manufacturers’ data sheets often do in values for dielectric constant and power fac-
not give these parameters. For pure materials tor among various cable types. The spread in
such as TR-XLPE, the information may be ob- values is especially pronounced for the power
tained from standard references. However, most factor. In addition, the cable power factor often
modern insulation types contain additives that varies substantially with cable temperature. It is
affect dielectric constant and power factor. To recommended that, if comparisons are being
EXAMPLE 1.1: Cable Loss Calculations.
This example contains typical data; however, don’t use the sample data in actual-case calculations. For
actual situations, consult the cable manufacturer to get accurate data on the cable being used.
Table 1.19 shows data and loss calculation results for a typical three-phase cable run. Three insulation
types are represented at two different temperatures.
TABLE 1.19. Sample Cable Loss Analysis.
@ 25° C @ 50° C
Low-Loss High-Loss Low-Loss High-Loss
Insulation Type Sample Data TR-XLPE EPR EPR TR-XLPE EPR EPR
(E) Line-to-Ground Operating Voltage in kV 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2
Conductor Size 1/0 A1 1/0 A1 1/0 A1 1/0 A1 1/0 A1 1/0 A1
(D) Diameter in mils 373 373 373 373 373 373
(T) Thickness in mils 220 220 220 220 220 220
(rM) Mean Radius in mils 430 430 430 430 430 430
(S) Center-to-Center Spacing in mils 1,180 1,180 1,180 1,180 1,180 1,180
(R) Resistance in Ω/kft 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
(RS) Sheath Resistance in Ω/kft 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
(εt) Dielectric Constant of the Insulation 2.35 2.9 3.27 2.35 2.9 3.27
(cosφ pu) Insulation Power Factor per Unit 0.06 0.25 2.0 0.06 0.30 3.25
(L) Circuit Length in kft 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
(I) Load Current in Amperes 60 60 60 60 60 60
Conductor Loss, Watts 8,640 8,640 8,640 8,640 8,640 8,640
Concentric Neutral Loss, Watts 38.7 38.7 38.7 38.7 38.7 38.7
Dielectric Loss, Watts 715 3,679 33,184 715 4,414 53,924
Charging Loss, Watts 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.5
TOTAL LOSS, Watts 9,394 12,358 41,863 9,394 13,093 62,603
*Insulation Data Courtesy of the Okonite Company
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1
EXAMPLE 1.2: Calculating Losses on Secondary Cables.
This example illustrates how the losses on secondary loaded. In this case, a resistance of 0.167 ohms per kft
cables are calculated. Sample data are shown in Table is given by reference tables.
1.20.
Load on the neutral is assumed to be negligible. There-
fore, the conductor distance is 300 feet, and the total
TABLE 1.20: Sample Secondary Cable Data. resistance is 0.05 ohms.
Voltage of Circuit 120/240-V, single-phase Losses at peak load are calculated as follows:
Circuit Length 150 feet
WR = I2 R = 852 × 0.05 = 361 watts
Conductor No. 1/0 AWG, aluminum
Peak Load 85 amperes
Annual energy losses are determined by using the loss
Loss Factor 20% factor:
The conductor resistance is obtained from standard ref- Energy Losses = 0.2 × 8,760 hours × 361 watts
erences. A conductor temperature of 25°C is assumed = 632,472 watt-hours = 632 kWh
for underground secondary cables that are not heavily
made among cable types, the engineer should vice. The dielectric loss differential between nor-
use only written data obtained from the manu- mal EPR cable and TR-XLPE cable is approxi-
facturer of that cable type. An excellent source mately 0.22 kW per circuit mile from the results
of this data is the cable manufacturer’s Insulated shown on the table. Because this loss is non-
Cable Engineers Association (ICEA) Qualification load-dependent, the annual loss expense per
Report for the particular cable construction. Once mile as calculated above is typically $84 per
the figures are obtained, compare the data from mile (0.22 kW/mile × $383/kW). For 100 circuit
different sources to confirm the reasonableness miles of installed cable, this expense comes to
of the information for a particular cable type. $8,400 per year, which no longer seems insignif-
When requesting data from cable manufactur- icant. However, in a total economic evaluation,
ers, be as specific as possible about the data the cost of additional dielectric losses ($84 per
being requested. Ask the manufacturer for the mile) must be compared with any additional life
data from ICEA qualification tests. Losses should expectancy that might be available from the
be quoted for a specific temperature, such as 40°C. higher loss insulation system. Appendix D of
The loss figures in Table 1.19 show that sheath, NRECA CRN Project 90-8 provides a method for
dielectric, and charging-current losses are negligi- evaluating cable losses and life expectancy in
ble compared with conductor load-current losses, the purchasing process.
except in the case of high-loss EPR. However,
under light-load or other unusual conditions, the Secondary Cable Losses
relative values of the three types of losses may For secondary UD cables, losses other than
become more significant. Charging-current loss- load-current-related conductor I2R losses are
es, for example, may become significant for ex- truly insignificant. Loss control methods for ap-
tremely long cable runs because these losses in- plication to secondary designs are the same as
crease with the cube of the circuit length. described in the NRECA Distribution System Loss
Another important consideration is that small Management Manual for either overhead or un-
loss differences among alternative cable types derground situations. Appendix B to that manual
can accumulate to a significant expense if an gives annual kilowatt-hour losses for a selection
extremely large amount of cable is placed in ser- of conductor sizes and loading levels.
1
PAD-MOUNTED TRANSFORMER LOSSES approximately 20 percent less than this example
The losses on pad-mounted transformers used are available from manufacturers. Use of the
on UD systems are a significant expense. Close higher efficiency transformer will save about $40
attention to the management annually, which is enough to
of losses on any type of trans- amortize about $300 in initial
former is essential to a loss investment cost at a 12 percent
Pad-mounted carrying charge rate over a 20-
control program.
As with all types of trans- transformer losses are year period. Thus, if the higher
formers, losses on pad- a significant expense. efficiency transformer can be
mounted transformers are of purchased for less than a $300
two distinct types. The first price premium over the sam-
category, core losses, is not ple transformer, then it is a
load dependent and represents a continuous ex- better economic choice in the long run.
pense whenever the transformer is energized. The Distribution System Loss Management
The second category, winding losses, comprises Manual provides thorough coverage of the issue
load-dependent losses that become especially of transformer losses and the means to control
expensive during peak loads. the associated expenses to the extent feasible.
Higher efficiency transformers with losses
DEFERMENT OF TRANSFORMER ENERGIZATION
New housing developments often require the
construction of the electric UD system well be-
EXAMPLE 1.3: Typical Costs Associated with Transformer Losses.
fore most living units are built and occupied.
When energized transformers are installed be-
Consider a 50-kVA pad-mounted transformer having 140 watts of core losses and fore there are consumers to serve, the non-load-
490 watts of winding losses at nameplate load. If this unit is loaded to 60 kVA at peak dependent or no-load losses on the transformers
load, the winding losses will be as follows: represent an expense that is uncompensated by
revenue. This expense can be avoided by keep-
Winding Losses = (60 ÷ 50)2 × 490 watts = 706 watts ing the transformers de-energized until they are
needed. Service to street lights can be concen-
With the annual cost figures given for losses at the beginning of this subsection, the trated in a small number of transformers to allow
annual costs associated with each type of loss can be calculated as follows: the de-energization of most of the units in areas
not yet occupied.
Core Loss Cost = $383/kW × 0.140 kW = $54 Installing a de-energized transformer requires
Winding Loss Cost = $199/kW × 0.706 kW = $140 the use of a feed-through stand-off bushing
which, in most cases, costs about $150. Because
The total annual cost of the losses associated with operating this transformer this bushing can be reused elsewhere after the
is $194. transformer is placed in service, the special
bushing cost is equivalent to $20 annually at a
12 percent carrying charge rate over a 20-year
period. Despite this expense, the avoidance of
TABLE 1.21: Savings from Deferred Transformer Energization. core losses represents a net savings, as shown
Annual Loss Feed-Through Annual
by Table 1.21.
Size Core Losses Cost at Device Net If hundreds of units are involved, the savings
(kVA) (watts) $383/kW Annual Cost Savings associated with deferred energization could ex-
ceed $8,000 annually.
25 82 $ 31.00 $ 20.00 $ 11.00 For 50- and 100-kVA installations, larger sav-
50 140 54.00 20.00 34.00 ings can be achieved by deferring the installation
of each transformer not needed for immediate
100 260 100.00 20.00 80.00
service by placing a pedestal containing a feed-
3 8 – Se c t i on 1
1
These results show that deferred installation
TABLE 1.22: Savings From Deferred Transformer Installation.
of transformers is not significantly beneficial for
25 kVA 50 kVA 100 kVA 25-kVA units. However, the net savings can be
Transformer Price $ 750.00 $ 1,000.00 $ 1,750.00 substantial in the case of larger units. If hun-
dreds of units are involved, the savings may
Deferred Transformer Carrying Charges $ 90.00 $ 120.00 $ 210.00
exceed $25,000 annually.
at 12% (Transformer Price x 0.12)
Simply routing the cable aboveground at
Deferred Annual Core Loss Cost 31.00 54.00 100.00 future transformer locations and looping it back
(from Table 1.21) into the trench without cutting it can achieve still
Total Deferred Cost 121.00 174.00 310.00 larger savings. An enclosure is then installed to
protect the above-ground loop. When the time
Temporary Equipment Annual Cost 120.00 120.00 120.00 comes for a transformer to be installed, the cable
Net Annual Savings 1.00 54.00 190.00 is de-energized and cut to prepare for the instal-
lation of the elbows and transformer. However,
special care must be used to avoid excessive
through device at the future transformer loca- cable bending with this type of installation, and
tion. The cost of the pedestal and device is the extra switching that may be required during
about $330, which represents a $40 annual cost the final transformer installation does represent
at a 12 percent carrying charge rate (0.12 × 330 an additional expense.
= $40). A nonrecoverable labor cost of about
$160 is incurred for installing the temporary CONCLUSION
feed-through pedestal and removing it later. If Electrical losses on UD systems represent an ex-
the average deferment time is two years, this pense that should be managed to reduce costs.
cost is $80 annually. Therefore, the cost for ex- When alternative UD system designs are consid-
ercising this deferment option is $120 annually ered, it is necessary to estimate the amount of
($40 + $80). these losses and their costs. The techniques
On the plus side, the annual carrying charges given here and in the NRECA Distribution
on a transformer are avoided along with the cost System Loss Management Manual provide the
of core losses. The overall results are summarized necessary calculation methods.
in Table 1.22 for three common transformer sizes.
Steps for Layout To help the engineer with layout of a UD sys- STEP 1. GET THE REQUIRED INFORMATION
of a UD System tem, this subsection describes eight design steps: Before any design work can be started, the
engineer must get certain information from
STEP 1: Get the required information. the consumer or developer, including the
STEP 2: Arrange the service and transformer following:
layout.
STEP 3: Calculate the consumer load and select • Site plan with defined lots and utility
proper equipment ratings. easements,
STEP 4: Select the primary cable route. • Load and voltage requirements,
STEP 5: Locate sectionalizing equipment. • Project schedules,
STEP 6: Visit the project site. • Location of other underground utilities,
STEP 7: Obtain all easements. • Reliability needs, and
STEP 8: Prepare staking sheets. • Final grading plans.
1
For subdivisions, it is very barrier wall or an oil absorption
important to get a copy of the For subdivisions, bed around the transformer.
subdivision plat. This map In contrast, the typical resi-
shows the lot arrangements get a copy of the dential load does not require
and is necessary for designing site plan and the transformer to be next to
the layout of underground fa- the house. Rather, the trans-
recorded plat.
cilities. Appendix D contains a former can be in a central lo-
form to use when collecting cation and provide service to
this information. several consumers.
This information is rarely gathered in one The engineer can begin to arrange this service
brief conversation. Rather, it is usually compiled and transformer layout after receiving the subdi-
through several conversations and meetings with vision plat. Several studies have shown that the
consumers, the developer, contractors, and other most economical arrangement uses the least
utility representatives. It is the engineer’s duty to number of transformers. This design, in turn,
persevere until all required data are collected in means longer service conductor lengths and
final form. Although the engineer can plan many more consumers per transformer. However,
aspects of the project on the basis of preliminary voltage flicker at the consumer’s delivery point
information, a final design should not be released often limits the service conductor length. De-
until all information is collected and verified. pending on lot size, limiting the service conduc-
Otherwise, the project may encounter unneces- tor length may reduce the number of consumers
sary construction difficulties, fail to meet con- per transformer. Another limiting factor is the
sumer expectations, or use materials inefficiently. space in the secondary compartment of the
In any of these cases, the cost to the cooperative transformer. Most single-phase pad-mounted
and its consumers will be greater than for a transformers have space for connecting a maxi-
well-designed system. mum of eight secondary/service conductors.
This includes secondary conductors used to feed
STEP 2. ARRANGE THE SERVICE street and area lights.
AND TRANSFORMER LAYOUT In some layouts, a trans-
Commercial and industrial former may serve some lots lo-
consumers usually have heavy Service conductor cated across the street. A
loads that can include large- convenient way to serve sev-
horsepower motors. To limit length is often eral lots with only one road
the voltage drop and flicker limited by crossing is from a secondary
associated with these loads, pedestal. The secondary
voltage flicker.
the transformer should be near pedestal is supplied by a sin-
those consumers’ delivery gle secondary cable from the
points. Often the transformer transformer (see Figure 1.24).
is placed near the building. The engineer should Unfortunately, this decreases service reliability.
use good judgment and experience in determin- A cable fault on the one secondary cable inter-
ing the minimum allowable distance between rupts power to all the attached consumers.
the transformer and the building. Factors affect- However, the time required to replace the failed
ing the distance will include building use, fire cable will be shorter if the cable is in a conduit.
rating of the exposed wall, presence of wall It is also advisable to have cable in conduit for
openings, vehicle traffic, and other public safety any roadway crossing to eliminate future street
considerations. If the utility or the building cutting and provide additional protection against
owner concludes that additional protection is dig-ins.
warranted, such enhancements might be achieved Secondary pedestals are not the ideal method
by increased separation, use of “less flammable” for serving consumers on the same side of the
fluid in the transformer, or installation of a road as the transformer. Each of these consumers
4 0 – Se c t i on 1
1
should have a separate service cable from the
transformer. This improves reliability, is often
Secondary more economical than installing a secondary
Pedestal pedestal (see Economic Comparison of System
Configurations earlier in this section) and also
4/0 eliminates maintenance of the secondary
pedestal.
Figure 1.25 shows a service and transformer
layout for a 75-lot subdivision. This layout fea-
BRID
Transformer
tures 13 transformers that serve an average of
GEHA
six consumers each. Transformers located along

MW
the front property lines serve the perimeter lots.

AY
The interior lots share back property lines;

T.
A DC therefore, it is more economical to serve these
TE
ELMS lots from transformers located along the rear
property lines. This combination of front and
rear property line placement is often the most
economical layout. Because of criteria other
than economics, the cooperative may allow
transformer placement along the front property
line only or the rear property line only. Table
1.2 lists these other criteria and compares the
advantages and disadvantages of front versus
FIGURE 1.24: Road Crossing to Feed Secondary Pedestal.
rear line placement.
BRID
AY
HW
GEHA
UT
RMO
YA
MW
W
NE
AY
Note: The three shaded

OL
CT. lots indicate the worst

DC
EAD
AS
ST
ELM locations for voltage drop
KW
AY
and flicker.
CHARINGTON CT.
NEW DOVER ROAD
ROW
Legend OW)
00' R ROW
35 (1
SR 14
Secondary-Voltage Cable ROW
Streetlight
FIGURE 1.25: Service and Transformer Layout for 75-Lot Subdivision.

1
STEP 3. CALCULATE THE CONSUMER LOAD service cable impedance. Reducing the load cur-
AND SELECT PROPER EQUIPMENT RATINGS rent or the circuit impedance reduces the volt-
From the information collected in Step 1 and the age drop. As load current is usually a fixed
service and transformer layout of Step 2, the en- value, the engineer must find ways to reduce
gineer can calculate the expected consumer the circuit impedance.
loads. On the basis of the calculated load, the The engineer can reduce the transformer im-
engineer will select the following: pedance by selecting the following:
• A secondary cable with adequate capacity, • A unit with a lower impedance, or

• A transformer with sufficient kVA for the • A unit with a greater kVA rating.
diversified consumer load, and
• A primary cable with ampacity based on the However, these methods are usually not
expected operating conditions. cost-effective. A low-impedance transformer
typically costs more than a standard unit and
Information for making these selections is requires the utility to stock standard and non-
contained in Section 4, Equipment Loading. In standard transformers. A transformer with a
reviewing the total primary current for the load greater kVA rating costs more and also has
to be served, the engineer must select primary higher core (no-load) losses.
cables with the proper ampacity ratings. How- For residential services, it is more practical to
ever, when decisions are made concerning these lower the secondary/service cable impedance
total primary load currents, care must be taken rather than the transformer impedance by doing
to also maintain load balance among phases on the following:
the feeders serving these loads.
After making these selections, the engineer • Shortening the cable length,
must check for voltage drop and voltage flicker • Increasing the cable size, or
at the consumer’s delivery point. Appendix B • Paralleling cables.
contains equations for calculating voltage drop
and flicker. The voltage drop must not exceed By placing the transformer closer to the con-
the maximum values in Table B.1. Likewise, the sumer’s delivery point, the engineer can shorten
magnitude and frequency of the voltage flicker the secondary/service cable length. Although the
must be within the permissible levels shown in primary cable length is increased, this approach
Figure B.2. For a subdivision layout, it is not is often economical for single deliveries, particu-
necessary to calculate these values for each con- larly those with large secondary/service cables.
sumer. Instead, the engineer should determine a The larger secondary/service cables can cost
few worst cases and perform the calculations for more than primary cable. If it is not practical to
these only. For voltage drop, the worst cases are place the transformer closer, the engineer can
the longer secondary/service cables served from increase the secondary/service cable size or can
transformers having a greater number of con- parallel two smaller cables.
nected consumers. For voltage flicker, the worst But instead of serving a single delivery, a
cases are a combination of longer secondary/ transformer in a subdivision will serve multiple
service lengths, larger motors, and smaller trans- deliveries. Therefore, shortening the sec-
former sizes. Figure 1.25 highlights the worst ondary/service cable lengths in a subdivision re-
cases for voltage drop and voltage flicker. quires installing additional transformers. The
If the calculated voltage drop exceeds the cost of installing and operating these additional
limits in Table B.1, the engineer must modify the transformers may be greater than the cost of in-
design. Voltage drop is a product of load current creasing the secondary/service cable size. In
and circuit impedance. For voltage drop at the subdivisions, therefore, it may be more econom-
consumer’s delivery point, the circuit impedance ical to increase the cable size rather than shorten
consists of the transformer and the secondary/ the cable length.
4 2 – Se c t i on 1
1
Reducing the cable imped- cable route should be the
ance also reduces the voltage Offset the primary most efficient way to serve
flicker during motor starting. all the transformers. For pro-
For large motors, this method cable route at least jects with multiple transform-
may not limit the voltage 1 to 2 feet from any ers, an open-loop feeder is
flicker to the permissible levels preferred. The primary cable
property line.
shown in Figure B.2. For situa- route should be offset at least
tions involving polyphase mo- one to two feet from any
tors, a consumer may use a property line. Property owners
starting method that reduces the motor inrush often place fences along their property lines and
current. The engineer needs to review large mo- could damage buried cable placed on the prop-
tors and the proposed starting methods to see if erty line.
the arrangements will cause problems on the The route should also minimize conflict with
electric system or for other consumers. One other buried utilities. One way to accomplish
method of particular concern is the use of an this is to establish a utility corridor. Within the
electronic “soft” starter. Unlike conventional corridor, each utility occupies its allocated
methods, this type of reduced voltage starting space, which allows each utility to know the ap-
produces harmonics on the electric system. The proximate location of other utilities. A utility cor-
harmonics result from chopping the voltage sine ridor requires a wider easement than the usual
wave to reduce the voltage at the terminals of 10-foot easement for electric facilities only. Utili-
the motor. ties may find this concept works well in subdivi-
sions where the developer has defined a wide
STEP 4. SELECT THE PRIMARY CABLE ROUTE utility easement on the subdivision plat.
After locating the transformers and services, the Some developers may ask the cooperative to
engineer must select a primary cable route. The locate its facilities within the street right-of-way.
BRID
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CHARINGTON CT.
NEW DOVER ROAD
ROW
OW)
Legend 00' R ROW
35 (1
SR 14
ROW
Single-Phase, Pad-Mounted Transformer
. Single-Phase, Primary Voltage, UD Cable ROW
FIGURE 1.26: Primary Cable Layout for 75-Lot Subdivision.

1
Although this is convenient for the developer, it
usually creates future problems for the coopera-
tive. These private roads are often released to
the local city or state road system. These gov- Equipment Pad
ernments have rules about utilities located

within the road right-of-way. Most require the
utility to file a right-of-way encroachment, to
bury cables at a specified depth, and to meet
very high compaction levels during trench back-
fill. When the governing body decides to widen
the road, the cooperative may have to relocate
its facilities at its expense. The cooperative can
avoid these conflicts by locating its facilities on a
10' 0"
Clear Working Space
private right-of-way off the edge of the city,
county, or state right-of-way.
Finally, the selected cable route should mini-
mize the number of road crossings. A faulted
cable section under a road is difficult to repair
or replace unless the cable is in a conduit. A
conduit with cable or a spare conduit placed be- FIGURE 1.27: Minimum Required
neath the road allows the cooperative to replace Working Space.
the cable without disturbing the road surface.
This method is acceptable for use with direct-
buried, jacketed primary cable. It should be of the equipment and 10 feet out from the
noted that placing the cable in the conduit will equipment door as shown in Figure 1.27. Pad-
reduce the cable ampacity. mounted switchgear often has two sets of doors
Figure 1.26 shows a primary cable route for and, therefore, requires working space on both
the 75-lot subdivision. This particular cable route sides of the equipment.
has two road crossings. Another concern is damage from vehicles.
Cars are likely to bump and
STEP 5. LOCATE damage equipment located in
SECTIONALIZING EQUIPMENT parking lots. If the equipment
After selecting the primary The minimum working cannot be relocated, the coop-
cable route, the engineer can space extends out erative may have to install
locate the sectionalizing some type of barricade around
equipment, which includes 10 feet from the the equipment. However, this
riser poles, junction cabinets, equipment door. barricade must not block the
fuse cabinets, and switchgear. equipment doors or obstruct
These devices are used to pro- the required working space.
vide sectionalizing at desired Equipment located along
points within the UD system. Section 3, Under- streets and at intersections can be damaged by
ground System Sectionalizing, describes the snow removal equipment, particularly if the
desirable locations for sectionalizing devices. equipment is covered by snow. Another high-
Utility personnel have to operate and main- risk area is a crop field. Tall crops can obscure
tain these devices; therefore, the equipment the equipment, making it invisible to someone
needs to be in accessible locations. Operating operating farm equipment. These high-risk areas
pad-mounted equipment requires enough work- must be avoided or adequate protective methods
ing space to move elbow terminators with hot must be used to minimize the chance for equip-
sticks. The minimum working space is the width ment damage.
4 4 – Se c t i on 1
1
STEP 6. VISIT THE PROJECT SITE problems on moderate slopes. On more severe
After completing the preliminary layout, the en- slopes, different trenching equipment and tech-
gineer must visit the project site to view the ter- niques will need to be used, along with an an-
rain. Certain types of terrain can make cable chored or encased conduit and more aggressive
installation and equipment placement difficult or erosion control techniques.
impractical. Examples of problems with terrain Installing pad-mounted equipment on sloped
are the following: terrain requires careful excava-
tion to provide a level terraced
• Sloped terrain, surface for a monolithic pad
• Corrosive soils,
Visit the project or the use of a compartmental
• Rocky soils, site to identify style pad, even if the slope is
• Sandy soils, moderate. For more severe
problem terrain.
• Unstable soils, or slopes, the use of retaining
• Flood plains. walls of stone or timber will
be needed along with molded
During the site visit, the engineer should look or pre-cast ground sleeves of
for these and other adverse terrain types along sufficient height to span the difference in eleva-
the proposed cable route and at proposed tion from the high side to the low side. Remem-
equipment locations. Ideally, the engineer will ber to establish grades in such a manner that
relocate the cable or equipment to avoid the erosion of the soil down to the transformer is
problem terrain. Unfortunately, relocation is not minimized. Also provide for adequate level op-
always practical, and the engineer must adapt erating area in front of the equipment.
the design to reduce installation and mainte- Although it is not always possible, the under-
nance problems. Methods for adapting a design ground designer should try to avoid sloped
are described under the subheadings below. areas for the installation of conductors and de-
This step is very important because it identi- vices, or at least use the more moderate slopes
fies problems before construction. If these prob- whenever practical.
lems require relocating cable or equipment, the
engineer can easily modify the preliminary lay- Corrosive Soils
out. Changing the location of equipment and Terrain features that indicate potentially severely
cable during construction is very time-consum- corrosive soils are the following:
ing and, therefore, more expensive.
• Swamps,
Sloped Terrain • Streams,
Installation of cable and equipment on sloped • Poorly drained areas, or
terrain presents a number of problems whose • Visible alkali (mineral salts).
severity usually increases with the degree of
slope. Trenching across sloped terrain is difficult These soils can corrode unprotected, buried
because of problems controlling the mechanized neutrals and ground conductors. One way to
trenching equipment safely while achieving a protect neutral conductors is to prevent them
stable excavation whose sides are vertical. from contacting the soil by using jacketed cable.
Trenching up or down sloped terrain also has However, the counterpoise and/or ground elec-
control and safety issues with the trenching trodes must remain in contact with the soil and
equipment and, additionally, introduces prob- be protected by another means. For information
lems with both surface erosion of the backfill on corrosion protection, refer to Section 7,
and tunneling erosion around the cable or con- Cathodic Protection Requirements. That sec-
duit. Careful attention to tamping and com- tion explains how to determine if soils are cor-
paction, along with installing a stable ground rosive and what types of cathodic protection
cover, such as sod, will generally address these are needed.
1
Rocky Soils access and operate. This condition is improved
Rocky soils are often characterized by protrud- by using silt fencing or shrubbery as a wind
ing boulders or rocks lying on the surface. Visi- block. However, installing a wind block does in-
ble rock usually indicates underlying rock. To crease the initial project cost and future mainte-
confirm the presence of underlying rock, the co- nance expenses.
operative can make test borings with an anchor Windy conditions in a sandy environment
auger. Grading by the developer can also show provide nature’s own sandblasting machine,
signs of underlying rock. making it difficult to keep paint on pad-
Rock along the cable route slows installation mounted equipment. After the wind-blown sand
and increases project cost; therefore, the cooper- removes the paint, the exposed metal quickly
ative should reroute to avoid rocky areas. If corrodes, especially in coastal environments.
rerouting is not practical, the cooperative will One solution to this damage is to use stainless
have to use special equipment that can pene- steel (or other noncorrosive) equipment cabi-
trate rock. Because the rock is difficult to pene- nets. This adds substantially to initial cost, but
trate, it may be hard to maintain the required maintenance will be much more practical and
burial depth. If cable cannot be placed at the economical. Another option is to use overhead
minimum depth, the cooperative must provide primary with underground services as the only
supplemental protection such as cable place- underground facilities. Placing transformers on
ment in Schedule 40 PVC conduit, rigid steel poles provides extra distance from the ground
conduit, or conduit encased in concrete. The and may eliminate the problems caused by
supplemental protection must meet the require- blowing sand.
ments of the 2007 NESC, Section 352 D.2.b. A Sandy soils have little cohesion and usually
final consideration in rocky soils is damage to will not hold a trench open for cable placement.
the underground cable, particularly the cable In addition, these soils are often in areas with a
jacket. Rocks directly contacting the cable can high water table. As a result, trenches fill with
damage the jacket. One way to protect the cable water and are difficult to excavate. When
is to use conduit or a cable-in-conduit assembly. trenchers are used in these conditions, they are
Either of these can be installed by trenching, often equipped with a cable chute. Another ac-
plowing, or tunneling. Another option for pro- ceptable installation method is to use a cable
tection in a trench is to use a select backfill for a plow. Increased burial depths (an additional six
cable bed and covering. to 12 inches) should be considered because cov-
ering can be blown away.
Sandy Soils
Sandy soils can cause problems in at least three Unstable Soils
different ways: Some examples of unstable soils are the
following:
• Difficulty opening a trench,
• Wind erosion of sand from under equipment, • River banks,
and • Natural springs,
• Sandblasting of painted metal surfaces. • Unsecured embankments, and
• Steep grades.
Sandy soils shift easily from the wind and can
undermine the support of pad-mounted equip- These soils shift easily and are also prone to
ment. In these areas, pads with ground sleeves washing. Washing can erode trenches and under-
or basements provide better support and more mine the support of pad-mounted equipment.
security than a flat pad does. They also help pre- Trench erosion can reduce the soil cover and
vent exposure of cables that enter the equipment. possibly expose a buried cable. Cables may also
Alternatively, the wind can blow sand and cover be exposed where soil has washed away from
pad-mounted equipment, making it difficult to an equipment pad. If the washing is severe, the
4 6 – Se c t i on 1
1
equipment could shift enough to damage trans- building codes forbid the placement of struc-
former bushings or cable terminations. tures in flood plains, these areas can usually be
Washing can also have the opposite effect. In- traversed with cable. Flooding has little effect on
stead of undermining pads, it can deposit large buried cable and should present problems only
amounts of soil around a piece of equipment. if the cable fails while the cable route is flooded.
Prolonged contact with soil deposits causes the If the cable section is part of an open-loop sys-
metal housing of the equipment to corrode. tem, the flooded section can be isolated. How-
Such corrosion can lead to premature equip- ever, if the cable section is part of a radial
ment failure and possible access to the interior system, the engineer should consider providing
compartments. The soil deposits can also block an alternative feed.
the equipment doors, making it difficult to main- The cooperative may have to place equip-
tain the equipment. ment in areas subject to flood-
Unstable soils can also ing. Dead-front, pad-mounted
make installation difficult. If transformers and dead-front,
Unstable soils
grades or embankments are oil-insulated switching cabi-
too steep or if soils are too can make nets can operate during occa-
wet, construction personnel installation difficult. sional immersion. However,
will have problems maneuver- these devices must be sup-
ing a trencher or a cable plow. ported by pads that will not
Wet soils also tend to collapse float. Otherwise, the device
back into the open trench, making it difficult to may be displaced, possibly causing a system
maintain proper depth for cable burial. outage or exposing the interior compartments.
To eliminate these types of problems, the en- Air-insulated switching cabinets will fail if sub-
gineer should avoid routing cable or placing merged in water and, therefore, must not be
equipment on steep slopes. If this is not practi- used in areas subject to flooding.
cal, doing the following minimizes erosion:
STEP 7. OBTAIN ALL EASEMENTS
• Proper compaction and crowning of the The cooperative must get an easement from
trench, all affected property owners before installing
• Replanting of the slope, or any underground facilities. By definition, an
• Use of equipment pads with ground sleeves easement is a right afforded a person to make
or basements. limited use of another’s real property. This ease-
ment gives the utility the legal right to enter the
If the potential for trench erosion is severe, the property and access a right-of-way strip. For
engineer should consider placing the cable in underground facilities, this right-of-way must
conduit or installing a cable-in-conduit assembly be a minimum of 10 feet wide—five feet on
and possibly encasing the conduit with concrete. each side of the centerline of the electrical facili-
The engineer should also avoid placing ties. The 10-foot width provides enough space
equipment at the bottom of steep slopes. If to operate a trencher or other piece of installa-
equipment must be placed in these areas, the tion equipment. The easement must define the
cooperative will need to construct a water and width and boundaries of this right-of-way strip.
soil block to prevent soil accumulation around These rights-of-way should also be shown and
the equipment. recorded on the plat.
To reduce misunderstand-
Flood Plains ings between the cooperative
The best way to evaluate for Get an easement and its property owner mem-
possible flooding is to check before installing any bers, the easement must be
topographical maps that locate specific in defining the coop-
flood plains. Though most
underground facilities. erative’s rights. As a minimum,
1
Sample Easement Project No. ________________________
Drawn by ___________________________
STATE OF ______________________________
COUNTY OF ____________________________
KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS, that __________________________________________________,

_________________________________________________________________________________________
hereinafter called “Grantor” (whether one or more), in consideration of the sum of One Dollar ($1.00) and
other good and valuable considerations, does hereby grant unto__________________________________,
its successors, and assigns, hereinafter called “Grantee,” the right, privilege, and easement to go in and
upon that certain land of Grantor (hereinafter “premises”) situated in said County and State, bounded by
lands of:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
and over and across said premises within a right-of-way strip having a width of _____ feet on each side
of a centerline determined by the centerline of the electrical facilities as installed, to construct, maintain,
and operate underground lines and conduits with other necessary apparatus and appliances, either above
ground or below ground, to include transformers and service connections, for the purpose of transport-
ing electricity and for the communications purposes of Grantee and its licensees. The following rights are
also granted to Grantee: to enter said premises to inspect said lines, to perform necessary maintenance and
repairs, and to make alterations and additions thereto; and to clear the land within the right-of-way strip
and to keep it clear of trees, structures, or other obstructions; and to clear that land outside the right-of-
way strip and to keep the area within 10 feet of said door clear of trees, structures, or other obstructions.
All underground facilities are to be installed in accordance with the provisions of Grantee’s Underground
Distribution Installment Plan, __________________________________, receipt of a copy of which is ac-
knowledged by Grantor.
This right-of-way is given to permit the construction of electrical facilities presently proposed. Facilities at
other locations and future extensions of presently constructed facilities are not permitted by this agreement.
The foregoing notwithstanding, Grantee may relocate its electrical facilities and right-of-way strip over the
premises to conform to any future highway or street relocation, widening, or improvement.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the Grantor has hereunto set his hand and seal, or, if corporate, has caused this
instrument to be signed in its corporate name by its fully authorized officers and its seal to be hereunto
affixed by authority of its Board of Directors, this _______ day of __________________, 20___.
Witness________________________________________________________________________(SEAL)
________________________________________(SEAL)
________________________________________(SEAL)
________________________________________(SEAL)
______________________________________________
(Corporate Name)
ATTEST:____________________________________ By_________________________________________
_________ Secretary _________ (President)
FIGURE 1.28: Sample Easement.

4 8 – Se c t i on 1
1
the cooperative must have the right to install, • The subdivision restrictions define the
operate, maintain, and replace the electrical fa- cooperative easement as transferable to
cilities located within the right-of-way strip. new owners.
These activities require the right-of-way to be
clear of trees, structures, and other obstructions. STEP 8. Prepare Staking Sheets
Rights-of-way that were clear during the installa- The final step is preparing a staking sheet. For
tion of underground facilities will likely become smaller projects, the staking sheet provides
obstructed as property owners erect fences, stor- enough space for a sketch of the required work.
age buildings, and landscaping. Because these Figure 1.29 shows a staking sheet for under-
obstructions must be cleared to repair or replace ground service to a commercial consumer.
the underground facilities, the easement must For larger projects, the engineer will have to
specifically define the cooperative’s right to clear attach a separate construction drawing. For sub-
the right-of-way. division installations, the engineer can show the
Another area of conflict is clear space in front required work on a subdivision plat. This con-
of the doors of transformers and sectionalizing struction drawing should show the trench,
cabinets. As noted, maintenance of these devices equipment, and street lighting locations and
requires a clear working space 10 feet out from note any conduit or temporary pedestal installa-
the door (see Figure 1.27). The consumer may tions. The construction drawing could also have
consider these devices unattractive and try to details showing how far to offset equipment
hide them with landscaping or a surrounding from the property line and the location of other
structure. As a result, the cooperative cannot underground utilities.
maintain the device. These conflicts are more eas- Underground staking sheets provide impor-
ily resolved if the easement states that the area tant project information to several departments
within 10 feet of the door of any transformer or within the cooperative. These departments must
cabinet will be kept clear of any obstructions. be able to easily interpret the staking sheet. The
Because the easement is a legal document, it staking sheet is used to generate a materials list.
must be filled out completely and correctly, in- Purchasing and materials personnel use this list
cluding getting the signatures of all property to order and stock the necessary materials.
owner members of a particular tract or the sig- Scheduling personnel will use the staking sheet
natures of appropriate corporate officers, if to estimate the manpower and equipment
owned by a corporation. The easement must be needed to construct the project. Staking person-
notarized and filed with the appropriate munici- nel use the sheets to physically mark the field
pal, parish, or county authority in which the prop- locations of equipment and trenches. While in
erty lies. Figure 1.28 shows a sample easement. the field, staking personnel may have to adjust
Obtaining and recording an easement can be the layout for conflicts with other utilities or for
time-consuming, particularly if one underground terrain problems. Any changes made in the field
project involves multiple property owners, thus must be shown on the staking sheet.
requiring multiple easements. To avoid this After personnel have staked the project, con-
problem in a subdivision, the cooperative is struction crews will use the staking sheets for in-
wise to get one easement from the developer formation on installing the underground facilities.
before any lots are sold. This way, the coopera- If the construction crews modify the layout, they
tive needs only one easement for all the must also modify the staking sheet. The staking
planned underground facilities in the subdivi- sheet must agree with the as-built project be-
sion. The cooperative will also benefit if the fol- cause these sheets are the basis for the coopera-
lowing occur: tive’s mapping system. Accurate staking sheets
produce accurate system operating maps and ac-
• The right-of-way strip is shown and recorded curate permanent plant and accounting records.
on the plat.
Desi g n o f a n Un d e rg ro u n d Di s t r i b u t i o n Sy s t e m – 4 9
H
UT
SO
86
WY
H
FIGURE 1.29: Staking Sheet for Service to a Commercial Consumer. Source: Piedmont Electric Membership Corporation, Hillsborough, N.C.
5 0 – Se c t i on 1
1
Summary and 1. Equipment mountings provide support for location of a joint-use trench must be
Recommendations pad-mounted equipment. Flat pads are shown on all operating maps.
sometimes suitable for single-phase pad- 8. Joint-use trench with other utilities re-
mounted transformers and small single- quires a contractual arrangement among
phase fuse cabinets. involved parties.
2. Cable wells used with a flat pad provide 9. System upgrades should be planned by
more space for cable training and are suit- considering future voltage conversions,
able for three-phase pad-mounted transform- three-phase cable installation, and con-
ers and junction cabinets. duit installations.
3. A box pad is useful to support pad-mounted 10. The UD design can be improved by com-
switchgear and for installations on slopes or paring the economics of different system
hillsides. configurations.
4. The main types of underground systems are 11. The UD system should be designed to
the following: minimize cable and pad-mounted trans-
former losses.
• circuit exits,
12. The steps for layout of a UD system are
• main feeders,
as follows:
• sub feeders,
• transformer and secondary systems, and
STEP 1: Get the required information.
• street and area lighting.
STEP 2: Arrange the service and trans-
5. In designing a UD system, safety, reliability, former layout.
cable ampacity, equipment ratings, voltage STEP 3: Calculate the consumer load and
drop, and voltage flicker must be considered. select proper equipment ratings.
6. Placing facilities along the front property line STEP 4: Select the primary cable route.
makes them more accessible for operation STEP 5: Locate sectionalizing equipment.
and maintenance. STEP 6: Visit the project site.
7. A joint-use trench often creates operating STEP 7: Obtain all easements.
problems. To minimize these problems, the STEP 8: Prepare staking sheets.
Cable Se l e c t i o n – 5 1
2 Cable Selection
In This Section: Typical Cable Configuration Conductor Shields and

Conductor Size Designations Insulation Shields
Conductor Materials and Configuration Cable Specification and Purchasing
Cable Insulation Materials Cable Acceptance
Insulation Fabrication Summary and Recommendations
The heart of any underground system is the It addresses the designs and materials most ef-
cable that carries power from the source to the fective in delivering reliable and economical
load. The cable must incorporate the most im- service. The variety of cable features available
portant characteristics of the ideal utility system: for the various applications is also addressed.
low initial cost and high reliability. Experience Recommendations are included for conditions
with early UD cables has forcefully shown that generally encountered on rural electric systems.
the lowest-cost cable that can be successfully The main components of cables reviewed in-
placed into operation is not necessarily the best clude the conductor and the insulation system
choice. It is necessary to pay close attention to (including shielding). The concentric neutral
the design and manufacture of all cables. and jacket options for primary voltage cables
This section provides an introduction to the are also covered.
technical aspects of electric distribution cables.
Typical Cable The main types of cables used on rural electric To gain an overview of cable design, the en-
Configuration systems are primary voltage (15- to 35-kV class) gineer should consider the components of the
shielded cables and secondary voltage (600-volt system. The focus should be on single-conduc-
class) unshielded cables. The higher voltage ca- tor cable because it is the predominant type of
bles are used on systems rated 7.2/12.5 kV, 14.4/ cable used in rural and suburban distribution sys-
24.9 kV, and 19.9/34.5 kV. Such cables are classed tems in North America. Typical system voltages
by the phase-to-phase voltage of the system on are 7.2/12.5-kV, 14.4/24.9-kV, and 19.9/34.5-kV
which they are intended to operate. For instance, grounded wye.
cable designed for application on a 7.2/12.5-kV Most of the cables on these systems are of
system will be rated 15 kV, regardless of whether concentric neutral design. Generally, the major
it is in a single-phase or a three-phase circuit. cable components are the following:
5 2 – Se c t i on 2
2
• Conductor, problems. In addition, loss of neutral conductors
• Conductor shield, caused deterioration of the semiconducting insu-
• Insulation, lation shield and consequent cable failure. Use
• Insulation shield, of bare concentric neutral cable is not approved
• Concentric neutral, and by RUS for use on the systems of its borrowers
• Jacket. and has essentially been discontinued except in
cases where there are no corrosive conditions
These are illustrated in Figure 2.1. and special permission has been obtained.
Figure 2.1 represents a typical primary cable Another special case of the medium-voltage,
used in underground distribution and is the con- single-conductor cable is illustrated in Figure 2.3.
figuration currently recommended. Variations of The main difference from the cable in Figure 2.1
this design may be better suited to particular is that the concentric neutral is replaced by a
types of installations. longitudinal corrugated (L.C.) shield or a copper
Figure 2.2 shows the arrangement of an under- tape shield. A separate neutral conductor thus
ground cable design widely used from the mid- must be installed with a circuit to handle return
1960s to the late 1980s. It is identical in most re- currents. The purpose of the L.C. shield or tape
spects to the cable in Figure 2.1, except that it shield is to provide a path for capacitive currents
does not have a jacket over the concentric neu- and, thus, ensure an even voltage gradient within
tral. It was most often installed as a direct-buried the cable. The major advantage of this configura-
cable, and exposure of the concentric neutral to tion is in circuits where loads are relatively high
the surrounding earth provided an excellent sys- (≥ 300 amperes). See Section 4 for more infor-
tem ground. However, this cable design fell into mation on sheath currents and cable ampacity.
disfavor because of substantial corrosion problems The following subsections, which describe in-
affecting the concentric neutral. Loss of the neu- dividual components of underground cables in
tral wires led to an open neutral circuit, posing more detail, provide an understanding of desir-
serious operational, reliability, and public safety able features for various applications.
Conductor Conductor Conductor

Extruded Conductor Shield
Extruded Conductor Shield Extruded Conductor Shield
Insulation
Insulation Insulation
Extruded Insulation Shield Extruded Insulation Shield

Extruded Insulation Shield
Bare Neutral Conductors Metallic Tape Shield

Encapsulated
Neutral Conductors
Jacket Jacket
FIGURE 2.1: Jacketed Concentric FIGURE 2.2: Bare Concentric Neutral FIGURE 2.3: Medium-Voltage Power
Neutral Cable. Source: Okonite Cable. (Not RUS accepted.) Cable with Tape Shield and L.C.
Company, 2006. Source: Okonite Company, 2006. Shield. Source: Okonite Company.
2
Conductor Size U.S. standards use two systems for designating of 0.460 inch (4/0 AWG). The second system is
Designations conductor size. The oldest of these is the AWG, the circular mil designation, which is always
which was formerly known as the Brown and used on conductors larger than 4/0 AWG. How-
Sharpe wire gauge. This system is typically used ever, circular mil designations may also be ap-
on conductors up through those with a diameter plied to conductors of 4/0 AWG and smaller.
The AWG originated in the mid-19th century.
Equation 2.1 Each step in this gauge approximates the succes-
sive steps in the wire drawing process. Empirical
A = πr2
history sets the two endpoints: 4/0 AWG, with a
diameter of 0.460 inch, and No. 36 AWG, with a
diameter of 0.0050 inch. There are 39 equally di-
where: A = Area in square inches vided steps between these two sizes. A few ap-
π = 3.1416 proximate relationships may be useful:
r = Radius (in inches)
• Each increase of three-gauge numbers
For Area in kcmil, use Radius in 1/1,000 inch. doubles the area and the unit weight, and
also halves the dc resistance.
• Each increase of six gauge numbers doubles
TABLE 2.1: Dimensional Characteristics of Common Conductors the diameter.
(Standard Concentric-Lay). • Each increase of 10 gauge numbers multiplies
the area and unit weight by 10, and also
Area
AWG kcmil Diameter (in.) divides the dc resistance by 10.
mm2 in.2
6* 26.24 13.3 0.0206 0.162 The circular mil system is based on the defini-
tion of a circular mil (cmil) as being the area of
2* 66.36 33.6 0.0521 0.258
a wire with a diameter of one mil (0.001 inch).
1/0* 105.60 53.5 0.0829 0.325 Area is calculated as shown in Equation 2.1.
One cmil is (0.0005)2 π or 7.854 × 10-7 inch2.
2/0* 133.10 67.4 0.1045 0.365
It follows that 1,000 circular mils or 1.0 kcmil
4/0* 211.60 107.0 0.1662 0.460 (formerly MCM) is equal to 7.854 × 10-4 inch2 in
— 250.00** 127.0 0.1967 0.575 solid wire. Therefore, a 4/0 AWG wire, which
has a diameter of 0.460 inch, has a circular mil
— 350.00** 177.0 0.2749 0.681 equivalency of 211,600 cm and an area of
— 500.00** 253.0 0.3927 0.813 0.1662 inch2.
The AWG and circular mil systems are now lim-
— 750.00** 380.0 0.5891 0.998 ited to U.S. and Canadian use. European designa-
— 1,000.00** 507.0 0.7854 1.152 tions are based on metric units of square millime-
ters (mm2). Table 2.1 shows AWG, circular mil,
* Solid
and metric designations for common conductor
** Stranded
sizes used in North American distribution cables.
Conductor MATERIALS material; however, it was not cost-effective be-

Materials and Since the first cable system, only two conductor cause of the special precautions required during
Configuration materials have played a significant role: copper installation and maintenance.
and aluminum. These materials have appeared Copper was the first material to play a major
in a variety of alloys, tempers, and configura- role in cable construction. With a volume resistiv-
tions. In the late 1960s, some utilities briefly ex- ity of 1.673 × 10-7 ohm-meters (ohm-m) in its pure
perimented with sodium as a conductor (99.999 percent) state, it compared favorably with
5 4 – Se c t i on 2
2
TABLE 2.2: Conductor Physical and Electrical Characteristics.
Copper Aluminum
Medium 1/2 Hard 3/4 Hard Hard Drawn
Soft Drawn Drawn Hard Drawn (H14/H24) (H16/H26) (H19)
Rated Tensile Strength — 42–60 ksi 49–67 ksi 15.0–20.0 ksi 17.0–22.0 ksi 24.5–29.0 ksi
Conductivity (% IACS) 100 96.7–97.7 97.2 61.0 61.0 61.0
Note. ksi = thousands of pounds per square inch
other metals. Supplies were abundant and it tensile strength because of work hardening dur-
could be economically fabricated. Connections ing the drawing process and its conductivity has
were simple to make and corrosion resistance fallen to 97.2 percent IACS. By comparison,
was good. However, with the rapid development 1350H19 aluminum has a conductivity of about
of the aluminum industry in the first half of the 61 percent IACS. The lower conductivity is mainly
20th century, aluminum became cost-effective for caused by the inherently higher volume resistivity
applications in which physical size was not critical. of pure annealed aluminum. See Table 2.2 for a
To take advantage of this economic benefit, the comparison of common conductor materials.
electric industry developed methods to overcome Because thermal capacity of conductors and
some of the other physical disadvantages of alu- cables is a function of the heat generated by in-
minum. These disadvantages included higher sus- ternal conductor losses, the ampacity of the
ceptibility to flexural fatigue, the high resistivity higher conductivity copper conductors of equal
of natural surface oxides, and cold flow (creep). size is approximately 1.6 times that of matching
For economic reasons, cables now used on aluminum conductors. Of course, other signifi-
underground systems are predominantly alu- cant elements determine the exact cable ampac-
minum. The use of this metal leads to a larger ity. These are discussed more extensively in
cross-sectional area and, consequently, greater Section 4 of this manual.
overall cable dimensions, but, in most cases, the
additional cost of other project components— CONDUCTOR TEMPER
such as larger size conduit—does not outweigh Both copper and aluminum conductors are
the present economic advantage of aluminum available in various tempers that designate the
conductors. Aluminum conductors have a volume relative hardness of the metal. Whereas over-
resistivity of 2.655 × 10-7 ohm-m. Comparing this head conductors have generally used harder
resistivity with the previously mentioned copper metal to increase tensile strength and reduce
volume resistivity shows that, for equal cross- sags, underground conductors have tended to
sectional areas, aluminum will have 1.59 times use the lower tempers, because high tensile
the resistance of the same-size copper conductor. strength was not usually required. Most copper
To simplify the comparison of various con- power cables have used soft-drawn copper for
ductors, the industry uses a measure of relative its greater flexibility. This flexibility not only
conductivity that compares a particular metal to makes fabrication easier but also improves in-
annealed electrolytic copper. This measure is re- stallation handling, especially for larger cables.
ferred to as the International Annealed Copper Where high tensile strength is needed for cable
Standard (IACS). The volume resistivity of an- pulling, special installations might use harder
nealed copper is defined as 1.724 × 10-7 ohm-m tempers. However, this would only be where
at a temperature of 20°C (68°F). high unit stresses would be imposed on the
As the tensile strength of materials increases, cable conductor during installation or perhaps
the conductivity decreases. As an example, hard- during cable life. Examples include mineshaft
drawn copper has experienced an increase in riser cables or cables for extremely long pulling
2
distances in duct. Such cables would require cus- the H16 alloy is only strain-hardened. The H26
tomized design for their particular circumstances alloy has the same general characteristics, but it
and are beyond the scope of this manual. has been partially annealed after strain hardening.
Aluminum conductors in power cables are Copper conductors are almost universally sup-
generally furnished in the 3/4-hard temper. This plied as pure copper. Pure copper provides the
provides a reasonable level of tensile strength, highest conductivity and, therefore, the highest
while not introducing excessive ductility that efficiency. Because pure copper in its various
would lead to creep problems in making durable tempers provides adequate mechanical strength
connections. As the conductor cross section infor cable applications, there is generally no need
creases to 750 kcmil or greater, there is some ac- for alloyed copper conductors.
ceptance of aluminum conductors in the 1/2-hard
temper. This gives adequate tensile strength CONDUCTOR CONFIGURATION
while maintaining a higher degree of flexibility. The wire and cable industry offers the electric
All characteristics of aluminum conductors, es- utility industry a wide variety of standard con-
pecially tensile strength, must be considered ductor configurations, including solid conductor,
when specifying a cable. The specifying engi- various stranding arrangements, and filled-strand
neer must consider the mechanical stresses on conductors. Each configuration has its own ad-
the cable during installation and service. vantages. The engineer selecting a cable design
More information on conductor characteristics must consider these alternatives and select the
can be found in reference books. Nationally ac- option that produces the best cable for the par-
cepted specifications for electrical conductors ticular application. Elements significantly af-
are found in American Society for Testing and fected by the conductor configuration include
Materials (ASTM) standards. Copper wire is cov- the following:
ered by ASTM Specifications B-1, B-2, and B-3.
Aluminum wire is covered by ASTM Specification • Flexibility during installation (cable bending
B-230. Methods for measuring the most impor- and racking),
tant characteristics of these and other materials • Flexibility during operations (elbow switch-
can be found in other related ASTM standards. ing), and
Aluminum conductors used in underground • Longitudinal water migration.
cable are addressed in other ASTM standards, in-
cluding B-231 (concentric lay conductors) and Though the decision on conductor configura-
B-400 (compact round conductors). tion alone will not provide the solution to any of
these problem areas, it is a vital part of the
CONDUCTOR ALLOY larger process of selecting a cable that will pro-
Aluminum conductor material also is designated vide high reliability and economy.
by an alloy number. The alloy designation derives The simplest configuration is the solid, single-
from the description of aluminum alloys in other strand conductor. Solid conductor is preferred in
applications in which such characteristics as high smaller cable sizes because of its absolute water-
tensile strength are required. However, because blocking capability. Because there are no voids
high electrical conductivity (low resistivity) is the to fill, there will be no continuing migration of
single most important aspect of underground ca- water through the insulation system. Perhaps
ble conductors, pure aluminum is generally more important, if moisture does penetrate the
used. The alloy designation for electrical alumin- insulation, it cannot migrate along the cable con-
um is EC. It was formerly designated as Alloy ductor to other areas of the cable. The inhibition
1350. The same aluminum nomenclature system of moisture migration is extremely important in
includes designations for temper. These are also reducing insulation deterioration problems so
shown in Table 2.2. For example, 3/4-hard tem- prevalent in underground cables.
per has a classification of H16 or H26. The dif- As is well known, the stiffness of cable in-
ference between H16 and H26 tempers is that creases as conductor diameter increases. Cable
5 6 – Se c t i on 2
2
stiffness will increase in pro- operate load-break connec-
portion to the square of the di- Use solid or strand- tors. The solution is the use of
ameter of the solid conductor. stranded conductors. The
Therefore, a point will be filled conductors smaller diameter of the indi-
reached at which the cable for reliability. vidual strands lowers the total
will become unmanageable, force required to achieve the
especially where bending in necessary bending. The rea-
confined spaces is required to sonable upper limit for solid
conductors with 3/4-hard aluminum conductors
has generally been found to be 2/0 AWG. Above
that size, stranded conductors are advised.
Several options in stranded conductors are
available, including conventional concentric lay,
compressed strand, and compact configurations.
Some of these are illustrated in Figure 2.4.
The simplest stranded configuration is the
Concentric Stranded Conductor, 37-Wire
conventional concentric round stranding that
uses multiple layers of circular wires. Each layer
of wires is laid in the opposite direction. The
predominant combinations for conventional
stranded cable are 1 + 6 = 7, 1 + 6 + 12 = 19,
and 1 + 6 + 12 + 18 = 37. These are illustrated in
Figure 2.5.
Compressed-Strand Concentric Conductor, 37-Wire The first option, concentric round stranding,
obviously produces interstices (voids) between
the surfaces of the individual wires. These inter-
stices have two important effects. First, for a
given equivalent metallic cross section of con-
ductor, the outside diameter of a stranded cable
will be greater than for an equivalent solid con-
ductor. Second, the voids are continuous along
Compact Concentric-Strand Conductor, 37-Wire
the cable and provide an excellent path for
moisture migration. In conventional stranding,
FIGURE 2.4: Concentric Lay Strand Options. the conductor metal will occupy only 76 to 78
percent of the area enclosed by a circle drawn
around the outside of the conductor.
The number of wires in a concentric stranded
conductor is defined in ASTM standards as the
class of the conductor. Details are contained in
ASTM Standards B8 (copper) and B231 (alu-
minum). An examination shows that the im-
1 6 12 18 24 30 36 42
proved flexibility of higher stranding comes at
Number of Wires Per Layer
the expense of larger diameter. In addition, the
stranded conductors weigh more because the
outer layers must be longer than the conductor
axis. Table 2.3 compares the various stranding
characteristics of a common single size of alu-
FIGURE 2.5: Standard Strand Arrangements for Multilayer Conductors. minum conductor.
2
TABLE 2.3: Configurations of 4/0 AWG Aluminum Conductor.
Stranding Individual Wire Overall Diameter Weight DC Resistance

Class Number of Wires Diameter (in.) (in.) lb./1,000 ft Ω/mile @ 20°C
Solid 1 0.4600 0.460 194.7 0.4228
A, AA 7 0.1739 0.522 198.7 0.4311
B 19 0.1055 0.528 198.5 0.4311
C 37 0.0756 0.529 198.5 0.4311
D 61 0.0589 0.530 198.7 0.4311
The second stranding option, compressed FILLED-STRAND (SEALANT) CONDUCTOR

strand, is an improvement on the conventional As noted in the previous subsections on conduc-
strand arrangement. This configuration is accom- tor configurations, the useful service life of un-
plished by drawing the completed conventional derground cables has been reduced by moisture
concentric round strand to compress the outer in the insulation system. This has been particu-
layer of strands after fabrication (see Figure 2.4). larly true where moisture has been present in
The result is some reduction in diameter and the conductor interstices and, thus, had access
some reduction in the interstices of the outer to the conductor/conductor shield interface.
strand layer. This configuration also gives a Therefore, it is important to stop the migration
smoother, more nearly cylindrical surface. In of any moisture that may find its way into the
compressed strand, the conductor metal will oc- conductor.
cupy 81 percent to 83 percent of the area of a Impeding moisture migration is most econom-
circle that encompasses the overall diameter. ically accomplished by the addition of a strand-
Compressed strand reduces the diameter be- filling material during manufacture to fill all
tween one-half and three percent. One disad- voids within the conductor. The material must
vantage is some loss of flexibility because the be compatible with the conductor and the semi-
outside layer is slightly more rigid. conducting strand (conductor) shield. Often, this
The third conductor type (see Figure 2.4) is the requirement means the strand filler will be es-
compact round design. With this design, the con- sentially the same as the strand shield except for
ductor is drawn after each layer is applied, which plasticizers added to improve viscosity. The
greatly reduces the interstices on each layer and strand filler is often applied to each of the inner
brings the metallic cross section up to 92 to 94 layers during the stranding process. If this ap-
percent. The cable diameter is reduced by about proach is used with proper controls, the inter-
nine percent when compared with the same cross- stices should be filled while the outside of the
sectional area in a concentric round configuration. conductor is left clean.
Cable Insulation OVERVIEW OF CABLE INSULATION MATERIALS of high-molecular-weight polyethylene-insulated

Materials Early cable insulation materials were mainly nat- cables. Cables constructed of HMWPE were in-
ural rubber compounds. Paper insulation was troduced in 1948. These had several advantages
introduced for power cables about 1890. Butyl over the butyl rubber primary voltage cables
rubber was introduced in 1944 for distribution predominant in industrial applications. In the
cable systems. early 1960s, EPR (ethylene propylene rubber) in-
The trend toward placing electric distribution sulated cables became available for distribution
lines underground was significantly aided in the systems. However, the industry considered EPR
1960s by the wide acceptance in the United States cables to be premium-priced cables and they
5 8 – Se c t i on 2
2
did not gain wide acceptance, especially in the improvement in cable life expectancy as pre-
underground distribution market where initial dicted by accelerated testing methods. TR-XLPE
cost was the governing factor before the impor- proved to generally be the superior compound
tance of long cable life was recognized. and gained much wider acceptance than did
About 1963, cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) TR-HMWPE. In fact, TR-HMWPE is no longer
cables became available for distribution installa- manufactured. The tree-retardant characteristic
tions in both concentric neutral and conven- of the initial TR-XLPE compound was acquired
tional power configurations. The initial by adding organic compounds to the basic poly-
advantage of XLPE cable was that, like EPR, it is ethylene material.
a thermosetting material with a higher allowable As a result of escalating polyethylene cable
operating temperature. It was 1975 before XLPE failure rates, EPR cables have seen wider accep-
cable equaled HMWPE cable in market share for tance in UD installations. Since the 1960s, these
domestic utilities. HMWPE cable continued to be cables have also enjoyed technical improve-
popular because of its better technical character- ments in insulation compounds and fabrication
istics and lower cost. HMWPE possessed a low techniques. History and accelerated life tests
dielectric constant, along with high dielectric have shown EPR to be equal or superior to con-
strength and very good insulation resistance. It temporary TR-XLPE compounds. Without ques-
also cost less than XLPE. In 1966, some utilities tion, insulating compounds will continue to
reported failures of HMWPE-insulated cables. improve. Continuing tests will evaluate the
The failure rate was about one per 1,000 mile- longevity of different cable compounds and
years. By 1970, the reported HMWPE failure rate cable fabrication methods. Cooperative engi-
had reached about two per 1,000 mile-years and neers must use all available information when
was considered to be a significant problem. selecting a cable for purchase.
Soon thereafter, the failure rate for HMWPE ca- One hundred percent insulation wall thick-
bles rapidly escalated and reached almost eight nesses are 175 mils (4.4 mm) for 15 kV, 260 mils
per 1,000 mile-years by 1982. Recognition of (6.6 mm) for 25 kV, and 345 mils (8.8 mm) for
premature insulation breakdown in HMWPE ca- 35 kV. These insulation wall thicknesses are
bles contributed to the rapidly increasing accep- specified by the ANSI/ICEA and are referred to
tance of XLPE as an insulating material. About as the 100 percent level. Many cable users spec-
1975, the reported failure rate of XLPE cables ify an increased wall thickness, as discussed
reached one per 1,000 mile-years. In about 1980, below, and use this minimum 100 percent insu-
the failure rate of XLPE cables rapidly escalated, lation wall thickness only for upgrading or retro-
just as HMWPE insulation did earlier. fitting projects in which duct sizes are restricted
Because of concerns with the failure of and conduit fill may be exceeded.
HMWPE and XLPE insulations to deliver the ex- Polymer insulation thicknesses are often in-
pected design life, cable insulation manufactur- creased to 133 percent or 173 percent of the val-
ers began searching for methods to improve the ues listed above. The choice of insulation
life of the product. The initial major develop- thickness depends on the system connection (ei-
ment was tree-retardant polyethylene (TR-PE) ther delta or wye connected), the system protec-
compounds, so named because it resisted the tion available, and the desire for longer cable
growth of electrochemical life. Standards state that the
“trees” which led to insulation 100 percent insulation level is
failure. These have been intro- satisfactory for any system
Review the results of
duced in both high-molecular- where faults can be cleared
weight polyethylene accelerated cable life within one minute, which ap-
(TR-HMWPE or TR-PE) and tests when selecting plies to most installations on
cross-linked polyethylene grounded systems. For delta-
(TR-XLPE). These compounds cable insulation. connected or ungrounded sys-
have exhibited a substantial tems, 133 percent insulation
2
thickness is commonly chosen. In addition, the INSULATION MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
133 percent insulation level is recommended by An individual selecting a particular cable insula-
standards where fault-clearing times on wye- tion should be familiar with the basic physical
connected systems are in excess of one minute and electrical characteristics of various materials.
but less than one hour. The additional insulation Each of these characteristics affects the suitability
thickness will also reduce the electrical stress of an insulation material for a particular applica-
within the insulation and, hence, prolong cable tion. Selecting a cable construction involves
life, which many utilities find advantageous. compromise as most materials have different
One disadvantage of an increase in insulation strong and weak points.
thickness is that the additional insulation volume Physical characteristics of the insulating layer
increases the opportunity for contamination. affect the resistance of a cable to mechanical
However, this is not a realistic concern for mod- damage under normal operating conditions. Situ-
ern cable manufacturing facilities. Also, the addi- ations imposing mechanical stresses on cable in-
tional insulation, shield, and jacket materials clude the following:
needed because of the increased diameter will
increase the final installed cable cost. This is due • Soil pressure in direct-burial installations,
to the increased cost of the cable, the increased • Sidewall pressure on cables pulled into con-
pulling and training effort, and the increase in duit,
duct size required. Finally, 173 percent insula- • Flexure during switching operations for
tion is used for cables on a system, usually delta elbow-connected apparatus,
or resistance-grounded, which may have a clear- • Expansion/contraction in ducts, and
ing time of more than one hour. • External clamping action on risers.
It should be noted that the performance of
175-mil direct buried distribution cables on 12.5/ Some of the pertinent physical properties are
7.2 kV systems proved unsatisfactory in early listed below.
underground systems. This was due to treeing of
the insulation which could in part, be attributed to Hot Creep
the higher voltage stresses present in the 175-mil This is a measure of the plasticity of a material at
insulation. This was particularly true in smaller elevated temperatures. It shows the ability of an
(e.g., #2 AWG) conductor sizes. For this reason, insulating material to resist deformation at elevat-
RUS mandates the use of 133 percent insulation ed operating temperatures. For thermosetting in-
thickness (220 mil) for 15 kV class cables. sulations, the hot creep is generally measured at
RUS is currently refining its Specifications for 130°C (266°F), which is the maximum emergency
Underground Primary Cables in Bulletin No. operating temperature. The hot creep is deter-
1728F-U1, which updates and supersedes former mined by measuring the tensile stress (pounds
Bulletin 50-70 (U1), dated December 22, 1987. per square inch, or psi) needed to stretch the in-
In this new bulletin, RUS adopted the insulation sulation sample to 200 percent of its original
thickness shown in Table 2.4 and these will be length. See Figure 2.6 for a relative comparison
specified in the pending bulletin. of the hot creep of HMWPE (thermoplastic),
XLPE (thermosetting), and EPR (thermosetting).
TABLE 2.4: RUS Insulation Thickness. High-Temperature Aging Characteristics

Voltage Insulation Thickness Electrical insulation in power cables must retain
Class (kV) Thickness (mils) Level (%) good physical properties after being subjected to
high temperatures. High-temperature aging evalu-
15 220 133 ations usually compare tensile strength and elon-
25 260 100 gation remaining after seven days (168 hours) of
exposure to temperatures ranging from 120°C to
35 345 100
180°C (248°F to 356°F).
6 0 – Se c t i on 2
2
100% Hot Modulus ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF INSULATION MATERIALS
The electrical characteristics of cable insulation
are just as important as the physical characteris-
tics. After all, if a cable is mechanically durable
EP but will not withstand the applied voltage, the
cable no longer serves its intended purpose.
Electrical characteristics include insulation resis-
tance, insulation power factor, and dielectric
XLPE constant. Basic electrical characteristics of cable
insulation are discussed extensively in Section 4,
HMWPE
Equipment Loading.
20 75 90 130 250
Temperature (°C)
FIGURE 2.6: Comparative Hot Creep vs.

Temperatures for Cable Insulation Materials.
Adapted from ANSI/ICEA T-28-562.
Insulation All contemporary cables use extruded dielectric • Inclusion of agglomerates, gels, and ambers.
Fabrication insulation. The manufacturing processes gener-
Failure to adhere to any of these requirements
ally are similar for different insulation materials
at any point in the manufacturing process will
and different voltage classes. The most complex
lead to defective cable that is unsuitable for util-
manufacturer’s process involves primary voltage
ity applications.
cables that have not only extruded insulation
but also extruded conductor shields and extruded
MATERIAL HANDLING
insulation shields. Secondary cables have similar
One of the most important requirements of
construction methods, but employ only an insu-
cable manufacturing is cleanliness of the raw
lating layer or, in the case of “ruggedized” styles,
materials. The cable manufacturer receives insu-
possibly two layers.
lating and shielding materials, particularly poly-
Many aspects of the manufacturing process are
ethylene compounds, as pellets. These pellets
very important. Some of these are the following:
must be handled very carefully at both the cable
• Purity of the insulation material, plant and at the insulation manufacturing plant
• Lack of voids in the insulation and shields, to ensure there is no contamination. Quality
• Smoothness of the conductor shield and control tests that meet, or exceed, industry stan-
conductor, dards must be made on each batch of pellets to
• Adhesion between the conductor shield and ensure cleanliness. In addition to normal quality
the insulation, control sampling, some plants use optical scan-
• Cleanliness of the conductor shield-insulation ning to continuously sample pellets before they
interface, enter extruding equipment. This sampling is
• Smoothness of the insulation outer surface, beneficial because contaminated pellets are re-
• Adhesion between the insulation and the jected before being extruded into the cable.
insulation shield, Resin suppliers now employ online pellet in-
• Cleanliness of the insulation–insulation shield spection devices. Some manufacturers inspect
interface, 100 percent of their product. From this, a new
• Maintenance of uniform dimensions and con- generation of XLPE and TR-XLPE materials that
centricity along the cable, and bear designations of extra clean, ultra clean, or
2
super clean has emerged. However, a precise 100 percent pellet inspection. Ideally, the pellet
definition of each designation based on per-unit inspection should take place as close to the
volume contamination is not available, nor is a manufacturer’s extruder head as possible and
comparison between compound manufacturers. not contribute to further contamination.
The opaque nature of EPR does not permit a Currently, pellet inspection devices are avail-
similar determination of cleanliness. able for use at the cable manufacturer’s plant.
Cable manufacturers, in turn, have implemented The inspection devices remove loose contami-
materials-handling systems to prevent contamina- nants and surface contaminants as well as pel-
tion during the course of manufacture. For ex- lets containing embedded contaminants. All
ample, Class 1000 clean rooms have been in- models come with a self-enclosed air filtration
stalled in most cable manufacturing plants and system that provides a Class 1000 environment
separate handling facilities for insulation and under a plastic curtain surrounding the unit. Re-
semiconductor materials have been implemented. moval of contaminants starts at three mils and
Supersmooth semiconducting shields were optimizes at 12 mils.
first introduced in 1988, resulting from better Inspection of EPR is more difficult, as the ma-
dispersion of the acetylene carbon black in the terial is opaque. Tape inspection devices can
polymer base. Better dispersed semiconducting also be used for surface inspection of extruded
shields provide for a much smoother interface EPR sample tapes.
between the insulation and the shields, leading Also available are inspection devices for gels
to much longer service life. Utility acceptance of in polymers and for small defects in interfaces.
the cleaner and smoother compounds has been Although interfacial inspection does not occur
rapid, as most utilities specified these materials until after the cable is manufactured, this latter
in 2004. device does provide an opportunity to identify,
Polyethylene manufacturers have focused on locate, and remove interfacial problems before
material purity, improvement in the compound- shipment.
ing and process design, and quality assurance Although inspection for contaminants is im-
and quality control improvements. In addition, portant, it is also important to eliminate all possi-
delivery systems have dramatically improved ble sources of contamination during the manu-
over the past 15 years. Using dedicated reactors, facturing of not only the insulation system but
upgrading reactor clean out and defouling proce- also the conductor and insulation shields. This
dures, and monitoring each run for ambers and means controlling the contact of possible conta-
gels have improved manufacturing technology. minants, especially airborne dust particles, to
Increasing the raw material cleanliness, filtrating raw insulation materials or to the cable during
all process air and water, and operating under a extrusion. Materials should be exposed as little
sealed loop strategy have helped to ensure a as possible to the ambient air in the plant. In ad-
better product. In addition, handling systems dition, cable interface surfaces should, similarly,
now use gravity feed and dense phase, as well have minimum possible exposure to an uncon-
as dedicated, sealed rail cars in good condition. trolled environment during the extrusion process.
Polyethylene is manufactured by compound
suppliers and shipped in pellet form to the cable EXTRUSION AND CURING PROCESSES
manufacturers for extrusion onto the full-sized During cable manufacture, the various shields
cable. Contamination is possible at any step and insulating layers are extruded over the con-
along the way. Most manufacturers carry out op- ductor. The raw material is melted and the liq-
tical pellet inspection, but usually only about uid polymer is pumped into a die that applies a
two percent of the total amount of compound is continuous and uniform layer around the con-
inspected. Needless to say, many contaminants ductor. The material is then cured at the proper
are missed, as recent statistics suggest that even temperature for the proper time. This process is
the cleanest compound can contain contaminants repeated for various layers until the desired
above 12 mils, and these may be removed with cable configuration is achieved.
6 2 – Se c t i on 2
2
Expediency and quality in cable manufacture trees within polyethylene. Some newer equip-
can be achieved if the extrusion of different lay- ment uses dry nitrogen as a heat transfer agent
ers is performed simultaneously. The industry in the curing tube, which eliminates insulation
uses multiple simultaneous extrusion processes. contact with water until it has solidified. The re-
Figure 2.7 shows the general layout of a cable sult is lower water content (200 ppm) in the in-
extrusion line. The conductor enters the process sulation. The few cable production lines that use
from the pay-off reel. The conductor first passes dry gas for both curing and cooling achieve
through the extrusion heads, where the shields even lower water content (50 ppm). The signifi-
and insulation are applied. The cable then en- cance of the lower water content is still the sub-
ters the curing tube, where the extruded poly- ject of continuing investigation. It is believed
mers are cured at a temperature between 218°C that the very lowest water contents are main-
(425°F) and 293°C (560°F). Pressure in the cur- tained in service only if the cables are com-
ing tubes is also maintained between 150 and pletely sealed from moisture. However, the
300 psi. This temperature and pressure is main- industry has widely accepted the desirability
tained long enough for cross-linking to take of dry nitrogen gas curing, especially for poly-
place in the insulation and/or shields. After ethylene-based cables.
curing, the cable enters a cooling zone, com- Steam curing is the oldest cross-linking or vul-
monly referred to as a water bath or quenching. canizing method employed in any continuous
However, some new production lines use dry vulcanizing (CV) plant. In steam curing, the
gas cooling. freshly extruded cable passes down the center
The methods used to cure and cool the cable of a long vulcanizing tube filled with saturated
during manufacture are the subject of much re- steam at about 20 atmospheres (300 pounds
search. Older systems used high-pressure steam per square inch gauge (psig)) pressure and
for curing, which led to higher water content temperature of about 215°C (419°F). The cured
(5,000 parts per million) within the insulation. It insulation is then cooled under pressure by cold
is suspected that this insulation water content water. Most EPRs are still made with steam
may contribute to the development of water curing in a CV catenary process.
Extrusion Area
– Conductor Shield
– Insulation
– Insulation Shield
Curing Tube
Water Cooling
Bare
Con
Insulated Cable
duct
r o
Take-Up Reel
Pay-Off Reel
FIGURE 2.7: General Layout of a Cable Extrusion Line.

2
Conductor Shield Insulation Insulation Shield
Insulated Conductor with
Bare Conductor Conductor Shield Added Insulated Conductor Insulated Conductor Insulation Shield
First Pass Second Pass
(a) 2 Pass or Dual-Tandem Method
Insulation
Conductor Shield Insulation Shield
Bare Conductor Conductor Shield Added Insulated Conductor with Insulation Shield
(b) 1 + 2 Triple-Tandem Method
Conductor Shield Insulation Shield
Bare Conductor Insulated Conductor with Insulation Shield
Insulation
(c) 3-in-1 Triple Method
FIGURE 2.8: Typical Extrusion Methods.
Dry curing, on the other are EPR users who gain little
hand, consists of an electri- True triple-tandem advantage in the dry cure tech-
cally heated tube filled with nology. Most utilities that spec-
high-purity nitrogen gas at extrusion ify EPR insulation request
about 10 atmospheres (150 is preferred. steam curing or do not specify
psig) pressure. The infrared a curing method at all.
energy emitted by the hot For UD cable production,
tubes is transferred to the the triple extrusion and the dry
cable components. The cable surface tempera- cure technology with the catenary arrangement
ture can be as high as 300°C (572°F). The cured is most common.
cable is cooled by passing through a cooling Extrusion heads are continuing to evolve. The
section containing water under the same pres- simplest head configuration is the two-pass (or
sure as the curing section to prevent void forma- dual-tandem) process shown in Figure 2.8(a). A
tion in the insulation. A dry cured insulation disadvantage of this arrangement is the open
contains voids in the order of 100/mm3, 1 to 10 space between the application point for the con-
µm (micrometers) in size, whereas steam curing ductor shield and that for the insulation. The
generates voids of 105/mm3, 1 to 50 µm in size. conductor shield surface can be contaminated
Sixty percent of the investor-owned utilities now by airborne particles. In addition, the cable
specify dry curing. Of the remainder, 33 percent must be returned to a separate extrusion line
6 4 – Se c t i on 2
2
for installation of the insulation shield. This is completely enclosed head [see Figure 2.8(c)]. Si-
also an opportunity for contamination of a criti- multaneous extrusion eliminates the opportunity
cal interface surface. for contamination of any interface surface.
A major improvement in cable extrusion is Today, the preferred extrusion method is the
the development of the 1 + 2 triple-tandem triple crosshead line or the true triple-head ex-
arrangement. Here, the insulation and the insu- truder. This line features one common crosshead
lation shield are extruded simultaneously as connecting three extruders, so that the insulation
shown in Figure 2.8(b). Though there is still a and the semiconductive shields are extruded si-
chance for airborne contamination between the multaneously over the conductor. With its suc-
conductor shield head and the insula- cessful development and commercialization, the
tion/insulation shield head, there is no chance triple crosshead is now generally accepted in
of contamination on the insulation surface. the industry because it minimizes the chance of
The latest extrusion configuration is the true damage and contamination at the shields and in-
triple-head unit. All three compounds are ex- sulation interfaces. Most utilities now specify this
truded simultaneously in one location in a extrusion method.
Conductor Shields Conductor shields and insulation shields share the cable insulation. For instance, if the cable is
and Insulation the function of providing a uniform cylindrical insulated with cross-linked polyethylene, a semi-
Shields surface on either side of the cable insulation, conducting XLPE would be applied for both the
which allows the most uniform possible distrib- conductor shield and the insulation shield. Simi-
ution of electrical stress. The conductor shield larly, cables insulated with ethylene propylene
is particularly important in reducing stress con- rubber could have a semiconducting EPR com-
centrations caused by stranded conductors or pound or a similar compound, such as ethyl
imperfections on the conductor surface. The in- vinyl acetate (EVA), as shielding material. This
sulation shield eliminates nonuniform voltage combination produces the greatest insulation
gradients in the insulation caused by irregular system component compatibility. It is particu-
contacts with grounded objects. By producing larly important to have very similar coefficients
a more uniform electrical stress distribution, of thermal expansion to minimize the generation
shields allow thinner insulation sections to be of thermal stresses within the cable at extreme
used with more predictable results. operating temperatures. Other combinations
Before the general acceptance of extruded di- may be used if elasticity and tensile strength
electric cables, the conductor shield and the insu- characteristics are compatible. Most manufactur-
lation shield both usually consisted of carbon- ers use EVA for these shields.
loaded cotton tape. These tapes improved the
surface contour of conventional stranded con- CONDUCTOR SHIELD
ductors and were generally suitable for use with For maximum effectiveness, the conductor shield
paper and rubber insulation compounds. With should be firmly bonded to the cable insulation
the advent of extruded polyethylene dielectrics, to minimize voids at the interface between these
extruded shields gained favor. These could be two components. Because this zone has the
applied at a lower cost and produce a more uni- highest electrical stresses in the cable and voids
form surface than could semiconducting cloth will produce insulation deterioration under elec-
tapes. This more uniform surface was particular- trical stress, it is particularly important to have
ly important for gaining cable reliability with the minimum number of possible voids in this
polyethylene cable insulation. location. The extruded conductor shield material
Present practice in extruded insulation cables should strip freely from the conductor without
uses extruded conductor and insulation shields leaving residue to facilitate cable splicing. Other-
almost exclusively. The preferred material is a wise, particles of semiconducting polymer might
semiconducting version of the material used for be left inside electrical connections that would
2
unacceptably impair conduc- avoid stress concentrations or
tivity within the connections. Most electrochemical corona-producing voids.
ANSI/ICEA Specification Therefore, an extruded semi-
S-94-649-2000 allows the con- trees begin at voids conducting insulation shield is
ductor shield/insulation inter- or protrusions near installed to evenly distribute
face to have protrusions of electrical stresses. An extruded
the conductor shield/
seven mils (0.18 mm) into the shield of a compatible material
conductor shield and five mils insulation interface. will tightly adhere to the insu-
(0.127 mm) into the insulation, lation, even when the cable is
if standard conductor shield bent or compressed. The
thicknesses are used. Voids of shield will also remain in close
up to three mils (0.076 mm) are allowed at this contact when the cable is operated at extremely
interface. Research on cable failures has shown design temperatures.
that most electrochemical trees begin at voids or The cable insulation shield must have unvary-
protrusions near the conductor shield/insulation ing conductivity characteristics to serve as an ef-
interface. Tree inception at these points is be- fective shield and produce a uniform, equipoten-
cause of the extremely high electrical stresses in tial surface. In addition, the insulation shield
these regions and because these irregularities must carry the cable capacitive currents between
serve as stress amplifiers when they produce a the insulation shield interface and the grounded
nonuniform electrical field. The cable industry metallic shield tape or conductors. This capabili-
has, therefore, developed the concept of a su- ty is particularly important where a concentric
persmooth conductor shield that produces an neutral configuration is used with conductors
extruded conductor shield with a much more spaced around the cable circumference. Under
uniform cylindrical surface. Protrusions into the these conditions, the insulation shield must carry
cable insulation are reduced in size and quanti- currents transversely as well as radially. The con-
ty. Typical interface irregularities for these im- centric neutral configuration makes the distance
proved conductor shield materials are approxi- traveled by the capacitive currents greater and
mately one percent of the size found in conven- makes shield uniformity even more important
tional shields. This significantly reduces the (see Figure 2.9). Current concentrations under
number of tree initiation sites in the section of the concentric neutral strand also make it impor-
insulation with the highest electrical stresses. Be- tant to keep shield resistivity low.
cause reducing irregularities and voids in this The cable insulation shield must maintain
area will yield longer cable life, the cable pur- good contact with the insulation, yet be easy to
chaser should strongly consider using the ad- remove during splicing. If the insulation shield is
vanced conductor shield systems with improved firmly bonded to the insulation, this bond will
smoothness. Such materials may be slightly produce ideal electrical properties, but it will
more expensive, but the total life-cycle cost of make splicing much more difficult. Firm bonding
the cable may be lower because the cable fail- will require cutting the shield from the insula-
ure rate may be reduced. tion, which must be done very carefully to keep
a uniform cylindrical outer surface on the insula-
INSULATION SHIELD tion. Therefore, where splicing or terminations
The cable insulation shield forms a cylindrical are required frequently, the insulation shield
semiconducting surface on the outside of the in- should be free-stripping. Removal should leave
sulation, which is essential to avoid nonuniform no residue on the insulation surface. The cable
electrical stresses in the insulation. Although it is specifier should note any special conditions of
theoretically possible to place a uniform con- cable use, such as low splicing temperatures,
ducting metallic shield directly outside the cable that may require special stripping characteristics.
insulation, it is impractical to achieve and main- However, to maintain acceptable electrical per-
tain the continuous intimate contact required to formance, certain minimum stripping force will
6 6 – Se c t i on 2
2
be required. If the minimum bonding is not
maintained, insulation-damaging corona might
be produced at the insulation interface, espe-
cially in cable bends. Because good adherence is
Concentric Neutral Strand necessary for satisfactory electrical performance,
the installation crews may have to warm the in-
Semiconducting
sulation shield to an acceptable temperature for
Insulation Shield splicing and termination. If such conditions are
frequently encountered, the cable specifier may
wish to cite special conditions in the cable speci-
fication and call for special low-temperature
stripping tests. However, the specifier should al-
Capacitive Current Flow ways remember that long-term performance of
the cable is the most important criterion and
special installation techniques may be needed
under low-temperature conditions.
Pending RUS 1728F-U1 specifications for pri-
Concentric
Neutral Strand
mary cables call for minimum and maximum
tension ratings for “strippability” of insulation
shields, as shown in Table 2.5. Slightly different
Insulation
limits for stripping tension are used in the sam-
ple cable specification contained in Appendix E.
Strand Shield
If a cable system is going to be used in an in-
stallation requiring especially high reliability and
few splices or terminations, the specifier may
Conductor
use a firmly bonded extruded insulation shield.
Doing so will produce optimum electrical perfor-
mance. If long cable pulls are used, less extra
Semiconducting labor will be needed to make splices. However,
Insulation Shield
before starting installations of this type, crews
must be specially trained and proper tools must
be obtained to make satisfactory splices. Firmly
bonded insulation shields should never be used
FIGURE 2.9: Capacitive and Dielectric Loss Current Flow in Insulation
Shield. on underground residential systems where
cables are frequently terminated.
CONCENTRIC NEUTRALS AND

CONDUCTIVE METALLIC SHIELDS
TABLE 2.5: Insulation Shield Strippability Shielded cable systems require not only a semi-
Ratings. conducting insulation shield but also a conduc-
tive metal shield to function properly. The metal
Minimum Maximum shield is in intimate contact with the semicon-
Cable Removal Removal
ducting insulation shield. The major functions of
Insulation Type Tension (lb.) Tension (lb.)
the conductive metal shield are the following:
EPR 3 18
• To serve as a grounding means for the semi-
TR-XLPE 6 16
conducting insulation shield to keep all
Discharge Resistant 0 16 sections at constant potential,
2
• To serve as a path for to one-half (reduced neutral)
currents generated by Defects in the shield of the phase conductivity. This
capacitive coupling enables the cable to function
between the central system will cause without a separate neutral con-
conductor and the cable failures. ductor. Mechanical as well as
system neutral or the electrical considerations gener-
surrounding earth, ally mandate that concentric
• To serve as an interceptor neutral conductors be copper,
of system fault currents in case of a even if the central cable conductor is aluminum.
dielectric failure, Table 2.6 shows concentric neutral sizes often
• To provide a grounded metallic object used on distribution cables.
between the energized conductor and the Full-capacity concentric neutrals are most
cable exterior, and often used on smaller cables that are applied in
• To serve as a system neutral (in some cases). single-phase circuits. Having full conductivity in
the neutral reduces circuit voltage drop. The sys-
All these functions are extremely important. tem neutral-to-earth voltage under both normal
The conductive shield’s failure to properly per- loads and fault conditions is reduced as well.
form any of these functions will lead to either a Reduced neutral capacities are most often
cable failure or a malfunction of the electric dis- used on three-phase circuits, particularly in the
tribution system in which the cable is installed. larger conductor sizes. Doing so is feasible and
A wide variety of conductive shield configura- desirable because of the following:
tions have been developed for use on cable sys-
tems. Examples of typical shield configurations • In a three-phase circuit, three neutrals are
are given below. connected in parallel, which reduces the cross
section required to produce a full-capacity
CONCENTRIC NEUTRALS system neutral to one-third on each cable.
Concentric neutral conductors serve a dual role • In a three-phase system, system neutral return
as a conductive cable shield and a circuit neu- current should be near zero, thereby reducing
tral. To fulfill this second function, the shield the cross-sectional area required to maintain
(neutral) has a much larger cross section than is low system losses and neutral-to-earth volt-
typical with flat tape, drain wire, or L.C. shield ages under reasonably balanced conditions.
configurations. Typical concentric neutral cables • In a three-phase cable system with intercon-
will have a neutral conductivity equal to that of nected neutrals, losses in the cable neutral are
the central conductor (full neutral), or one-third caused by circulating currents. All other factors
TABLE 2.6: Concentric Neutral Configurations for Common Aluminum Cables.
Typical Neutral Configuration

Conductor Size Full Capacity One-Third Capacity One-Sixth Capacity One-Twelfth Capacity
#2 AWG Aluminum 10 × 14 AWG 6 × 14 AWG N/A N/A
1/0 AWG Aluminum 16 × 14 AWG 6 × 14 AWG N/A N/A
4/0 AWG Aluminum 13 × 10 AWG 11 × 14 AWG N/A N/A
350 kcmil Aluminum 20 × 10 AWG 18 × 14 AWG 14 × 16 AWG N/A
500 kcmil Aluminum N/A 16 × 12 AWG 20 × 16 AWG 10 × 16 AWG
750 kcmil Aluminum N/A 20 × 9 AWG 30 × 16 AWG 10 × 14 AWG
6 8 – Se c t i on 2
2
being equal, these losses are lower where there L.C. shields are commonly available in five-mil
is less neutral conductivity. A cable with a thickness but, for applications requiring additional
one-third neutral has 53 percent of the losses fault current capability, shield thicknesses of eight
of a cable with a full-capacity neutral if the or 10 mils can be furnished. However, L.C. shields
cables are spaced 7.5 inches center to center. should be sized to carry expected system neutral
The circuit ampacity of full-neutral cables in currents. Use of L.C. shields as the system neutral
three-phase circuits is also reduced because will require evaluation of available system fault
of these shield losses. This problem is signifi- currents and protective system clearing times. Ac-
cant in larger cable sizes, particularly if the cessories such as shield (neutral) bonding clamps
cables are not closely grouped. For instance, must also be carefully evaluated for long-term
on a 350-kcmil circuit carrying 390 amperes, continuous current and fault current capacity.
the losses on a circuit with 7.5-inch cable The L.C. shield does provide a limited degree
spacing will drop from 12 kW/1,000 feet to of resistance to water vapor transmission. It is
6.4 kW/1,000 feet if a one-third neutral is used clearly superior to concentric neutral configura-
instead of a full-capacity neutral. Elevated tions for water vapor transmission. It is some-
losses and reduced ampacities are not gener- what better than helically applied copper tape
ally a problem on three-phase circuits of 1/0 shields because the length of the straight joint is
AWG aluminum or smaller if the cables are less than the helical joint. Moreover, the elas-
grouped in a single trench. Additional infor- tomer at the lap point does provide a better seal,
mation on circuit ampacity rating for various although, under static pressure, the elastomeric
neutral configurations is given in Section 4. seal cannot be depended on to prevent moisture
from migrating into the cable insulation.
Longitudinally Corrugated Shield
The L.C. shield has been developed as a way to Flat Copper Tape
provide greater conductivity in larger cables. The This is perhaps the oldest conductive shield con-
shield generally consists of a copper sheet that figuration. The tape generally consists of a five-mil
is installed with its major axis parallel to that of (0.005-inch) thick copper tape helically applied
the cable. The sheet is then folded around the over the semiconducting insulation shield. The tape
cable and sealed to itself on the opposite side. is usually installed with a 12.5 percent overlap.
Circumferential corrugations are fabricated in the Tape shields may be fabricated from bare copper
resulting tube to add flexibility and ensure that or may be tinned copper. Because of the small
the shield will uniformly bend with the cable. The cross section, the conductivity of flat copper tape
seal applied between the two sides of the copper shields is relatively low compared with the central
is usually an adhesive elastomer. The tube gen- cable conductor. Equation 2.2 gives the effective
erally does not have a metal-to-metal connection cross-sectional area of an overlapped tape.
with the cable insulation shield at this point be-
cause allowance must be made for the cable in-
sulation to thermally expand during operation at Equation 2.2
elevated temperatures. Not only is the tempera-
ture change higher in the insulation than it is in W
A = 4bdm ×
the cable shield, but all dielectrics have a sub- 2(W – L)
stantially higher coefficient of thermal expansion
than that of copper. Because the metallic shield
must have good contact with the semiconduct- where: A = Cross-sectional area, in cmils
ing insulation shield to function effectively, a b = Tape thickness, in mils
tight fit must be maintained at all times. There-
dm = Mean diameter, in mils
fore, the insulation expansion is accommodated
by flexibility in the elastomeric seal. The return W = Width of tape, in mils
of the shield to intimate contact as the cable L = Overlap of tape, in mils
cools is assisted by the external insulating jacket.
2
CONCENTRIC NEUTRAL CONFIGURATIONS ground rods. This condition was totally unsatisfac-
As experience has been gained with under- tory from the standpoints of system safety and re-
ground installations under a variety of condi- liability. Therefore, the use of BCN cable has been
tions, the utility industry has developed several discontinued except in very special conditions.
specialized variations of the basic concentric
neutral configurations. Each of these arrange- Jacketed Concentric Neutral
ments has an advantage for a particular set of Because of the very serious problems experi-
installation conditions. enced with BCN cables, the electric utility indus-
try began using the jacketed concentric neutral
Bare Concentric Neutral (JCN) configuration. This configuration has most
The first widely accepted concentric neutral cables of the major advantages of the BCN design ex-
were of a bare concentric neutral (BCN) config- cept for continuous contact of the neutral with
uration. In this design, the concentric neutral earth. The jacketed configuration reduces access
strands were laid over the semiconducting insu- of moisture and corrosive agents to the neutral.
lation shield and no jacket was applied. When the Insulating jackets also interrupt the flow of gal-
cable was directly buried, this arrangement had vanic corrosion currents between the neutral
the advantage of exposing the concentric neutral and other metallic objects.
conductors to the surrounding soil. The result was JCN design has achieved wide acceptance as
a very effective ground, especially where soil re- a solution to the concentric neutral corrosion
sistivity was low. The low resistance between problem. However, the cooperative engineer
neutral and earth meant more of the system neu- must give special attention to system grounding
tral current could return to the source by way of if jacketed cables are used. Cable identification
the earth, thereby reducing current in the con- also acquires additional importance, as jacketed
centric neutral and circuit voltage drop. Further- cables are approximately the same dimension
more, the low resistance between the neutral and general appearance as many communica-
and earth reduced neutral-to-earth voltages dur- tion cables and water lines. See Section 5 in the
ing both normal operations and fault conditions. Design Manual for detailed information on sys-
The bare concentric neutral is also considered tem grounding.
the best possible arrangement for personnel
safety in case of a dig-in. The neutral size en- Flat-Strap Concentric Neutrals
sures the ability to adequately conduct fault cur- Flat-strap concentric neutrals, not to be confused
rents until protective devices operate. The high- with flat-tape metallic shields, consist of helically
er conductivity of the concentric neutral will applied flat copper straps. These straps are about
produce lower voltages on the neutral at the 0.020 to 0.025 inches (20 to 25 mils) thick and
fault location. The low resistance between the about 0.150 to 0.175 inches wide. The straps are
neutral and earth will significantly reduce the applied so they abut each other and provide 90
touch potential at the dig-in site. Most important, percent metallic coverage over the outside of
the concentric neutral physical arrangement en- the cable. Conductivity of flat-strap neutrals is
sures the object penetrating the cable will have generally equal to that of the energized conduc-
established a good neutral connection before tor. Flat-strap concentric neutrals have found
contacting the energized center conductor. greatest acceptance in areas where rodents dam-
In light of all the advantages of BCN cables, it age direct-buried cables. The complete metallic
is unfortunate that there are major durability prob- coverage on a cable was originally believed to
lems with this design under many installation lessen damage from gophers. However, using
conditions. These problems are all related to this type of cable to lessen rodent damage has
corrosion of the exposed cable neutral. In many had mixed results. Recent research shows that
cases, the neutral had a significantly reduced rodent damage is more effectively limited by in-
cross section after only a few years of service. In creasing the diameter of the object. Therefore,
other cases, the neutral was completely corroded flat-strap neutrals should not be depended on to
and the only neutral current path was through prevent rodent damage.
7 0 – Se c t i on 2
2
Flat-strap neutral cables Experience with low-voltage
should be jacketed. The thick- Always specify insulated cables has shown
ness of the flat strap is less that aluminum conductors can
than the diameter of the neu- copper for concentric be extremely susceptible to
tral wires. Therefore, the com- neutral conductors. corrosion, even if they are in-
plete cable diameter will be sulated from the surrounding
less. This is an advantage environment. Because cable
where space is limited. jackets are not absolutely
moisture proof, even an encapsulated aluminum
Concentric Neutral Materials neutral conductor may be subject to long-term
Other Than Copper deterioration from moisture migration. It is un-
The predominant material in concentric neutrals wise to consider aluminum neutral conductors
has always been copper. For many years, the for primary cables, even in a jacketed configura-
generally accepted wire for bare concentric neu- tion, when the only advantage to be gained is
trals was copper with a tin or tin-lead alloy coat- slight savings in initial material cost.
ing. As experience has been gained with a wide Another approach that was used for a limited
variety of materials, engineers have determined time to try to solve the bare concentric neutral
that the coating of the copper concentric neutral corrosion problem was the use of a composite
conductors was not necessary and, in some cas- copper/steel conductor. The particular configura-
es, actually led to higher corrosion rates. It is tion used a copper center core for conductivity,
generally believed that, in the early days of con- with a heavy steel coating completely surround-
centric neutral cable manufacture, tinned copper ing the copper. For durability during periods of
concentric neutrals gained wide acceptance be- atmospheric exposure, the steel was galvanized.
cause most flat-tape metallic shields were tinned This cross-sectional arrangement offered the def-
on jacketed cables. In some cases, that was a inite advantage of having steel exposed to the
holdover from cables on which butyl rubber in- earth in the direct-buried cables instead of cop-
sulation was used and tinning was needed to per. The exposed steel greatly simplified the ap-
avoid corrosion. Also, tinned copper was used plication of cathodic protection systems to the
on earlier cables because of the prevalence of neutral. However, the conductor used in this
soldered connections, and the coated copper fa- neutral construction did carry a premium price.
cilitated soldering of these thin shields. Because Utilities also experienced difficulty in applying
concentric neutral cables never employ soldered this cable to existing systems that already had
connections and butyl rubber is no longer used extensive exposure of bare copper concentric
for insulation, the need for coating neutral wires neutrals. Systems containing this cable configu-
has disappeared. Bare copper wires are now ration required sacrificial anodes or impressed
uniformly accepted as the preferred material for voltage rectifiers applied to provide protection
concentric neutrals, whether bare or jacketed. to the neutral. For additional information on the
During the mid-1970s, a few utilities briefly principles of cathodic protection, see Section 7.
experimented with aluminum concentric neutral
cables. These were applied in a bare configura- CABLE JACKET
tion. Although some laboratory studies showed In most cables, the cable jacket is the outermost
that the aluminum neutrals would resist many layer of material that serves as a barrier to mois-
types of soil-induced corrosion, field experience ture and mechanical damage. Therefore, it is im-
proved quite the opposite. The very complex in- portant to optimize the design and materials of
teractions present on an interconnected neutral the jacket to obtain maximum performance in
passing through a variety of soils led to early these important areas.
failure of these cables. It became obvious that For many years, all power cable designs includ-
aluminum should never be used as an exposed ed a jacket. However, with the advent of the ex-
concentric neutral in direct-buried or conduit tensive underground residential programs, electric
cable installations. utilities began installing bare concentric neutral
2
cables. This design eliminated the cable jacket so into a conduit system, a low coefficient of fric-
that the BCN could establish conductive contact tion with the conduit material is desirable.
with the earth in a direct-buried installation. En- Today, most utilities specify an outer jacket.
gineers eventually learned that the accelerated A wide variety of chemical components have
failure rate of UD cable was largely caused by been used successfully for cable jacketing. The
cable moisture and/or concentric neutral corro- material most desirable for jacketing is linear
sion. Both of these factors were able to strongly low-density polyethylene (LLDPE). This material
influence UD cable life because of the lack of a has the best balance of properties for use on un-
high-quality cable jacket. It is worth noting that, derground utility cables.
although U.S. utilities installed BCN UD cables, Table 2.7 shows a comparison of important
European and Japanese utilities continued to install properties of various compounds. The table
only jacketed cables. These utilities have experi- shows that polyethylene is preferable in almost
enced much higher distribution system cable relia- all categories except fire resistance. In direct-
bility than has been typical in the United States. buried applications and outdoor conduit installa-
Recognizing this, the U.S. electric utility industry tions, this compromise is acceptable. Low
now mainly uses jacketed cables. These may be chlorine content is an advantage because hydro-
conventional power cables with flat-tape or drain- gen chloride may result from these compounds
wire shields, or they may be JCN cables. Jackets at the emergency operating temperature of
can be either insulating or semiconducting. 130°C (266°F). This gas, particularly in conjunc-
Under any circumstances, the jacket material tion with surrounding moisture, will be detri-
is very important. Desirable characteristics in- mental to XLPE and EPR insulating compounds
clude abrasion resistance, flexibility, and low as well as copper neutrals or other metallic
moisture permeability. If cable is being pulled shield materials.
TABLE 2.7: Comparison of Jacketing Material Test Data.
Semiconducting
Polyethylene (PE) Polyethylene* Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Physical Properties
• Tensile Strength (psi) 2,730 1,700 1,920
• Elongation 620 450 350
Moisture Transmission
7 Days in 70°C (158°F) Water
• Grams/m2/24 hours 0.8 1.5 >10
Flame Resistance
20 Min. at 70,000 Btu/Hr
• Cable Tray Fire Test Fail Fail Fail**
Low Temperature Properties
Cold Bend Test
• Temperature Passed (°C) -40 -50 -10
Chlorine Content (%) 0 0 22.0
Thermal Stability
• Initial Temperature of
Decomposition (°C) 350 350 160
* Based on Union Carbide 7708.
** PVC can be specially compounded to pass the Cable Tray Fire Test.
7 2 – Se c t i on 2
2
TABLE 2.8: Static Coefficient of Friction for Jacketing Materials in PVC drain wires, or concentric neutral by a nonad-
Conduit. hering tape. This tape keeps the two layers en-
tirely separate. Where drain wires or concentric
Polyvinyl Cross-Linked High-Molecular-Weight Linear Low-Density neutrals are used under the jacket, this method
Chloride Polyethylene Polyethylene Polyethylene leaves an annular (ring-shaped) space between
(XLPE) (HMWPE) (LLDPE) the semiconducting insulation shield and the
0.69 0.75 0.42 0.42 outside jacket. Although this space does contain
the metallic wire shield, the spaces between
strands become a reservoir for moisture that may
Another important characteristic of jacketing enter the jacket through gradual absorption,
materials is the coefficient of friction in common manufacturing defects, or installation-induced
pulling situations. Table 2.8 shows the static co- damage. This space also provides an excellent
efficient of friction of various jacket materials in path for migration of moisture along the length
PVC conduit. of the cable. This moisture is extremely detri-
Jacket materials used on utility systems mental to the cable by its promotion of electro-
should always be sunlight-resistant. Very few chemical treeing in the insulation. This moisture
installed utility cables have no part of the cable also facilitates corrosion attacks on metallic shield
ever exposed to sunlight. Therefore, most cable strands. Although this jacket configuration is sat-
jacketing compounds will be colored black to isfactory for use with metal tape shields, it
eliminate sunlight penetration and, thereby, en- should not be used with concentric neutral ca-
hance the natural durability of the basic jacket bles that will frequently be exposed to moisture.
compound.
Semiconducting Jackets
Jacket Configurations The use of insulating jackets on direct-buried
There are two main physical arrangements for cable improves most performance characteristics,
cable jackets. The first significant jacket configu- with one major exception. Use of an insulating
ration is the encapsulating jacket. This arrange- jacket deprives the concentric neutral of its con-
ment surrounds the concentric neutral conductors ductive contact with the surrounding earth,
with the jacketing compound. The jacket is ex- thereby relegating all system neutral grounding
truded directly over the concentric neutral strands. to driven rods or other electrodes installed along
The jacket material fills all areas between con- the circuit route. To improve cable grounding
centric neutral strands and establishes close con- with its attendant benefits, a semiconducting
tact with the semiconducting insulation shield. cable jacket was introduced. The jacket consists
Adequate jacket thickness is placed over the of a semiconducting compound that is extruded
outside of the strands to minimize the chance of in an encapsulating jacket (embedded neutral)
strand exposure during installation. The advan- configuration. The constructed cable has a radial
tage of this encapsulated neutral design is that resistivity of less than 100 meter-ohms and is,
no spaces exist between neutral strands to allow therefore, comparable to the conductivity of
movement of moisture along the cable. There- most soils. This ensures neutral-to-earth current
fore, any penetration will allow moisture in only transfer comparable to that of a BCN design.
one small spot, and probably will expose only The improvement of conductivity provided by
one neutral strand at this location. Limiting semiconducting jackets between the concentric
moisture exposure to only one strand of the neutral and the surrounding earth is a significant
concentric neutral will reduce the potential for improvement in overall UD system design. How-
loss of neutral continuity. ever, there are some disadvantages to the semi-
The second jacket configuration is an ex- conducting jackets. These disadvantages are
truded jacket that overlays the metallic shield or principally associated with the greater moisture
concentric neutral. In this arrangement, the transmission rate of the semiconducting polyeth-
jacket is often separated from the tape shield, ylene compound. The first semiconducting jackets
2
had moisture transmission rates approximately deterioration of interconnected steel is not a sig-
12 times that of LLDPE. At that level, moisture nificant problem.
could penetrate the jacket and collect adjacent In summary, utilities should carefully consider
to the concentric neutral strands. There the all aspects of the system performance before in-
moisture had the potential to serve as an elec- stalling semiconducting jackets on direct-buried
trolyte, forming a galvanic cell between the cop- cable. Though the advantage of lower system re-
per neutral and the carbon in the semiconduct- sistance to remote earth is desirable and immedi-
ing jacket. This could result in deterioration of ate, the potential subtle negative effects are long-
the neutral. Another aspect of the semiconduct- term and may have an effect on the useful life of
ing jacketed cable design concerns the possibili- the cable. The utility should consider the partic-
ty of mechanical damage to the jacket during in- ular circumstances of the proposed installation
stallation, exposing the neutral conductors di- conditions and weigh the merits of each cable
rectly to the soil. In this case, there is the poten- jacket option.
tial for the galvanic attack to be more severe be-
cause the ratio of exposed surface areas of the Cable Jacket Marking
carbon to copper is much greater. External marking of jacketed cable is necessary
There also previously existed concern that the and serves three major purposes. The first is to
galvanic cell existing between the semiconduct- provide information on the cable’s characteris-
ing jacket and interconnected subterranean steel tics. The conductor size, type and thickness of
objects might be detrimental to the steel. Examples insulation, and voltage rating must be included.
of such objects are anchors, telephone pedestals, The manufacturer’s name and the year of manu-
and water piping. Tests have been conducted facture must also be included. All these mark-
by NEETRAC to demonstrate that accelerated ings must be durable and indented into (or
embossed onto) the jacket.
The second purpose is to make individual
cable identification and accounting easier by ap-
Printed Data
plying sequential footage markers to the outside
Clear Space of the jacket. These markings should be applied
with the general cable information listed above.
These markings, along with reel label data, tell
3H 3H 3H
the installer how much cable remains on a reel.
The sequential footage markings also help iden-
tify a particular cable that may be exposed in the
H
midpoint of a multiconductor run.
The third important purpose of external mark-
Symbol for Communication Cable
ings is to identify JCN cables as high-voltage ca-
Printed Data bles. If unmarked, JCN cables are indistinguish-
able from jacketed communications cables. This
Clear Space
difference must be made clear to personnel of
all utilities. Previous efforts have involved the
3H 3H 3H application of three red stripes in the cable sur-
face. Other schemes have used various patterns
of raised ribs on the cable surface. To assist in
H
solving this problem, the NESC (ANSI Standard
C2) requires that all electric supply cables have a
Symbol for Supply Cable standard lightning bolt symbol included in the
H = Height of printed characters; determined by cable manufacturer external marking. This symbol is illustrated in
Figure 2.10. As with all other exterior markings,
FIGURE 2.10: Cable Identification Markings. Source: ANSI/IEEE C2 it must be durable and indented into (or em-
(NESC).
bossed onto) the cable surface.
7 4 – Se c t i on 2
2
Cable Acquisition of satisfactory cable starts with being considered. These requirements can range
Specification preparing an adequate specification document from routine cable purchases for use in small-ca-
and Purchasing that fully describes the cable needed. As the pacity, single-phase extensions to specialized ca-
preceding topics in this section have shown, bles for substation feeder exits, underwater
there are many options from which to choose. installations, or other unusual applications.
The specification must describe the following: Appendix E contains sample specifications for
primary cable. Appendix E addresses cables with
• The cable that will best fulfill system both EPR and TR-XLPE insulation. These specifi-
requirements, cations incorporate many of the features that have
• The quality control tests that are expected been discussed and recommended in this man-
during and after manufacture, and ual. Appendix E shows features to include in
• The packaging and shipping methods specifications for the purchase of single-conduc-
to be used. tor, medium-voltage cable suitable for rural sys-
tems. These specifications are compatible with,
In short, all items of importance to the pur- and in some cases exceed, the requirements of
chaser must be described either directly or pending RUS Bulletin 1728F-U1. Because these
through reference to other industry-standard are general specifications, they are particularly
specifications. oriented toward the routine cable purchase.
Reference to industry-standard specifications These specifications may not include special fea-
can greatly simplify the specification-writing tures needed in a particular project. Therefore,
process for both the purchaser and the supplier. the engineer must closely review these specifica-
Perhaps the most notable examples of widely tions and change them as needed to meet any
accepted U.S. cable specifications are those pre- unusual requirements of a particular project.
pared under the auspices of the ANSI/ICEA. Appendix C is a sample specification for sec-
ANSI/ICEA Specification S-94-649 covers cables ondary single-conductor and triplex cables. Three
insulated with thermoplastic, cross-linked, and types of insulation are included: standard cross-
ethylene propylene rubber. This specification is linked polyethylene, ruggedized cross-linked poly-
for shielded cables rated five through 46 kV. ethylene, and self-sealing insulated cables. Be-
Within these specifications, there are references cause many secondary cable failures are caused
to various detailed specifications, such as National by insulation cuts during installation, these
Equipment Manufacturers Association and ASTM tougher insulations are required for reliability. The
specifications. use of ruggedized secondary cable is recommend-
Another major specification that affects rural ed. Self-sealing secondary cables contain a viscous
electric cooperatives is RUS Bulletin 1728F-U1. material between the outer layer of conductor
The RUS U1 specification makes extensive refer- strands and the inner surface of the insulation.
ence to ANSI/ICEA Specification S-94-649-2000. When the insulation is disrupted, the viscous in-
U1 is oriented specifically to UD cables up to sulating material flows into the cut and restores
35 kV and optional semiconducting outer jack- the integrity of the insulation. This stops the en-
ets. As of the writing of this manual, this RUS trance of moisture into the cable and arrests the
Bulletin 1728F-U1 is still pending final approval. progress of the typical secondary cable failure.
Compliance with these commonly accepted
electric industry specifications assures the pur- TYPICAL SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
chaser that the manufacturers will be familiar There are certain areas in which purchasers
with the general requirements and should have commonly change the specifications to meet
designs and quality control procedures in place their particular needs.
to meet the purchaser’s needs.
Neutral Size
SAMPLE CABLE SPECIFICATIONS One item that affects both the initial and the op-
The first step when buying any cable is to deter- erating costs of an underground cable is the con-
mine the specific requirements of the project centric neutral conductivity. If the neutral selected
2
for three-phase installations is too large, both problems with cables caused by the low temper-
the initial cost and the circulating current losses atures. To lessen these problems, the specifier
will be higher. However, on single-phase instal- can insert a section requiring a cold bend quali-
lations, a larger concentric neutral is needed to fication test. This test will indicate the probability
carry the neutral return current that may be near the cable will fail during bending or movement
the magnitudes of the current in the energized at low temperatures. It is not a measure of cable
conductor. On single-phase installations, a re- flexibility. In most cases where the cable operat-
duced neutral capacity could produce higher ing temperature is always above -17°C (0°F),
neutral-to-earth voltages and higher losses be- cable bending problems are not significant.
cause of the lower conductivity of the neutral
conductor. Conceivably, the reduced-capacity Feeder Cable Shielding
neutral could even be thermally overloaded as Section 4 of this manual shows that high-capac-
the cable approaches normal rated capacity. ity three-phase cable installations incur much
For these reasons, RUS requires a full-capacity higher losses when high-conductivity concentric
neutral in single-phase installations and allows a neutrals are used. Induced currents that circulate
one-third (or greater) capacity concentric neutral between the neutrals of the three phases cause
on three-phase cable installations. This approach these losses. Lower conductivity neutral/shield
ensures that there will be concentric neutral con- arrangements reduce these losses. Such arrange-
ductivity at least equal to the phase conductor ments not only can reduce the economic loss as-
conductivity in both single-phase and three- sociated with circulating currents, but also can
phase installations. The cooperative engineer increase cable ampacity by cutting the amount
should consider the typical use of the cable that of heat generated in the neutral/shield. Substa-
is being bought when deciding whether to use tion exits or other large feeders generally have
full-capacity or reduced-capacity neutrals. better load balance with lower neutral currents.
Therefore, reduced concentric neutrals will have
Length adequate thermal capacity, especially if they are
Each purchaser will have different requirements supplemented by a separate neutral conductor.
for the length of cable on reels to use on routine Where a high-capacity feeder is being installed,
installations. Requirements will vary with terrain, the engineer should give particular attention to
the type of equipment used to install cables, and the size of the neutral and/or shield specified on
the typical distance between termination points. the cable.
The cables should be bought in the longest The engineer must also check the magnitude
lengths practical for the field crews to use so as and duration of fault currents on the system when
to leave less scrap at the reel ends. Constraining selecting a particular neutral/shield arrangement.
factors will be the width and diameter of reels Fault current duration is usually not a problem
that the cable transport and installation equip- on 200-amp-class single-phase circuits because
ment can accommodate. full-capacity neutrals are used and circuit reclos-
The cooperative engineer must also consider ing is not a factor. However, the other extreme is
the weight of the full reel when deciding on the substation feeder exit cables where there is a de-
standard reel size. As with all other aspects, it is sire to reduce neutral capacity to minimize circu-
helpful to select the same maximum reel sizes lating current losses and increase ampacity. In
that other cooperatives choose, especially if these locations, the fault currents are higher,
there is a group purchase arrangement. Doing overcurrent protective devices operate more
so makes stocking easier for manufacturers and slowly, and reclosing is often used. All these ele-
distributors and consequently reduces the cost ments contribute to higher neutral/shield tem-
for the cooperative. peratures under cable fault conditions. The neu-
tral/shield component of underground substation
Cold Weather Bending feeder exit cables and express feeders must also
Utilities operating underground systems in cold carry fault currents for all down-line faults. An
climates have experienced a variety of flexibility additional neutral conductor located in the same
7 6 – Se c t i on 2
2
trench or conduit with the insulated cables can cable purchases to review factory production and
supplement this capability. The engineer should testing procedures. To be effective, an individual
pay particular attention to this set of conditions familiar with cable production and testing meth-
when selecting a reduced neutral size. ods must be present. Because the expense of this
observation is essentially the same for large or
CABLE PURCHASING PRACTICES small orders, large orders greatly reduce the incre-
Vendor Prequalification mental unit cost for observation. Moreover, with
Because cable is one of the keys to a reliable group purchasing, there is a greater chance that
and cost-effective underground distribution sys- a staff engineer from one member of the group
tem and some types of cable defects are not ob- will have (or be able to develop) the expertise
vious at the time of manufacture and will be necessary to effectively perform this function.
recognized only years later, all cable needs to be Group purchasing and larger orders will al-
manufactured by reliable producers. It is in the ways lead to a lower unit price. Because all the
cooperative’s best interest to review the qualifi- cable bought under a group plan will be accord-
cations of vendors and select those that have a ing to a single specification and of the same
proven capability to produce a high-quality in- construction, the manufacturer can achieve
sulated conductor. economies through the following:
Prequalification of vendors ensures that all
parties quoting on a cable order have a proven • Volume purchases of required material;
ability to produce a high-quality cable meeting a • Longer, more efficient runs in wire drawing
particular specification. Prequalification avoids operation;
situations in which a vendor with questionable • Longer, more efficient runs in cable extrusion
qualifications submits an unrealistically low price. operation; and
Under these circumstances, the utility is typically • Wider distribution of fixed costs associated
required to honor the bid, which may lead to with a single order.
additional long-term cost through premature
cable failure. It is only logical that if most of the Group purchasing of large cable quantities has
utility industry is carefully prequalifying vendors, a minimum effect on delivery practices. Manufac-
those found unqualified by others will have turers will usually ship parts of the larger order to
lower prices and better lead times because of destinations specified by group members at no
lower demand for their products. This possibility extra cost. In some cases, groups have negotiated
makes it even more important to participate in warehousing arrangements with manufacturers
an effective vendor prequalification program. for release of cable on a designated schedule
throughout a year. This arrangement reduces the
Group Purchase cash flow burden on the cooperative. It also
One way to simultaneously improve cable prices gives the manufacturer additional flexibility by
and quality is to engage in group purchasing of allowing the major production runs to be sched-
cable. This practice has several advantages to uled at more convenient times.
both the vendor and the cooperative. Another advantage to group purchasing on a
Larger quantities (more than 50,000 feet) often standardized specification is the feasibility of
lead to better overall quality control. During the having a single distribution point where the
initial part of a cable manufacturing run, larger group maintains a cable stock. The ability to re-
orders mean that the front and tail ends of a par- ceive large orders coupled with reduced ware-
ticular run can be scrapped. This additional cost house space requirements at the individual
for nonqualifying material is then spread over a group members’ sites may make this approach
larger order, thereby reducing the unit price. reasonable in some cases. This option is particu-
Active quality control is an important part of larly attractive when group purchase and stock-
any utility purchasing program. This quality con- ing of other utility materials is also practiced.
trol should include factory visits during major
2
Cable Acceptance After a cooperative has analyzed its cable needs, STEP 3. CHECK DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE
written a comprehensive specification, and fol- Make a simple measurement of basic cable di-
lowed good purchasing procedures, one critical mensions on one reel of each cable size in a
step remains before installation can begin. This shipment to confirm that labeling is correct.
step is the acceptance and inspection of the Measure these dimensions:
cable delivered by the manufacturer. Cable ac-
ceptance involves several simple and inexpen- • Conductor size and stranding,
sive steps that can yield big dividends. The • Insulation thickness,
cooperative engineer must follow these steps to • Concentric neutral wire size and number of
make sure that a quality product is delivered to strands, and
installation crews. • Jacket thickness.
STEP 1. VISUALLY INSPECT FOR Section 11, Cable Testing, gives further infor-
SHIPMENT DAMAGE mation on allowable dimensional tolerances.
Visually inspect cable reels for any damage that
may have occurred in transit. Signs of possible STEP 4. CONDUCT CABLE
damage include impressions or nicks on the out- ACCEPTANCE TESTING
side layer of cable or the reel lagging. If possi- Once on each order or once for each 50,000 feet
ble, this inspection should take place while reels of cable, the cooperative should conduct a com-
are still on the delivery vehicle. plete set of dimensional and electrical perfor-
mance tests on the cable to make sure it
STEP 2. CHECK TAGS complies with the purchase specifications and
Visually check each reel to determine that it has referenced industry standards. These tests in-
proper tags and labels as described in the speci- clude the following:
fications. Make sure that information on the reel
tags agrees with purchase-order information. For • Conductor shield resistivity test;
example, be sure that wire size, insulation thick- • Insulation shield resistivity test;
ness, neutral configuration, and jacket descrip- • Dimensional analysis of all components;
tion all conform to the specifications and • Microscopic examination for voids, contami-
purchase order. Cable length should fall within nants, and shield interface protrusions; and
the bounds described by the purchase order. If • Insulation shield stripping test.
cable was ordered cut to specific lengths, the
engineer should check the tag and sequential An outside laboratory will need to help with
jacket markings (if available) to be sure that these tests. Section 11 gives additional informa-
enough length is available for the required run. tion on these tests.
Summary and Cable systems are one of the most important 4. All stranded conductors should have strand
Recommendations parts of any underground system. Special care filling in interstices to eliminate longitudinal
must be used in selecting both primary and sec- moisture migration.
ondary cables. Some important points follow: 5. Modern TR-XLPE or EPR cables offer relia-
bility superior to that of earlier cables of
1. JCN cable must be used for most underground HMWPE or XLPE.
installations. Insulating jackets are preferred. 6. Vendor quality control and manufacturing
2. Aluminum central conductors are the econom- cleanliness are essential to the production
ical choice for most underground situations. of reliable cable.
3. Solid conductors up to No. 2/0 AWG may 7. In heavily loaded three-phase circuits, re-
be used to eliminate longitudinal moisture duced neutrals will cut losses caused by cir-
migration. culating neutral currents. Reduced neutrals
7 8 – Se c t i on 2
2
will also increase circuit ampacity, particularly 9. Initial cost, cost of dielectric losses, and
where phases are separated. cable life expectancy must be evaluated
8. A comprehensive cable specification must when making purchasing decisions.
be used and received materials inspected
for compliance.
Underground System Section a l iz i n g – 7 9
3 Underground System
Sectionalizing
In This Section: General Sectionalizing Philosophy Selection of Underground

Overcurrent Protection of Cable System Sectionalizing Equipment
Effect of Inrush Current on Faulted Circuit Indicators

Sectionalizing Devices Summary and Recommendations
General The final design and continuous reliable perfor- fault current and is at its maximum level during
Sectionalizing mance of an electrical distribution system depend the first few cycles when the asymmetrical fault
Philosophy on many engineering elements. Protective device is at a maximum. The ability of system compo-
coordination, overcurrent protection, overvoltage nents to withstand mechanical stress is mainly a
protection, voltage regulation, and service conti- function of design. Where the maximum avail-
nuity are just a few of the elements that are incor- able fault exceeds the withstand capability of
porated. This section addresses the coordination the system component, the only solutions are
of overcurrent protective devices in underground the following:
distribution systems and the coordination of these
protective devices with protective devices on in- • Replace the component with a heavier
terconnected overhead portions of the system. duty unit,
This section is not intended to provide a com- • Modify the circuit configuration to reduce
prehensive procedure for planning and operating the maximum available fault, or
a protection program. Furthermore, the procedure • Use current-limiting protective devices to
for calculating system fault current is beyond the reduce the let-through current.
scope of this section. An excellent reference for
designing protection systems and calculating Thermal stress is a function of the energy
faults is Electrical Distribution System Protection released in a system component during a fault
by Cooper Power Systems (1990). Many excel- that results in rapid heat buildup. The magni-
lent computer programs are also available for tude of energy involved is proportional to current
fault current calculation. squared multiplied by time (I2t). The traditional
approach to reducing thermal damage is to re-
PURPOSE OF SECTIONALIZING duce the amount of time a fault is allowed to
Limit Magnitude of Damage and Injury exist through the careful selection of protective
Short-circuit currents subject a system to both devices and device settings. Where maximum
mechanical and thermal stress. Mechanical stress fault levels are so high that the operating time
begins at the same time as the initiation of the of the protective device must be reduced to an
8 0 – Se c t i on 3
3
impracticably short interval, coordinated properly, the fault
then current-limiting devices Optimize reliability by location should be between
can be used to reduce the fault the device that has operated
current and the duration. sizing equipment for and the next load-side device.
maximum faults and If the maximum number of
Contain Fault Damage protective devices that can
One objective of protective
using enough feasibly be installed are used,
equipment is to limit damage protective devices. the length of line between de-
at the actual fault site. It is vices will be relatively short.
often impossible or impractical This design approach will re-
to completely eliminate its oc- strict the amount of line that
currence. Through the use of protective devices, must be searched for a fault. Thoughtful place-
fault current magnitude and fault duration are ment of devices will also help locate faults. For
reduced. This reduces, but may not eliminate, example, consider a point at which three taps
damage to the rest of the system from through- branch off a circuit. If a fuse were placed in the
fault currents. Thus, most damage is contained main circuit just before the taps branch off, op-
within the actual location of the fault. eration of the fuse would show that a fault had
occurred in one of the three taps but it would
Maximize System Reliability not show which specific tap. However, if a fuse
and Power Quality were placed at the beginning of each of the
Adherence to the following guidelines will maxi- three branches, operation of one of the fuses
mize system reliability. would show which of the three taps contained
the fault. Installing the additional fuses in this
• Purchase system components that will with- situation would also improve consumer reliabil-
stand maximum calculated through-fault ity by reducing the number of consumers inter-
currents. rupted by a fault.
• Locate and size protective devices so the Of course, there are practical limitations on
smallest possible portion of the system is de- the number and location of devices that can be
energized for a permanent fault. placed on a circuit. The judicious use of fault in-
• Size protective devices so they do not perma- dicators between protective devices will help
nently open for temporary faults. This pinpoint a fault location. The application of fault
guideline applies mainly to overhead portions indicators is presented later in this section. Fault
of a system, as faults on underground systems indicators are especially useful where a circuit
are usually permanent. may sometimes be backfed. In this situation,
protective devices may not co-
Additional reliability may be ordinate properly and more
achieved for critical loads by than one device may operate
use of an automatic transfer Wise placement of during a fault. Wisely placed
switching arrangement. These protective devices fault indicators would be espe-
arrangements are expensive cially useful to narrow down
and require two or more inde- and indicators will aid the fault location.
pendent sources of power. in locating faults and
OVERVIEW OF FAULTS
minimizing outage
Aid in Determining The IEEE Standard Dictionary
Fault Location size and duration. of Electrical and Electronics
Proper coordination and place- Terms (2000) lists several
ment of protective devices will different definitions of the
help system operators deter- word fault. The first two
mine a fault location. If protective devices are definitions listed are relevant here:
Underground System Section al iz i n g – 8 1
3
• “A wire or cable fault is a partial or total other system components, causing damage
local failure in the insulation or continuity within a fraction of a second.
of a conductor.” • The abnormal low-impedance path can
• “A component fault is the physical condition include nonutility property or human beings,
that causes a device, a component, or an ele- causing damage, injury, and even fatalities.
ment to fail to perform in a required manner;
for example, a short circuit, a broken wire, or Causes of Faults
an intermittent connection.” Causes of common mechanical failures of under-
ground cables are dig-ins, rodent damage, and
All faults within these two definitions fall improper handling and installation. This last
within one of two major categories: an open cir- cause includes sharp bending of cable, excessive
cuit or a short circuit. An open circuit is any cir- pulling force during installation, driving vehicles
cuit in which the normal continuity of the circuit over laid cable, walking on cable in a trench,
is interrupted. The IEEE dictionary defines a placing or leaving rocks in a position to cause
short circuit as “an abnormal connection (includ- future cable damage, and allowing nails in reels
ing an arc) of relatively low impedance, whether to damage cable. Principal causes of electrical
made accidentally or intentionally, between two faults to underground systems include lightning,
points of a different potential.” Within the same insulation treeing, and thermal insulation failure
definition, there is a note that the term fault or caused by overloading.
short-circuit fault is used to describe a short cir- In addition, during single-phase faults on
cuit. three-phase circuits, the phase-to-neutral voltage
Open circuits typically do not lead to damage on the two unfaulted phases can sometimes in-
to the electrical system. In addition, normally crease to a level that can approach the normal
available protective sectionalizing devices used phase-to-phase voltage. This increased voltage
on electrical distribution systems do not typically on the unfaulted phases stresses the insulation
detect open circuits. Frequently, the word fault and can lead to failure. Failure of splices and el-
is associated with its short-circuit definition only, bows is also either electrical or mechanical fail-
and is used interchangeably for short circuit. ure, depending on the cause.
Throughout the rest of this section, the word For a comparison of the sectionalizing of
fault will be used to mean short circuit. Al- overhead and underground systems, it is useful
though protective relays that detect open circuits to examine the many causes of faults on over-
to some degree are available (and others are head distribution lines. Some of the more com-
currently being developed), they are outside the mon causes are:
scope of this section.
• Lightning,
Description of Faults • Squirrels or large birds,
Some of the phenomena associated with a fault • Extreme weather conditions,
are listed below. • Tree limbs or trees falling on the lines, and
• Vehicular damage.
• Very little current flows past a fault point,
leading to loss of service to loads beyond Although the intent of this section is to focus on
the fault. the protection of underground systems, overhead
• Voltage at the fault and beyond decreases lines in many instances are connected either on
significantly. The voltage between the the source side or, less frequently, on the load side
generation source and the fault decreases of underground lines. In these cases, the protective
proportionally to the inverse of the line devices often protect mixed line sections. Also, un-
impedance. derground devices on systems served by over-
• Faults typically lead to current levels that head feeders must coordinate with those devices
exceed the thermal rating of conductor and protecting the overhead portions of the system.
8 2 – Se c t i on 3
3
Symmetrical Versus Asymmetrical Faults time within a cycle that the short circuit occurs.
The terms symmetrical currents and asymmetri- If the fault is initiated during a voltage peak,
cal currents refer to the symmetry of the peaks then the resulting fault current will be totally
of the current waves about the zero current line. symmetrical. If the fault is initiated near a volt-
A symmetrical current is symmetrical about the age zero, then the initial fault current will be
zero current line, as shown in Figure 3.1. Such highly asymmetrical. As the point on the voltage
current symmetry would typically be found in a curve moves from the voltage zero point to the
system under normal operating conditions. Dur- maximum voltage point, the degree of current
ing an asymmetrical current, the current wave is asymmetry decreases accordingly.
not symmetrical about the zero current line and The other consideration that affects the de-
can be completely above or below the zero line. gree of asymmetry of a fault current is the reac-
Figure 3.2 shows a typical current curve immedi- tance/resistance (X/R) ratio of the equivalent
ately before and after a fault initiation. As the impedance circuit at the fault location. A high
curve shows, the current is symmetrical before X/R ratio means the inductance of the circuit is
the fault initiation. Immediately after the fault greater than the resistance. The higher the X/R
initiation, the current is asymmetrical for approx- ratio is, the greater the asymmetry of the initial
imately the first three cycles before returning to fault current is, all other conditions being con-
a symmetrical waveform. stant. Using a standard symmetrical component
The degree of asymmetry in the current curve notation, Equation 3.1 shows the X/R ratio for a
immediately after the initiation of a fault de- three-phase fault. Equation 3.2 shows the X/R
pends on two considerations. The first is the ratio for a single-phase fault. The positive se-
quence impedance data (X1 and R1) and zero se-
quence impedance data (X0 and R0) should be
available from a system fault study.
Equation 3.1
Three-Phase Fault
X
Ratio = X1 ÷ R1
R
FIGURE 3.1: Symmetrical Current.
where: X1 = Positive sequence reactance
R1 = Positive sequence resistance
Total Asymmetrical Current
DC Component
AD Component
Equation 3.2
Single-Phase Fault
X
Ratio = [(2 × X1) + X0] ÷ [(2 × R1) + R0]
R
where: X1 = Positive sequence reactance

R1 = Positive sequence resistance
FIGURE 3.2: Asymmetrical Short-Circuit X0 = Zero sequence reactance
Current. R0 = Zero sequence resistance
3
TABLE 3.1: Multiplying Factors to Determine symmetrical current interrupting rating and a
Asymmetrical Fault Currents Where corresponding maximum X/R ratio for the circuit
Symmetrical Fault Currents Are Known. in question. Likewise, switches and sectionaliz-
ers will have a close-and-latch rating expressed
X/R Ratio “Maximum RMS” Factor as amperes symmetrical with a maximum X/R ra-
for 1/2 Cycle, Mrms* tio. The asymmetrical rating is based on the rms
1.0 1.002 (root mean square) value of the maximum asym-
metrical fault during the first half cycle of fault
1.5 1.015
current. The X/R rating shows that the device is
2.0 1.042 able to successfully interrupt or close into the
maximum asymmetrical fault current expected
2.5 1.078
for a system with the following:
3.0 1.116
4.0 1.189
• A maximum available fault current less than
or equal to the symmetrical current rating of
5.0 1.253 the device, and
6.0 1.305 • An X/R ratio less than or equal to the rating of
the device.
8.0 1.383
10.0 1.438 Where an X/R ratio is used to show the maxi-
mum asymmetrical interrupting rating of a de-
15.0 1.522 vice, this value is usually fairly conservative. In
20.0 1.569 other words, most distribution system X/R ratios
would be expected to be less than the rating of
40.0 1.646
this device and fall within its capabilities. Table
100.0 1.697 3.1 should be useful where devices are rated in
asymmetrical currents or where devices are rated
* Multiply per-phase symmetrical rms short-circuit
current by Mrms to obtain momentary per-phase in maximum X/R ratios and the actual X/R ratio
asymmetrical rms fault current. exceeds the rated value.
EXAMPLE 3.1: Device Rated in Maximum

The rate at which a fault current decays from Asymmetrical Current Capacity.
its asymmetrical waveform to an essentially sym-
metrical waveform also depends on the X/R The calculated maximum symmetrical fault on a sys-
ratio. A circuit that has a low X/R ratio (one that tem is 8,000 amperes. The X/R ratio at this location is
is mostly resistive) will decay very quickly. A cir- 10 and the fuse being considered for this location has
cuit with a high X/R ratio (one that is highly in- a symmetrical interrupting rating of 8,600 amperes
ductive) will take much longer to decay. and an asymmetrical interrupting rating of 12,000 am-
Typical protective devices such as fuses, break- peres. The multiplying factor Mrms is 1.438 for an X/R
ers, and reclosers are rated in maximum sym- ratio of 10.0. The maximum asymmetrical fault for this
metrical fault-interrupting capability, although location is 1.438 × 8,000 amperes, or 11,504 am-
some fuses may be rated for maximum asym- peres. The maximum symmetrical fault of 8,000 in this
metrical fault-interrupting capability. In addition, location is less than the interrupting rating of 8,600
they will have either a maximum asymmetrical amperes, and the maximum asymmetrical fault of
current interrupting capability or a maximum 11,504 amperes is less than the asymmetrical inter-
rupting rating of 12,000 amperes; therefore, the de-
vice is acceptable.
8 4 – Se c t i on 3
3
transformers operating in parallel if such an
EXAMPLE 3.2. Device Rated for Maximum Circuit X/R Ratio.
arrangement is possible and usual.
In this application, the location being considered has a maximum available sym- • A bolted fault (both three-phase and phase-to-
metrical fault current of 2,500 amperes with an X/R ratio of 20. The device being ground) is applied at each location to be
considered is a recloser with a maximum interrupting rating of 3,000 amperes evaluated. A bolted fault has zero fault resis-
symmetrical and a maximum circuit X/R ratio of 12. The Mrms factor for the cir- tance (or reactance).
cuit X/R ratio of 20 is 1.569. The Mrms factor of 1.569 times the maximum sym-
metrical fault current of 2,500 amperes yields a maximum asymmetrical fault The system engineer should take some pre-
current for the circuit of 3,922. Although Table 3.1 does not list an X/R ratio of 12, cautions when calculating maximum faults:
interpolation can be used to calculate an Mrms factor, which, although not exact,
will be within acceptable limits.
• Do not calculate maximum faults for system
configurations that cannot actually exist
Equation 3.3
because of operating restrictions.
Mrms for X/R of 12 = • When determining the interrupting capability
of devices, use the maximum expected fault,
(12 – 10)
× (1.522 – 1.438) + 1.438 = 1.4716 even if it would occur only under unusual or
(15 – 10) emergency conditions.
• When considering the coordination of
devices, calculate the maximum fault under
The Mrms value of 1.4716 × 3,000 amperes symmetrical equals an asymmetri-
cal interrupting rating of 4,415 amperes. The maximum fault conditions of 2,500 normal conditions. In other words, devices
amperes symmetrical and 3,922 amperes asymmetrical are less than the device should be coordinated under normal system
ratings. Therefore, the recloser is acceptable. If the circuit’s X/R ratio had been configuration. It may not be possible to coor-
12 or less, there would have been no need to calculate the respective asym- dinate devices under emergency conditions
metrical fault current. (such as when a circuit is backfed from a
nearby substation).
• Calculate both maximum three-phase and
Maximum Available Fault phase-to-ground faults. This must be done be-
The maximum available fault current is used to cause phase-to-ground faults typically exceed
determine if the interrupting capacity of a device three-phase faults in and near delta-to-wye-
is adequate. The maximum connected substation trans-
fault current is also the current formers, whereas three-phase
magnitude at which the coor- Maximum available faults typically exceed phase-
dination of devices is checked to-ground faults further out on
fault current should
for adequate time clearance. the circuit. Furthermore, some
Maximum faults should be cal- be used to check devices have different operat-
culated for both three-phase interrupting ratings. ing characteristics for phase-
faults and single-phase-to- to-ground faults than for three-
ground faults. Maximum faults phase faults. Another reason
are calculated using those con- for calculating both types of
ditions that will lead to the maximum available faults is that most systems have single-phase
faults. Typical conditions are as follows: taps for which only phase-to-ground faults
should be used when devices are coordinated.
• The maximum fault is available from the power When coordinating devices on vee-phase lines,
supplier. In this case, the power supplier is calculate phase-to-phase-to-ground faults.
operating its system with maximum generation
and with its transmission system intercon- Minimum Available Fault
nected to result in a maximum available fault. The term minimum available fault current does
• Substation transformers and buses are inter- not accurately describe the desired value. The
connected to produce the maximum available actual minimum fault current on any circuit ap-
fault. A common example is two substation proaches zero. For example, if a broken conductor
3
falls on dry sand or a dead, bone-dry tree, the imum faults, with 10 ohms giving more conserva-
effective fault resistance approaches infinity, tive results. Where circuits are composed of inter-
causing a fault that approaches zero amperes. connected sections of underground and overhead,
However, the concept of a minimum fault cur- it may be necessary to make two sets of fault cal-
rent actually involves calculating the minimum culations using the underground fault resistance in
fault current that can be expected during most one run and the overhead fault resistance in the
of the faults on a system. The variables that typi- other run. It is also important to note that site
cally affect the calculated minimum fault are the conditions vary widely between utilities and
following: within each distribution system. This variability
should always be considered when determining
• Available fault current from the source the system standard protection parameters.
utility or transmission system, which is
mainly controlled by the amount of genera- DESIRABLE LOCATIONS FOR
tion online and the transmission system SECTIONALIZING DEVICES
and bus configuration; Beginning of UD Cable
• The configuration of the distribution system It is normally desirable to place sectionalizing
and substation buses; and devices at the beginning of underground cables,
• The fault resistance, which is the resistance that is, any location where a transition from over-
between the faulted conductor and the return head to underground cable takes place or in a
path that must be added to the known imped- substation or step-down transformer where the
ances of the source, transformers, circuit, and underground circuit originates (see Figure 3.3).
other system components. Doing so will minimize restoration time and
help distinguish between overhead and under-
Although the effects of the first two variables ground faults.
should not be discounted, they frequently either Faults on overhead lines are usually temporary
do not vary significantly from the maximum and are best protected by reclosing devices such
fault configuration or are not available in the as breakers or reclosers. Since faults on under-
minimum fault configuration. The third variable ground lines are usually permanent; they are best
(fault resistance) usually has the greatest influ- protected by nonreclosing devices such as fuses.
ence on the difference between the maximum Of course, there are exceptions to this recom-
and minimum faults. mendation, such as where a circuit is mostly
Many field measurements made on utility sys- overhead with a short section of underground
tems in the 1930s were used to develop a plot of (for instance, under a river, highway, transmission
apparent fault resistances versus a percentage of line, or airport glide path). Coordinating a fuse
faults at that resistance level. The results showed with in-line reclosers on the source side and the
that the median level of fault load side of the fuse might be
resistance was 25 ohms and impossible. In this case, re-
the average level was 35 duced protection of the under-
ohms. A commonly used value
Reclosing is not an ground line section is more
of fault resistance for overhead advantage on a totally desirable than frequent opera-
circuits is 40 ohms. For substa- underground system, tion of the fuse caused by tem-
tions of greater than 5,000-kVA porary faults on the load-side
base capacity operated in the as most faults are overhead line.
15-kV distribution class, a val- permanent. To compensate for the re-
ue of 30 ohms is often used. duced protection of the under-
These values are for faults that ground line section, the engi-
occur on the overhead portion of the system. For neer could design the system with a spare cable
faults on underground systems with concentric (or cables), install the primary cable in conduit,
neutrals or metallic shields, some parties recom- or both. This reduces the time needed to restore
mend a value of zero to 10 ohms to calculate min- service in case of a failed cable.
8 6 – Se c t i on 3
3
N.O.
Main
Substation
115 kV–12.5/7.2 kV
GRD WYE 10 miles from
Main Substation
5 miles from
Main Substation
N.O.
To Next Substation
N.C. N.C.
N.O. N.C.
N.O.
Legend
Overhead Line
Underground Line
N.O.
Breaker or Recloser
Fuse
Distribution Transformer
Switch
N.C. – Normally Closed
N.O. – Normally Open
FIGURE 3.3: Sample Distribution Circuit with Typical Locations of Sectionalizing Devices Shown.
3
Another solution is to establish an alternate cause a blown fuse and an unnecessary out-
circuit route to the area that would allow the un- age and service call.
derground section to be de-energized for repair 4. A recloser or breaker installed at the begin-
or maintenance without extended loss of ser- ning of the underground line to coordinate
vice. Using properly installed fault indicators with the load-side recloser or breaker could
along with solid blade disconnects at each end lead to extensive cable damage during faults
of the cable will help operating personnel differ- internal to the cable system. There have also
entiate a cable fault from an overhead fault. been occurrences of self-clearing cable faults
that have allowed reclosing devices to reset
End of Underground Cable Where between arcing events, thereby substantially
Continued as Overhead prolonging the duration of faults on the
The general use of underground cable followed cable system and making cable damage
by a load-side overhead line, other than short much more extensive. This type of fault is
underground feeder exits at substations, opens typically caused by a concentric neutral that
up additional sectionalizing difficulties. Opti- is badly corroded or fault damaged. The
mum fault protection of such an arrangement is fault impedance would be quite high and
almost impossible to achieve, mainly because may require a significant time interval to es-
underground faults are usually permanent and tablish an arc after being extinguished.
can cause widespread damage to cable insula-
tion if not quickly and permanently interrupted. Taps Off Main Feeders and Sub-Feeders
On the other hand, overhead faults are usually Typically, it is desirable to install sectionalizing
temporary. Overhead lines can also be subjected devices at the beginning of taps off a main
to faults for longer periods without extensive feeder or sub-feeder. Such devices will prevent
damage. A summary of the problems associated service on the main feeder or sub-feeder from
with this type of arrangement follows. being interrupted if there is a fault on the tap.
This is also a good location because devices can
1. Underground lines are protected by fuses, be readily installed in the switching cabinet.
single-shot sectionalizers, and other single-
operation devices. Transformers
2. Overhead lines are protected by reclosers or Pad-mounted transformers must be fused to pro-
breakers that reclose two or three times. The tect the system from transformer failures and
purpose of reclosing is to test for the clear- secondary faults. It is necessary to keep fuse
ing of temporary faults. Reclosing is often sizes small enough to limit the energy and dura-
successful in avoiding a sustained outage. tion of any transformer fault that does occur.
When there is a permanent fault, the re- Proper transformer fusing reduces the chance of
closer or breaker will lock out after the third a transformer catastrophically failing.
or fourth interruption, or a downstream fuse
(or sectionalizer) will operate to isolate the Other Locations
permanent fault. Where long underground feeders exist, it may be
3. If a recloser or breaker is installed at the be- necessary to install in-line sectionalizing devices
ginning of an overhead line that is fed by an at one or more locations between the beginning
underground line, the underground line will and end of the feeder. This is particularly the
be subjected to multiple through-faults be- case where several heavily loaded taps are lo-
cause of the reclosing action of the recloser cated along the length of the feeder. A feeder
or breaker. The cumulative fault duration cable fault near the end of the feeder would in-
could lead to thermal damage of the cable terrupt service to only some, rather than all, of
and any fuse protecting the cable. Alterna- the taps. In-line sectionalizing is also recom-
tively, if the underground line is protected mended where the feeder is so long that the
by a fuse, then any temporary faults would maximum fault currents at the beginning and
8 8 – Se c t i on 3
3
end of the cable differ appreciably. In this in- of the cable. An in-line device should be sized
stance, the optimum device at the beginning of to operate for a lower fault than for the device
the cable might not operate for a fault at the end at the beginning of the cable.
Overcurrent PHASE CONDUCTOR AND and the cable jacket (see Figure 3.4). If maxi-
Protection of NEUTRAL PROTECTION mum through-faults fall below the levels shown
Cable System General Effects of Faults on Cable on the emergency operating temperature rating
Damage of underground cable because of fault graphs in Appendix F, then insulation damage
currents falls into two general categories. The should not occur.
first involves burning at the fault location. The
heat produced by the arc between the phase Current Paths
conductor and neutral, cable shield, or other re- During a fault, current will always flow from the
turn path can damage all cables and compo- source through the phase conductor to the fault
nents near the fault. The second category of location. The current can then return through
damage is that caused by a through-fault—that several paths with varying percentages of the
is, the fault current flowing through the cable current flowing in each path. These paths can
between the source and the fault location. This include the metallic shield, the concentric neutral,
through-fault current increases the temperature a separate ground wire, a metallic duct system,
of the phase conductor and concentric neutral and earth. Where jacketed cable is involved, the
or metallic shield. Although it may not damage fault current in the concentric neutral or metallic
the conductors, the elevated temperatures gen- shield may split and flow both toward the source
erated by the higher I2R losses can damage and in the opposite direction from the source
those cable materials that contact the metallic until it reaches external grounding connections.
conductors. Those materials include conductor
and insulation shields, the primary insulation, Short-Term Effects
Short-term effects of faults on cable typically in-
volve obvious burn damage around the fault. In
Phase Conductor severe faults, there may be enough thermal dam-
age from through-fault current to cause failure of
Jacket splices, elbows, transformer internal buses, and
cable. Poorly made splices and other connections
Concentric Neutral/
are especially susceptible to thermal damage.
Metallic Shield
Long-Term Effects
Insulation Shield Long-term effects of faults on cable include dete-
rioration of insulation, conductor and insulation
Insulation shields, splices, and fittings because of overheat-
ing or mechanical forces from large through-faults.
The exact effects on the various components vary;
Strand Shield
however, the potential results are the same. At
some point, one of these components may break
Strand Fill down as a result of normal voltage stress or nor-
mal load current, causing a fault. Another possi-
Locations Susceptible to bility is that, during a later fault, a component
Overheating Damage that was weakened during previous faults will
from Fault Currents
fail because of through-fault currents, leading to
FIGURE 3.4: Cross Section of Cable Showing Components Subject to failure at another location. If cables that have
Through-Fault Damage. been subjected to severe through-faults repeatedly
3
fail, all the cable may need to for commonly used sizes of
be replaced. Use thermal damage TR-XLPE or EPR aluminum ca-
bles. For the sample 3,000-am-
Application of Thermal curves when sizing pere short-circuit condition,
Damage Curve protective devices. the total clearing time of the
for Insulation System recloser falls well below the
The main effect on cable damage time of all the conduc-
caused by a through-fault is tor sizes shown.
damage to the conductor shield and main insu- If a more conservative approach is desired,
lation from the heating of the outer surface of the cables can be sized to protect against ex-
the conductor. In the process of sizing sectional- ceeding their emergency operating temperatures
izing devices to protect cable, thermal damage instead of the higher short-circuit temperature
curves must be developed for the cables in use ratings. There are several reasons for considering
on a system. Figures F.1, F.2, F.3, and F.4 of Ap- this more conservative approach. First, the cable
pendix F show maximum short-circuit currents may have been installed in a manner that re-
for insulated aluminum and copper conductor sulted in outside mechanical forces continuously
cables. The horizontal axis represents short-cir- acting on the cable. Examples of this would in-
cuit current and the vertical axis represents time clude rock backfill in the trench and residual
limitations. There are separate curves for differ- sidewall pressure in conduit sweeps.
ent conductor sizes. Figures F.3 and F.4 are Also, the temperature rise calculations used as
based on TR-XLPE or EPR insulation, each of the basis for the Appendix F curves consider only
which has a maximum short-circuit temperature current in the central conductor. Single-phase
of 250°C. The appropriate graph should be used faults through concentric neutral cable will have
to develop applicable thermal damage curves heat generated by both the inner central conduc-
for the size cables being used. These curves are tor and the outer concentric neutral. This will re-
very conservative; they make no allowance for sult in an insulation temperature higher than cal-
heat transfer through the conductor shield and culated by the standard equations. The emergency
insulation. When cable is protected with a fuse operating (or overload) temperature for XLPE,
or other nonreclosing device, the fuse total clear TR-XLPE, and EPR Classes I, II, and IV insula-
curve should fall to the left and below the ther- tions rated for 90°C normal operation is 130°C
mal damage curve. When a multiple-operation (266°F). The emergency overload temperature
device—such as a recloser—is used, the total for Class III XLPE, TR-XLPE, and EPR insulations
time to which a cable is subjected to a fault rated for 105°C is 140°C. Figures F.5 through F.8
should fall below the thermal damage curve. For show allowable fault current durations for the
example, if a 70-ampere Type “L” four-shot conductor to reach the 130°C limit.
(2A2C) recloser is used at a maximum fault cur- Figures F.1 through F.4 contain cable damage
rent level of 3,000 amperes, the recloser will op- time-current curves on the basis of the cable
erate twice with a clearing time of 0.03 seconds short-circuit temperature rating. This is a less
for each operation and then twice again, with a conservative approach which fully stresses the
clearing time of 0.07 seconds each. cable insulation under ideal installation conditions.
The total time to which the cable will be sub- When using an allowable short-circuit rating, the
jected to the maximum fault is as follows: allowable temperature for thermoplastic (HMW-
PE, etc.) cables is 150°C. Thermoset (TR-XLPE,
EPR, etc.) cables with a nominal operating limit
(2 × 0.03 seconds) + (2 × 0.07 seconds) of 90°C have a maximum short circuit tempera-
= 0.20 seconds ture of 250°C. The more conservative approach
of limiting fault durations such that conductor
Figure 3.5 shows the recloser time-current temperatures only reach the emergency operating
curves plotted along with cable-damage curves temperature rating is recommended.
9 0 – Se c t i on 3
3
Aluminum/XLPE/EPR
Short-Circuit Temperature Rating
60 3,600
50 3,000
40 2,400
30 1,800
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
250
350
500
750
#2
#1
20 1,200
10 600
9 540
8 480
7 420
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180
2 120
Time (Cycles, 60-Hertz Basis)

Time (Seconds)
1 60
.9 54
.8 48
.7 42
.6 36
.5 30
.4 24
.3 18
.2 2A & 2B 12
.1 6.0
.09 5.4
.08 4.8
.07 4.2
.06 3.6
B
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8
Type L A
Recloser
.02 1.2
.01 .6
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
Current (Amperes)
FIGURE 3.5: Example of 70-Ampere, Type “L” Recloser Curves for Cable Protection.
Neutral Protection but multiple phases have neutrals operating in

When a concentric neutral is full size or equiva- parallel, it is usually not necessary to review the
lent to the phase conductor in ampacity or when protection of the neutral. Where a jacketed reduced
the concentric neutral is a reduced-size neutral concentric neutral, tape shield, or longitudinally
Underground System Section al iz i n g – 9 1
3
corrugated shield is used, the
Equation 3.3
Heating of the system engineer should further
I t review the effects of a through-
A= neutral may be a fault on the neutral and the
M
limiting factor where materials in contact with the
where: A = Metallic shield cross-sectional concentric neutral or shield.
the neutral is less
area, in circular mils The through-fault capability
I = Short-circuit current in shield,
than full size or the of connections in the neutral
in amperes cable is jacketed. path should also be examined.
In those instances in which a
t = Time of short circuit, in seconds
separate ground wire is run
M = Constant; see Tables 3.5 and 3.6 parallel to the insulated cables,
the current in the concentric neutrals or shields
is typically negligible. The only portion of the
TABLE 3.2: Effective Cross-Sectional Area of Shield. Adapted from
Okonite Company, Engineering Data for Copper and Aluminum concentric neutral or shield that is subject to
Conductor Electrical Cables, 1998. thermal damage is that portion between a fault
and the nearest ground point in a jacketed sys-
Formula for Calculating A tem. Where the reduced concentric neutral or
Type of Shield (See Notes 1 and 2) shield is jacketed and carries the majority of the
1. Wires applied either helically, as a braid or nds2 return fault current for a phase-to-ground fault,
serving, or longitudinally with corrugations the formulas and procedures in the following ta-
bles and equations should be applied.
2. Helically applied tape, not overlapped 1.27 nwb
Although several other metals are sometimes
employed as sheath/shield material (see Tables
100
3. Helically applied flat tape, overlapped (See Note 3) 3.5 and 3.6), copper is by far the most com-
4bdm 2(100 – L)
monly used. Equation 3.3 gives the minimum ef-
4. Corrugated tape, longitudinally applied 1.27 [π (dis + 50) + B] b fective cross-sectional area of metallic shield
required for a given fault time. Table 3.2 shows
Note 1. Meaning of Symbols the corresponding formulas for calculating the
A = Effective cross-sectional area of shield effective cross-sectional area of various types of
B = L.C. tape overlap, in mils (usually 375)
sheaths/shields. Table 3.3 shows the approxi-
b = Thickness of tape, in mils
mate normal operating temperature of the shield
dis = Diameter over semiconducting insulation shield, in mils
dm = Mean diameter of shield, in mils
for various steady-state conductor operating tem-
ds = Diameter of wires, in mils peratures for cables rated five through 69 kV.
n = Number of serving or braid wires or tapes Table 3.4 shows the maximum allowable tran-
L = Overlap of tape, percentage sient temperatures for shields in contact with
w = Width of tape, in mils various materials.
Note 2. The effective area of composite shields is the sum of the effective areas of the Tables 3.5 and 3.6 give the M values for use
components. For example: The effective area of a composite shield consisting in Equation 3.3. As shown by the tables, the M
of a helically applied tape and a wire serving is the sum of the areas calculated values are constants and depend on the shield
from formula 2 (or 3) and formula 1. material, the normal operating temperature of
Note 3. The effective area of thin, helically applied overlapped tapes depends also on the shield, and the maximum allowable transient
the degree of electrical contact resistance of the overlaps. Formula 3 may be temperature of the shield. These tables are very
used to calculate the effective cross-sectional area of the shield for new cable. conservative; no allowance is made for heat trans-
An increase in contact resistance may occur after cable installation during service fer through the jacket or through the insulation
exposed to moisture and heat. Under these conditions, the contact resistance
semiconducting shield and the main insulation.
may approach infinity where formula 2 would apply.
9 2 – Se c t i on 3
3
TABLE 3.3: Values of T1, Approximate Shield Operating Temperature, °C, at Various Conductor
Temperatures. Source: Aluminum Electrical Conductor Handbook, 1989.
Shield or Sheath Temperature °C at Conductor Temperature
Rated Voltage (kV) 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65
5 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60
15 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60
25 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60
35 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55
46 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55
69 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50
Note. The maximum conductor temperature should not exceed the normal temperature rating of the insulation used.
TABLE 3.4: Values of T2, Maximum Allowable Shield

Transient Temperature, °C. Source: Aluminum Electrical
Conductor Handbook, 1989.
Cable Material in Contact With Shield T2, °C/°F

Cross-linked (thermoset) 350
Thermoplastic 200
Deformation-Resistant Thermoplastic 250
Note. The temperature of the shield is limited by the material in contact with
it. For example, a cable having a cross-linked semiconducting shield
under the metallic shield and a cross-linked jacket over the metallic
shield will have a maximum allowable shield temperature of 350°C.
With a deformation-resistant thermoplastic jacket, it will be 250°C.
TABLE 3.5: Values of M for the Limiting Condition Where T2 = 200°C. (Thermoplastic Materials
= HMWPE, LLDPE, PVC.) Source: Aluminum Electrical Conductor Handbook, 1989.
Shield Operating Temperature (T1), °C
Shield Material 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 68 60 55 50
Aluminum 0.039 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.043 0.044 0.045 0.046 0.047 0.048 0.049
Copper 0.059 0.061 0.062 0.063 0.065 0.066 0.068 0.070 0.071 0.073 0.074
TABLE 3.6: Values of M for the Limiting Condition Where T2 = 350°C. (Thermosetting Materials
= XLPE, EPR.) Source: Aluminum Electrical Conductor Handbook, 1989.
Shield Operating Temperature (T1), °C
Shield Material 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 68 60 55 50
Aluminum 0.057 0.057 0.058 0.059 0.060 0.060 0.061 0.062 0.063 0.063 0.064
Copper 0.087 0.087 0.088 0.089 0.091 0.091 0.092 0.093 0.094 0.096 0.097
3
EXAMPLE 3.3: Determine Minimum Shield Size for Known Through-Fault Current.
Determine the size copper wire shield required to carry a fault current of 10,000 amperes for 10 cycles for a
15-kV XLPE cable having an XLPE insulation shield and a deformation-resistant thermoplastic overall jacket.
STEP 1. Determine the approximate shield operating temperature for 90°C

conductor temperature (which is the maximum temperature for T1 = 85°C
normal operation of XLPE-insulated cables). From Table 3.3,
STEP 2. Determine the maximum allowable shield transient temperature for

the cable materials in contact with the shield, which in this case is T2 = 250°C
deformation-resistant thermoplastic. From Table 3.4,
STEP 3. Determine the M value for a copper shield with T1 equal to 85°C and
T2 equal to 200°C. From Table 3.5, M = 0.063 where T2 = 200°C
From Table 3.6,

M = 0.089 where T2 = 350°C
Interpolation of these values for M yields M where T2 = 250°C:

250 – 200
M= × (0.089 – 0.063) + 0.063
350 – 200
M = (0.3333) × (0.026) + 0.063
M = 0.072
STEP 4. Calculate the required shield cross section for a fault duration of 10
cycles (0.167 seconds). Applying Equation 3.3, 10,000 0.167
A= = 56,758 circular mils
0.072
STEP 5. Determine the number and size of the wires necessary to equal or
exceed 56,758 circular mils. Table 3.2 shows that the effective cross- Number of 14 AWG wires =
sectional area of a wire shield is equal to nds2, or the number of wires 56,758 ÷ 4,110 = 13.8 (Use 14)
multiplied by the circular mil area of each wire. The number required
for any specific wire size is simply the total cross section calculated in
Step 4 divided by the individual wire circular mil area and rounded up
to the nearest whole number:
Similarly, Equation 3.3 may determine the number of any other wire size.
9 4 – Se c t i on 3
3
Standard Practices inside a three-phase transformer or between the
Most fuses begin to melt at approximately twice primary phase lead and ground inside a single-
their continuous rating and series coil-operated phase transformer. The next highest fault is when
oil circuit reclosers also tend to trip at approxi- the primary windings short; the magnitude of this
mately twice their continuous rating. For these fault depends on the impedance of the windings
types of devices, it is typical to match the con- between the fault location and the primary leads.
tinuous rating of the recloser or fuse to the con- The lowest magnitude of fault occurs because of
tinuous rating of the cable. For electronically a short in the secondary windings. The more wind-
controlled reclosers or relayed circuit breakers, ings between the fault location and the primary
the equivalent continuous rating would be about side of the transformer, the lower the fault current.
one-half the trip rating. This general rule would The rupture can result from the energy re-
not be used in the following situations: leased within the tank and the resulting pressure.
The energy, which is typically measured in joules,
• Where the maximum load expected on the is proportional to the magnitude of the fault cur-
cable is much less than the capacity of the rent squared multiplied by the time duration of
cable, the protecting device can be reduced in the fault in seconds (I2t). Because tank rupture
size, improving protection of the cable as long is usually caused by failure of the transformer
as other coordination criteria can still be met. winding, the transformer will need to be dis-
• Where emergency overloads of the cable can carded or opened for repairs. Therefore, a com-
be routinely expected, the fuse characteristics mon solution to preventing tank rupture is to
should be reviewed to make sure the over- place a partial-range, current-limiting fuse under
load capability of the fuse is in line with the the oil. Although operating such a current-limit-
expected overload on the cable. ing fuse will require opening up the transformer
• In the areas where the cold-load pickup is tank to replace the fuse, this is not a problem
substantially more than the maximum load because the tank will have to be opened anyway.
current or where the duration of the cold-load In addition, a dry-well canister or clip-mounted,
pickup is long, it may be necessary to increase partial-range, current-limiting fuse will provide
fuse sizes on the basis of operating experience. the same result. Either of these can also be full
range. The disadvantage of using a full-range,
Whatever the situation, the fuse or device curve current-limiting fuse is that it will operate for
should be kept below the thermal damage curve all levels of fault current and is much more ex-
of the cable in question. This is rarely a problem pensive to replace than an expulsion fuse. The
except where a fuse might be use of a bayonet fuse in se-
protecting several cables or ries with an under-oil current
several sections of decreasing- Transformers can limiting fuse can overcome
size cable. If the system engi- many of these disadvantages,
rupture as a result of since the replaceable element
neer encounters such a
problem, the obvious solution large internal faults. opens for low-level faults or
is to insert additional fuses overloads, and the current-
wherever a conductor size limiting element opens for
change occurs. high-level faults.
PROTECTION AGAINST PAD-MOUNTED Philosophy and Theory of Rupture Prevention

TRANSFORMER TANK RUPTURE The basic philosophy of rupture prevention is to
Internal Faults as Cause of Rupture prevent ruptures for any and all fault conditions.
Of the very small percentage of transformer tanks The consequences of a rupture are as follows:
that fail by rupture, most rupture because of in-
ternal faults. The magnitude of fault current is • Release of oil and the consequent environ-
highest for a fault between the primary leads mental damage,
3
• Ejection of flaming oil and metal parts into the pad-mounted transformer will rupture. Equation
air surrounding the transformer with possible 3.4 represents an approximate formula for calcu-
damage to equipment and surroundings, and lating the symmetrical fault current that will re-
• The possibility of transferring the fault onto sult in a known I2t level.
the incoming primary lines. This formula was solved for selected X/R ra-
tios at the transformer rupture levels shown in
There are no standards for the ability of pad- Table 3.7. With the results presented in Table
mounted transformers to withstand internal pres- 3.7, the maximum current that overhead and
sure from a particular level of fault current. Gen- pad-mounted transformers can withstand at typi-
erally, pad-mounted transformers have a higher cal distribution voltage levels and selected X/R
withstand value than overhead transformers be- ratios was derived and is shown in Table 3.8.
cause of the superior energy absorption capabili- However, these levels are by no means an au-
ty of a rectangular tank compared with a cylin- thoritative guide. Consult the manufacturer of the
drical tank. Tables 3.7 and 3.8 show some possi- particular brands of transformers in use on a co-
ble fault levels that can be used as general guide- operative’s system for their withstand capability.
lines for the fault level at which an overhead or
Practical Prevention/Reduction of Ruptures
Pressure-Relief Valves
Equation 3.4 The pressure inside a transformer tank will in-
crease because of extended periods of overload
IS = (IA2t) × (18.75 + 105 cos θ) or low-level faults that are not cleared by the
protecting fuse. If unchecked, these pressures
can increase to levels high enough to severely
where: IS = Symmetrical fault current that will deform the tank and damage bushing seals. A
result in known I2t level
pressure-relief valve will release these slow build-
IA = Known I2t level that may result in ups of pressure, thus avoiding the development
destructive transformer damage
θ = Arctan (X/R)
of high internal pressures and tank damage.
However, a high-level or internal fault builds the
pressure too fast for the pressure-relief valve to
be effective. In these cases, the pressure-relief
TABLE 3.7: Approximate Levels of I2t (Amperes2 x Seconds) That May valve cannot protect the tank from damage
Result in Destructive Transformer Failure for Internal Faults. caused by excessive pressure.
System Voltage Overhead Transformers Pad-Mounted Transformers
Secondary Breakers
15 kV 1.2 × 105 5.0 × 105 Secondary breakers act no faster than do expul-
25 kV 6.6 × 104 3.0 × 105 sion fuses. In particular, the minimum clearing
time for a secondary breaker is approximately
35 kV 5.0 × 104 1.0 × 105
0.8 cycles, or the same as a fuse. More important,
TABLE 3.8: Approximate Levels of Fault Current Symmetrical (Amperes) That May Result in
Destructive Transformer Failure for Internal Faults.
Overhead Transformers (X/R Ratio) Pad-Mounted Transformers (X/R Ratio)
System Voltage 2.5 5 10 20 2.5 5 10 20
15 kV 2,600 2,200 1,900 1,700 5,400 4,400 3,800 3,500
25 kV 2,000 1,600 1,400 1,300 4,200 3,400 3,000 2,700
35 kV 1,700 1,400 1,200 1,100 2,400 2,000 1,700 1,500
9 6 – Se c t i on 3
3
most ruptures are caused by internal faults that rupting the maximum available fault current.
would not be cleared by secondary breakers. A common cause of tank rupture is degenera-
tion of oil into combustible gases as the result of
Expulsion Fuses a sustained secondary fault that eventually causes
Internal fuses typically have a maximum inter- an internal expulsion fuse to operate. The fuse
rupting rating of 3,500 amperes asymmetrical for ignites the combustible mixture and a violent
the weak-link type of fuse rated 7.2-kV phase- tank rupture can result. Because this type of fail-
to-ground. Internal fuses rated 14.4-kV phase-to- ure occurs when an expulsion fuse ignites the
ground typically have a maximum interrupting gas mixture, the use of current-limiting fuses and
rating of 2000 amperes asymmetrical for the pressure-relief valves (to vent gas as it is gener-
weak-link type of fuse. These interrupting rat- ated) will help reduce this type of violent failure.
ings vary from manufacturer to manufacturer
and should be checked for the particular fuse. Current-Limiting Fuses
Even lower interrupting ratings are typical of Current-limiting fuses are nonexpulsion fuses
three-phase transformers, where phase-to-phase and generally have a maximum interrupting rat-
faults may occur. Three-phase 25-kV transform- ing of about 10,000 to 50,000 amperes symmetri-
ers with internal weak-link expulsion fuses may cal current. The maximum interrupting rating
have an asymmetrical interrupting rating as low varies depending on the manufacturer, model,
as 600 amperes. Where the maximum available and size of the fuse. On the majority of under-
fault level exceeds the rating of the fuse, an ex- ground systems, a current-limiting fuse capable
ternal expulsion fuse with of interrupting maximum fault
greater interrupting rating or a currents at all or almost all
full-range current-limiting fuse locations should be available.
should be installed in series Current-limiting Be sure that the maximum
with the internal weak link. fuses can protect load current is less than the
As with all fuses, the maxi- continuous current rating of
mum clearing time for faults against tank rupture. the largest current-limiting fuse
within the interrupting rating available.
of the fuse is 0.8 of a cycle. If Manufacturers of current-
the maximum I2t let-through limiting fuses have available
current as read from Table 3.8 or calculated graphs or tables indicating the maximum I2t
2
from Equation 3.4 is less than the I t required let-through. To protect against tank rupture,
to rupture the transformer, then an expulsion the maximum total clearing I2t of the fuse must
fuse could prevent tank rupture. It is understood be less than the I2t withstand capability of the
that the external fuse must be capable of inter- protected transformer.
Effect of Inrush TRANSFORMER MAGNETIZING age curve of the source at the time the trans-
Current on INRUSH CURRENTS former is energized. If the transformer is ener-
Sectionalizing When a transformer is first energized, the only gized when the supply voltage is zero, the
magnetic field in the transformer is that caused inrush current will be at a maximum value if
Devices
by any residual flux. For a very short time after there is no residual flux within the core. If the
the transformer is first energized, the current transformer is energized when the supply volt-
flow will be relatively large until the steady-state age is at a maximum level, the inrush current
flux level is reached. The size of this magnetiz- will be zero.
ing inrush current depends partially on the
residual flux in the core and the impedance of Estimating Magnetizing Inrush Current Level
the source. Also controlling the size of the mag- Calculating the maximum available inrush cur-
netizing inrush current is the point on the volt- rent for a particular transformer is not feasible.
3
These calculations require detailed design data Fuses
that are not usually available for the transformer The main problem associated with fuses comes
in question. There are many rules of thumb for from using an undersized fuse. Using an under-
transformer inrush current levels. Most of these sized fuse on a large pad-mounted transformer
use 0.1 second as the maximum duration for is a fairly common practice, particularly where
which the inrush current will flow before dying the present load is much less than the capacity
out. One rule of thumb uses of the pad-mounted trans-
12 times the transformer base- former and where coordina-
rated full-load current for tion with the protective device
transformers greater than 3 Undersizing protective at the source prevents use of
MVA in size. For transformers devices can lead to the size fuse that is normally
less than or equal to 3 MVA in used for full capacity. If the
size, the maximum magnetiz- tripping because fuse falls below the magnetiz-
ing inrush current is generally of magnetizing ing inrush current point, the
considered to be eight times fuse may have to be either in-
the base-rated full-load cur-
inrush current. creased in size or replaced
rent. The 3-MVA level used in with another fuse of the same
this rule of thumb is the three- size but a slower speed.
phase MVA capacity of the transformer or of It is critical at this point to recheck coordina-
the transformer bank if three single-phase tion of the new fuse with the source-side de-
transformers are used. vices. If this fuse is on a large transformer bank
This magnetizing inrush current is shown on on a rural system, this coordination is difficult.
a time-current coordination curve as a single Fuses are particularly troublesome when under-
point on the 0.1-second axis at the appropriate sized, as the magnetizing inrush current may
inrush current level. All protective devices not cause the fuse to operate the first few times
located on the source side of this transformer the transformer is energized. However, over a
should have curves with all points on the period of time the fuse is gradually damaged,
curve located either above or to the right reducing the effective size of the fuse. This
of the magnetizing inrush point. damage can lead to the eventual failure of the
fuse for no apparent reason. Current-limiting
Effects on Devices fuses are generally not affected if they are par-
The main problem associated with magnetizing tial-range fuses. Full-range current-limiting fuses
inrush current is the unnecessary operation of would be affected if undersized to the point
protective devices. This problem typically results that the magnetizing inrush current falls above
from choosing devices with operation curves that the operation curve.
fall below and to the left of the magnetizing inrush
point. When a coordination protection scheme is Breakers
established, not only should devices protecting The area of concern for breakers is the instanta-
single transformers be reviewed for their appro- neous setting. This setting must be above the
priate size and relationship to magnetizing current level of the magnetizing inrush current
inrush currents, but tap fuses or feeder protec- because the operation time of an instantaneous
tive devices also should be investigated. This is unit is less than 0.1 second. A clear indication of
particularly true where these devices protect an improperly set instantaneous level is a breaker
loads—such as industrial parks—that may have with a reclosing relay operating once instanta-
several large transformers. These transformers neously when a transformer is energized and
appear to be one large transformer from the then closing on the second operation, which is a
perspective of the protective device when a time delay curve. If the breaker relay settings are
dead feeder is energized. Below are some of the sized so the operation curve falls above the mag-
problems associated with particular protective netizing inrush point, breakers typically are not
devices. affected by the magnetizing inrush current.
9 8 – Se c t i on 3
3
Reclosers COLD-LOAD PICKUP CURRENTS
The main problem with reclosers results from On a typical distribution system that has been
the initial fast curves being set below the mag- energized long enough that the system has
netizing inrush point. This problem is similar to reached a steady-state condition, not all the
the one with a breaker in that a recloser will op- load-producing devices will be on at any one
erate on the fast curves where a large transformer time. Appliances such as air conditioners, heat-
is located on the circuit and then close in and ing systems, refrigerators, and water heaters nor-
stay closed when operating on the time-delay mally cycle on and off. Therefore, at any instant,
curves. Again, the solution is to simply set the a percentage of these devices will be in their off
fast curves above the magnetizing inrush point. cycles. For example, a circuit that has a 2,000-kW
In addition, reclosers with electronic controls load on it may have 500 kW in continuous load
that have instantaneous trip or lockout acces- such as lights and 3,000 kW in cyclical devices,
sories must have the instantaneous current set- of which only half are energized at any one time.
ting above the magnetizing inrush current level. (Note that these values are used as an example
and not intended to show normal values on a
Sectionalizers system.) If this circuit is de-energized for an ex-
Sectionalizers can be armed by magnetizing intended period (e.g., 30 minutes) and the system
rush current; that is, the sectionalizer sees the is then energized, all the cyclical loads will be in
high current level as a load-side fault, which is an energized state or will go to an energized
then interrupted by a source-side recloser. In state upon resumption of the source voltage.
other words, the normal attenuation of the mag- This energized state occurs because the parame-
netizing current appears to be a recloser operation ters that are used to operate these devices—
to the sectionalizer. Some of the new sectionaliz- such as air temperature or water temperature (in
ers are able to differentiate between a magnetiz- the case of a water heater)—exit the acceptable
ing inrush current and a true fault current. range and, therefore, initiate operation of the
applicable device. In this example, the loads
Application of Sectionalizing Devices seen upon re-energizing the circuit are 3,500
Sizing protective devices or their curves to avoid kW. The load experienced by a system after the
their operation as the result of magnetizing inrush resumption of service following an extended
currents is usually simple. The curves should be outage period is the cold-load pickup. Caution
chosen so they are located either above or to the should be taken when re-energizing a feeder
right of the magnetizing inrush point. For exam- after an extended outage because it may be dif-
ple, a magnetizing inrush point ficult to distinguish between
of 0.1 seconds and 5,000 am- cold-load pickup and an un-
peres simply shows that any corrected fault.
Cold-load pickup
point on the curve for which
the operation level is less than can cause protective Estimating Cold-Load
5,000 amperes should be devices to trip. Pickup Currents
greater than 0.1 second. Any The magnitude of cold-load
point on the protective device pickup varies depending on
curve that is less than 0.1 sec- the type of load served and
ond in operating time must have a current level of the time of year. In most areas, the cold-load
greater than 5,000 amperes. As cautioned earlier, pickup during the spring and fall is less than
several large pad-mounted transformers should during the summer or winter because many of
be treated as one transformer for those instances the cyclical devices such as heaters or air condi-
in which circuit protective devices or station tioners do not operate during these periods.
feeder breakers may be used to energize the Cold-load pickup also clearly depends on the
group of transformers. geographical location of the utility in question.
3
In the Southeast and Southwest, the cold-load Effects on Devices
pickup during the summer is quite significant In general, where the time-current curves for a
because of the air-conditioning load. In northern device fall below the cold-load inrush points, the
states, the cold-load pickup during the winter is protective devices will operate for cold-load
probably the most significant. However, the pickup. In general, it is desirable to choose de-
cold-load pickup during the winter also depends vices or particular curves for those devices so
on the percentage of electric as compared with the curves fall above or to the right of the cold-
nonelectric heating systems. load inrush points. In those instances where
other restraints prevent this choice, it may be
necessary to segment the system to pick up load
Rule of Thumb 3.1
after an extended outage. This segmentation is
Where large amounts of resistive heating or air condi- done by opening the feeder that suffered the
tioning are in use, the cold-load pickup may be esti- outage at different points, picking up a section
mated as the following: at a time starting at the end of the feeder nearest
• Two times full load current for 30 minutes, and the source, and allowing each section to remain
• Three times full load current for 30 seconds. energized for long enough for the load to return
to its steady-state level before energizing the
next section. The effects of cold-load inrush on
These are rules of thumb and may vary. The different types of devices are addressed below.
three most important variables the operator can
expect concerning the amount of cold load to Breakers
be picked up upon service restoration are: The breaker may operate if the cold-load pickup
• length of outage, is large enough. Where an instantaneous relay is
• type of load, and associated with the breaker, it may be that a
• weather conditions. cold-load pickup will trip the breaker once on
instantaneous trip with the breaker then reclose
Unless the outage is at a time of extreme tem- and provide service from that point on. The so-
perature, an outage of less than 15 minutes will lution here is to simply increase the pickup level
not allow enough time for most of the thermostats of the time-delay curve on the breaker or, in the
to call for heating or cooling. The practice of case of an instantaneous pickup, to increase the
putting a time-delay relay on compressor start pickup level. In some instances, it may be ac-
after an outage is becoming fairly common. This ceptable to have an instantaneous pickup that
design approach reduces the initial inrush upon trips once on cold-load pickup.
line energization but does not reduce the 30-min-
ute load requirement of Rule of Thumb 3.1. Most Reclosers
cooperatives should have an idea of the cold-load Reclosers are similar to breakers in that they will
pickup on their systems based on experience. trip if the cold-load pickup points on the time-
Furthermore, the cold-load pickup in a system current curves are above the recloser curves. This
will, of course, vary from one circuit to another is particularly true for the fast curves on the re-
depending on the type of load on that circuit. closer. In those instances in which the fast curves
For example, a circuit feeding an all-electric fall below the cold-load pickup points but the
housing development will have a higher cold-load time-delay curves do not, the recloser may trip
pickup than will a feeder into a residential neigh- once or twice on the fast curves and then lock
borhood where the main heating methods are in. Those reclosers with electronic controls may
oil, propane, or natural gas. Also, some feeders have instantaneous trip devices that should be
with large loads using large motors, such as irri- set above the cold-load pickup current level.
gation systems or crop-drying systems, may have Older, electronically controlled reclosers have an
lesser values of cold-load pickup because these accessory that temporarily doubles the amount
systems may have to be manually restarted. of current required to trip the recloser.
1 0 0 – Se c t io n 3
3
Newer electronic controls have a variety of the cold-load pickup current will be insufficient
cold-load pickup adjustments. Any standard to cause immediate operation of the fuse, but
curve can be used for the cold-load pickup will damage the fuse. Subsequent cold-load
curve, along with any trip level. Other features pickups will further damage the fuse until it
that may be available are a time delay after eventually blows either during a future cold-load
which the curve returns to the normal curve, pickup or sometimes simply during times of
additional time and current adjustments to the high load level.
curve, and cold-load pickup curves for phase, The solution is to increase the size of the fuse
ground, negative sequence, and other types of or to replace the fuse with a fuse of the same
system conditions. size but with a slower operating curve. How-
ever, because of the long duration of cold-load
Sectionalizers pickup currents, the slower speed fuse will gen-
The cold-load pickup current may be sufficient erally not work. When larger fuses do not coor-
to trigger the sectionalizer. In other words, the dinate with source-side devices and cold-load
cold-load pickup current will appear as a fault pickup is not expected to occur very frequently,
to the sectionalizer. However, sectionalizers also the time-current curve of the fuse can slightly
require a sharp reduction in current following overlap the cold-load pickup points.
the actuating current to register as an operation
of the source-side protective device. Sectionaliz- Application of Sectionalizing Devices
ers also have a reset time. Where possible, the device curves should be set
In most instances, cold-load pickup current above or to the right of the cold-load pickup
will, at best, cause one count on the sectional- points on the time-current curves. In addition,
izer; in those instances in which the current de- the pickup level for instantaneous relays or ac-
creases slowly, the sectionalizer may not even cessories should be set above the highest cold-
note any counts. For those sectionalizers that are load pickup current level. In some instances in
set for two or more operations before tripping, which other criteria prevent increasing the
cold-load pickup typically will not be a problem. pickup level or curves, it may be acceptable for
reclosers and breakers to trip on their instanta-
Fuses neous or fast curves before locking in perma-
If the cold-load pickup is sufficiently large, it nently. In those instances, it is very important
will blow the fuse, interrupting service to all that all cooperative personnel are aware of that
consumers beyond the fuse. In many instances, possibility.
Selection of REVIEW OF OVERCURRENT • The number of sizes and types is limited.

Underground PROTECTION METHODS • The total clear curves and minimum melt
Sectionalizing Fuses curves overlap at high fault current levels for
The main advantages of fuses are that they are: fuses with current ratings that are close to
Equipment
each other.
• Inexpensive,
• The maximum current-interrupting rating is
• Compact,
limited, especially with expulsion fuses.
• Require little maintenance, and
• Expulsion fuses produce hot gases and
• Are easy to replace.
by-products.
Moreover, a current-limiting fuse is the only • Fuses do not have any reclosing capability.
readily available device that effectively limits • Fuses have no ability to sense low-level
fault current and, thus, reduces the destructive ground faults.
failure of transformers and capacitors. The dis- • Fuses cause “single-phasing” on three-phase
advantages of fuses are as follows. circuits.
Underground System Section a l iz i n g – 1 0 1
3
• Fuses cannot be controlled or monitored by • The types of relays that may be used to con-
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition trol the breakers are available in a wide
(SCADA) systems. variety of characteristics.
• The relays (typically inverse overcurrents on
In general, the main appli- a distribution circuit) may be
cation for fuses is on radial varied over a wide range of
taps that do not require simul- time dial settings and pickup
Fuses are the most
taneous three-phase protection levels to accommodate most
and that are not subject to fre- frequently used system conditions and to allow
quent temporary faults. Fuses protective device on changes as the load increases
particularly lend themselves to over time. In addition to over-
protecting underground cir- an underground current functions, many of the
cuits. The inability of fuses to system. electronic relays provide al-
reclose is not a limitation on most any known relay function
underground circuits and within one relay. Some of
transformers, because faults on these functions include over/
this type of system tend to be permanent. Re- under voltage, over/under frequency, sensi-
closing on this type of system simply increases tive earth, directional power and/or current,
the amount of fault damage. Using current-limit- impedance, negative sequence, reclosing, and
ing fuses on pad-mounted transformers is very sync check. Other features may include fault
beneficial when the maximum fault level is location, a wide variety of metering functions,
enough to cause destructive failure of the trans- event recording, and communications. Pro-
former for internal faults. The primary condi- grammable logic functions can be used to de-
tions that limit the use of expulsion fuses at fine the sequence of responses to almost any
certain locations are the following: type of event.
• Reclosing relays are available where breakers
• Where the maximum fault current exceeds protect portions of overhead line;
the fault-interrupting capability of commonly instantaneous relays are available to provide
available expulsion fuses, and high-speed operation during high fault levels.
• Where the maximum load current exceeds • Breakers can be purchased with maximum
current ratings of expulsion fuses (typically interrupting capability that exceeds that avail-
200 amperes). able in most reclosers.
• Breakers are rated for more operations
Another shortcoming of fuses is that their between maintenance than are reclosers.
curves do not always coordinate well with up- • Breakers interrupt all three phases
stream breakers or reclosers. For this reason, at simultaneously.
certain locations, particularly on heavily loaded • Breakers are available with ground
feeders, a breaker or recloser rather than fuses trip protection.
may be needed to coordinate with substation
breakers or reclosers. The disadvantages of breakers are:
Circuit Breakers • They require separate relays that add to the

Most circuit breakers on underground distribu- total expense.
tion systems are found in substations, although • They require much more space than fuses do.
it is possible to install breakers on platforms on • They require an outside power source (typi-
overhead portions of the system or in metal or cally a battery).
fiberglass enclosures. Some of the advantages of • Their relays must be calibrated initially and
breakers follow. periodically.
1 0 2 – Se c t io n 3
3
• They are harder to operate • Three-phase protection is
and maintain than reclosers Three-phase reclosers desired.
and, particularly, fuses. and breakers are used • Ground fault protection is
• They are significantly more desired.
expensive than other avail-
for the following: • It is advantageous to use
able devices. SCADA for both control and
Three-phase status reporting of reclosers.
Reclosers protection,
Reclosers are available in both Where three-phase or sin-
single-phase and three-phase High load current, gle-phase reclosers are used
versions. The single-phase se- on underground circuits, it is
ries-trip versions do not re- High fault current, simple to disable the reclosing
quire an outside power source and feature and have one-shot op-
and are frequently used on eration of the recloser.
distribution lines, although Ground fault
they are seen more frequently protection. Sectionalizers
on overhead than on under- Several types of sectionalizers
ground systems. The interrupt- are currently available in both
ing rating of most single-phase reclosers is overhead versions and those that can be in-
typically less than or equal to that of most distri- stalled in pad-mounted enclosures. For a sec-
bution fuses. The main advantage of a recloser tionalizer to work properly, it must be set for
is that it does reclose; however, as indicated ear- one less operation than its companion recloser
lier, this is not considered an advantage on an or breaker. In other words, for a permanent
underground system. fault, a recloser located be-
Three-phase reclosers can tween the sectionalizer and
be supplied with a ground- Sectionalizers are the source senses a fault,
fault-sensing unit, which is an opens, recloses, and continues
advantage. This is a particular
not subject to fault- to open and reclose until the
advantage on circuits with interrupting limitations. fault is cleared or it trips for a
large load where the minimum maximum number of times
phase-to-ground fault may be (usually four) and locks out.
on the same order of magni- The properly coordinated sec-
tude as the maximum load current. Three-phase tionalizer senses a fault condition, counts each
electronically controlled reclosers are also easily recloser operation, and locks out just before the
changeable in pickup level and operating recloser goes through its final close operation.
curves. The sectionalizer has, thus, isolated the fault be-
Three-phase reclosers with electronic control yond it, allowing the recloser to successfully re-
are available with a wide range of SCADA acces- close and continue service to the rest of the
sories. Reclosers are usually less expensive than system. On an underground system, it is desir-
breakers and come with all controls included. able to have the sectionalizer set for only one
The electronic reclosers do require an outside operation to limit the exposure of the under-
power source, typically 120 volts ac, although dc ground system to through-fault damage and pos-
versions are available. Reclosers are typically sible safety problems. The source-side recloser is
used as a circuit protective device inside a sub- set for two or more operations to lock out. The
station and on main three-phase lines where the total number of operations for the recloser de-
following apply: pends on whether the majority of the system is
overhead or underground.
• The load current exceeds the rating of A problem inherent in many of the older sec-
typical fuses. tionalizers is that they tend to count magnetizing
Underground System Section a l i z i n g – 1 0 3
3
inrush or cold-load pickup currents as faults circuits are readily available. Each incom-
and, therefore, lock out unnecessarily. Section- ing/outgoing circuit will pass through a solid bus,
alizers are available that are capable of distin- a fuse, a switch, or a combination fuse/switch.
guishing between faults and inrush currents Almost any kind of circuit arrangement can be
such as magnetizing or cold load. These section- accommodated by a switching enclosure or
alizers use different methods for doing so. One enclosures. See Figure 3.6.
criterion is to check for loss of voltage on the Switches and fuse/switch combinations may
line. A true recloser operation de-energizes the be designed for de-energized switching duty
line, allowing the voltage to fall to zero. Another only or they may be equipped with an arc sup-
method is to require that the load current drop pression device that allows opening and closing
to essentially zero after the high inrush current. the switches under load up to a maximum rated
Again, the operation of a recloser results in zero current level. This interrupting rating may be
current while the recloser is open as opposed to equal to or less than the maximum continuous
inrush or cold-load pickup for which current current rating of the switch or combination
drops to a normal level. Other features are also fuse/switch. Extreme care should be taken to
available in existing and new sectionalizers that avoid opening or closing a switch that is carry-
reduce nuisance tripping. ing current in excess of the interrupting rating.
Some of the advantages of sectionalizers are Therefore, a design engineer should never apply
as follows: an interrupting device in a location where load
will exceed its rating.
• They are less expensive than reclosers Different types of fuses are available. An
or breakers. expulsion fuse is the most commonly available
• They do not interrupt faults and, therefore, type. This fuse is frequently supplied with a si-
can be used in areas with higher available lencer that eliminates or reduces venting when
fault currents than can fuses. (The short- the fuse operates and also muffles any sounds.
time-current withstand capability of the A silencer is a necessity where fault currents are
sectionalizer, however, must be greater relatively high in magnitude and the resulting
than the available fault current.) exhaust gases, if released within the enclosed
space of a pad-mounted compartment, can be
Sectionalizers are also useful where coordina- disastrous.
tion between devices is tight, as they have no At some locations, available faults exceed
time-current curve. Heavily loaded taps often the maximum interrupting capacity of expulsion
cannot allow another level of coordination. fuses. In addition, high-level faults can lead to
the disruptive failure of load-side devices such
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT IN as transformers. Full- or partial-range current-
PAD-MOUNTED ENCLOSURES limiting fuses are available for
Fuses and Switches use in these locations. Figure
Fuses and switches are com- 3.6 shows an assortment of
bined here because both are Most protective current-limiting fuses that are
often found in the same enclo- devices, with the used in pad-mounted
sure, although enclosures can switchgear.
be purchased with switches exception of breakers, Another solution for high
only or fuses only. In addition, are available in fault current level areas is a
fuses combined with integral partial-range current-limiting
load-interrupting mechanisms
pad-mounted form. fuse in conjunction with an
that provide the dual function expulsion fuse. The expulsion
of a fuse and switch in one fuse will operate for low- to
device can be purchased. Pad-mounted enclo- moderate-level faults without damaging the
sures with up to four or more incoming/outgoing more expensive current-limiting fuse. Both fuses
1 0 4 – Se c t io n 3
3
Vacuum switches are also available from some
manufacturers. These switches have contacts in a
vacuum bottle which increases the interrupting
capacity of the switch to handle higher ranges of
fault current. In addition, the duty cycle of the
contacts is greatly increased by the vacuum. In the
past, oil switches were available, but these have
essentially been replaced by vacuum switches.
The operation of all types of switches can be
controlled by several different means:
• These switches can be simply opened or

closed manually at the switch location by
using hot sticks in energized switches.
• Switches can be equipped with stored-energy
operators for local operation. These can be
FIGURE 3.6: Current Limiting Fuses for Pad-Mounted Switching spring-operated or battery-operated. Stored-
Cabinets. Courtesy of Hi-Tech Electric (T&B), 2007. energy operators generally have better
switching ratings.
• Automatic switch operators are also available.
will operate for high-level faults, with the cur- These may have current-sensing controls with
rent-limiting fuse limiting the length and magni- or without inverse time-current curves. When
tude of the fault and consequently limiting the equipped with inverse time-current curves, these
total magnitude of energy expended at the fault. vacuum switches can then be coordinated with
Sometimes the voltage withstand characteristics source-side and load-side devices such as
of blown partial-range current limiting fuses fuses, reclosers, and other vacuum switches.
mandate the simultaneous operation of both
fuses so that the open circuit created by the ex- Reclosers
pulsion fuse removes voltage from the partial- Single-phase and three-phase hydraulic and
range current limiting fuse. three-phase electronically controlled reclosers
Another type of protective device is the elec- are available for pad-mounted enclosures. Vac-
tronic fuse, which is actually a hybrid device. A uum interrupters are typically used for increased
control module uses electronic circuitry to sense fault-interrupting capability and increased service
a fault, initiate tripping, and control the time- life. Hydraulic reclosers with a limited number of
current characteristics of the device. An inter- curves and current trip levels are available, as
rupting module interrupts the fault under the are electronically controlled units with an exten-
control of the control module. The interrupting sive number of curves and current levels. Fault-
module also has current-limiting capabilities. interrupting capability varies with the current
This device is available in a range of pickup lev- interrupting level of the hydraulic units and is
els and time-current curves. Continuous current typically 12,000 amperes or higher for the elec-
ratings up to 600 amperes and maximum sym- tronically controlled units. Some manufacturers
metrical current interrupting capability up to have overhead SF6 gas-insulated reclosers avail-
40,000 amperes are available. The various time- able that, if not yet available for pad-mounted
current curves available with this device can enclosures, may be available in the future.
often provide better coordination with adjacent
devices than can traditional thermal fuses. An- Sectionalizers
other advantage is that the continuous rating of At least one manufacturer makes a single-phase
the larger modules exceeds that available in cur- sectionalizer that is designed for installation in
rent-limiting fuses. a pad-mounted enclosure. This sectionalizer is
3
intended to work in conjunction with an upstream the system section that is suspected of contain-
recloser or breaker and is available in one, two, ing the fault. The recloser or vacuum switch that
or three counts before operating configuration. opened to isolate the fault is then closed to re-
A sectionalizer that is designed to differentiate establish service to the remainder of the system.
between a true fault current and a current spike Yet another reason is to retry a recloser or
caused by magnetizing inrush or cold-load vacuum switch after a lockout caused by an
pickup should be chosen. Additional informa- overcurrent condition. On an underground system,
tion on the application of sectionalizers may be this practice is not typically routine; however,
found in Electrical Distribution System Protec- there are circumstances in which this would be
tion by Cooper Power Systems (1990). applicable. One instance is where the under-
ground circuit feeds overhead taps that are un-
Live-Front Vs. Dead-Front fused. Another instance is where the suspected
Typical air-insulated, air-break pad-mounted faulted section has been removed manually and
switchgear is available in either live-front or the locked-out device is remote from the fault
dead-front styles. The older, traditional live-front location. Another instance is when cold-load
style uses standard outdoor porcelain or poly- pickup current or a switching surge is the sus-
mer terminations, or stress cones for terminating pected cause of the overcurrent condition.
cable. A removable barrier just inside the doors
provides some level of protection of personnel. Devices That Can Be Remotely Operated
Once removed, the lineman is easily exposed to Devices that can be remotely operated are elec-
the energized parts. tronically controlled reclosers, vacuum or oil
Dead-front gear generally limits access to en- switches, circuit breakers, and load-break-type
ergized parts by the use of modular elbow-type switches with motor operators or other types of
terminations. Both types of switch are generally power operators. These devices must typically be
operated by external handles on source posi- ordered with a remote open-and-close accessory,
tions, but often must be operated with insulated although such an accessory may be field-installed.
sticks on fused positions. Only dead-front style
switchgear is currently approved for new con- Precautions in Remote Operation
struction by RUS. The most serious danger in remotely closing a
device is the possibility of energizing a line or
REMOTE OPERATION OF equipment that is in contact with human beings.
SECTIONALIZING EQUIPMENT These could be cooperative personnel working
Reason for Remote Operation on the line or members of the general public
There are several reasons to remotely operate a who are in contact accidentally, such as through
recloser or switch. One reason is to redistribute an automobile that has damaged a pad-mounted
load. Doing so might be a response to load condi- transformer. They could also be individuals who
tions on the distribution system or to remove load have tampered with an enclosure. Another dan-
from a transformer or other piece of equipment ger is re-energizing a faulted line or transformer
that is scheduled for maintenance or replacement. that will lead to increased equipment damage
Another reason is to isolate a faulted portion and possible human injury.
of the system. Switches can be opened to isolate
Faulted-Circuit Faulted-circuit indicators faulted line section will be lo-

Indicators (FCIs) can be used to locate a FCIs sense fault cated between the last indica-
faulted section of underground tor showing a fault condition
primary cable. FCIs sense the current and display and the first indicator showing
passage of a fault current and fault conditions a normal condition. Field per-
display a fault condition. The sonnel responding to a power
1 0 6 – Se c t io n 3
3
outage can trace the status of application problems can be
the FCIs and quickly identify The FCI can be corrected through a better
the faulted line section. They understanding of how an
can then isolate this line sec- a valuable FCI works and its limitations.
tion and promptly restore fault-locating tool. In addition, some manufactur-
power. ers now supply FCIs with an
Without FCIs, field person- array of automatic timed reset
nel must search for the fault by options, which can greatly re-
sectionalizing and reclosing on the fault until the duce or eliminate problems associated with false
faulted line section is located. This latter method tripping.
of fault locating is time-consuming and can The following information gives guidelines for
cause cable insulation deterioration. proper selection and application of FCIs. When
When properly specified and applied, FCIs properly specified and applied, the FCI is quite
provide the following advantages: reliable and can be a valuable fault-locating tool.
• Reduced outage time, FALSE TRIPPING

• Reduced crew and equipment cost, An FCI has a sensor to detect the current magni-
• Reduced stress on system components, tude present in a cable. A current that exceeds
• Reduced blowing of expensive fuses, the trip rating of an FCI causes the display to
• Improved system reliability, and show a faulted condition. Unfortunately, the
• Improved consumer relations. sensor cannot distinguish between fault current,
inrush current, and backfeed
RELIABILITY OF FAULTED- current. The indicator simply
CIRCUIT INDICATORS responds to any current that
Older designs of FCIs have Inrush and backfeed exceeds its trip rating. As a re-
been plagued with operational currents that exceed sult, inrush and backfeed cur-
and application problems. As a rents that exceed the trip
the trip rating cause
result, they have acquired a rating cause false tripping.
reputation with some utilities false tripping.
as being unreliable. In re- Inrush Currents
sponse, manufacturers have Inrush current is a higher than
improved the design of FCIs, normal current that occurs
and IEEE has approved a guide for testing FCIs when a distribution circuit is energized. The
(Standard 495). These efforts have helped to inrush current decays to the normal current
eliminate some of the operational problems. For value after some time. The types of inrush cur-
example, FCIs are available with the following: rents and their decay times are explained above
in the subsection Effect of Inrush Current on
• Rugged current sensors that operate in accor- Sectionalizing Devices.
dance with IEEE Standard 495, When power is restored to a de-energized
• An inrush restraint feature to minimize false line, an inrush current will flow through the
trips caused by inrush currents, cable. If this inrush current exceeds the trip
• Sensitive current resets and low-voltage resets rating of an FCI, the FCI will show a fault condi-
for use on lightly loaded circuits, and tion. Manual reset units will continue to show
• Sensors suitable for three-phase use where a fault condition until they are reset by hand.
cables are close together. However, automatic resetting units will change
back to a “NORMAL” indication when the inrush
An operational problem that persists is false current decays to the normal load current level.
tripping caused by backfeed currents. This con- In this situation, only the manual reset units
dition is reviewed in the next subsection. Many continue to show a false trip condition.
3
the FCI trip rating. Again, the falsely tripped FCIs
Three–Phase
Recloser Fault
remain in “FAULT” indication following recloser
A-Phase
lockout. Figure 3.8 illustrates this situation.
B-Phase
C-Phase FCI 1 It is difficult to predict the magnitude of in-
Inrush
rush current. Therefore, it is difficult to choose
Current FCI 2 an FCI trip rating that is greater than the un-
FCI 3 known inrush value. For this reason, most man-
LEGEND FCI 4 ufacturers offer an inrush restraint feature on
Load 1 their FCIs. Typically, this feature disables the trip
FCI, normal indication
FCI, fault indication response for 15 to 60 cycles following the ener-
gization of cable. The 15- to 60-cycle delay al-
FIGURE 3.7: Inrush Current Resulting from Operation of Three-Phase lows the inrush current to decay to its normal
Recloser. load value. The inrush restraint feature increases
the cost of the FCI by about 35 to 40 percent.
This additional cost is easily justified on under-
FCI 3 ground systems that “see” the cycling action of a
Load 1 source-side recloser.
FCI 2
Single-Phase
Recloser FCI 1 Inrush
Current Backfeed Currents
Fault Backfeed currents continue to produce false
FCI 4 Inrush trips and resets of FCIs. However, unlike inrush
Current currents, backfeed currents can remain on the
FCI 5 system for long durations. Therefore, a time-
delay feature will not alleviate the problem. To
LEGEND
Load 2 address this situation, the cooperative engineer
FCI, normal indication
needs to be aware of situations that likely pro-
FCI, fault indication
duce backfeed currents.
FIGURE 3.8: Inrush Current Resulting from Operation of Single-Phase Backfeed currents can occur on three-phase
Recloser. circuits when a single-phase fault is cleared by a
single-phase protective device. For example, a
fuse will clear a cable fault on one phase while
Two other situations produce false tripping the other two phases remain energized. Any
and obscure a fault location. The first is when a load-side capacitors connected to the faulted
three-phase recloser or breaker protects the un- phase may discharge into the fault. If the circuit
derground cable. For example, a fault on phase impedance is low enough, this discharge current
A trips the FCIs on phase A. The recloser or could be large enough to trip FCIs located be-
breaker opens and interrupts power to all three tween the fault and the capacitor bank.
phases. When the recloser recloses, phases B More common backfeed currents result from a
and C experience inrush current. If this current delta-connected motor load on a grounded-wye,
exceeds the FCI trip ratings, then those FCIs will grounded-wye transformer. For example, con-
show a “FAULT” condition. Usually the recloser sider an underground system that serves several
locks open before the FCIs can reset. The out- three-phase transformers. A cable fault in the first
age crew now finds FCIs tripped on all three cable section is cleared by a fuse. The other two
phases. Figure 3.7 illustrates this phenomenon. phases remain energized and continue to supply
The second situation is when a single-phase partial power to any delta-connected motor
recloser protects a main line with one or more loads. The motors produce backfeed currents
laterals. A fault on the main line trips the FCIs along the underground cable to the fault loca-
along the main line. During reclosing, some of tion. If the current level is high enough, it will
the laterals may experience inrush that exceeds falsely trip the FCIs between the cable fault and
1 0 8 – Se c t io n 3
3
the delta-connected motor load. 800 amperes could trip for any
All FCIs on the faulted phase The FCI trip rating current in the range of 720 to
may show a “FAULT” indication. 880 amperes. Therefore, it is
These same backfeed cur- should be close to important to select an FCI that
rents and voltages can also the available minimum remains sensitive to the mini-
produce false resets. Because mum fault current throughout
the FCI trip level is usually
fault current level. its range of trip ratings.
hundreds of amperes and reset Conductor size also affects
current level is usually less trip ratings. The FCI sensor
than three amperes, false reset is a more likely mounts around an underground cable and
problem than is false tripping. A feedback volt- senses the magnetic field produced by the flow
age can also exist on the faulted phase. These of current. This magnetic field is a function of
voltage levels can reach 50 percent of the nor- the radial distance from the conductor. The
mal line-to-ground voltage for a grounded-wye, larger the radial distance, the weaker the mag-
grounded-wye transformer. For grounded-wye netic field. FCIs are typically calibrated at a spe-
delta transformers, this voltage can reach 86 per- cific cable diameter. If the actual cable diameter
cent of the normal line-to-ground voltage. Most is less, then the trip rating is reduced. Likewise,
low-voltage reset units have a minimum reset a large cable diameter increases the trip rating.
voltage that is lower than 86 percent of the The manufacturer should be asked to supply the
nominal voltage. Therefore, these units would
not be suitable for grounded-wye, delta trans- 1
.9
formers with delta-connected loads. Because .8
.7
grounded-wye, delta-connected transformers .6
.5
should not be installed on a distribution system, .4
this situation should not occur frequently. .3
.2
SELECTING A TRIP RATING
Load and Fault Current Magnitudes
The trip rating of an FCI is the current magnitude .1
.09
.08
that causes the FCI to display a fault condition. .07
.06
An ideal trip rating is low enough to sense the .05
Time (Seconds)
minimum available fault current and high enough .04

1,000
1,200
1,400
to ignore load, inrush, and backfeed currents. To

200
400
600
800
.03
meet this criteria, the FCI trip rating should be .02

close to the available minimum fault current level.
If the available fault current level is unknown,
.01
manufacturers suggest a trip rating of two-and- .009
.008
one-half to three times the expected load current. .007
.006
At long distances from the substation, the available .005
.004
fault current drops substantially. As a result, the
.003
available fault current may get close to the mag-
nitude of the load current. Again, the trip rating .002
should be close to the fault current magnitude.

However, the margin between the trip rating and .001
the inrush and backfeed currents is decreased.
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
Thus, the FCI is more susceptible to false tripping. Current (Amperes, RMS)
The accuracy of the trip rating also affects se-
lection. Most FCIs have an accuracy of ±10 per- FIGURE 3.9: Trip Response for Peak-Current-
cent. For example, an FCI with a trip rating of Sensitive Units.
3
cable diameter at which the FCI is calibrated and If the FCI is not the peak-current type, its trip
a correction curve for other cable diameters. response time is a function of the current magni-
tude. Figure 3.10 shows the time-current charac-
Coordination with Current-Limiting Fuses teristics for this type of FCI. Note the difference
Some FCIs are peak-current sensitive and will in the trip response time for the two types. For
operate within two milliseconds for any current example, look at the 800-ampere curve of Fig-
that exceeds the trip rating. Figure 3.9 shows the ures 3.9 and 3.10. The peak-current-sensitive FCI
response time of peak-sensitive units. The peak- has a response time of two milliseconds. The
current devices will coordinate with all types of other FCI has a response time of 0.3 seconds
fuses, including current-limiting fuses. Proper (300 milliseconds).
coordination means that the FCI will trip before These slower devices should be compared
the fuse clears the fault. If the total clear time of with the time-current curves for the source-side
the fuse is faster than the FCI response time, the protective device. For proper coordination with
FCI will not show a fault condition. link-type fuses, the FCI curve must be to the left
of the total clear curve of the fuse at the mini-
mum fault current value. For example, refer to
Figure 3.10. For a minimum fault current of
450A FCI
800A FCI
15E 30E 100E 1,000 amperes, a 450-ampere FCI coordinates

10 with a 30E and a 100E fuse. The FCI should also
coordinate with a source-side current-limiting
fuse. To coordinate, the FCI must trip at the let-
through peak-current level before the fuse clears
the fault. For most current-limiting fuses, the
clear time is approximately three milliseconds.
1 As shown in Figure 3.10, a 450-ampere FCI will
coordinate with a current-limiting fuse that has a
let-through current of 1,100 amperes or greater.
Adaptive-Trip FCI
Time (Seconds)
The adaptive-trip FCI does not have a specified

0.1 trip rating. Instead of tripping at a predetermined
current magnitude, this device responds to a
sudden increase in current followed by a loss of
current. Figure 3.11 shows the increase in current
magnitude required to set the trip mechanism.
For example, consider a sensor type B shown in
0.01 Figure 3.11. To set the trip mechanism, the FCI
must see an increase of 130 amperes within a
50-millisecond time or 100 amperes within an
80-millisecond or greater time. The trip mechanism
will release and show a fault indication only if
the line current drops to zero. If the line current
0.001 does not drop to zero within 60 seconds, the
10 100 1,000 10,000
trip-set condition will reset to normal. This trip-set
Current (Amperes)
and trip-release sequence prevents the FCI from
LEGEND showing a false trip as a result of motor starting
Fuse Minimum Melt Curve Fuse Total Clear Curve FCI Trip Response Curve load or cold-load pickup. Like the other types of
FCIs, the adaptive-trip FCI must be checked for
FIGURE 3.10: Trip Response for 450A and 800A FCIs. coordination with upstream protective devices.
1 1 0 – Se c t io n 3
3
Sensor Type WHERE TO LOCATE FCIS
M L BD
100 For an exact section of faulted cable in an un-
80
derground system to be located, an FCI must be
60
placed at the source end of each cable section.
40
Most cable sections terminate in some type of
20
pad-mounted equipment. Because this equip-
ment also provides easy access to the cable, the
10 location is ideal for FCIs. The following subsec-
8
6
tions show several types of underground sys-
4
tems and the placement of FCIs.
2 Underground Segments of Overhead Feeders

Overhead feeders may occasionally have segments
1 of underground cable. These underground seg-
.8
.6 ments are often installed to avoid overhead line
Time (Seconds)
.4 clearance problems. Some applications of under-

ground segments are the following:
.2
• Lake or river crossings,
0.1 • Highway crossings,
0.08
0.06 • Transmission line crossings, and
0.04 • Airport glide path crossings.
0.02 Because these underground segments are part

of a main feeder, they are usually not fused.
0.01
0.008 Rather, a set of solid-blade disconnects is placed
0.006 at each end of an underground cable section.
0.004 A set of FCIs at each cable end will enable
workers to determine if a fault has occurred on
0.002 the underground segment. The set of FCIs on the
source side will show a “FAULT” indication for a
0.001
10 100 1,000 10,000 fault on the underground cable or on the outgo-
Current (Amperes) ing overhead feeder. The second set of FCIs on
Fisher Pierce Fault Indicator
Model 1547 Adaptive Trip the load side will show a “normal” indication for
Time Current Curves a fault on the underground cable and a “FAULT”
(5A Base Current)
indication for a fault on the overhead feeder.
FIGURE 3.11: Trip-Set Characteristics for Adaptive-Trip FCI. This arrangement is shown in Figure 3.12.
Courtesy of Fisher Pierce Division of Thomas & Betts. Another consideration for this application is
whether to use a three-phase FCI or three single-
phase FCIs. The three-phase FCI
After the circuit is re-ener- has three current sensors and
gized, this FCI will adjust to Locate FCIs at the one display. The display shows
the line current within 60 sec- a “FAULT” indication for a fault
onds. During this 60-second source end of each on any of the three phases. This
period, the FCI is in trip re- cable section. indicator is suitable when the
straint. This feature helps pre- underground cable is sectional-
vent false trips caused by ized with single-phase devices.
upstream reclosers. In addi- The single-phase sectionalizing
tion, the FCI continuously readjusts itself for device will be open on the faulted phase, thus
changes in the nominal line current. showing which underground cable is faulted.
3
Three-Phase Underground Feeders
Recloser FCIs Underground Line Segment FCIs The most extensive type of underground feeder
connects two substations. During normal opera-
tion, this feeder has an open point with each
side being fed by a different substation. In this
FIGURE 3.12: FCI Placement on Overhead Feeder with Underground application, the FCIs are placed on the circuit
Segment.
exits and on either the incoming or outgoing ca-
bles in each sectionalizing cabinet. Figure 3.13
In contrast, a three-phase sectionalizing device shows this arrangement.
will open on all phases, regardless of which phase Another consideration for this type of system
is faulted. A three-phase FCI will show a “FAULT” is the choice of a trip rating. To select a proper
indication; however, it does not indicate which trip rating, the cooperative engineer must con-
phase. For this type of application, it is better to sider the load and fault currents during normal
use three single-phase FCIs. Here, only the FCI on and alternate feeds. If possible, a trip rating
the faulted cable will show a “FAULT” indication. should be selected that will respond to the fault
The use of three single-phase FCIs also works current available during normal and alternate
well on underground circuit exits from a distribu- feeds. Another option is to use an adaptive-trip
tion substation. In many cases, these circuit exits FCI. As this FCI adapts to different line current
are protected by a three-phase sectionalizing de- levels, it responds properly during normal and
vice. If the sectionalizing device has indicators to alternate feeds.
show the faulted phase, a set of FCIs is needed A third consideration is the use of a three-
on the load end of the underground segment only. phase FCI or three single-phase FCIs. As covered
However, if the protective device does not have in the preceding subsection, a three-phase FCI is
phase indicators, a set of FCIs must be placed at suitable only when the feeder is protected by
each end of the underground segment. single-phase sectionalizing devices. If the de-
Some areas may have very long segments of vices are three-phase, the only way to identify
underground cable. These segments may contain the faulted phase is to use a single-phase FCI on
above-ground sectionalizing points or grounding each cable, unless the three-phase protective de-
points. Placing an FCI at these locations will lo- vice has an individual target for each phase.
cate the exact faulted cable section.
Switchgear 1 Switchgear 3
Substation A Substation B
FCIs
FCIs
Switchgear 2
FIGURE 3.13: FCI Placement on Three-Phase Underground Feeder.

1 1 2 – Se c t io n 3
3
Underground Residential Subdivisions
Riser Riser
Pole Pole An underground residential subdivision usually
consists of single-phase transformers and cable
operated as an open-loop system. Figure 3.14
shows this system with one FCI for each trans-
former. This arrangement should work properly
regardless of the location of the loop open point.
Large subdivisions can be more complicated.
These subdivisions often contain multiple single-
phase loops and may contain a three-phase under-
N.O.
ground sub-feeder. In addition to being placed at
each transformer, FCIs must also be placed in each
switching, sectionalizing, or junction cabinet. Fig-
LEGEND ure 3.15 shows FCI placement in a large subdivi-
Single-Phase, Pad-Mounted Transformer sion. If SW1 and SW2 were three-phase junction
FCI
cabinets without fused taps, then FCIs must also
be placed on each load-side cable. This arrange-
ment lets field personnel open the cabinet and
FIGURE 3.14: FCI Placement for Single-Phase Open Loop.
determine which phase has the faulted cable.
Riser Riser
Pole Pole
Switching Switching
Cabinet Cabinet
N.O.
N.O.
N.O.
LEGEND
Three-Phase, Pad-Mounted Transformer
Single-Phase, Pad-Mounted Transformer
FCI
N.O.
FIGURE 3.15: FCI Placement for Underground Subdivision with Three-Phase Source.
3
SELECTING A RESET METHOD Because it operates more slowly, this FCI can-
Manual Reset not be used on underground systems protected
The manual-reset type is the simplest and least by current-limiting fuses. Without remote indica-
expensive FCI. It typically costs half that of the tion, crews cannot determine the indicator status
automatic-resetting types. As expected, there are without opening each enclosure. FCIs are, thus,
trade-offs for this reduction in cost. First, service less desirable when used on an underground
personnel must reset this FCI in the field. Any system placed along the front property lines. For
tripped indicators that service personnel miss these reasons, the use of manual-reset FCIs is
will continue to show a “fault” indication. Dur- not recommended.
ing a future outage, these indicators will confuse
crews and probably increase the time required Automatic Reset
to locate the faulted cable section. If this be- FCIs are also available with automatic reset.
comes a common occurrence, crews will soon After tripping, these devices can sense when the
ignore the fault indicators. cable is re-energized and will then reset to a
Failure to reset an FCI is more likely on an “NORMAL” indication. Because the reset is auto-
underground than on an overhead system. On matic, these devices are more likely to show cor-
an underground system, the FCIs are usually lo- rect indication than is the manual-reset type. As
cated inside pad-mounted enclosures. After a a result, the automatic-reset FCIs can be a more
crew locates the faulted line section, they must reliable fault-locating tool.
open all enclosures located before the faulted Manufacturers offer many types of automatic
cable section and reset each FCI. During after- reset. The costs of these different types are
hours power restoration or during inclement very similar. These types have different appli-
weather, this step may be neglected. cations based on their limitations. Each type of
This device has two other limitations: automatic reset and how it is best used is de-
scribed below.
• No coordination with current-limiting
fuses, and Current Reset
• No remote indicator. Current reset is the most common type of auto-
matic reset. The device uses the same sensor to
detect fault and load current (see Figure 3.16).
After tripping, this device resets to “NORMAL”
when it detects the return of load current in
the cable. The load current must be higher
than the reset current level. The standard reset
current levels are three amperes, 1.5 amperes,
and 0.1 ampere.
Before selecting a current-reset FCI, determine
the normal load current. On 35- and 25-kV sys-
tems, the normal load current in a single-phase
residential subdivision may be less than three
amperes. For example, a load of 30 kW on a
24.9/14.4-kV system has a current of about two
amperes. An FCI with a three-ampere reset level
would never reset.
The lower reset levels, 1.5 amperes and less,
FIGURE 3.16: Current-Reset FCI. The unit has are very sensitive and can be susceptible to the
a flag display housed inside a clear viewing
magnetic fields of nearby cables. These stray
window. Courtesy of Fisher Pierce Division
of Thomas & Betts. fields can lead to false tripping and resetting in
the following applications:
1 1 4 – Se c t io n 3
3
• Single-phase junction cabinets, primary to the secondary side of the transformer.
• Single-phase fuse cabinets, As a safety feature, this sensor has a lumped re-
• Three-phase junction sistance probe and 30-kV insu-
cabinets, and lated cable. The resistance
• Three-phase switchgear. Current-reset FCIs probe will limit the fault
current if there is a primary-
Some of these FCIs can be can be placed in all to-secondary insulation system
equipped with magnetic shield- types of pad-mounted failure.
ing to prevent this problem. The low-voltage-reset FCI is
The current-reset FCIs re-
equipment. ideal for lightly loaded circuits
quire only a current source to where the load current is not
reset. Therefore, these devices high enough to reset a current-
can be placed in all types of pad-mounted reset FCI. This FCI is not affected by the magnetic
equipment and enclosures. fields of nearby cables during reset; therefore, this
device would be suitable for a lightly loaded
Low-Voltage Reset three-phase circuit. The current sensor to detect
The low-voltage-reset FCI is equipped with a fault current would not have to be as sensitive as
probe that connects to the secondary voltage a sensor that must also detect load currents of less
terminal of a transformer (see than three amperes to reset.
Figure 3.17). The current sen- The more sensitive sensors re-
sor has contact with the pri- quire magnetic shielding to
mary circuit neutral. When the The low-voltage-reset minimize the effect of nearby
FCI senses the proper amount FCI is ideal for lightly cables. This is described in
of voltage between the sec- more detail in the Current
ondary terminal and the circuit loaded circuits. Reset subsection on page 113.
neutral, it will reset. Most units For three-phase use, it is im-
have reset voltages of 120 volts portant to know the minimum
or 277 volts nominal and can be used in single- reset voltage. This value should be high enough
phase or grounded-wye, grounded-wye three- to prevent a false reset caused by a feedback
phase transformers. voltage. This effect is described in the Backfeed
The voltage sensor will likely cross from the Currents subsection earlier in this section.
Figure 3.17: Low-Voltage-Reset FCI. Courtesy of E.O. Schweitzer FIGURE 3.18: High-Voltage-Reset FCI. Courtesy
Manufacturing Division of SEL. of Fisher Pierce Division of Thomas and Betts.
3
High-Voltage Reset voltage exceeds five kilovolts,
The high-voltage-reset FCI Time-reset devices an FCI will falsely reset.
mounts on the capacitive test
point of an elbow terminator
do not respond Time Reset
(see Figure 3.18). A primary to feedback voltage The time-reset FCI resets to
voltage level of five kilovolts “NORMAL” after a specified
or current.
or greater for a period of time, regardless of the circuit
about three minutes will reset conditions (see Figure 3.19).
the FCI. These devices can be Therefore, it is very important
used only on elbow termina- to select a time period that is
tors with capacitive test points. Correct FCI sensor long enough for crews to re-
Care must be used on these placement is spond and check the status of
devices to ensure moisture the FCIs. If the time period is
protection. necessary for too short, the FCI can reset be-
For use with three-phase proper operation. fore the faulted cable section
systems, these devices must be is located. These units use a
specified with magnetic shield- lithium battery to keep the
ing. Without this shielding, an reset time during the power
FCI can show a false trip or reset caused by cur- outage and to power a flashing LED or beeping
rents in nearby cables. Another concern on type of fault indicator. Most batteries have a ca-
three-phase systems is the chance of feedback pacity of 800 flashing or beeping hours during a
voltage on the faulted phase. If this feedback 10-year operating life. At the end of 10 years,
most manufacturers recommend replacing the
battery. If the unit does not have a replaceable
battery, it must be replaced with a new unit. Be-
cause these devices will not reset because of
feedback voltage or currents, they can be very
helpful in some three-phase applications.
SENSOR INSTALLATION
Proper Placement on Cable
During a phase-to-ground fault, fault current flows
through the conductor and a portion returns
along the neutral. In a concentric neutral cable,
the resulting magnetic field of the neutral tends
to cancel the magnetic field of the conductor. If
an FCI is installed directly over the concentric
neutral, it may not detect the fault current be-
cause the magnetic field is canceled or reduced.
A second problem occurs on a three-phase
system. During a phase-to-ground fault, current
can flow in the concentric neutral of the un-
faulted phases. An FCI mounted directly over the
concentric neutral can sense this current. If the
current is large enough, it will falsely trip the
fault indicator. Correct placement of the FCI min-
FIGURE 3.19: Time-Reset FCI. This unit is
battery powered and has an LED flashing light imizes these problems.
display. Courtesy of Fisher Pierce Division of Correct placement can be done in one of two
Thomas & Betts. ways. The first method is to train the concentric
neutral conductors back over themselves on the
1 1 6 – Se c t io n 3
3
current. Therefore, an FCI can be placed directly
over a shielded cable without adversely affecting
the operation of the FCI.
Effect of Adjacent Conductor Current

The FCI current sensor responds to the magnetic
field that results from a fault current flowing
through the underground cable. When under-
ground cables are close together, these magnetic
fields can overlap. These conditions exist in three-
phase pad-mounted transformers, sectionalizing
Concentric Neutral Must cabinets, and junction cabinets. A sensor that is
Be Looped Back Through
not magnetically shielded can sense the mag-
Sensor Core to Cancel
Effect of Current in Neutral netic field of adjacent conductors. A fault current
on one conductor can produce a magnetic field
strong enough to trip the FCIs on the other two
FIGURE 3.20: Correct Placement of FCI Sensor. Adapted from Yeh, 1990.
conductors. This false indication can be avoided
by not using unshielded current sensors in three-
phase, pad-mounted equipment. Three-phase
applications require the use of shielded sensors.
A shielded sensor forms a complete magnetic
circuit around the conductor to which it attaches,
effectively shielding the sensor from nearby
magnetic fields. However, some closed-core sen-
sors are designed to detect very low current flow,
as low as 0.1 ampere. These sensors are extremely
sensitive to low magnetic fields and, thus, sus-
ceptible to false trips and resets. These sensors
cannot be used in three-phase equipment.
IEEE Standard 495 requires a test for the effect
of adjacent current-carrying conductors. The test
must verify that the indicator will continue to
show “NORMAL” when the sensor is at the man-
ufacturer’s specified distance from an unshielded
FIGURE 3.21: Incorrect Placement of FCI Sensor. Adapted from cable carrying a fault current. The sensor must
Yeh, 1990. not be affected by orientation.
FAULT INDICATION
cable. The FCI is then installed over the portion To be of any use, an FCI must show—by a
of the cable where the neutral conductors are visual display, a radio frequency (RF) output,
overlaid. The second method is to train the neu- or other means—that a fault condition occurred.
tral conductors to the outside of the FCI. The Figure 3.22 shows an FCI with an RF signal
FCI is placed on the cable above the concentric output. Figures 3.19 and 3.17, respectively,
neutral conductors. Figures 3.20 and 3.21 illus- show FCIs with remote LED and visual flag
trate correct and incorrect FCI placement. displays.
For a shielded cable with 5- or 10-mil tape, An RF FCI eliminates the need to look for the
the impedance of the tape shield is large unit. This is a definite advantage in areas where
enough that it carries very little fault current. snow or vegetation may obscure a visual dis-
Instead, the neutral will carry most of the fault play. RF FCIs are also significantly more effective
3
display that was previously used had an indica-
tor arrow that pointed toward the fault. This type
of FCI provides some advantage in large subdivi-
sions because crews can first check an FCI in the
middle of a cable run and trace the fault from
there instead of from the dip pole. The direc-
tional feature is also useful if cable circuits are
operating in parallel. Some models of the direc-
tional FCI must be connected to a secondary-
voltage bushing or an elbow test point in order
to establish the direction of fault current flow.
When this type of FCI requires secondary volt-
age, it is suitable for use in pad-mounted trans-
formers only; extreme care must be used in
correctly connecting the secondary leads to
establish the proper polarity. There are other
models of directional FCIs that do not require
a voltage connection.
Visual displays can be mounted on the sensor
FIGURE 3.22: Typical Radio Transmitter Unit
or can be supplied with a lead to allow remote
to Accommodate Up to 12 FCIs. Courtesy of
E.O. Schweitzer Manufacturing Division of SEL. mounting. To view a display that is mounted on
the sensor, outage crews must open the trans-
former or switchgear, which requires unlocking
when the cable is relatively inaccessible, such as a padlock and releasing the captive bolt. Then
under bridges, in subterranean vaults, or in diffi- the cabinet must be restored to a secure condi-
cult terrain. Another advantage tion. This process can be time-
is that the fault-locating consuming, especially when
process is faster because the crew is under pressure to
An FCI indicates a
crews do not have to open locate the fault and restore
pad-mounted equipment. fault condition by service.
The more usual kind of in- a visual display or Mounting the display re-
dication is the visual display. motely on the enclosure wall
Common types include the other signal. reduces the time spent identi-
flag display, the LCD readout, fying the faulted section of
and the LED flashing light. A cable. The display can thus be
flag display and LCD readout are typically viewed without opening the piece of equipment.
housed behind a clear viewing window that This mounting method does require installing a
ranges from one to three inches in diameter (see viewing window on the enclosure. Most pad-
Figure 3.16). In contrast, the size of the flashing mounted equipment can now be ordered with
light is only ¼-inch in diameter (see Figure provisions for mounting FCI remote indicators.
3.19). This size of opening is definitely easier to For existing equipment, remote mounting kits
install in a manner that maintains the integrity of are available.
the equipment enclosure. The flashing light is A viewing window for a flag display must
easily seen at night but can sometimes be diffi- be large enough to expose its face, usually a
cult to see in bright sunlight. An internal battery one- to three-inch diameter circle. A circle is cut
powers the flashing light display. through the enclosure wall. This opening is then
Some FCIs have directional capability. These covered with a piece of Plexiglas®. The Plexiglas
are useful in locations where fault current might provides some protection from impact and entry
flow in either direction. One type of directional into the enclosure. Remote mounting of the
1 1 8 – Se c t io n 3
3
flashing LED is possible with a fiber optic cable indication state when the transformer lid is
and requires only a ¼-inch hole. The display slammed open or shut. This is particularly im-
mounts directly through the hole; there is no portant for indicators with mechanical flags.
Plexiglas cover.
Remote displays allow restoration crews to OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
trace fault indicators faster. This reduces outage Fault Current Withstand
time and improves system reliability. However, a FCIs are exposed to high fault currents. To be
determined vandal could break through the reliable, an FCI must continue to operate prop-
Plexiglas and gain entry into pad-mounted erly after being exposed to these high current
equipment. The flashing light indicator presents levels. The cooperative engineer should specify
less risk of forced equipment entry. However, that all FCIs meet the Short-Time Current Test of
the cooperative engineer should investigate the IEEE Standard 495.
durability of this device to be sure that it is very
difficult to damage or remove. A ¼-inch hole is Maximum Continuous Current
large enough to probe an object into the pad- An FCI must be capable of operation when ex-
mounted enclosure. In areas subject to vandal- posed to the maximum continuous load current.
ism, a display mounted on the sensor or a Indicators with fixed pickup settings will give
remote flashing light display should be consid- false indications if the load current exceeds their
ered. In other areas, remote displays of either rating. Adaptive FCIs have the ability to accom-
type are beneficial. modate increasing load currents, but, in some
Acoustic annunciation is another specialized cases, these changes in trip characteristics may
type of FCI output. This type of FCI has a bat- impair coordination with system overcurrent
tery-powered speaker that emits a distinctive protection.
tone after the passage of a fault. Application of
acoustic FCIs is generally limited to locations Environmental Requirements
where the equipment could be obstructed by An FCI must operate in harsh environments
snow or vegetation, thus limiting the effective- including direct sunlight, earth burial, and
ness of visual indicators. Acoustic indicators are intermittent or continuous water submersion.
usually time-reset with provisions for manual An FCI must also operate under a varying range
reset during circuit restoration. of temperatures. IEEE Standard 495 requires that
Another type of FCI output is a contact suit- FCIs operate properly in an ambient tempera-
able for input to a distribution SCADA system. ture range of -40 to 85°C. In addition, this
This approach might be useful in congested standard requires the following design tests
areas, such as shopping centers, where there are to ensure that FCIs will function in their harsh
many fault indicators and an opportunity for environments:
communication circuits to connect several FCIs
to a common SCADA remote terminal unit. • Temperature cycling test,
A final concern is that the display maintains • Water submersion test,
its state during normal handling in the field. • Outdoor weathering of plastics test,
IEEE Standard 495 requires an impact resistance • Salt spray test, and
test. This test requires the display to maintain its • Immersion corrosion test.
3
Summary and 1. Fault current values should be available conductor. Equation 3.3 and Tables 3.2
Recommendations from system fault current study. through 3.6 can be used to evaluate the
2. Sometimes the maximum interrupting rating temperature increase in the concentric
of a protective device is rated in asymmetri- neutral or shield during faults.
cal amperes but only a symmetrical fault 8. Table 3.8 shows fault levels that may lead to
current rating is available. Use Equations 3.1 destructive transformer failure for internal
and 3.2 and Table 3.1 to convert from faults. If actual withstand levels of I2t values
symmetrical to asymmetrical. are known for a particular transformer,
3. When minimum fault is calculated, a fault re- Equation 3.4 should be used to calculate a
sistance of zero to 10 ohms for underground corresponding maximum symmetrical fault
cable and 30 to 40 ohms for overhead line is level. Current-limiting fuses should be used
recommended. Zero ohms for underground to protect against destructive transformer
and 30 ohms for overhead are less conser- failure in high-fault areas.
vative and should be used only within the 9. The magnetizing inrush current point for
restrictions noted in the Minimum Available a transformer is estimated as follows:
Fault subsection and subject to good
engineering judgment and knowledge
Transformer Size Magnetizing
of the system.
4. All load-carrying components should be Three-Phase Single-Phase Inrush Current
rated to withstand maximum through-fault >3 MVA >1 MVA 12 × base-rated
currents on the system. If this is not possi- full-load current
ble, current-limiting fuses or circuit recon- for 0.1 seconds
≤ 3 MVA ≤ 1 MVA
figuration should be used to limit the fault.
8 × base-rated
5. Proper location of protective devices will
full-load current
limit fault damage and the number of con- for 0.1 seconds
sumers affected by the fault and also help
locate the fault. Recommended locations
are the following: Protective device curves should fall to the
right of and above this point to prevent
(a) In substations,
unnecessary tripping.
(b) At the beginning of underground cable,
10. A good rule of thumb for cold-load pickup
(c) At transitions from underground to
current is the following:
overhead,
(d) On taps off main feeders and (a) Six times full-load current for one second,
sub-feeders, (b) Three times full-load current for up to 10
(e) On transformers, and seconds, and
(f) Within long feeders. (c) Two times full-load current for 100
seconds up to 15 minutes.
6. Use the cable damage curves in Appendix F
to determine if a protective device protects Frequently, these points may be modified
a cable against through-fault damage. The on the basis of the type of load and local
short-circuit curves are normally used; how- climate. Protective device curves should
ever, the emergency overload curves can be fall to the right of and above these points
used for a more conservative approach or to prevent unnecessary tripping. This
where the cable is normally operated near coordination may not always be possible.
its continuous ampacity limit. 11. Several types of protective devices are
7. Where the neutral/shield is reduced in size available for use on an underground
or is jacketed, the temperature increase in system. Most of these are available in a
the shield during faults may be more critical pad-mounted type enclosure. Several of
than the temperature increase in the phase these devices can be operated remotely.
Equipment L o a d i n g – 1 2 1
4 Equipment Loading
In This Section: Primary Cable Ampacity Summary and Recommendations

Pad-Mounted Transformer Sizing
For an underground distribution system to be kVA ratings must be selected to carry highly di-
operated reliably and efficiently, the two major verse loads with peaks that may exceed the
system components—cables and transformers— transformer rating. Transformers must be de-
must be sized properly. The current rating or signed to carry these temporary overloads while
ampacity of primary and secondary cables must lasting 20 years or more. By reviewing the con-
be selected to economically serve the load over ditions that affect primary and secondary cable
the lifetime of the installation. To meet this re- ampacity and the ability of transformers to carry
quirement, cables must supply the load during overloads for short periods, the engineer will
peak periods without overheating and within ac- have the tools to design the best UD system to
ceptable voltage limits. Pad-mounted transformer meet various system requirements.
Primary Cable A simple definition of ampacity is the amount of thermal operating limit of the cable. Voltage
Ampacity current that a cable can carry under a specific drop is often the deciding element in very long
set of circumstances. When current flows cable runs. For short runs and large currents,
through a cable, losses in the form of heat are ampacity is usually the limiting element.
generated in the conductor Maximum insulation temper-
and insulation. The ability of ature is not the only considera-
the cable to transfer this heat tion for an underground
to the surrounding environ-
Ampacity = Current circuit. Soil temperature
ment sets the actual ampacity Rating of Cable around direct-buried cable or
of the cable. conduit should also be consid-
The maximum conductor ered. If cable temperature rises
operating temperature limits to an excessive level, the sur-
the allowable loading of UD cable, although rounding soil may dry out, causing a large in-
loading the cable to the maximum operating crease in soil thermal resistivity. If the condition
temperature of the insulation will not shorten persists for an extended period, it can lead to
its life. However, voltage regulation and flicker thermal instability of the soil, which will cause
can limit circuit loading to a value less than the higher cable temperatures and shorter cable life.
1 2 2 – Se c t io n 4
4
In light of these aspects that affect the rating The actual computations are quite involved,
of a cable, a more exact definition of ampacity but engineers will rarely find it necessary to cal-
canbe formulated. The ampacity rating of a culate ampacity ratings for the cables in their in-
cable is the amount of current (in amperes) that ventories because ampacities for a large range of
will cause the temperature of the conductor to cable sizes and installation conditions have al-
rise from the stated ambient temperature to, but ready been calculated. The ICEA created Publi-
not above, the rated operating temperature of cation No. P-46-426, Power Cable Ampacities,
the insulation under specific conditions that af- Volumes I and II, dated 1962. These tables are
fect the rate at which heat is removed from the now quite dated and are valuable only for the
surface of the cable. On the basis of this defini- installation conditions and parameters they
tion, the basic procedure for calculating cable describe. A newer publication, ICEA P-53-426,
ampacity will be explained. which was issued in 1976, addressed UD-style
A method to accurately compute ampacity cables and, in particular, the effect of shield
under various installation and operating condi- losses on ampacities in single-conductor cables
tions was first published in 1957 in a technical and temperatures in the earth surrounding
paper by Neher and McGrath titled “The Calcu- buried cables and ducts.
lation of the Temperature Rise and Load Capa- Although these publications have served the
bility of Cable Systems.” This basic procedure is industry well over the years, new insulation
still used today to calculate cable ampacity. It is compounds and manufacturing processes have
used to calculate the maximum conductor tem- made the older tables of limited use. The Insu-
perature as limited by the lated Conductor Committee of
rated operating temperature of the IEEE compiled more up-
the insulation. The conductor dated cable ampacity tables
Use ampacity tables
current required to produce and published IEEE Standard
the temperature change can be to pick cable ratings. 835-1994, which lists cables
calculated with Equation 4.1. from 600 volts to 500 kV, in
ducts, in air, and in direct-
buried situations, with virtually
Equation 4.1 all combinations of single-phase, vee-phase,
three-phase, and multiple circuits. An abstract of
TC = I2 RC RT these tables is reproduced as Table 4.1.
Two-conductor, concentric neutral power
where: TC = Change in conductor temperature in degrees Celsius caused cables consist of one insulated central conductor
by current-produced losses (T conductor/T ambient) and one copper concentric neutral conductor
RT = Effective thermal resistance between the conductor and applied helically over the insulation. They are
ambient soil, in °C-cm/Watt used on single-phase or three-phase primary
RC = Effective electrical resistance of the conductor, in underground distribution systems with operating
micro-ohms per ft voltage up to 35 kV.
If an application arises that is not covered by
I = Conductor current, in kiloamperes
these ampacity tables, IEEE 835-1994 or Appen-
dix G should be consulted. Cable vendors can
The change in conductor temperature, TC, is
also supply cable ampacity ratings for the special
given for a particular installation being consid-
installations. Also, PC-based ampacity programs
ered. Once RC and RT are calculated, Equation
calculate ampacities for most cable installation
4.1 can be solved for cable ampacity:
arrangements and types of cable. Such programs
also help to perform sensitivity analyses in which
different parameters can be varied to determine
T –T
I = conductor ambient their effect on the ampacity of the cable. Unfortu-
RC RT nately, these programs are sometimes expensive
4
TABLE 4.1: Ampacities for Single-Phase Primary Underground Distribution Cable—XLPE,
TR-XLPE, and EPR Insulated.
Conductor Conductors Rated 15 kV, 90°C, 100% LF

Size AWG Copper Aluminum
or kcmil Buried* In Duct* Duct in Air** Buried* In Duct* Duct in Air**
4 200 121 91 156 94 71
2 260 155 118 203 121 92
1 297 176 135 232 137 105
1/0 339 200 154 264 156 120
2/0 387 227 176 302 177 137
3/0 442 258 201 344 201 156
4/0 504 293 230 393 228 179
250 — — — 437 255 200
300 — — — 488 288 226
* Two-conductor full-concentric-neutral cable in direct burial at an ambient temperature of 25°C, 100% load factor, and
soil thermal resistivity rho-90.
** Two-conductor full-concentric-neutral cable in conduit in air at an ambient temperature of 40°C, 100% load factor,
full sun, no wind.
The multiplying correction factors for load factors of 50% and 75% are as follows:
Correction Factors
75% Load Factor 50% Load Factor
Cable Rating kV Buried In Duct Buried In Duct
15 1.08 1.04 1.16 1.07
Continuous loading at maximum rating may lead to moisture migration away from the cables and increased soil thermal
resistivity, and a condition of thermal runaway may occur. See “Power Cable Ampacities,” ICEA Publication No. P-46-426;
IEEE Publication No. S-135, Section 5, page XIII; or ICEA Publication No. P-53-426 (Reaffirmed 1982), NEMA Publication
No. WC 50, page VI, Section E.3, and IEEE Standard 835-1994.
Adapted from ICEA S-66-524, NEMA WC 7 (12/84), page 83, and ICEA S-68-516, NEMA WC 8 (reaffirmed 1982), Part 8,
page 7, and modified to 25°C ambient earth temperature by multiplying by 0.9636.
and their purchase cannot be justified by most insulation and elements associated with the instal-
cooperatives for occasional use. lation of the cable. Heat flows outward from where
the losses are generated toward the jacket. When
CONDITIONS AFFECTING CABLE AMPACITY heat flows through the thermal resistance of the
The maximum ampacity of a concentric neutral various elements between the conductor and the
UD cable depends on the ability of its surround- surrounding soil, it causes a thermal gradient.
ing environment to dissipate the heat generated The temperature gradient, when added to the
by internal losses. Losses occur physically within ambient temperature of the soil (or air), equals
the cable in its conductor, insulation, and neu- the final conductor temperature. This conductor
tral. Losses in the insulation and neutral may or temperature must not exceed the operating tem-
may not be negligible, depending on the type of perature of the cable insulation system.
1 2 4 – Se c t io n 4
4
Electrical Losses them and the central conductor. Because safety
One condition that affects cable ampacity is the practices require the neutral to be grounded at
magnitude of electrical losses. When a cable is multiple points along its length, the induced
energized and current flows, losses in the form voltage will cause current to flow in a three-
of heat are produced in the conductor and its phase application, adding to the total system
surrounding insulation and coverings. The rate loss. Generally, the greater the neutral resistance
at which the heat is removed from the cable defor cable sizes below 1,000 kcmil, the less the
termines the temperature rise within the dielec- losses will be because of the proportional de-
tric and, thus, the ampacity of the cable. Electri- crease in current magnitude. This effect is
cal losses can be divided into two types: current graphically shown in Figure 4.1.
dependent and non-current dependent. Current- It is not usually necessary to calculate the re-
dependent losses are caused by current flow in sistance of the concentric neutral because it is
the central and concentric neutral conductors. expressed as a fraction of the known conductor
Non-current-dependent losses are due to the ac resistance. For example, full and 1/3 are the
presence of the electrical field within the cable two concentric neutral resistance values speci-
dielectric. They are a function of voltage and are fied in RUS Bulletin 1728F-U1 for primary cable.
present any time the cable is energized. A full neutral means the neutral and phase con-
Current-dependent losses are ohmic losses in ductors have the same resistance, whereas 1/3
the conductor and concentric neutral and vary means the concentric neutral resistance is three
as the square of the current. Losses in the cen- times the resistance of the central conductor.
tral conductor represent the main heat-generat- Non-current-dependent losses are caused by
ing component and are directly related to its ac losses in the dielectric and charging current loss.
resistance. Losses in the cable concentric neutral The dielectric loss is present any time the cable
occur when voltage is induced on the neutral is energized; the value of the loss is proportional
wires because of the mutual reactance between to the square of the voltage. These losses are
0.4
FULL
0.35
1,000 kcmil
0.3 750 kcmil
500 kcmil
0.25 FULL 350 kcmil
4/0 AWG
Ysc
0.2 1/3
0.15
FULL
1/3
0.1 1/6
1/3 1/6
FULL 1/3
1/3 1/6
.05
FULL
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375
Rs (Microohms per Foot)
FIGURE 4.1: Ratio of Shield Loss to Conductor DC Loss (Ysc ) at 90°C as a Function of Shield
Resistance (Rs), 1/C 35-kV Aluminum Power Cables in Triplexed Formation. Source: ICEA
Publication No. P-53-426.
4
caused by the in-phase components of voltage Load Factor/Loss Factor
and current induced in the dielectric. A second element that affects cable ampacity is
Charging current losses are caused by the flow the load factor/loss factor of the load. The maxi-
of charging current and are separate from the real mum temperature rise of a cable depends on the
power flow through the cable. Charging current shape of the load curve and the thermal resis-
is a function of cable capacitance and is present tance of the heat transfer path. A cable will have
any time the cable is energized. Loss calculations a smaller temperature rise if the load varies over
involving charging current are, therefore, done a 24-hour period than if the peak load was ap-
at 100 percent loss factor. Losses are equal to plied for the whole day. The effect of a load fac-
the charging current squared times the ac resistor less than unity is recognized in ampacity and
tance of the cable. Because charging current is temperature rise calculations by using loss factor.
proportional to voltage, losses caused by it are The loss factor is the ratio of the average losses
proportional to the square of the voltage. to the peak losses over a specified period. The
Although dielectric losses must be considered IEEE ampacity tables are based on loss factors
when setting ampacity ratings for UD cables and determined on the basis of losses for the average
are factored into the ampacity tables, their effects maximum load over a one-hour period. Ampac-
are more pronounced at transmission voltages. ity tables are based on the projected load factor
Equations to calculate con- of the circuit. Load factor is
ductor losses, dielectric loss, defined as the ratio of the av-
cable capacitance, charging Loss factor compares erage load to the peak load.
current, and charging current The relationship between
loss for underground cables
average losses with
load factor and loss factor
are found in Section 1, Equa- peak losses. depends on the shape of the
tions 1.1 through 1.7. load duration curve. Because
losses vary as the square of
the current, the value of the
1.0 loss factor can vary between the extreme limits
of load factor and load factor squared. Figure 4.2
shows this relationship, with curves A and B
0.8 representing the theoretical limits between
A which the relationship can vary. Typical load
curves for any distribution feeder will fall be-
Per Unit Loss Factor
0.6 tween the two curves. The loss factor is always

less than the load factor except where they are
C both unity. This condition occurs when there is
0.4 a constant load on the cable.
The loss factor cannot be calculated directly
from load factor because losses are proportional
0.2 to the square of the current and the resistance,
B
whereas the load factor depends only on the
current (assuming constant voltage). Note that
both factors are related to time. Observations by
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
many utility engineers over the years have re-
Per Unit Load Factor
sulted in a relationship between the two values
Curve A: Loss Factor = Load Factor that gives a reasonable value of loss factor in
Curve B: Loss Factor = (Load Factor)2 terms of its corresponding load factor. The rela-
Curve C: Loss Factor = 0.2 Load Factor + 0.8 (Load Factor)2 tionship can be expressed by the empirical for-
mula shown in Equation 4.2, which is normally
FIGURE 4.2: Relationship Between Load Factor and Loss Factor used for rural feeders.
Per Unit.
1 2 6 – Se c t io n 4
4
type of soil (its texture and mineral content), the
Equation 4.2
moisture content, and the structural arrangement
of the soil particles. Generally, the higher the
Loss Factor=0.2 Load Factor+0.8(Load Factor)2 moisture content, the lower its thermal resistance
and the better its heat-dissipating ability. Certain
clay soils tend to dry out and become baked
when heated beyond a certain temperature; this
This equation is shown as curve C in Figure 4.2. drives away the moisture and may permanently
A more thorough discussion of load factor increase their thermal resistivity. Clay is also an
and loss factor may be found in the NRECA example of a soil that shrinks when dry, thereby
Distribution System Loss Management Manual, losing contact with the cable, which creates an
pages 17–20. air layer between the soil and the cable surface
Because the load factor of a cable determines and adds an extreme thermal resistance to the
its ampacity value, consideration must be given heat dissipation path. As the thermal resistance
to future load factors during the expected life of around the cable increases, the cable temperature
the cable. Choosing a load factor of 100 percent rises. If the cable temperature stabilizes at a safe
gives the minimum ampacity value, with all other level, the soil is considered stable. If the tempera-
conditions being equal. An improperly high load ture continues to rise above an acceptable level,
factor could lead to the choice of cable one or the soil is considered thermally unstable.
two sizes larger than necessary. Knowing the ef- Figure 4.3 shows the variation of thermal re-
fect of the other conditions on cable ampacity will sistivity with moisture content for various types
allow the engineer to make a more informed de- of soils. As the moisture content is reduced, re-
cision about the value of load factor chosen. sistivity rises slowly until a critical moisture level
is reached; the thermal resistivity then starts to
Soil Thermal Resistivity increase at a much higher rate. Electric Power
Soil thermal resistivity (rho) is an important ele- Research Institute-sponsored research has shown
ment that affects cable ampacity. The tendency that, at high moisture levels, water fills the gaps
of soil surrounding a buried cable to hinder the between soil particles, which increases the effec-
flow of heat from the cable or conduit surface is tive cross-sectional area available for heat trans-
a fundamental property called soil thermal resis- fer, thus reducing the thermal resistivity of the
tivity, expressed in degrees Celsius-centimeter soil (Boggs, Chu, and Rhadhakushna, 1980).
per watt (°C-cm/watt). Rho is important in the As the moisture migrates away from the cable
selection of load capabilities of UD cables. In surface for any reason, heat conduction takes
some instances, more than one-half the total place through a solid soil matrix. Within the ma-
conductor temperature rise is caused by im- trix, the particles have only point-to-point con-
paired heat flow through the tact with each other. The
earth. Rho can be measured ability of different soils to
along a specific route to help High soil thermal dissipate heat under these
in selecting the proper cable conditions is determined by
size. However, measurements resistivity reduces the particle size distribution
are usually difficult and time- cable ampacity. (packing efficiency) of the soil
consuming to perform. Most and, to a lesser extent, by the
utilities assume soil properties shape of the particles. Figure
that have led to reliable performance in the past. 4.3 shows that, for well-graded soils such as
Selecting an ampacity value is complicated fur- limestone screenings (a quarry waste by-prod-
ther because rho depends on many conditions uct), thermal resistivity is basically constant
that are not constant through the soil profile and down to low moisture contents of approximately
can change with the seasons of the year. two percent. Below this moisture level, the ther-
The thermal resistivity of a soil depends on the mal resistivity is shown to quickly increase.
4
210 The ampacity tables in Appendix G list cable-
soil interface temperatures alongside the current
Crushed Shale
values. These interface temperatures show that
180 Silty Sand soil drying around a hot cable can lead to an
increase in soil thermal resistivity and increased
Ottawa Sand soil and conductor temperatures. Interface tem-
Thermal Resistivity (°C-cm/Watt)
150
perature is the temperature attained by the out-
Critical Moisture Content = side surface of directly buried cable, directly
buried duct, or concrete encasement. Utility
120
engineers commonly rate cables on the basis of
this method. Field studies suggest an interface
temperature of 50°C to 60°C be used for clay
90
and loam soils and 35°C for sandy soils (Arman
et al., 1964). Interface temperatures have been
used in the past to rate cables because no other
simple, dependable method exists.
60
Thermal efficiency of the soil depends mainly
Fire Valley Sand on its moisture content. In most areas of the United
Stone Screenings
States, soil moisture varies with the seasons. Usual-
30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ly during the cooler months, January through May,
Percentage Moisture Content rain keeps the soil well saturated. The warmer
FIGURE 4.3: Thermal Resistivity Versus Moisture Content for Various months have less rainfall and the soil dries out.
Soil Types. Source: Boggs, Chu, and Rhadhakushna, 1980. Because thermal resistivity and water content of
the soil are interrelated, it is reasonable to assume
that these two properties will vary with seasonal
and climate factors as well. Figure 4.4 shows
160
measured variation of soil thermal resistivity at
150 four locations on a monthly basis. The resistivity
is shown to generally increase during the hot/
140
dry months of August, September, and October.
130
Thermal Resistivity (°C-cm/Watt)
120
Soil thermal resistivity
110
changes with
100 moisture content.
90
80
In most cases, for a soil of a particular type
70
and a fixed water table level, the moisture con-
tent increases with depth. The greater the depth,
60 the less the change in moisture during the year.
A higher water content generally leads to a
50
lower thermal resistivity.
40 Years ago, experiments were made that inves-
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
tigated the differences in temperature rise for
1952
equally loaded cable buried at intermediate
FIGURE 4.4: Thermal Resistivity of Soil at Various Locations. depths from three to 20 feet. As expected, the
Source: EEI Underground Systems Reference Book, 1957. results showed a lower rho and less temperature
1 2 8 – Se c t io n 4
4
20
Depth Below
Surface (Feet)
15
Air 1.5
6.5
Temperature (°C)
10
16
–5
Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
FIGURE 4.5: Effect of Depth on Soil Temperatures as Influenced by Seasonal Temperature

Variations. Source: EEI Underground Systems Reference Book, 1957.
rise at 20 feet compared with three feet. How- ambient temperature. The ambient temperature
ever, the increase in cable ampacity could never is the normal soil temperature at the burial
offset the extra cost of deeper burial. Standard depth of the cable that would exist if the cable
industry practice is approximately three feet as were not there.
an acceptable minimum depth for almost all in- The change of ambient temperature below the
stallations outside urban areas. Unfavorable na- earth’s surface is caused by seasonal exchange
tive soil conditions near the surface can be of solar energy between air and earth. The earth
overcome for short runs by using a good ther- acts like a heat sink in the summer and returns
mal backfill in the vicinity of the cable. heat to the air in the winter. Measurements show
that soil temperature decreases with depth in
Ambient Soil Temperature summer and increases with depth in winter. Fig-
Ambient soil temperature affects UD cable ampac- ure 4.5 shows that the temperature change fol-
ity and must be considered when using ampacity lows essentially a sinusoidal curve that changes
tables. Every ampacity table has been computed with the seasons. The cycle does not vary much
for a specific ambient temperature. The temper- from year to year.
ature rise of the cable is added directly to the Cyclical temperature changes below ground
vary considerably from place to place and must
be known for the specific location being consid-
TABLE 4.2: Typical Ambient Soil Temperatures at a Depth of 3.5 Feet. ered. If it is not feasible to make temperature
Source: ICEA Publication No. P-46-426.
measurements at the site, usable temperature
Temperature, °C ranges may be obtained from the state Depart-
Location Summer Winter ment of Agriculture or the agricultural school of
a state university. Table 4.2 gives typical temper-
Northern United States 20 to 25 2 to 15 ature ranges that may be used when site-specific
Southern United States 30 to 35 10 to 20 data are not available.
4
Daily variations in air temperature produce mutual reactance will always exist. Another point
negligible changes in ambient earth tempera- that must be considered when spacing cables
tures below one foot. Investigations have shown close together is the mutual heating effect caused
that, at depths below 36 inches, ambient soil by the three conductors. Mutual heating will de-
temperatures lag the air temperature by about crease the load-carrying ability of the system.
two weeks to one month because of the high Another way to reduce circulating current
specific heat of the soil. losses is to increase the resistance of the concen-
tric neutral. This may be done by reducing the
Cable Configuration and Circulating Current number or size of the wires. Industry practice is
Various aspects of installation can affect the to list concentric neutral sizes in relation to the
amount of current a cable can carry. For single- resistance of the central conductor. For example,
phase primary UD cable, dielectric loss is usually a cable with 1/3-neutral would have a concen-
considered negligible when ampacity is calculat- tric neutral resistance three times the phase con-
ed. Therefore, the current rating of most single- ductor. Engineers recognize that the concentric
phase UD applications is limited by current-relat- neutral physically protects the cable. For this
ed losses in the conductor and neutral, plus the reason, cable is usually purchased for standard
heat-sink quality of the surrounding soil. applications with a concentric neutral made up
In a balanced three-phase application using of at least six No. 14 AWG copper wires.
concentric neutral cable, there is no return cur- The preceding discussion shows that a three-
rent because the phase currents vectorially add phase installation is more involved in terms of
to zero at the load. No return current means the ampacity and that more factors limit its ampacity
magnetic field outside the concentric neutral of than for a single-phase circuit. In addition to the
each phase is not totally canceled out. Load cur- conductor losses and the thermal quality of the
rent flowing in the other two phases will cancel soil, the arrangement of the phases in relation to
some of the magnetic field produced by current each other affects the total system losses and,
in one phase. Because the net magnetic field thus, the circuit ampacity.
around the phase is not completely canceled, it
produces a voltage difference along the length INSTALLATION CONFIGURATIONS
of the concentric neutral. In the same way, volt- Physical Arrangement of Phases
age differences are produced along the concen- Example 4.1 shows how the physical arrangement
tric neutrals of the other two phases. of the phase conductors can affect ampacity.
Safety standards require that the concentric
neutrals of all jacketed UD cables be grounded Observations from Ampacity Tables
and connected together at both ends of the The following general observations can be made
cable run, and at as many intermediate points as from reviewing the 1962 ICEA ampacity tables
required by the NESC. This necessary grounding and IEEE Standard 835-1994 for different instal-
of the neutrals at more than one point creates a lation configurations:
cross connection which short-circuits the voltage
between them and allows circulating currents to • Circulating current losses decrease and
flow. The circulating currents produce heat. This ampacities increase with increasing concentric
heat, when added to the mutual heating effect neutral resistance.
of the other conductors in a trench, decreases • The smaller the phase conductor, the smaller
the ampacity of the cable circuit. the variation of the circuit ampacity with neu-
Voltage differences—and, thus, neutral tral resistance.
losses—are proportional to the mutual reactance • For large conductors, there is a large variation
of the cable system. The most common way to of ampacity with neutral resistance.
reduce mutual reactance is to place the cables • The variation of ampacity with concentric
closer together. However, the axial spacing can- neutral resistance is generally greater for
not be reduced below one cable diameter, so spaced than for trefoil configurations.
1 3 0 – Se c t io n 4
4
EXAMPLE 4.1: Comparing the Ampacity of Trefoil and Flat-Spaced Configurations.
Consider two direct-buried, three-phase primary circuits FIGURE 4.6: Trefoil or Triangular
using concentric neutral jacketed cable. Circuit 1 shown Cable Configuration.
in Figure 4.6 is in a closely spaced trefoil or cloverleaf
configuration. Circuit 2 is a flat configuration with “main-
tained spacing” of approximately 7.5 inches between
phases, as seen in Figure 4.7. For easier comparison of
the two installations, excerpts from their ampacity
36”
tables are listed in Table 4.3.
Examination of the two configurations of Table 4.3
shows that, for conductor sizes of 350 kcmil and larger,
the trefoil arrangement produces fewer losses and
greater ampacity as the load and load factor of the
circuit increase. For 4/0 AWG and smaller conductors,
the spaced configuration gives greater current-carrying
capability. FIGURE 4.7: Flat Conductor
Configuration, Maintained Spacing.
Use flat spacing for small
conductor installations.
36”
A table similar to 4.3 can be made for aluminum
conductors.
Table 4.4 shows that, for aluminum conductor sizes up A B C
to 500 kcmil, the flat-spaced configuration gives greater
ampacity values than does the trefoil. For the larger
7.5” 7.5”
conductor sizes, the trefoil configuration gives higher
ampacity ratings because circulating current losses are
greater when flat spacing is used.
TABLE 4.3: Ampacity Table for 15-kV Copper Conductor, Direct Buried, Single Circuit,
75% and 100% Load Factor.*
Trefoil Configuration (Amperes) Flat-Spaced Configuration (Amperes)
Conductor Size 75% Load Factor 100% Load Factor 75% Load Factor 100% Load Factor
4/0 (1/3 neut) 404 360 432 377
350 (1/3 neut) 519 460 516 448
500 (1/3 neut) 609 535 572 496
750 (1/3 neut) 696 608 635 548
1,000 (1/6 neut) 814 706 705 605
* IEEE Standard 835-1994
Note. Soil rho = 90, Conductor Temperature = 90°C, Ambient Soil Temperature = 25°C
Continued
4
EXAMPLE 4.1: Comparing the Ampacity of Trefoil and Flat-Spaced Configurations. (cont.)
TABLE 4.4: Ampacity Table for 15-kV Aluminum Conductor, Direct Buried, Single Circuit,
75% and 100% Load Factor.*
Trefoil Configuration (Amperes) Flat-Spaced Configuration (Amperes)
Conductor Size 75% Load Factor 100% Load Factor 75% Load Factor 100% Load Factor
1/0 (full neut) 216 194 241 214
1/0 (1/3 neut) 216 195 247 218
4/0 (1/3 neut) 318 284 361 311
350 (1/3 neut) 417 370 446 387
500 (1/3 neut) 502 442 513 443
750 (1/3 neut) 604 529 575 498
1,000 (1/6 neut) 716 623 675 582
* IEEE Standard 835-1994
Note. Soil rho = 90, Conductor Temperature = 90°C, Ambient Soil Temperature = 25°C
Conclusions from Ampacity Tables losses of the conduit added to the other losses
After a comparison of the IEEE Standard 835- of the circuit will reduce the ampacity even
1994 for trefoil against spaced arrangements more. In some cases, steel conduit may reach
with short-circuited and multigrounded con- temperatures adequate to cause cable failure by
centric neutrals, the following conclusions can melting. For this reason, nonmagnetic conduit
be drawn: must be used for high-ampacity circuits where
phases are enclosed in individual conduits.
• When neutral losses are low in both cases, The preceding discussion will prove useful in
the ampacity of the spaced configuration will comparing closely spaced with spaced three-
be more than the trefoil arrangement because phase circuits. When an installation specification
of the effect of lower mutual heating. calls for either a trefoil or maintained spacing
• When the circulating current losses of the (flat horizontal configuration), close attention
trefoil are measurably greater than the spaced should be paid to the spacing when the cable is
configurations, their ampacities will be essen- laid. Otherwise, inattention to detail could lead
tially the same. to a marginal installation after much effort has
• For larger size cables, it is generally better gone into selecting the right cable and configu-
to keep them as close together as possible ration for the project.
because the higher circulating currents of
the spaced cables provide greater losses CONDUIT APPLICATIONS
and lower ampacities than does the mutual Installation in Conduit or Duct
heating effect of the trefoil configuration. In this manual, the terms conduit and duct are
used interchangeably to mean nonmetallic, non-
Note that if single cables are installed in a magnetic tubes made primarily of polyvinyl
spaced configuration in individual steel conduit, chloride or polyethylene. A duct bank means
the same fields that produce losses in the con- one or more runs of conduit which are usually
centric neutrals will also cause eddy currents encased in concrete that extends the full length
and unacceptable heating of the steel. The of the run.
1 3 2 – Se c t io n 4
4
Paved Driveway Paved Driveway
36”
36”
18”
FIGURE 4.8: Direct-Buried Duct Bank Installation Using Rigid Nonmetallic Conduit.
Laying cable in conduit is being done by Heat flow through these thermal resistances
many electric utilities. Articles in the technical causes the temperature of the insulation to rise
press have shown that a few systems are justify- above ambient temperature. The air between the
ing using conduit for all UD installations because cable and the inner conduit surface is the main
cable replacement is much easier. In northern reason why heat is not absorbed by the soil as
climates, it is strongly recommended that con- efficiently as with direct burial, and why a cable
duit be used because digging trenches in frozen in conduit has less ampacity. The concept can be
ground can be costly and very time-consuming. more easily understood by comparing typical ther-
Conduit can also provide some protection against mal resistivity of the various materials. For exam-
dig-ins. A sealed conduit system is also useful to ple, the thermal resistivity of air is 4,000°C-cm/watt,
keep water away from cables to reduce insula- PVC conduit is approximately 480, and soil is
tion treeing. However, effective sealing is very approximately 90. It should be remembered this
difficult to achieve in practice. Underground duct same principle might apply to cables installed
is also used to protect the cable from rodent with a vibratory plow. In stiff soils the earth may
damage. Cables are usually installed in ducts not heal itself tightly back against the cables,
where they pass under roadways, sidewalks, or leaving air pockets. Consideration might be giv-
other paved areas (see Figure 4.8). Because en to de-rating certain plowed-in cables to ca-
cable in conduit has less load-carrying ability ble-in-conduit ratings.
than direct-buried cable does, conduit applica- The air space acts essentially like an insulat-
tions will be reviewed in more detail. ing blanket to impede the flow of heat to the
surrounding soil. Once an air
Pros and Cons of Cable interface exists, heat transfer
in Conduit Conduit Installations is not solely by conduction
The total thermal circuit of a directly from the cable sur-
=
cable in conduit can be visual- face to soil; rather, it is
ized as four thermal resis- Lower Cable Ampacity mostly by radiation and con-
tances in series: vection into the air space.
The inside diameter of the
1. Thermal resistance from the conductor conduit should be as small as possible for bet-
surface to the outer jacket surface, ter heat flow. However, the inside diameter of
2. Thermal resistance from the jacket surface a conduit has little effect on the final tempera-
to the inner surface of the conduit wall, ture reached by the insulation for the typical
3. Thermal resistance of the conduit material, conduit sizes used by utilities. For this reason,
and ampacity tables do not list different ampacities
4. Thermal resistance of the soil. for different conduit sizes.
4
Cable conductor temperatures in a riser appli-
TABLE 4.5: Pros and Cons of Installing Cable Circuits in Conduit.
cation depend on the following four factors:
Pros Cons
1. Number of cables in the vertical conduit,
Cable easily replaced (if not fused or frozen) Higher installed cost
2. Venting method,
Greater physical protection (for identical cables) Lower ampacity 3. Solar radiation, and
4. Riser inside diameter.
Longer life (for identical cables)
Provision for load growth (replace with larger cable) When three cables are placed in a single riser,
mutual heating will affect cable conductor tem-
The minimum conduit size required to hold perature. At a conductor temperature of 90°C,
one or more primary cables depends on several three cables can have 30 percent less ampacity
elements dictated by the installation. The inside than can a single cable in the same riser. Addi-
diameter should be large enough to accommo- tional tests have shown that the heat generated
date any movement by the cable(s) caused by by three cables in a riser will always run hotter
thermal expansion. Certain installations may dic- than the direct-buried portion of the same cir-
tate choosing a large conduit diameter to allow cuit. The higher temperature in the riser means
a higher ampacity cable to be installed later. the rating of the composite circuit is limited by
When a single cable or a bundle of three JCN the riser segment in three-phase, direct-buried
cables is being pulled, the conduit must be large applications.
enough to allow unimpeded passage. A vertical riser can be installed in one of three
Table 4.5 summarizes the pros and cons of ways that will affect circuit ampacity. The instal-
cable circuits in conduit. If more circuits are lation configurations are listed from higher to
added to an existing duct bank or trench, the lower ampacity values:
ampacity of all circuits must be reduced.
1. Open at the top and vented at the bottom,
Conduit in Air for Riser Pole Applications 2. Open at the top and closed at the bottom, or
Another cable installation element that needs to 3. Closed at both top and bottom.
be considered in underground applications is
the transition from underground to overhead at Proper venting will greatly increase ampacity
a riser pole (Hartlein and Black, 1983). Utilities when compared with a completely closed riser
usually place cable in vertical conduit for pro- that prevents natural air circulation around the
tection. It must be determined if this short sec- cable. Closing the top reduces the convective
tion in a protective riser will heat transfer capability from
be the limiting factor in a the cable surface and inside
cable installation. surface of the riser. The pre-
There are no simple estab- Venting risers at ferred installation configuration
lished methods to rate the top and bottom is to allow the free flow of air
riser portion of a cable circuit. through the riser, which is ob-
Usually, engineers assume that increases ampacity. tained with an open top and a
underground direct-buried vent at the base. Laboratory
cable runs cooler than does tests have shown that at a load
the cable section in the riser. Appropriate de-rat- factor of 100 percent, a properly vented riser can
ing factors based on field and laboratory experi- increase ampacity between 10 and 25 percent
ence are then applied to reduce the circuit when compared with a completely closed riser.
ampacity when a riser is present. This method is The vent configuration needs to comply with the
based on the principle that the current rating of NESC and good engineering judgment.
a total cable system is limited by the cable seg- Direct exposure of the riser to the sun will de-
ment that operates at maximum temperature. crease the ampacity of a cable in a vertical riser.
1 3 4 – Se c t io n 4
4
Incident solar radiation per that contain up to three cur-
unit area is equal to 900 Sun loading will rent-carrying conductors (with
watts/m2. This is a typical neutral) are kept more than
value for a sunny, midsummer decrease riser one conduit diameter apart
day throughout the United ampacity. (from surface to surface), no
States. The influence of solar correction of ampacity ratings
heating in a riser application need be made because of mu-
operating at a load factor of tual heating. This is because
100 percent can reduce the current rating of air circulation, even at an elevated ambient tem-
cable by 15 percent for a completely closed riser perature of 40°C, will prevent convection heating
and five percent for properly vented risers be- from reducing the cable ampacity, so that it’s com-
tween day and night. Because ampacity tables parable to that of an isolated conduit in free air.
list conduit-in-air ampacity values at an ambient The effect of the vertical conduit run on un-
air temperature of 40°C (104°F), solar de-rating derground cable ampacity ratings is best shown
factors need be applied only during the hottest by comparing its ampacity with four types of
days of the summer. Note that Table 4.1 gives underground configurations. The comparison is
ampacity correction factors for ambient air tem- shown in Table 4.6 for copper conductors and
peratures other than 40°C and different conduc- Table 4.7 for aluminum conductors.
tor temperatures. This table can be used for riser Tables 4.6 and 4.7 list the ampacity of single
pole applications. and double three-phase circuits in trefoil
Radiation heat transfer plays a large role in arrangement made up of two-conductor, single-
total heat dissipation from cable and riser sur- phase UD cables. Conductor sizes range from
faces. For maximum efficiency, riser material 4/0 AWG to 1,000 kcmil. The cables are direct
should be a light color (gray) to reflect some of buried, buried in conduit, and vertical conduit in
the sun’s rays and to allow heat to be given off air for the riser pole application. Conditions that
by the riser surface at a higher rate. relate to the underground and riser pole installa-
Cable in a large-diameter, vented riser will tions are shown below the ampacity values. The
consistently operate at a lower temperature than four circuit configurations are shown in Figure
will the same cable carrying the same current in 4.10 as configurations 1 and 4, and 3 and 5.
a smaller conduit because the larger opening al- The two tables show that, for the buried con-
lows more airflow through the riser. In addition, duit installation configurations, the riser does
the larger surface area increases heat dissipation not limit the ampacity of the double circuit, but
by convection and radiation. Conductor temper- will limit single-circuit applications (shaded
ature differences between large- and small-diam- cells). For the direct-buried conditions, the verti-
eter risers can range from 2°C to 15°C. cal run limits the installation for the cable sizes
and configurations shown in the shaded portion
Substation Exits of the tables. Note that for the single-circuit, di-
Substation exits are generally the highest ampac- rect-buried case, the riser limits ampacity for all
ity application of underground primary cable on cable sizes and for both types of conductor.
utility systems. Because cable in conduit has less ICEA and IEEE ampacity tables for conduit-in-
load-carrying ability than does direct-buried air applications are different from their under-
cable, both configurations applied in vertical ris- ground counterparts. For air installations, the
ers will be reviewed in more detail. tables assume there is no wind and no sun load-
Consider the condition in which two cable cir- ing and that the conduit is not ventilated. As
cuits in trefoil arrangement end on a double-cir- noted in a previous subsection, Conduit in Air
cuit riser pole. When referring to IEEE 835-1994 for Riser Pole Applications, solar radiation was
ampacity tables to select cable current ratings for found to decrease riser ampacity, whereas vent-
riser pole applications, use the tables for trefoil ing increases riser ampacity over the rating of a
cable in isolated conduit in air. When conduits riser closed at both ends. Therefore, to prevent
4
TABLE 4.6: Ampacity Values—15-kV Cable, Trefoil Configuration, Copper Conductor.*
Direct Buried** Riser Pole Buried in Conduit**

Vertical
Cable Size 1 Circuit 2 Circuits Conduit in Air 1 Circuit 2 Circuits
4/0 360 301 267 289 256
350 460 381 338 370 326
500 535 440 409 439 383
750 608 496 455 502 434
1,000 706 573 554 599 512
Underground Riser Pole
90°C conductor temperature 90°C conductor temperature
100% load factor 40°C average air temperature
25°C ambient earth temperature No solar radiation, venting, or wind
* Ampacity values are from IEEE Standard 835-1994.
** Circuit configurations are shown in Figure 4.10 as configurations 1 and 4, and 3 and 5, respectively.
TABLE 4.7: Ampacity Values—15-kV Cable, Trefoil Configuration, Aluminum Conductor.*
Direct Buried** Riser Pole Buried in Conduit**

Vertical
Cable Size 1 Circuit 2 Circuits Conduit in Air 1 Circuit 2 Circuits
1/0 195 165 145 156 140
4/0 284 238 212 228 202
350 370 307 276 298 262
500 442 365 347 364 318
750 529 432 411 437 379
1000 623 506 508 528 452
Underground Riser Pole
90°C conductor temperature 90°C conductor temperature
100% load factor 40°C average air temperature
25°C ambient earth temperature No solar radiation, venting, or wind
* Ampacity values are from IEEE Standard 835-1994.
** The above circuit configurations are shown in Figure 4.10 as configurations 1 and 4, and 3 and 5, respectively.
the de-rating of riser pole (conduit-in-air) ampacity ferent current values for different average air
values resulting from solar effects, the riser must temperatures. Instead, ampacities are listed for
be open at the top and vented at the bottom. 40°C, which is considered conservative for most
Conduit-in-air ampacity tables do not list dif- installations. The tables also do not show am-
1 3 6 – Se c t io n 4
4
pacity variations caused by different load factors This added feature is particularly important if a
for cables suspended in conduit exposed to air. U-guard backing plate is used, because this
There is no load factor variation because there is arrangement has few, if any, significant air gaps
no heat-sink cooling effect for the conductor/air (see Figure 4.9). For a double-circuit riser pole,
system as exists for buried cable. In a riser, as U-guard should be placed on opposite sides of
the load increases to a peak, the conductor tem- the pole to prevent mutual heating and minimize
perature increases much more quickly than if it the chance of simultaneous damage from vehic-
were buried in soil. Thus, for riser applications, ular impact.
the load factor is considered to be 100 percent, Regardless of whether the riser is conduit or
because the thermal time constant for the U-guard, venting should only be installed where
cable/air system is very short. it is required to obtain sufficient cable circuit am-
Instead of circular conduit, some utilities use pacity. This is because the venting fixtures are more
U-guard for riser pole applications. U-guard, as expensive than normal conduit and require addi-
the name implies, is a U-shaped section with tional installation effort. Venting fixtures also slight-
flanged edges that is attached to a pole with lag ly reduce the security of the riser installation and
bolts. It is used to cover and are more subject to damage by
provide suitable protection for outside impact.
the cable. U-guard usually Riser vents should Whether conduit or U-
does not need to be vented at guard is used as a riser, it
the base because an air space be installed only is recommended that a 90°
is assumed to exist between where necessary for elbow with a separate end
the pole and flanges to allow bell be installed three feet
enough air entry to produce a increased ampacity. below grade level. This instal-
chimney-cooling effect. How- lation will ensure that the
ever, many cooperatives install cable is at the proper depth
a vent at the base of U-guard to ensure optimum near the riser pole. The elbow/bell end combi-
airflow and increased cable ampacity for all nation helps prevent cable damage during
three-phase and most single-phase installations. pulling. After the cable is installed, it also helps
protect against dig-ins around the base of the
pole and minimizes conduit pressures on cable
if soil shifts.
Emergency Overload Ratings

For years, cables have been rated for operation
at a maximum temperature of 90°C. When these
type cables are loaded above a conductor oper-
ating temperature of 90°C for XLPE, TR-XLPE,
and EPR insulations, the cable is considered
overloaded. Many utilities and cable manufactur-
ers are now specifying and rating cables for 105°C
as a standard overload temperature. Cooperatives
should weigh carefully the use of this rating, and
consider as well the maximum operating temper-
ature rating of cable terminations and joints.
Overloading the cable will heat its insulation
above its maximum operating temperature limits.
The insulation temperature limits have been set
FIGURE 4.9: Single-Phase U-Guard by standards to maintain the integrity of the insu-
Installation with Vented Base. lation for an increased life expectancy. Emergency
4
TABLE 4.8: Abstract of ICEA Standards for Maximum Emergency-Load and Short-Circuit-Load
Temperatures for Various Insulations.
Normal Operating Emergency-Load Short-Circuit Temperature of Cable Conductor
Insulation Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C) (less than 30 seconds) (°C)
Thermosetting 105 140* 250
TR-XLPE and EPR
Thermosetting 90 130* 250
TR-XLPE and EPR
HMWPE 75 95 150
* Operation at the emergency overload temperature of 130°C (266°F) and 140°C (284°F) shall not exceed
100 hours in any 12 consecutive months nor more than 500 hours during the lifetime of the cable.
Note. Lower temperatures for emergency overload conditions may be required because of other types of material
used in the cable and in the joints and terminations or because of cable environmental conditions.
operating temperature limits apply only to the • 60-Hz.

infrequent higher loading of a line caused by • 15 kV, 25 kV, and 35 kV.
an unplanned outage of a nearby cable or load • Load factors of 75 percent and 100 percent.
sharing for a nearby substation. Standards state • Three, two-conductor, concentric neutral,
that the emergency overload conductor temper- single-phase, primary UD cables. Installation
ature of 130°C (or 140°C for the 105°C rating) configurations are shown in Figure 4.10.
should not be exceeded for more than 100 hours • Conductors
in any 12 consecutive months nor for more than I Class B Stranding
500 hours during the lifetime of the cable. I Copper and Aluminum
Cable aging accelerates with high temperatures I 1/3 Concentric Neutral (1/6 for 1,000 kcmil)
and accumulates over time in a way similar to • Conductor Sizes
aging in transformers. For these reasons, emer- I 1/0 AWG Solid Conductor—Aluminum
gency overload ratings always specify both a Only—Full Neutral
temperature and a time limit for events over the I 4/0 AWG Class B Stranding—Copper
lifetime of the cable (Aluminum Association Inc., and Aluminum
1989). The ratings have been derived from in- I 350 kcmil Class B Stranding—Copper
dustry operating experience and could change and Aluminum
as newer and better insulation materials become I 500 kcmil Class B Stranding—Copper
available. Emergency overload ratings are set by and Aluminum
ICEA, NEMA, and ANSI/IEEE standards. Table I 750 kcmil Class B Stranding—Copper
4.8 lists the emergency overload temperatures and Aluminum
for the two types of insulation specified by the I 1,000 kcmil Class B Stranding—Copper
RUS, plus temperatures for outdated HMWPE and Aluminum
when used as an insulation material. • Cable Specification
I To Meet RUS Cable Specification 1728F-U1:
AMPACITY TABLES N Insulation: EPR or TR-XLPE
Table 4.1 lists the ampacities for single-phase N Insulating Outer Jacket
UD cable direct buried and in conduit for N Insulation Thickness: 220 mil @ 15 kV
copper and aluminum conductors. 260 mil @ 25 kV
The three-phase ampacity tables and associ- 345 mil @ 35 kV
ated ampacity ratings for underground distribu- • All concentric neutrals are shorted and
tion cables provided in Appendix G are based grounded at several points in the circuit, as
on the following conditions: per the National Electrical Safety Code.
1 3 8 – Se c t io n 4
4
Configuration 1 36” Configuration 2 Configuration 3 Configuration 4
36”
36”
36”
A B C
7.5” 7.5” 18”
Configuration 5 Configuration 6 Configuration 7
30”
30”
36”
5” 5”
18”
7.5”
19”
19”
7.5” 7.5” 7.5”
19” 26.5”
19” 19” Duct Bank 19” 26.5” Duct Bank
FIGURE 4.10: Three-Phase Cable Installation Configurations.
• Ratings include dielectric loss and induced • The ampacities for 15-kV class cable were
ac losses. calculated with 15 kV as the operating volt-
• Conduit age. If 12.47 kV is used, the ampacities will
I Conduit used in Configurations No. 3, 5, 6, be marginally higher (<1%).
and 7 is Schedule 40, PVC conduit. Maxi-
mum fill requirements are 40 percent for Adjustments for Changes in Parameters
three cables in a conduit per pending RUS If the engineer needs to make certain changes
Specification 1728F-U1. in parameters to match them with actual site
• Temperature Limitations conditions or to do a sensitivity analysis on
I Ambient Soil = 25°C various parameters, the following formulas
I Conductor = 90°C may be used.
I Neutral (assumed) = 80°C
I Conduit (assumed) = 70°C Adjustment for Changes in Ambient
• Thermal resistivity (rho) of various materials Soil Temperature
was assumed as follows: The ampacities in Appendix G are based on an
I Soil = 90°C-cm/Watt ambient temperature of 25°C. To correct ampaci-
I Insulation and Extruded Shields ties based on maximum conductor temperatures
= 400°C-cm/Watt for different ambient temperatures, use the for-
I Conduit and Duct = 480°C-cm/Watt mula shown in Equation 4.3.
I Concrete = 85°C-cm/Watt The factors shown in Table 4.9 may be used
4
to correct ampacities based on maximum Adjustment for Change in Conductor
conductor temperatures for earth ambient Temperature
temperatures of 20°C or 30°C. The ampacities (I') for conductor temperatures
other than those included in the tables (e.g.,
Adjustment for Changes in Ambient emergency conductor temperatures) can be ap-
Air Temperature proximated using the formula in Equation 4.4.
To find ampacities for ambient air temperatures When Tc' is greater than Tc, Equation 4.4 will
other than those found in the individual tables, give conservative values because it is based on
multiply table values by the correction factors the ratio of direct-current losses at the two tem-
shown in Table 4.10. peratures, whereas the ratio of the ac conductor
and concentric neutral losses to dc conductor
Equation 4.3 losses decreases with increasing conductor tem-
perature. For example, the ampacity at 110°C
Tc – Ta' conductor temperature may be as much as five
I' = ×I
Tc – 25 percent higher and at 130°C as much as 10 per-
cent higher than values calculated from
where: Tc = Maximum conductor temperature from ampacity table Equation 4.4. Deviations from true ampacities
I = Ampacity shown for Tc at ambient earth temperature of 25°C will depend on the conductor size, concentric
Ta' = New ambient earth temperature neutral size, and installation configuration. Equa-
I' = Adjusted ampacity for ambient earth temperature Ta' tion 4.4 is more precise for smaller conductors
and higher resistance concentric neutrals (ICEA
P-53-426, p. VII, May 1976).
TABLE 4.9: Correction Factors to Convert from 25°C Ambient Soil Figure 4.10 shows the seven cable installation
Temperature to 20°C and 30°C. configurations whose ampacities have been
Ambient Temperature Correction Factor listed in the ampacity tables.
(°C) (Maximum Conductor Temperature) Note: The ampacities listed in Appendix G are
based on a conductor temperature of 90°C and
75°C 90°C an ambient soil temperature of 25°C. On the
20 1.049 1.037 basis of these assumptions, many of the calcu-
lated current values may exceed the maximum
30 0.949 0.960
permissible earth interface temperatures for vari-
ous types of soils. Experience has shown that in-
TABLE 4.10: Correction Factors for Various Ambient Air Temperatures. terface temperatures of 50°C and 60°C should be
Source: Okonite Company, Engineering Data for Copper and Aluminum
Conductor Electrical Cables, Bulletin EHB-90, 1990.
Conductor Equation 4.4
Tc' – Ta τc + Tc
Temperature
(°C) Ambient Air Temperature
Tc – Ta τc + Tc'
I' = × ×I
30°C 35°C 40°C 45°C 50°C
75 0.97 0.92 0.86 0.79 0.72 where: I' = Ampacity for conductor temperature
Tc, in amperes
85 1.06 1.01 0.96 0.90 0.84
Tc' = New or emergency conductor
90 1.10 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.89 temperature, in °C
100 1.17 1.12 1.08 1.03 0.98 Ta = Ambient earth temperature, in °C
τc = Magnitude of the difference between
110 1.23 1.19 1.15 1.11 1.06 0°C and the zero electrical resistance
125 1.31 1.27 1.24 1.20 1.16 of copper (234.5°C) or aluminum
(228.1°C)
130 1.33 1.30 1.27 1.23 1.19
Tc = Maximum conductor temperature
150 1.42 1.39 1.36 1.33 1.30 from ampacity table, in °C
1 4 0 – Se c t io n 4
4
satisfactory for many types of soils. Unless the columns, rather than those from the “Amperes”
soil properties and moisture content of a partic- columns.
ular installation are known, ampacity values The three following examples illustrate the
should be chosen from the “Amperes at 60°C” concepts covered in this section.
EXAMPLE 4.2: Single-Phase UD Cable Ampacities.
A cooperative is planning to stock UD cable to meet the growing de- Because the ampacity ratings given in Table 4.1 are for an ambient soil
mand for new 12.47-kV underground installations. This cable will be temperature of 25°C, higher values can be expected if the soil tem-
used with 200-ampere class accessories. The cable will also be used perature is actually 20°C. As Equation 4.3 indicates, the cable ampac-
to replace any faulted feeder sections on an as-needed basis. The con- ity at 20°C can be found by multiplying the existing values by the
ductor cable with the most installed circuit miles on the system is 1/0 correction factor:
aluminum. With this in mind, the engineer decided to check the am-
pacity of 1/0 cable for typical installations that exist on the system to
90 – 20
find which cable sections could limit the current rating of an entire = 1.0377
90 – 25
cable run.
The cooperative direct buries its single-phase cable in all instances
except for road crossings and riser pole installations. Go to the begin- Cable ampacity for a soil temperature of 20°C is as follows:
ning of this section to find the ampacity rating for underground installa-
tions. Assume an operating conductor temperature of 90°C, soil rho = Load Factor Direct Buried In Duct
90°C-cm/watt, and ambient soil temperature of 20°C. 100% 274 162
Using Table 4.1, find the ampacity of direct-buried TR-XLPE 1/0 75% 298 168
aluminum cable:
50% 318 173
Ampacity = 264 amperes at 100% load factor

For the riser pole cable section, the ampacity value is found in Table 4.1
under the “Duct in Air” column:
As most single-phase circuits do not operate at 100 percent load fac-
tor, determine the cable rating at 75 percent and 50 percent load fac- Ampacity =
tor using the correction factors contained in Table 4.1: 120 amperes at 40°C ambient and 100% LF
75% LF = 1.08 × 264 = 285 amperes This ampacity value is based on a riser that is closed at the top and bot-
50% LF = 1.16 × 264 = 306 amperes tom with no sun loading and no wind. Previous discussions have shown
that venting conduit at top and bottom and leaving the top of U-guard
The cooperative’s standard installation practice for road crossings is to open can increase riser ampacity, whereas solar radiation can reduce
pull cable through conduit to speed cable change out if it fails. From its rating. So if sun loading is considered, the riser must be properly
Table 4.1, the cable rating in direct-buried conduit is as follows: vented or a de-rating factor should be applied to the 120-ampere riser
rating. Note that solar de-rating will be a factor only for summer load-
156 amperes at 100% LF ing and when the temperature exceeds 100°F.
162 amperes at 75% LF (1.04 × 156) This analysis shows that the riser pole limits the rating of the total un-
167 amperes at 50% LF (1.07 × 156) derground circuit. At 100 percent load factor and 20°C ambient soil, di-
rect-buried 1/0 cable ampacity of 274 amperes would be reduced by
It is assumed that the under-road section is long enough so there is no 57 percent and the 162-ampere rating of cable in duct would be re-
additional cooling effect from the direct-buried cable on either side of duced by 26 percent.
the road.
4
EXAMPLE 4.3: Emergency Overload Rating Cable in Protective Riser.
From previous load studies and demand measurements, the engineer air temperature of 40°C. Therefore,
knows that the load factor on his heavily loaded loop-feed circuits has
never exceeded 75 percent. Given this fact, determine the emergency Emergency Riser Rating = 1.27 × 120 = 152 amperes
overload rating of the cable in the protective riser.
The conditions necessary to produce maximum current at a riser in-
Because the cable is in a riser, no ampacity increase is allowed for 75
clude a loop-feed installation with the open point near the center of the
percent load factor. Comparing this value with the 75 percent load fac-
loop and a cable failure near the opposite riser pole. These conditions
tor ampacity of the direct-buried and buried duct sections of the cable
are relatively rare and represent an emergency situation that should
run shows the duct portion is overloaded by 10 percent and the direct-
last for only a short time.
buried sections are well within their ratings. Note that, for simple ra-
From Table 4.10, the conduit-in-air correction factor for an emergency dial feed circuits, the 90°C conductor ampacity rating of a riser should
overload conductor temperature of 130°C is 1.27 for an ambient never be exceeded.
EXAMPLE 4.4: Three-Phase Substation Exit Ampacity.
The same cooperative from Example 4.2 is planning to install a new

12/16/20-MVA transformer in an existing substation. The addition is For aluminum conductor,
needed to support expected load growth in the area and will replace
an existing overloaded transformer. Four 12.47-kV feeders will be 130 – 25 228.1 + 90
I'130 = × × I90 = 1.198 × I90
needed. A 600-ampere recloser will protect each feeder. Because of 90 – 25 228.1 + 130
congestion around the substation, four underground circuit exits that
will terminate on two double-circuit riser poles are planned. The cable
for each underground exit must be sized to carry, under emergency
ratings, the full load of one other circuit in case of a cable failure. Find For copper conductor,
the appropriate size cable for the application.
130 – 25 234.5 + 90
Assume two three-phase circuits to a riser pole will be installed in two I'130 = × × I90 = 1.199 × I90
90 – 25 234.5 + 130
separate trenches. Each of the circuits to a given riser pole will provide
emergency backup for the other. Each circuit will be in a single conduit
in trefoil configuration, similar to configuration 3 of Figure 4.10. Maxi- Find a copper or aluminum cable from the ampacity tables in Appen-
mum conductor temperature will be limited to 90°C, soil thermal re- dix G for configuration 3 (single direct-buried conduit with three con-
sistivity (rho) will be 90°C-cm/watt, and load factor will be 75 percent. ductors) whose 90°C, 75 percent load factor rating when multiplied
Maximum feeder loading assuming balanced feeders is approximately by 1.2 gives a value approximating 520 amperes (520 ÷ 1.2 = 433
260 amperes. For the contingency condition of a failed cable, the max- amperes). Cable ampacity ratings at 130°C conductor temperature are
imum short-time loading would be as follows: as follows:
2 × 260 = 520 amperes For Copper For Aluminum
500 kcmil 750 kcmil

The smallest cable size to meet the emergency overload current can
be found by first calculating the emergency correction factor for a con- 439 × 1.2 = 527 amperes 437 × 1.2 = 524 amperes
ductor temperature of 130°C from Equation 4.4,
Continued
1 4 2 – Se c t io n 4
4
EXAMPLE 4.4: Three-Phase Substation Exit Ampacity. (cont.)
The emergency rating of both cables is greater than the 520-ampere Because the riser emergency rating is less than the buried conduit
emergency requirement. Even if the two conduits had been installed emergency rating, the riser cable section is the limiting element in the
within 18” of each other (Configuration 5), the single circuit in a trench application.
ampacity table is the correct configuration to use in this instance be-
The application is a valid emergency situation if it is understood the
cause only one circuit will be energized during the emergency condition.
overload condition will not exceed 100 hours in any 12-month period
Next, the riser pole current rating should be checked to see if it will limit or 500 hours over the planned life of the installation. This substation
the cable application. From Tables 4.6 and 4.7, the corresponding riser exit application is covered by standards because it is an unplanned
pole ratings are 409 amperes for copper and 411 amperes for aluminum. outage of a nearby cable.
Both values are less than their respective buried conduit ratings (439
Note that the riser must be open at the top and vented at the bottom
copper and 437 aluminum). The riser cable 130°C emergency overload
to provide additional ampacity above the values given in the tables and
rating at 40°C ambient air temperature can be found from Table 4.10.
to compensate for any de-rating caused by solar heating.
500 kcmil copper = 1.27 × 411 = 522 amperes
750 kcmil aluminum = 1.27 × 409 = 520 amperes
SECONDARY CABLE AMPACITY • Ambient soil temperature,

Secondary cables carry power and
Primary and secondary
at utilization voltage level from • Installation configuration:
the pad-mounted distribution cable ampacities are I Direct buried
I In duct.
transformer low-voltage termi- affected by the
nals to the service entrance
point for each consumer. The
same conditions. The appropriate secondary
cable size is selected based on
many conditions that affect the the amount of load the cable
ampacity of primary cable also will serve. In a later subsection
apply to secondary cable installations. Among titled Transformer Sizing for Single-Phase Trans-
these conditions are the following: formers for New Residential Loads, a procedure is
• Maximum insulation operating temperature, outlined to determine the appropriate transformer
• Conductor resistance, size on the basis of the number of connected loads
• Load factor, and the diversified demands of each load. Once
• Soil thermal resistivity, the expected load and secondary operating volt-
age are known, the required ampacity for bal-
Equation 4.5 anced loads can be determined from Equation 4.5.
Once the secondary current load is calculated
kVA1φ from Equation 4.5, ampacity tables can be consult-
Single-Phase: I1φ = ed to select the proper cable size. Table 4.11 gives
kVL-L
the allowable thermal loading for the most com-
kVA3φ mon secondary cable sizes in a buried environ-
Three-Phase: I3φ =
3 kVL-L ment for 100 percent load factor, 90°C maximum
conductor temperature, 20°C ambient soil temper-
where: kVA1φ = Total load for single-phase applications ature, and 90°C-cm/watt soil thermal resistivity.
kVA3φ = Total load for three-phase applications After a secondary cable size is selected from
ampacity tables, the application must be checked
kVL-L = Voltage line-to-line, in thousands of volts
to ensure that voltage drop and flicker are within
I1φ = Single-phase current, in amperes
acceptable limits. These calculations are covered
I3φ = Three-phase current, in amperes in detail in Appendix B.
4
TABLE 4.11: Typical Ampacities for Various Sizes and Types of 600-Volt Secondary UD Cable—Stranded
Aluminum Conductors.
Phase Conductors Neutral Dimensions (mils) Ampacity (amps)*
Size Insul. Size Insul. Single- Wt. per In
(AWG Thick. (AWG Thick. Phase Complete 1,000 ft Direct Buried
Code Word or kcmil) Strand (mils) or kcmil) Strand. (mils) Cond. Cable (lb.) Burial Conduit
DUPLEX
Bard 8 7 60 8 7 60 262 524 76 70 55
Claflin 6 7 60 6 7 60 299 598 104 95 70
Delgado 4 7 60 4 7 60 345 690 138 125 90
TRIPLEX
Vassar 4 7 60 4 7 60 345 745 191 125 90
Stephens 2 7 60 4 7 60 403 870 249 165 120
Ramapo 2 7 60 2 7 60 403 870 278 165 120
Brenau 1/0 19 80 2 7 60 512 1,106 387 215 160
Bergen 1/0 19 80 1/0 19 80 512 1,106 441 215 160
Converse 2/0 19 80 1 19 80 555 1,199 478 245 180
Hunter 2/0 19 80 2/0 19 80 555 1,199 535 245 180
Hollins 3/0 19 80 1/0 19 80 603 1,302 581 280 205
Rockland 3/0 19 80 3/0 19 80 603 1,302 651 280 205
Sweetbriar 4/0 19 80 2/0 19 80 658 1,421 709 315 240
Monmouth 4/0 19 80 4/0 19 80 658 1,421 796 315 240
Pratt 250 37 95 3/0 19 80 732 1,581 853 345 265
Wesleyan 350 37 95 4/0 19 80 831 1,795 1,118 415 320
Holyoke 500 37 95 300 37 95 956 2,065 1,544 495 395
Rider 500 37 95 350 37 95 956 2,069 1,597 495 395
QUADRAPLEX
Tulsa 4 7 60 4 7 60 345 833 255 120 85
Dyke 2 7 60 4 7 60 403 973 342 155 115
Wittenberg 2 7 60 2 7 60 403 973 371 155 115
Notre Dame 1/0 19 80 2 7 80 512 1,236 534 200 150
Purdue 1/0 19 80 1/0 19 80 512 1,236 589 200 150
Syracuse 2/0 19 80 1 19 80 555 1,340 657 225 170
Lafayette 2/0 19 80 2/0 19 80 555 1,340 713 225 170
Continued
1 4 4 – Se c t io n 4
4
TABLE 4.11: Typical Ampacities for Various Sizes and Types of 600-Volt Secondary UD Cable—Stranded
Aluminum Conductors. (cont.)
Phase Conductors Neutral Dimensions (mils) Ampacity (amps)*
Size Insul. Size Insul. Single- Wt. per In
(AWG Thick. (AWG Thick. Phase Complete 1,000 ft Direct Buried
Code Word or kcmil) Strand (mils) or kcmil) Strand. (mils) Cond. Cable (lb.) Burial Conduit
QUADRAPLEX (cont.)
Swarthmore 3/0 19 80 1/0 19 80 603 1,456 798 250 195
Davidson 3/0 19 80 3/0 19 80 603 1,456 868 250 195
Wake Forest 4/0 19 80 2/0 19 80 658 1,588 974 290 225
Earlham 4/0 19 80 4/0 19 80 658 1,588 1,061 290 225
Slippery Rock 350 37 95 4/0 19 80 831 2,006 1,544 385 305
*Ampacity: 90°C conductor temperature, 20°C ambient temperature, rho 90, 100% load factor
Note. Excerpted from Southwire Product Catalog, Section 16, pages 2, 3, and 4, 2003.
Pad-Mounted PAD-MOUNTED TRANSFORMERS LOADING FOR NORMAL LIFE EXPECTANCY

Transformer The distribution transformer is an essential com- In service, a transformer is not loaded continu-
Sizing ponent of the underground distribution system. ously at rated kVA and at a constant temperature.
Besides providing transformation from primary Instead, it goes through a daily load cycle with a
to secondary voltages, it provides an area for short-time peak load occurring usually during the
primary and secondary cable terminations, hottest part of the day. A varying load poses
switching and surge protection equipment, and challenges in optimizing a transformer’s full-load
overcurrent protective devices, all housed within capability without shortening its useful life. The
the transformer enclosure. Because of increased capability of pad-mounted distribution transform-
UD usage, special pad-mounted distribution ers to carry loads under conditions other than
transformers were developed with the above those used to establish nameplate ratings will be
features. The term pad comes from the trans- reviewed later in this section. Because loading
formers usually being located guides are based on the aver-
on concrete slabs or pads age winding temperature rise
(Fink and Beaty, 1987). Loading considerations above ambient, the load-carry-
Figure 4.11 shows a typical ing ability of a pole-type trans-
single-phase, pad-mounted for pole- and pad- former is basically the same as
transformer with its cover mounted transformers that of a pad-mounted trans-
open. Two primary bushing former. Standards make no
wells are shown at the upper
are the same. distinction between the two.
left for use with load-break el- Additional information on
bows. This dead-front configu- loading distribution transform-
ration allows a low-height design to be used in ers can be found in ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.91.
residential areas and provides greater safety for Standards assign a distribution transformer a
operating personnel. The secondary 240/120- rated output that is expressed in kVA. The trans-
volt bushings with copper studs are shown on former is designed to carry this rated load contin-
the right. uously over its expected lifetime at an ambient
4
on the ability to transfer internal heat to the at-
mosphere. The capability of the cooling system
to rid the transformer of heat depends mainly on
the temperature differential between the tank
and the ambient air because most pad-mounted
transformers do not have forced-air cooling. The
ambient air temperature is the most important el-
ement in determining how much load a trans-
former can carry because the temperature rise of
the insulation for any load is added to the ambi-
ent temperature to determine the actual operat-
ing temperature of the transformer.
To select daily peak loads from published
loading guides, the engineer must predict what
the temperature will be during the peaks. The
probable ambient temperature for any future
month can be estimated from historical weather
data from the cooperative’s service area.
ANSI/IEEE C57.91 gives two methods to pre-
dict temperature for the month involved. One is
used to select loads for normal life expectancy
and uses average daily temperature (defined as
the average of all daily highs and all daily lows)
for the month, averaged for several years. The
other uses the maximum daily temperature (de-
fined by the standard as the average of the high
and low of the hottest day) for the chosen
month, averaged over many years.
Whenever these two methods are used, it is
understood that, during any one day, the maxi-
mum temperature may exceed the average val-
FIGURE 4.11: Typical Dead-Front, Single-Phase, Pad-Mounted ues found above. To be conservative, these
Transformer temperatures should be increased by 5°C be-
cause insulation does not recover fully after it is
overheated. The maximum temperature over a
temperature of 30°C (86°F), without exceeding 24-hour period should not exceed the average
an average winding tempera- temperature by more than
ture rise of 65°C. Under these 10°C, which provides an ade-
conditions, insulation deterio- quate safety margin. According
ration and transformer loss of Ambient temperature to the above factors, the esti-
life are considered normal. In- and load factor set mated temperature should not
dustry experience has shown be exceeded for more than a
that normal life expectancy
transformer loading. few days per month; however,
under these conditions should if it is, the transformer will not
be at least 20 years. be adversely affected by the
Heat gain within a transformer is caused by small incremental loss of life.
no-load and winding losses. Keeping the temper- Standard loading tables give ambient tempera-
ature rise of the windings below 65°C depends tures in 10°C intervals. Estimating peak loads
1 4 6 – Se c t io n 4
4
EXAMPLE 4.5: Average Daily Temperature Selection for a Summer-Peaking Utility.
The procedure to select the average TABLE 4.12: Average Temperatures for July and August
daily temperature for loading distribu- Averaged for the Previous 10 Years.
tion transformers is shown in this ex-
ample. ABC Cooperative is located in Month Average (°F) Average (°C)
the Southeast. As part of an opera-
tions review process, the manager and July 80.6 27.0
engineer decided to establish a formal August 81.0 27.2
procedure to select the proper size
pad-mounted distribution transformers Average of Temperatures 80.8 27.1
for an expected surge in underground
installations in its service area.
The first step in determining the maximum load each average temperature selected by more than 10°C. Thus,
transformer can carry is to select an approximate am- the maximum temperature should not exceed 27.1°C +
bient temperature that would be expected on the peak 10°C = 37.1°C (98.8°F). However, the engineer found
day. This summer peaking cooperative obtained the av- that, in the hot summer of 1987, on many days the tem-
erage July and August temperatures for the previous perature reached 100°F (37.8°C) or more. If an actual
10 years from the Weather Bureau of the U.S. Depart- maximum daily temperature in recent memory has been
ment of Commerce. greater than 10°C above the maximum temperature av-
eraged for the previous 10 years, it is suggested that
Table 4.12 averages the temperatures found. that higher temperature be used in your calculations. To
Adding 5°C to the average, as recommended by ANSI/ allow for the probability of 100°F days occurring, the en-
IEEE C57.91, gives 27.1°C + 5°C = 32.1°C, which nor- gineer increased the 32.1°C average temperature se-
mally should be used for any transformer loading studies. lected previously by 0.7°C—the difference between the
calculated plus-10°C maximum (37.1°C) and the actual
The standard also specifies that the maximum temper- high temperature (37.8°C)—thus using 32.8°C as the
ature over a 24-hour period should not exceed the temperature to be used in the study.
between the given tempera- Other items that can affect

tures in a table is allowed. Altitude, tank finish, pad-mounted transformer
Peak loads obtained in this cooling are altitude and tank
way are accurate enough for and ventilation affect finish. At higher altitudes, the
the ambient temperatures de- pad-mounted air is not as dense; this de-
rived from the above example. creases cooling efficiency.
However, extrapolation beyond
transformer cooling. Above 3,300 feet, a trans-
the range of values shown in former kVA rating should be
the tables is not recommended. reduced approximately 0.4
The engineer can perform the same type of percent for each 330 feet of additional altitude.
ambient temperature analysis for winter months The ability of a transformer to radiate heat is
if the transformers are experiencing winter affected by its paint finish. Some metal flake
peaks. The standard does not deal with the elec- paints, like aluminum, reflect heat from direct
tric heating load that will be greatest during the sunlight quite effectively; however, they do not
coldest days of the month, so results will be allow heat to escape as efficiently. Because most
conservative. When the ambient temperature transformer heat is produced internally, metal-
study produces a result below 0°C, the loading based paints actually increase the temperature
limits from the 0°C columns should be used in- rise in most instances (Lee 1973). The subject of
stead of extrapolation. paint finish is mentioned only in connection
4
with refinishing transformers in the field. The
lasting from a few minutes to a few hours. A
engineer should be careful that the paint se-
similar cycle is repeated every 24 hours. This
lected is a standard pad-mounted transformer
characteristic allows the transformer to be oper-
finish with good radiating properties. ated at loads exceeding its continuous kVA rat-
Proper ventilation should always be consid-
ing during short peaks. Two main characteristics
ered when siting a pad-mounted transformer
of the transformer permit the overload to be car-
and after installation to allow the cooling system
ried without decreasing normal life expectancy.
to function at peak efficiency. Care should be
The first characteristic is the thermal time con-
taken to allow for air to circulate freely around
stant, which ensures that the internal oil tempera-
the unit at all times. ture increases slowly after a rapid change in load.
This fact is important because of the limitation that
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS the winding hot-spot tempera-
The normal load duration ture places on the ability of the
curve of a typical pad- transformer to carry an overload
mounted transformer with Short peak overloads without insulation damage. For
more than one service con- can be carried a step change in load, the con-
nected to it consists of a rela- ductor temperature at the hottest
without loss of
tively low load during most of spot in the winding increases to
the day, with one peak load transformer life. its maximum value very quick-
ly. However, hot-spot and total
conductor temperature are held
down until the thermal time constant is exceed-
150 ed, which could be three to 10 hours, depending
140%
Peak Load on preload conditions. Pad-mounted transform-
Load as Percentage of
ers are now designed to operate continuously at

Transformer Rating
100 70% Initial Load

a winding hot-spot temperature of 110°C.
The second characteristic is the thermal aging
50 1 Hour of transformer insulation. Hot-spot temperatures
above 110°C can be carried for short times with-
Actual Load
out shortening the expected life of the trans-
0 former, as long as they are followed by longer
12 6 12 6 12
AM PM
periods of operation below 110°C. Elevated tem-
Time (Hours) peratures do not cause insulation failure, but
FIGURE 4.12: Actual Load Cycle and Equivalent Load Cycle. only increase the rate of its deterioration when
they are prolonged.
It follows that a pad-mounted transformer light-
ly loaded before a peak will have a lower hot-spot
150 temperature than one carrying full load before
137%
Peak Load the same peak. Therefore, the shape of the load
Load as Percentage of
Transformer Rating
Transformer Rating curve over a 24-hour period can greatly affect

100
what peak load may be carried by a transformer.
If a daily load duration curve for a single
50% Initial Load transformer was plotted from data collected by
50
2 Hours an interval demand recorder, it would be similar
to the curve in Figure 4.12.
0 To use loading guides provided in the stan-
12 6 12 6 12
AM PM dard, change the actual load duration curve into
Time (Hours) a thermally equivalent, simple rectangular load
FIGURE 4.13: Thermal Equivalent Load Cycle. cycle as shown in Figure 4.13.
1 4 8 – Se c t io n 4
4
This conversion is done by Estimating the duration of
deriving the values for the ini- the peak has considerable in-
tial load and the peak load.
Consider preload fluence over the rms magni-
These values may be approxi- conditions when tude of the peak load. Caution
mated by the formulas shown should be used to not overes-
loading transformers.
in Equations 4.6 and 4.7 timate on-peak time. If the du-
(ANSI/IEEE C57.91-1981). ration is overestimated, the
Equation 4.7 shows the for- rms peak load may be far
mula for the equivalent peak load. below the maximum peak demand.
After the equivalent peak load has been deter-
mined, a loading guide—such as the one in
Equation 4.6 Table 4.13—may be used to pick a transformer
size to supply the expected daily loading. It can
Equivalent Initial Load = 0.29 L12 + L22 + L32 + ... L122 also be used to determine whether or not an ex-
isting transformer will supply the listed daily
peak loads and a 20-year minimum life ex-
where: L1, L2, etc. = Average load by inspection for each
pectancy. The ambient temperature to use in the
1-hour interval of the 12-hour period
preceding the peak transformer load loading guide is the average daily temperature
determined using the procedure outlined in a
previous subsection, Loading for Normal Life
Expectancy.
Equation 4.7
The preload level given in the tables is based
2 2 2 2
L1 t1 + L2 t2 + L3 t3 + ...Ln tn on the transformer nameplate rating and is not a
Equivalent Peak Load = percentage of peak load. Example 4.6 illustrates
t1 + t2 + t3 + ...tn
this principle.
where: L1, L2, . . . = The various load steps as a percentage, Note that even under 0°C ambient conditions
per unit, actual kVA, or current that might apply for winter-peaking studies in
cold-climate areas, a maximum loading above
t1, t2, . . . = Respective durations of these loads
TABLE 4.13: Daily Peak Loads Per Unit of Nameplate Rating for Self-Cooled Oil-Immersed Transformers to
Give Minimum 20-Year Life Expectancy.
Continuous Equivalent Load as Percentage of Rated kVA Preceding Peak Load
Peak
Load 50% 75% 90%
Time in Ambient (°C) Ambient (°C) Ambient (°C)
Hours 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40
1 2.52 2.39 2.26 2.12 1.96 1.79 2.40 2.26 2.12 1.96 1.77 1.49 2.31 2.16 2.02 1.82 1.43
2 2.15 2.03 1.91 1.79 1.65 1.50 2.06 1.94 1.82 1.68 1.52 1.26 2.00 1.87 1.74 1.57 1.26
4 1.82 1.72 1.61 1.50 1.38 1.25 1.77 1.66 1.56 1.44 1.30 1.09 1.73 1.62 1.50 1.36 1.13
8 1.57 1.48 1.39 1.28 1.18 1.05 1.55 1.46 1.36 1.25 1.13 0.96 1.53 1.44 1.33 1.21 1.02
24 1.36 1.27 1.18 1.08 0.97 0.86 1.36 1.27 1.17 1.07 0.97 0.84 1.35 1.26 1.16 1.07 0.95
Note. For transformer operation above 50°C or below 0°C, contact manufacturer. Peak loads shown assume 0.0137% per day loss of life for normal life
expectancy. The ambient temperature to use in the table is the average temperature over a 24-hour period, with the maximum temperature not
exceeding the average temperature by more than 10°C.
Excerpted from Table 5, page 20, ANSI/IEEE C57.91-1981.
4
EXAMPLE 4.6: Selection of Maximun Permissible Transformer If a transformer is being severely overloaded
Per-Unit Loading. for extended periods, its life expectancy is being
shortened and excessive conductor losses will
be increasing operating costs. These conditions
Load-pattern studies of pad-mounted transformers in a certain area revealed that typ-
can be allowed during emergencies, but, under
ical 12-hour preload levels were 50 percent of peak load levels. The peak loads had
most conditions, they should not be continued
a duration of two hours and the ambient temperature for the area was calculated at
for a sustained period of time.
30°C. The engineer needs to estimate the maximum permissible per-unit (pu) load-
The NRECA Loss Management Manual thor-
ing for the transformers to maintain normal life expectancy.
oughly covers the issue of loss-optimal loading of
The per-unit loading shown in Table 4.13 under 50 percent preload, 30°C ambient, distribution transformers. Engineers should defi-
and two-hour peak duration is 1.79 pu. However, if this loading level is permitted, the nitely consult this manual before establishing final
preload level will become 0.5 × 1.79, or 0.9 of the transformer nameplate rating. policies on loading pad-mounted transformers.
Therefore, conservatism requires that the engineer take the per-unit loading from
the tabulated figures under 90 percent preload conditions, which will lead to a max-
TRANSFORMER SIZING FOR
imum loading of 1.57 pu. This change shifts the preload level to about 79 percent.SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
A load somewhat higher than 1.57 pu is permissible. However, it should not be higher
FOR NEW RESIDENTIAL LOADS
than the 1.68 pu figure shown under the 75 percent preload conditions. By interpo-Transformer loading is further complicated be-
lation, the engineer can estimate a final result of 1.63 pu loading. cause loading levels are difficult to estimate for
transformers serving residential consumers. Engi-
neers have tried different methods to estimate the
1.8 pu cannot be justified from the tables if pre- peak kVA load of a group of single-family living
load conditions are 50 percent or more of peak units. However, many varying circumstances,
load. This maximum exists because the 90 per- such as the sizes and types of electrical appli-
cent preload level is the largest tabulated. This ances used, cause the load-estimating procedure
analysis shows that some of the very large per- to become somewhat complicated. Table 4.14
unit values shown in ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.91 shows a sample load-estimating guide for a
tables are not particularly practical. southeastern utility. Cooperative engineers should
It is not practical or economical to conduct an not use it to estimate transformer loading on
in-depth study on every transformer suspected their own systems because diversity factors,
of being overloaded. In fact, for small transform- loads, and demands are different for every util-
ers, the cost of an individual detailed analysis ity’s service area. For example, the resistance
could exceed the price of the transformer. How- heating diversity factors in this method apply to
ever, if an overload is expected on a large three- a semicoastal southern climate and may not ac-
phase, pad-mounted transformer, investigation curately reflect conditions in other climates.
would obviously be warranted. Also, the air conditioning efficiencies in your
Loading levels applied to transformers should area may differ from those used in the develop-
be kept within those of Standard C57.91-1981. ment of this chart. The table is included as an
Doing so protects not only the transformer example to demonstrate that similar tables
windings but also ancillary components on the would be useful or can be developed from mar-
transformer. Manufacturers design items such as keting and load research data.
bushings, internal connections, Table 4.14 can be used to
and fuse protection assuming estimate the diversified de-
that the transformer loading Use a loading mand for a group of totally
will not exceed Standard electric homes. The first step is
C57.91-1981 levels. This coor- guide developed to determine the number of
dinated design is noted in for your particular consumers connected to the
ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00-2000, transformer and select the cor-
service area.
Section 4.2, and C57.91-1995, responding diversity factors
Section 8.2.1. from Chart 1. The second step
1 5 0 – Se c t io n 4
4
TABLE 4.14: Application of Single-Phase Distribution Transformers to Serve Residential
Consumers—Sample Loading Guide.
Diversity, Load, and Demand Charts
Chart 1 Chart 2
Diversity Factor D Standard House Loads (kVA)

Number of Typical Residence Size (Square Feet)
Consumers Total Electric Air Conditioning
Type of Load 1,500 2–3,000 5,000+
in Group (X) (TE) (A/C)
TE 4.3 kVA 5.7 kVA 7.5 kVA
1 1.00 1.00
Typical Air Conditioner Size (Tons)
2 0.85 0.85
Type of Load 3 4 5
3 0.74 0.83
A/C 3.8 kVA 5.1 kVA 6.3 kVA
4 0.66 0.80
5 0.61 0.77
6 0.57 0.75 Chart 3
7 0.54 0.73 Equivalent kVA Demand for Houses

With Resistance Heat
8 0.52 0.72
kW Rating kVA Demand
9 0.50 0.71
5.0 5.0
10 0.49 0.70
7.5 6.5
11 0.47 0.70
10.0 8.0
12 0.46 0.69
15.0 10.5
13 0.45 0.69
20.0 14.0
14 0.43 0.68
15 0.42 0.68
16 0.41 0.67 Note. Values in the charts were excerpted from
the South Carolina Public Service Authority
17 0.39 0.67 (Santee Cooper) Distribution Engineering
18 0.38 0.66 Reference Manual dated February 2, 1987.
19 0.38 0.66
20 0.37 0.65
is to find the base kVA load for one consumer factors from Chart 1. Diversity factors depend
using Chart 2. The chart row labeled “TE” gives on the number of consumers in the group. To
the base total electric load related to house size. determine whether transformer size is set by the
The “A/C” row gives the air-conditioning load summer or winter load, do the calculation with
for the air-conditioner sizes shown. The equiva- air-conditioner load and then with resistance
lent kVA demands for various resistance strip heat load.
heaters are listed in Chart 3. To find the load for Equation 4.8 gives the total load (LX) for X
a group of consumers, multiply the kVA values identical consumers.
from Charts 2 and 3 by the appropriate diversity Example 4.7 clarifies the procedure.
4
Example 4.7 assumes the transformer full-load
Equation 4.8
rating, corrected for ambient temperature, can
be up to 140 percent of its summer loading. The
LXSummer = X[(TE Load)(DX(TE)) + (A/C Load)(DX(A/C))]kVA ability to carry more load in the winter is justified
LXWinter = X[(TE Load)(DX(TE)) + (Heat Load)(DX(A/C))]kVA because the heating load factor is much lower
than the cooling load factor for the assumed
transformer service area. Cooler ambient temper-
where: LX =
Total load for X identical consumers, in kVA
ature in winter also increases transformer loading
X =
Total consumers in group
capabilities. Each cooperative must set its own
TE Load =
Base total electric house load from Chart 2, in kVA percentage loading limit based on experience.
DX(TE) =
Diversity factor D for X consumers from Chart 1, Before the transformer is installed, its size
TE column should be checked to see if it meets cooperative
A/C Load = Base air-conditioner load from Chart 2, in kVA voltage drop and flicker criteria. These calcula-
Heat Load = Base resistance heat load from Chart 3, in kVA tions are covered in Appendix B, “Transformer
DX(A/C) = Diversity factor D for X consumers from Chart 1, and Secondary Voltage Drop.”
A/C column
EXAMPLE 4.7: Pad-Mounted Transformer Sizing for New UD Residential Consumers.
Assume four totally electric, 1,500-sq.-ft. homes are to be fed from diversity factor is applied to the heating load in this instance. Because
the secondary of a pad-mounted transformer in a new subdivision. All the ambient temperature will be lower in the winter, it is assumed the
homes have identical electrical appliances, three-ton (36,000-Btu) air transformer will carry up to 140 percent of its summer peak load for
conditioners, and 7.5-kW resistance heaters. Select the transformer short periods without undue loss of life.
size that will serve the summer and winter loads and has a 20-year life
For the winter peak, the TE load component of the total load is the
expectancy. Pad-mounted transformers to choose from are rated
same as before:
25, 37.5, and 50 kVA.
First, select the diversity factors from Chart 1: TE Load = (4)(4.3)(0.66) = 11.35 kVA
X = 4 consumers in groups The 7.5-kW strip heating component of total demand is then
D4(TE) = 0.66
D4(A/C) = 0.80 4(6.5)(0.8) = 20.8 kVA
Total winter diversified demand is equal to

Second, choose the base TE load and A/C load for a single house from
Chart 2: Winter L4 = 11.35 + 20.8 = 32.15 kVA
TE Load = 4.3 kVA The ratio of winter to summer load is then
A/C Load = 3.8 kVA
32.15
From Equation 4.8, the total summer load is 23.52 kVA, as calculated: Ratio = = 137%
23.52
Summer L4 = 4 [(4.3)(0.66) + (3.8)(0.80)] =
4[2.84 + 3.04] = 23.52 kVA Because the ratio is below 140 percent, the transformer size will be set
by the 23.52-kVA summer load. The 25-kVA unit is still the proper trans-
A 25-kVA transformer is the proper size to choose, as no new houses
former to install. (Note: Keep in mind this example is based on a
will be added to the transformer.
methodology used by a southeastern U.S. utility and should be modi-
The total winter load is calculated the same way by replacing the air- fied for use in other climates.)
conditioning load with the strip heater load from Chart 3. The A/C
1 5 2 – Se c t io n 4
4
Another important concern is initial loading unit. Further analysis using both knowledge of
versus future loading when load growth is expect- specific types of loads and experience anticipat-
ed. For many UD areas, significant load growth is ing the likelihood of growth in consumer de-
not expected for individual transformers because mand is recommended.
the number of living units per transformer is set
in the development plans. The modern trend in Method I: Previous Demands
housing construction is to install all heavy appli- on Similar Consumers
ances and heating, ventilating, and air-condition- Many commercial establishments are part of large
ing (HVAC) equipment in a dwelling before ini- company chains that establish new facilities (or
tial occupancy, so any growth beyond the initial franchises) based on similar building footprints,
level is expected to be insignificant. using the same makeup of electrical devices.
Even when engineers expect load growth, Convenience stores, supermarkets, drug stores,
they seldom accurately know the rate of growth. fast-food restaurants, and discount department
Although complicated formulas exist for eco- stores, for example, have branch stores that re-
nomic sizing of transformers based on load sult in very similar demands, provided geograph-
growth, use of these formulas is meaningless if ical influences are similar. The only differences
the growth rate is not accurately known. A sim- in some of these installations are whether or not
ple procedure is recommended, such as sizing natural gas, propane, or other heat source is ei-
the transformer for the load that is estimated to ther available or economically feasible. A starting
be present 10 years in the future. point (or a double check) in sizing transformers
for these type loads is to contact other coopera-
TRANSFORMER SIZING FOR THREE-PHASE tives (or IOUs) to obtain historical demand data
TRANSFORMERS FOR NEW COMMERCIAL (both summer and winter peaks) for similar
AND INDUSTRIAL LOADS stores of the same relative size. Care should be
Three-phase transformers—required to render taken for loads greater than 300 to 400 kW, as
service to commercial and industrial con- even similar stores can operate differently be-
sumers—represent a significant investment for cause of local usage patterns. Care should also
the average cooperative. As such, care should be taken to evaluate power factors of loads for
be taken in selecting transformers sized to mini- larger units, if such information is available from
mize cost and losses, while providing reliable meter readings. If power factor readings (or both
service. kW and kVAr readings) are available, then the
Sizing transformers for these type installations transformer size can be selected to account for
is not an exact science and requires sound judg- power factor by using either of the following
ment and previous experience, similar to the formulas:
philosophy involved in sizing single-phase trans-
formers. Local geographical and climatological 1. kVA2 = kW2 + kVAr2 or kVA = kW2 + kVAr2
conditions must be considered, as they play a kW
significant role in sizing equipment. This subsec- 2. Power Factor = kW or kVA =
kVA PowerFactor
tion presents three generally accepted methods
of sizing transformers that most cooperatives Method II: Watts-Per-Square-Foot Method
and utilities have used over the years: Electrical demands for commercial and industrial
buildings can be analyzed by evaluating typical
1. Previous demands on similar loads, watts-per-square-foot factors that have been estab-
2. Watts-per-square foot demand factors, and lished by utilities and design professionals over
3. Diversified connected load analysis. the years. Although these factors can vary over
different geographical areas of the country as a
It is suggested that an analysis be made using result of climate factors and building practices,
all three methods, if possible, as a crosscheck to the basic values listed in Table 4.15 are typical of
validate the final selection of a properly sized most areas of the continental United States.
4
TABLE 4.15: Typical Watts-Per-Square-Foot Factors for Keep in mind that these factors are typical of
Commercial Buildings. loads analyzed in many areas of the country and
can vary somewhat. They are a good approxi-
Watts per Square Foot* mation to be used as a double check of other
Type Facility Winter Summer analytical methods. Also remember to convert
Banks 9.2 6.3 the calculated kW to kVA using power factor in-
formation. If the developer of the new facility
Offices (less than 100,000 square feet) 10.0 8.3 cannot provide valid power factor information,
Offices (more than 100,000 square feet) 7.7 6.4 Table 4.16 will assist in this effort. Again, these
power factor values are typical of a number of
Churches 9.7 6.2
cases sampled.
Convenience Stores 13.0 12.7
Method III: Summation of Diversified
Department Stores 6.9 5.6
Connected Loads
Medical Clinics 11.3 8.6 The most analytical method available to predict
Grocery Stores 10.1 10.4 the actual demand of a new consumer’s installa-
tion is to total the individual connected loads
Restaurants (fast-food) 45.8 41.5 and apply diversity factors to multiple quantities
Restaurants (fast-food/gas) 28.0 25.4 of similar loads, and to the different types of
load, to predict the effective actual demand. The
Restaurants (family) 27.3 21.9 philosophy here is that not all connected loads
Variety Stores 10.2 7.1 will operate simultaneously, as a result of cy-
cling off and on by some automatic system (a
Schools 10.2 5.6
thermostat, for example), or as a result of the
Motels 7.6 4.6 operation inherent with the facility. It is impor-
tant to gather all the connected load information
*All-electric, unless otherwise noted
from a consumer, both the types of loads and
the quantities of similar electrical devices.
For example, a restaurant may have five roof-top
TABLE 4.16: Typical Electrical Load Power Factor Values. air conditioner units, one for each of five zones
of the interior space. Further discussion with the
Type Facility Approximate Power Factor* consumer may indicate use of a demand-side
Restaurants 85% monitoring system that cycles the HVAC units, so
no more than three units can run at any one
Grocery Stores 85–90% time. While this type of system will reduce the
Office Buildings 90% demand at any given time to the load imposed
by three units, the result may be an increase in
Retail Department Stores 90%
the customer’s load factor, which will tend to in-
Residential Loads 95% crease the required size of the transformer. Mul-
tiple kitchen appliances may, as well, be used in
Lighting (HID) 95%
shift operations, with only portions of the de-
Motors That Operate at Full Load 80–85% vices operating together. The more information
Motors That Operate at Less Than Full Load 50% that may be gathered about how electrical de-
vices will be operated, the more accurately an
Sawmills 65% anticipated demand can be calculated.
Industrial Plants With Heavy Motor Load 65–70% Following are other items to be taken into ac-
count while accumulating electrical load data for
*If consumers have their own capacitors, higher values will result. diversification:
1 5 4 – Se c t io n 4
4
• The larger of heating or air conditioning typical diversity that is generally taken with re-
should be used, but not both. spect to actual peak demands.
• Do load controllers limit the quantity of any Table 4.18 is a typical listing of the electrical
devices running simultaneously? connected loads associated with a new restaurant
• Do certain devices, such as dishwashers, and how the loads can be tabulated to apply di-
operate only on off-peak times, such as at the versity factors so that an anticipated peak demand
end of a shift? can be computed. Note that this demand should
• How many portable appliances are planned include the larger of heating or cooling loads, or,
to be connected to convenience outlets? if necessary, a separate winter peak demand
• At what temperatures are refrigeration units to (with heating loads) and summer peak demand
be operated (e.g., coolers versus refrigeration (with cooling loads) can be computed. Air han-
units versus deep freezers)? dling units should be included in both listings.
• Are all exterior lights to come on through Once the kVA demand is determined, decide
photosensitive control? how large the transformer should be based on
• Are water heaters multiple-element or the sizes available. Some decisions will be fairly
load-controlled? easy, whereas others fall into a gray area when
• Is any capacity currently listed on electrical demand could fit the top range of one size or
drawings as “spare” to be actually used in the the bottom range of another.
near future, or not at all? The proper transformer size to be used for a
calculated demand should be selected on the
Table 4.17 is a listing of typical types of loads
basis of the transformer’s ability to withstand
for commercial/industrial applications, and the
short-term overload conditions, just as was dis-
cussed with single-phase units on residential ap-
TABLE 4.17: Typical Electrical Load Demand Diversity Factor Values. plications. Consistent with the per-unit loading
guide discussed in this section (Table 4.13),
Type of Equipment Demand Diversity Factor three-phase transformers are capable of similar
Air Conditioning (less than 100 tons) 75%* short-term overloads (again, depending on the
Note: 1 ton = 1.5 kW duration of the short-term peak and the relative
loading level of the transformer for the period of
Air Conditioning (more than 100 tons) 75%*
time before the overloading condition).
Note: 1 ton = 1.0 kW
Table 4.19 lists typical commercial/industrial
Electric Heating 75%* consumers and the duration typically found for
Computers 75% short-term overloads.
It is essential that information be obtained
Electric Cooking Appliances 35–40% from the consumer to substantiate these peak
Lighting 70–80% durations or to determine that shorter or longer
overload periods should be used.
Miscellaneous 35% Once this information has been determined,
Motors (less than 40 Hp)** 40% the overload capacity of standard transformer
sizes should be reviewed, based on local ambi-
Motors (more than 40 Hp)** 25%
ent temperature ranges. Listed in Table 4.20 is a
Receptacle Load 10–15% typical cooperative’s overload factors, both sum-
mer and winter, based on ANSI/IEEE C57.91-
Refrigeration 60%
1981 Table 5 (Table 4.13 in this manual).
Water Heating 40–50% Note that the table lists both summer and win-
“Spare”*** 0%
ter overload factors, based on the typical ambient
temperatures of the winter and summer months.
* Use the larger of heating or cooling, but not both. In Table 4.20, 10°C has been chosen for the winter
** Does not necessarily apply to industrial applications ambient, and 40°C has been chosen for the sum-
*** Consider “spare” only for specific needs. mer ambient. As a method of practical conservative
4
TABLE 4.18: Estimated Electrical Demand (Summer) and Energy Consumption
(Sample Family Restaurant).
Item Unit Load Total Load Demand Total Demand

No. Load Description Quantity (kW) (kW) Diversity (kW)
1A Roof-Top Air Conditioning Units* 5 8.12 40.60 0.60 24.36
1B Heat Pump Strip Heaters ** 2 15.34 30.68 0.00 0.00
2 Baked Potato Oven 1 11.00 11.00 1.00 11.00
3 Potato Warmer 1 0.80 0.80 1.00 0.80
4 Heat Lamps 2 0.25 0.50 1.00 0.50
5 Warming Tray 1 1.50 1.50 1.00 1.50
6 Pie Safe 1 0.73 0.73 1.00 0.73
7 Coffee Maker 2 1.80 3.60 0.50 1.80
8 Soda Fountain 2 0.25 0.50 0.50 0.25
9 Ice Machine (Continuous Use) 1 1.70 1.70 1.00 1.70
10 Ice Machine (Infrequent Use) 1 7.50 7.50 0.00 0.00
11 Cooler 1 1.25 1.25 0.60 0.75
12 Range Hood 1 0.90 0.90 1.00 0.90
13 Freezer 1 1.09 1.09 0.60 0.65
14 Cold Table 1 1.73 1.73 1.00 1.73
15 Iced Tea Maker 2 1.52 3.03 0.50 1.52
16 Microwave 1 1.50 1.50 0.00 0.00
17 Warming Tray 1 1.59 1.59 1.00 1.59
18 Toaster 1 2.83 2.83 1.00 2.83
19 Refrigerator 1 1.08 1.08 0.60 0.65
20 Cooler Table 1 0.76 0.76 0.60 0.45
21 Steamer 2 0.75 1.50 0.50 0.75
22 Dishwasher 1 8.61 8.61 1.00 8.61
23 Prep Cooler 1 2.89 2.89 0.60 1.73
24 Beverage Cooler 1 3.76 3.76 0.60 2.25
25 Vegetable Cooler 1 3.76 3.76 0.60 2.26
26 Outside Freezer 1 2.38 2.38 0.60 1.43
27 Outside Lighting 2 0.40 0.80 1.00 0.80
28 Outside Lighting 2 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00
29 Kitchen Lighting 20 0.16 3.20 1.00 3.20
30 Dining Area Lighting 14 0.10 1.40 1.00 1.40
31 Dining Area Lighting 6 0.13 0.75 1.00 0.75
32 Heat Lamps/Warming Tray 1 1.56 1.56 1.00 1.56
33 Coolers Under Bar 2 0.84 1.68 0.50 0.84
34 Coolers Under Bar 1 0.42 0.42 0.50 0.21
35 Television 1 0.45 0.45 1.00 0.45
36 Neon Signs 4 0.05 0.20 1.00 0.20
37 Video Game 1 0.16 0.16 1.00 0.16
38 Roadway Sign 1 0.80 0.80 1.00 0.80
Total 151.17 83.10
* Load controlled
** Winter use only
1 5 6 – Se c t io n 4
4
engineering practice, 90 percent prior loading has
TABLE 4.19: Estimated Peak Duration.
been chosen for a safety factor. If the actual prior
Type of Business Time (Hours) Type of Business Time (Hours) loading can be substantiated, then 75 percent or 50
percent prior loading per-unit values could be used.
Fast Food 8 Restaurants 4
On the basis of these per-unit overload factors,
Grocery Stores 8 Hotels 4 the standard sizes of pad-mounted transformers
Large Office Buildings 8 Small Office Buildings 4 in Table 4.21 can carry short-term overloads as
Large Retail Stores 8 Small Retail Stores 4 listed for respective winter and summer ambient
Convenience Stores 8 Schools 4 conditions. Care should be taken to not under-
Industrial Plants 24* Other Commercial 4
estimate duration peaks and to apply proper
ambient temperatures.
* The peak durations may be less, but use this number with the loading table unless the
Sizing transformers is not an exact science.
customer can provide information that is different.
However, by using the guidelines in this section,
along with gaining experience from the local
ambient conditions, one can become more effec-
TABLE 4.20: Transformer Loading Capability Table.*
tive in sizing transformers and the process will
Summer Loading Winter Loading become less confusing. Some of the main keys
Peak Duration Capability** Capability*** to sizing a transformer are the following:
(Hours) (% of kVA Rating) (% of kVA Rating)
• Understanding what affects a transformer’s
4 130% 166% loading capability (ambient temperature, load
8 113% 146% cycles, etc.).
24 97% 127% • Properly estimating the load (similar accounts,
diversity, watts/square foot, etc.). Estimating
* From ANSI/IEEE C57.91-1981 Table 5, based on 90% prior loading
the load is the largest factor in sizing a trans-
** Based on 40°C ambient
*** Based on 10°C ambient former correctly. If this part is completed
correctly, most of the work is done.
TABLE 4.21: Typical Three-Phase Pad-Mounted Transformer Capacities—Short-Term Overload Capabilities (in kVA).*
4-Hour Peak Overload 8-Hour Peak Overload 24-Hour Peak Overload

Transformer Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter
Nameplate Capacity** Capacity*** Capacity** Capacity*** Capacity** Capacity***
75 97.5 124.5 84.8 109.5 72.8 95.3
112 145.6 185.9 126.6 163.5 108.6 142.2
150 195.0 249.0 169.5 219.0 145.5 190.5
225 292.5 373.5 254.3 328.5 218.3 285.8
300 390.0 498.0 339.0 438.0 291.0 381.0
500 650.0 830.0 565.0 730.0 485.0 635.0
750**** 975.0 1,245.0 847.5 1,095.0 727.5 952.5
1,000**** 1,300.0 1,660.0 1,130.0 1,460.0 970.0 1,270.0
1,500**** 1,950.0 2,490.0 1,695.0 2,190.0 1,455.0 1,905.0
2,000**** 2,600.0 3,320.0 2,260.0 2,920.0 1,940.0 2,540.0
2,500**** 3,250.0 4,150.0 2,825.0 3,650.0 2,425.0 3,175.0
* Based on ANSI/IEEE C57.91-1981 Table 5, with 90% prior loading
** Based on 40°C ambient
*** Based on 10°C ambient
**** Overload factors for some of these units may be limited as a result of fusing limitations at primary voltages of 12.5/7.2 kV (or less).
4
• Estimating peak demand duration (unless it MAXIMUM TRANSFORMER
can be obtained from the consumer) and CASE TEMPERATURES
determining the loading capability of a trans- Effect on Public Safety
former using the loading tables. This step In today’s litigious society, some cooperatives
becomes very important when the estimated may be less concerned with their pad-mounted
load falls between two transformer sizes. transformers burning up than they are with hav-
• Using an appropriate power factor to corre- ing someone burned by touching the case of an
late kW load to kVA load in calculations on overloaded unit. This concern is legitimate and
consumer’s load profiles. must be addressed. However, the possible prob-
lem can be a manageable risk once it is put into
Every time a transformer is sized correctly, proper perspective. Most people know not to
the cooperative’s capital investment has been touch the hood of a car that has been sitting in
minimized. the sun on a hot summer day. A person touching
EXAMPLE 4.8: Sizing Commercial Transformers.
Example A Neglect the electric heat load because the summer load is the domi-
A customer has requested service for a convenience store that is 24,000 nant load. The total diversified load is 247.5 kW. Assuming a power
square feet. The customer has provided the following load information: factor of 0.9, the kVA demand of this store is
247.5/0.9 = 275.0 kVA

• Lighting: 80 kW
• Electric Heat: 60 kW From the chart, a convenience store has a peak duration of eight hours.
• Air Conditioning: 60 tons From the transformer loading table, a transformer with a peak of eight
• Water Heater: 18 kW hours can be loaded to 113 percent of its nameplate rating in the sum-
• Refrigeration: 160 kW mer months. Now, 150 kVA × 1.13 = 169.5 kVA. The calculated load,
• Fans: 10 kW 275 kVA, exceeds the loading capability of a 150-kVA transformer, so
• Miscellaneous: 20 kW a 300-kVA transformer for this customer should be installed, which
agrees with the similar account recommendation.
In reviewing other similar accounts, it has been determined that a
300 kVA or 500 kVA transformer may be needed. Therefore, other As another check, the watts/square foot method suggests the follow-
methods must be used to help make this choice. ing load:
The following load has been determined by means of diversity factors: 24,000 sq ft × 12.7 watts/sq ft = 304.8 kW
Load Load Diversity Actual If a power factor of 0.9 is assumed, the watts/square foot method gives
Description (kW) Factor Demand (kW)
304.8 kW/0.9 = 338.7 kVA
Lighting 80.0 0.80 64.0
Electric Heat 60.0 0.75 45.0
This approximation may seem a little high for this store compared with
the other methods, but this load would still not exceed the loading ca-
Air Conditioning 1.5 0.60 67.5 pability of a 300-kVA transformer (300 kVA × 1.13 = 339 kVA).
Water Heater 18.0 0.50 9.0
Therefore, after three different methods are considered, the conclusion
Refrigeration 160.0 0.60 96.0 is to install a 300-kVA transformer to serve this customer.
Fans 10.0 0.40 4.0
Miscellaneous 20.0 0.35 7.0
TOTAL 378.0 — 247.5
Continued
1 5 8 – Se c t io n 4
4
EXAMPLE 4.8: Sizing Commercial Transformers. (cont.)
Example B Neglect the electric heat load, because the summer load is the domi-
A customer has requested service for an office building that has 355,750 nant load. The total load is 2,311.7 kW. Assuming a power factor of
square feet. The customer has provided the following load information: 0.9, the kVA demand of this office building is
2,311.7 kW/0.9 = 2,568.6 kVA

• Lighting: 500 kW
• Electric Heat: 100 kW
• Air Conditioning: 1,250 tons Let’s look at another method before making a final decision.
• Cooking: 288 kW The watts/square foot method suggests the following load:
• Receptacles: 1,480 kW
• Computer Equipment: 600 kW 355,750 sq ft × 7 watts/sq ft = 2,490 kW
• Motor Load (larger than 40 Hp): 840 Hp total
• Motor Load (smaller than 40 Hp): 99 Hp total If a power factor of 0.9 is assumed, the watts/square foot method gives
A similar account could not be found for this office building. Therefore, 2,490 kW/0.9 = 2,767 kVA
other methods must be used to help size the transformer.
The following load has been determined by means of diversity factors: This approximation is very close to the diversity approximation. Now,
the decision must be made regarding what size transformer is to be
Load Load Diversity Actual installed.
Description (kW) Factor Demand (kW) The peak duration for this office building can be estimated to be eight
Lighting 500.0 0.80 400.0 hours, unless otherwise stated by the customer. On the basis of an
eight-hour peak duration, the transformer can be loaded to 113 per-
Electric Heat 100.0 0.75 75.0 cent of its kVA rating. For a 2,500-kVA transformer, it can be loaded to
Air Conditioning 1,250.0 0.75 937.5 2,825 kVA during peak times.
Cooking 288.0 0.40 115.2 Therefore, a 2,500-kVA transformer should be installed to serve this
Receptacles 1,480.0 0.15 222.0 customer.
Computer 600.0 0.75 450.0
Equipment
Motor Load (larger 0.746 840.00 157.0
than 40 Hp)
Motor Load (smaller 0.746 99.00 30.0
than 40 Hp)
TOTAL 4,818.5 — 2,311.7
a hot transformer case will likewise naturally • Solar effect,

jerk away from it on contact. • Wind direction and velocity,
• Location of the unit near structures
Estimating Case Temperature or shrubbery,
It is almost impossible to predict the case tem- • Ambient temperature variation, and
perature of a pad-mounted transformer under • Part of case involved.
load because many factors contribute directly
To better understand the problem, a major
and indirectly to the surface temperature:
manufacturer took three of its single-phase, low-
• Preloading, profile units to the test floor and measured case
• Present load, temperatures at full load and at a sustained
4
overload. As expected, the temperature varied temperatures and their locations for the three
widely from one part of the case to another. pad-mounted transformers of different sizes.
Figure 4.14 shows the top and front views of As a point of reference when viewing the
a pad-mounted transformer. The circled numbers table, consider that the manufacturer designs sin-
one through eight denote the locations of various gle-phase units of 100 kVA and less to carry ap-
temperature measurements. Table 4.22 lists the proximately 180 percent load for six hours with
normal life expectancy. The three designs listed
are based on the industry standard of a 65°C rise
3 or less for 100 percent load. An additional cali-
bration point is that the units are designed not to
exceed 125°C top oil temperature with a 25°C am-
2 4 bient temperature at the higher continuous loads.
1
Tank Temperature Burn Probability
The specter of possible harm from hot pad-mount-
5 Inside Cabinet ed transformer surfaces was first raised in the
6 Top of Cabinet technical press in 1972 (Tarplay). There was a
Top View flurry of activity focused on the problem. How-
1 6 ever, the best qualitative thermal data on the
subject were developed by E. I. duPont de
Nemours and Company, Inc., over many years
7 Top Oil through research associated with its protective
2 8 Inside Oil 4 clothing activities. From curves developed by
duPont and the NASA space program, Table 4.23
was developed (Lee, 1973; NASA, 1964).
Table 4.23 shows that the probability of a per-
son’s receiving a first- or second-degree burn
Front View under normal loading conditions is very small.
Another point to consider is that the contact time
FIGURE 4.14: Case Temperature Measurement Location—Pad-Mounted
to produce a second-degree burn is about 2.5
Distribution Transformer.
TABLE 4.22: Surface Temperatures Measured at Various Locations on the Cases of

Pad-Mounted Transformers.
Rise Above Ambient Temperature, °C (36°C Ambient)
Measurement 25 kVA 37.5 kVA 50 kVA
Locations 100% Load 180% Load 100% Load 180% Load 100% Load 150% Load
1 9.5 27.0 12.5 34.0 16.5 34.0
2 13.0 44.5 24.0 60.5 31.0 61.0
3 16.5 44.0 24.5 60.5 33.5 55.5
4 16.0 43.0 21.5 50.5 28.0 54.0
5 17.5 — 13.0 37.5 33.5 38.5
6 5.0 14.0 5.5 16.5 8.5 16.0
7 25.5 67.5 35.5 87.0 43.5 84.0
8 26.5 68.0 35.5 87.0 46.5 84.0
Source: ABB Power T&D Company, Inc., Underground Distribution Transformer Division.
1 6 0 – Se c t io n 4
4
people’s ideas about burns have been formed by
TABLE 4.23: Surface Contact Time to Produce Burning.
their personal experience with boiling water,
Time in Seconds which maintains skin contact and, thereby,
Ambient Case
causes more severe burns.
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C) Pain Blister
36 69 33.0 DEDICATED TRANSFORMER LOADS 70.0
36 88 7.5 19.0
Many cooperatives that serve farming communities
36 95 6.0 13.0 with large irrigation loads and oil fields with
36 110 3.0 8.0 producing wells have applications in which a
36 115 2.5 6.5
transformer is dedicated to supply power to one
motor that is the total load on the transformer.
Selecting the proper size
times that of the pain level. three-phase transformer for
Under these conditions, a per- Transformer cases this type of application is a
son’s normal reflex should op- straightforward process de-
erate in plenty of time to pull get hot but don’t scribed by Example 4.9, ex-
away from the hot surface because burns. cerpted from the ABB Distrib-
fore being burned. Although ution Transformer Guide.
the skin may become red- In Example 4.9, the motor
dened, it generally will not selected had a starting current
blister. The body’s natural protection system will within the range of typical NEMA Code G mo-
normally protect against burns up to about tors. If voltage drop is a problem, 100-Hp mo-
149°C (300°F). A temperature of 149°C seems tors with smaller starting currents can be pur-
quite high not to produce a burn in all instances. chased, provided that the starting torque charac-
The problem is perception. Unfortunately, most teristics are satisfactory for the load being driven.
EXAMPLE 4.9: Dedicated Transformer Load.
Determine the minimum kVA size three-phase trans- 100

former to power a 100-Hp, three-phase, 124-ampere 70
full-load current, 460-volt squirrel cage induction motor 50
with a locked-rotor current of 725 amperes. The motor 40
Transformer kVA per Motor Hp
30
will be driving a center pivot irrigation system. Service
to the site will be through an underground three-phase 20
cable at 12.47 kV with a minimum length of 1,600 feet.

10 V
STEP 1: Determine the locked-rotor kVA of the motor. T S
7 R P
NEMA standards specify starting code letters for squir- 5 N M
4 L K
rel cage induction motors that correspond to the kVA J
3 H
per horsepower required to start the motor. The series GF
2 E D
of curves of Figure 4.15 graphically show the relation- C B
ship between the motor size, the locked-rotor require- A
ments of the motor, and the transformer thermal 1

1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 50 70 100 200 300 400 500 700 1,000
capability. Table 4.24 is based on the locked-rotor code Starts per Hour
letters, but it can be used for any motor by selecting
FIGURE 4.15: Relationship Among NEMA Starting Code Letters,
the curve that corresponds to the locked-rotor kVA/Hp Starts per Hour, and Transformer kVA per Motor Hp for
of the motor for which the transformer is being sized. Transformer Thermal Considerations
Continued
4
EXAMPLE 4.9: Dedicated Transformer Load. (cont.)
STEP 2: Determine the number of starts per hour planned for the motor
TABLE 4.24: NEMA Starting Code Letters.
under normal operating conditions.
Code Letter Locked-Rotor kVA per Hp
The load is a water pump driving a center pivot irrigation system. These
A 0.00–3.15 systems are usually run for weeks at a time after they are started. As-
sume one motor start per hour.
B 3.15–3.55
C 3.55–4.00 STEP 3: From Table 4.24, select the curve letter that corresponds to
D 4.00–4.50 the locked-rotor kVA/Hp of the motor.
E 4.50–5.00 Therefore,
F 5.00–5.60
G 5.60–6.30 578 kVA/100 Hp = 5.78 kVA/Hp = Letter G
H 6.30–7.10
J 7.10–8.00
K 8.00–9.00 STEP 4: Enter Figure 4.15 on the X-axis at the correct starts per hour
for the motor being applied. Move up to the intersection of the starts
L 9.00–10.00
per hour and the correct locked-rotor code letter curve and read the
M 10.00–11.20
kVA of the transformer required per horsepower of motor from the
N 11.20–12.50 Y axis.
P 12.50–14.00
Because motor starts per hour equals one, intersection of curve G with
R 14.00–16.00
the Y axis equals 1.5 kVA/Hp.
S 16.00–18.00
STEP 5: Multiply the kVA/Hp by the rated horsepower of the motor to
T 18.00–20.00
find the smallest transformer to be used in the application. Sizing the
U 20.00–22.40
transformer with this procedure is conservative because it assumes
V 22.40 and up that the voltage maintained at the motor terminals during starting is the
rated voltage of the motor.
If the starting kVA or starting code letter is unknown, the locked-rotor
Therefore,
kVA of the motor may be calculated with Equation 4.9.
Equation 4.9 1.5 kVA/Hp × 100 Hp = 150 kVA
3 × VR × IS
Locked-Rotor kVA =
1,000 STEP 6: Most motors started across the line require approximately 80
percent of rated voltage at their terminals under locked-rotor condi-
where: VR = Rated phase-to-phase voltage of motor tions to successfully start. After the transformer has been sized so it
IS = Motor starting current at rated voltage can withstand the starting pulse caused by the motor, check the volt-
age regulation of the system from the substation transformer through
the secondary terminals of the distribution transformer to see if there
Therefore,
will be enough voltage to start the motor. RUS Bulletin 160-3 describes
the procedure to make the voltage drop calculation, plus other useful
(1.732)(460)(725) information.
Locked-Rotor kVA = = 578 kVA
1,000
1 6 2 – Se c t io n 4
4
Also consider the transformer impedance: the
Equation 4.10
lower the absolute impedance (ohms), the less
regulation across the transformer, particularly 4.25 4
during the motor starting sequence when reac- n=

Ip
tive current predominates. Lower absolute im-
pedance of the transformer can be accomplished where: n = Number of starts per hour
in two ways: (1) a transformer of the selected
IP = Pulse current per unit of transformer
capacity and the lowest available percentage im- rated current
pedance (%Z) can be installed, or (2) the trans-
former capacity (kVA) can be increased. While
the latter choice may be the more expensive of withstand the mechanical and thermal stresses
these two options, it will always be less expen- imposed by this duty. Extensive data have been
sive than lowering impedance of the primary gathered by manufacturers and utilities about
system. pulse duty on transformers. The conclusion is
In this example, the primary objective was to that, if the current pulses per hour exceed those
ensure that the transformer kVA size was ade- shown in Equation 4.10, the transformer will fail
quate to start the motor. Mention was made of prematurely because of the repeated mechanical
the number of times per hour the motor would stresses placed on the core and coils.
be started, but this was not really considered be- Figure 4.16 shows the curve for Equation 4.10.
cause it was assumed the motor would be Look back at the previous pad-mounted trans-
started only infrequently. The “Starts per Hour” former sizing example (Example 4.9) to deter-
axis in Figure 4.15 is concerned mainly with mine the number of starts per hour limitation to
limiting the thermal stress imposed on the trans- ensure normal life expectancy of the 150-kVA
former by the motor during frequent starts. transformer selected:
Another important consideration in multistart
applications is the effect of the magnitude and
Transformer rated current =
duration of the starting current pulse on the
180 amperes at 480 volts
transformer. Each time a motor starts, it essen-
tially puts a controlled secondary fault on the Motor starting current = 725 amperes
transformer. The transformer must be sized to IP = 725/180 = 4.0 pu of transformer rated current
10
9
8
7
Maximum Allowable per Unit Pulse
6
5
0.1 to
10 Sta
4 rts/Ho
ur
10 to
1,000
1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Current Pulses per Hour
FIGURE 4.16: Maximum Motor Starts per Hour for Transformer Mechanical Considerations.
4
By entering the curve on the X-axis at 4 pu, cause the motor to approach stall conditions.
one can see that the allowable number of starts Examples include rock crushers and feed mills.
should be limited to less than 1.25 per hour. In these cases, the same basic calculations
It should also be noted that there are some should be run for the particular motor using the
motor applications that impose significant ther- current drawn by the motor near the torque-
mal and mechanical stresses on transformers breakdown curve. The results should then be
without multiple starts per hour. This is particu- evaluated considering the frequency of the ex-
larly true for motors serving loads that may pected stall conditions.
Summary and 1. Ampacity is defined as the ability of a cable 11. Cables placed in conduit have less ampacity
Recommendations to carry maximum current under a specific than do direct-buried installations.
set of conditions. 12. Direct-buried cables should be de-rated
2. Cable ampacity can be calculated, but, in most when they are installed in vertical riser pole
instances, single-phase and three-phase cable applications.
ampacities are selected from ampacity tables. 13. Risers should be open at the top and vented
3. The maximum ampacity of UD cable is set at the base to maximize ampacity and to
by the operating temperature of its insula- counteract solar heating effects.
tion and depends on the ability of its sur- 14. For three-phase circuits buried in conduit, the
rounding environment to dissipate the heat riser usually is not the element that limits load.
generated in the conductor, concentric neu- 15. Ambient air temperature is the most impor-
tral, and insulation. tant element in determining how much load
4. The maximum temperature rise of a cable a pad-mounted transformer can carry over
depends on the shape of the load duration its expected lifetime (30 years minimum).
curve, which depends on the relationship 16. Transformer daily peak loads should be
between the loss factor and load factor of selected from loading guides after predict-
the circuit. Current values listed in ampacity ing what the temperature will be during
tables are always calculated using a corre- the peaks.
sponding load factor. 17. Two methods should be used together to
5. Cable ampacity is affected by the ability of predict temperature for the month involved:
surrounding soil to dissipate heat generated
within the cable. This fundamental property (a) Average of all daily highs and all daily
is called soil thermal resistivity. lows for several years, and
6. Soil thermal resistivity depends on the type (b) Average of the high and low of the
of soil, its moisture content, and the struc- hottest day over many years.
tural arrangement of the soil particles.
7. Soil thermal resistivity depends mainly on 18. Transformer thermal time constant and
moisture content that is seasonally variable. thermal aging characteristics of its insula-
8. Ambient soil temperature affects ampacity tion allow short-time peak overloads to
because the insulation temperature rise is be carried without decreasing normal life
added directly to it to determine the maxi- expectancy.
mum cable conductor temperature. 19. Equivalent initial load and equivalent
9. The ampacity of three-phase installations is peak load must be calculated to perform
reduced as a result of mutual heating between loading studies.
the phases and losses in grounded concentric 20. Preload conditions should be considered
neutrals resulting from circulating currents. when loading transformers. Preload levels
10. Losses in grounded concentric neutrals of given in loading guides are based on trans-
three-phase applications are affected by the former nameplate rating and are not a per-
physical arrangement of the individual phases. centage of peak load.
1 6 4 – Se c t io n 4
4
21. For cold weather conditions, a maximum load- 23. The surface temperatures of pad-mounted
ing above 1.8 per unit cannot be justified for transformer cases can exceed 60°C during
preload conditions above 50 percent of peak peak loading on sunny days. However,
load. This means many per-unit figures above tests have shown that a person’s normal
2.0 per unit given in ANSI/IEEE C57.91-1981 reflex action in response to touching a hot
tables do not apply in practical situations. surface should prevent burning under nor-
22. Load-estimating guides based on load diversity mal conditions.
and demand should be used to estimate peak 24. Pad-mounted transformers for dedicated
kVA transformer load for groups of residential motor loads should be properly sized based
consumers. A loading guide developed specif- on motor locked-rotor kVA and the number
ically for the geographical region surrounding of starts per hour.
a cooperative’s service area should be used.
Grounding and Surge Prot e c t i o n – 1 6 5
5 Grounding and
Surge Protection
In This Section: Cable Grounding System Function System Ground Resistance Measurement
Factors Affecting Cable Grounding and Calculation
System Performance Underground System Surge Protection
Counterpoise Application for Insulated Summary and Recommendations
Jacketed Cable
When cooperatives first started installing primary The function of the cable grounding system is
underground distribution systems, they used to keep the cable as close to earth potential
BCN cable, which, at that time, was an industry (“grounded”) as practicable at all times—during
standard and a very effective way to provide both normal and abnormal operating and under
good system grounding. Unfortunately, these ca- fault conditions. Proper grounding minimizes
bles failed long before the end of their expected the effects of lightning surges on underground
life because of electrochemical treeing in the in- components after the surges are discharged by
sulation layer that was accelerated by moisture lightning arresters. Several factors affect the per-
and high-voltage stress. In addition, because of formance of the grounding system. Low riser
similar electrochemical action, the corrosion and pole ground resistance and the application of
disappearance of the bare concentric neutrals counterpoise wires reduce jacket voltages. There
was also a major problem. are also various methods to measure and calcu-
A solution to these problems was the addition late system ground resistance.
of an outer jacket over the concentric neutral of Protection of the underground distribution
the cable. This jacket can take the form of an in- system from lightning surges that originate on
sulating jacket or a semiconducting jacket. RUS overhead lines is crucial. The application of riser
cable specifications were changed in 1987 to re- pole arresters and lead length must be consid-
quire an electrically insulating jacket to be ap- ered. Traveling waves on underground systems
plied over the cable. The jacket provides physical affect protection methods and dead-front ar-
protection for the cable and helps prevent moisture rester locations of different cable configurations.
contact with the insulation layer. The jacket also in- Through careful arrester location, higher protec-
sulates the concentric neutral from direct contact tive margins than suggested by standards can be
with soil. Unfortunately, this feature reduces the achieved. Refer to IEEE for assistance in apply-
performance of the cable grounding system. ing distribution arresters.
1 6 6 – Se c t io n 5
5
Cable Grounding Before the function of the cable grounding sys- determining the actual ground electrode resis-
System Function tem can be explained in detail, the term ground tance. According to Ohm’s Law (V = I×R, voltage
needs to be defined as used in this section. A equals current times resistance), if the ground re-
ground is a current-carrying connection that sistance is relatively high at the point of a light-
connects a piece of equipment or a circuit to ning current surge or a system fault, extremely
earth. The purpose of the connection is to main- high voltages can result. A low ground resistance
tain a point in the circuit or on the equipment as will discharge lightning strokes with a lower
close to earth potential as possible. A ground is probability of system disturbance. A good ground
made up of a ground conductor, a bonding con- will improve the chances for rapid operation of
nector, its ground electrode(s), and the soil sur- protective relays and fuses to clear faults and
rounding the electrode. The most common types limit personal injury and equipment damage. A
of ground electrodes are: good ground will also lower the voltage existing
between grounded objects, such as transformer
• Driven ground rods, cases, and the nearby earth surface during fault
• Buried counterpoise wires, conditions.
• Cables with bare concentric neutrals, The magnitude of the ground resistance can
• Concentric neutral cables with semiconduct- be found by measuring the resistance of the sur-
ing jackets, rounding soil to the flow of current. This resis-
• Metallic water or sewer systems, and tance is usually associated with driven ground
• Rebar in reinforced concrete in manholes rods and, in theory, can be calculated with
and vaults. Equation 5.1.
Note that a pole butt ground applied to pro-

tect a distribution pole from lightning damage is Equation 5.1
not considered an effective ground electrode.
R=ρ
For discussion purposes, the cable grounding L
system consists of the grounding circuit and the A
neutral circuit. The difference between the two
where: R = Ground resistance, in ohms
ρ
circuits is that the neutral circuit is expected to
carry current under normal operation, and the = Soil resistivity, in ohm-m
grounding circuit isn’t. The grounding circuit is L = Length of the current path, in meters
made up of ground electrodes, ground conduc- A = Area of current path, in square
tors, and all connections. The neutral circuit in- meters
cludes the cable concentric neutral and any
connections to it, and may include a separate
neutral conductor. The easiest and best method to find the value
Under ideal circumstances, the grounding sys- of ground resistance is to measure it with a
tem maintains all points connected to it at earth ground resistance tester. The reading is obtained
potential during all normal and abnormal oper- directly in ohms. Soil resistivity is most accu-
ating and fault conditions. For this ideal goal to rately measured with a four-point earth resis-
be met, all connections between it and the earth tance tester. Soil resistivity can vary widely over
must have a resistance of zero ohms; in reality, a a small geographical area and is affected by the
zero resistance ground cannot be obtained. By type of soil, moisture content of the soil, and
using low-resistance conductors and electrodes, soil ambient temperature. More information on
the design engineer can minimize the resistance field measurement of ground resistance, soil re-
of the metal circuit up to and in the earth. Howev- sistivity measurements, and the various elements
er, the engineer has no control over the resistivity that affect soil resistivity may be found in a later
of the soil in direct contact with the electrode, subsection, System Ground Resistance Measure-
which is usually the most significant aspect in ment and Calculation.
5
PUBLIC SAFETY This low-impedance path
A well-designed, -constructed, Proper grounding shunts most of the fault cur-
and -maintained grounding rent through the grounded
system is essential to the oper- increases system neutral.
ation of any electrical distribu- personal safety. Over the years that UD sys-
tion system to maintain all tems have been in place, they
common points connected to have established an excellent
it as close to ground potential safety record. One reason is
as practicable. Proper grounding of a four-wire, that a good grounding system exists, resulting, in
wye-connected, effectively grounded system part, from the use of bare concentric neutral
provides the following functions: cable that provides a large neutral surface in di-
rect contact with the soil.
• Limits voltage across line-to- However, because of corro-
ground insulation, Pay attention to sion, changes in the water
• Provides a path to shunt table, changes in facilities, and
how JCN installations
surge currents from the the increasing use of JCN
system, are grounded. cable, more careful attention
• Allows ground faults to be should be paid to the installa-
isolated quickly, tion of the grounding system.
• Reduces the shock hazard
to people by reducing touch voltages during RETURN CURRENT PATH
faults on electrical equipment cases and The typical underground distribution system is a
frames to safe levels, and three-phase, four-wire wye with multigrounded
• Improves the likelihood that ground faults neutral, which satisfies the definition of an effec-
will be isolated quickly. tively grounded system. The neutral circuit must
be a continuous metallic path along the route of
Unlike an overhead system in which equip- the primary feeder and must extend to every
ment is physically raised above public areas, consumer’s location. For this requirement to be
most UD systems have equipment enclosures met, the concentric neutral of jacketed cable
mounted on the ground within easy public ac- must be grounded at each distribution trans-
cess. If a phase conductor contacts an enclosure, former, at frequent intervals (specified below)
no dangerous voltages should exist because the where no transformers are located, and at driven
enclosure could be touched by a member of the ground rods at each user’s service entrance. Be-
general public or the cooperative’s crews. To cause the concentric neutral is multigrounded, it
decrease the chances of a shock, ensure that the is connected in parallel with the earth, which
enclosure is connected to the lowest possible forms a relatively low resistance path to the flow
ground resistance. Another way to reduce touch of current. Under normal operating conditions,
voltage on pad-mounted equipment is to install residual current caused by unbalanced phase-to-
a buried counterpoise system around the system. neutral loads on primary circuits returns to the
One way someone could accidentally come neutral of the substation transformer along this
into contact with an energized conductor is by parallel path. In no instance, even under emer-
digging into a cable. All RUS-accepted UD pri- gency conditions, should the earth ever be used
mary cable is manufactured with concentric neu- as the only path for the return of normal load
tral wires that provide some electrical protection current on a distribution system.
for someone digging into it. The theory is that For typical overhead rural distribution lines, it
the metal digging tool would first contact the has often been assumed that 40 percent of the
grounded neutral wires and then the conductor, return current is carried by the neutral with 60
thereby creating a low-impedance path between percent returning through the earth. However,
the conductor and the concentric neutral wires. the current division will vary depending on earth
1 6 8 – Se c t io n 5
5
resistivity and the size of the neutral, especially For secondary single-phase, three-wire,
in the case of JCN underground systems where 120/240-volt systems, the two energized con-
the neutral is grounded only by ground rods or ductors plus the grounded neutral from the
by counterpoise wires. If the neutral is the same transformer are run to the user’s service en-
size as the phase conductor, which is usually the trance where the neutral is again connected to a
case for single-phase underground circuits, the driven ground rod. The user’s ground circuit is
current in it will be almost as large as the phase directly connected to the grounded neutral of
current. As the size of the concentric neutral is the transformer to ensure that no potential dif-
reduced, the greater the current flow in the ferences can exist between the two systems. Ef-
earth. However, this change in current distribu- fective grounding is especially important to
tion does not have a linear relationship to the protect 120-volt equipment connected across
ratio change in the neutral size. On single-phase two halves of the 240-volt transformer sec-
primary circuits, RUS specifies that the concen- ondary. The solid neutral connection holds the
tric neutral and phase conductor must have the neutral at a point halfway between the 240-volt
same conductivity. conductors. If the user’s neutral becomes iso-
In a perfectly balanced three-phase system, lated from the transformer neutral point, unbal-
no neutral or ground currents flow. However, as anced voltages across the equipment will result.
stated previously, unequal phase-to-neutral The voltages across the two 120-volt legs will
loads will cause an unbalanced current to flow split in proportion to the impedance of the load
in the return path. Normal practice is to try to on each side of the circuit, possibly causing
keep loads balanced for the system to operate burned-out light bulbs or damaged appliances.
efficiently. For this reason, the concentric neutral
size in a three-phase circuit can be much smaller NEUTRAL CIRCUIT FUNCTION
than the phase conductor. Cooperatives may op- UNDER FAULT CONDITIONS
erate three-phase systems with three cables On distribution circuits, the principal means of
specified at 1/3 neutral each, or 100 percent of fault protection are the overcurrent relay and
the conductivity of a single-phase conductor. fuse. For these types of devices to sense a short-
Most engineers recognize that a 1/6 neutral, circuit condition and act quickly to interrupt the
with a combined three-phase fault, the fault current magni-
conductivity of 50 percent of tude must be considerably
the conductivity of one phase Reducing neutral higher than the maximum load
conductor, is enough for most current. The most probable
losses increases
operating systems. Reducing type of fault on an under-
the size of the neutral has the three-phase circuit ground circuit is the single-
additional benefit of reducing ampacity. line-to-ground (SLG) fault.
the circulating currents in- Simply stated, the amount of
duced in the concentric neu- fault current depends on the
trals when they are grounded following:
and connected to each other, which increases
cable ampacity and reduces losses. • The impedance of the source,
The grounding and neutral circuits also pro- • The voltage at the source,
vide a way to ground the neutral of both three- • The line impedance from the source to the
phase and single-phase pad-mounted distribu- point of fault,
tion transformers. The transformer neutral is • The impedance to ground at the point of
connected to the cable concentric neutral and fault, and
both are tied to at least one ground rod. The • The impedance of the fault.
tank should be grounded at two points by sepa-
rate connections to ensure that it cannot become Fortunately, in UD systems, unlike overhead,
ungrounded through accident or corrosion. the cable concentric neutral is usually involved
5
in an SLG fault, which allows with driven rod(s). It is recom-
the maximum available fault A low-impedance mended that No. 4 AWG cop-
current to flow. A large fault per ground wire be used to
current ensures that protective neutral path allows bond no larger than 400-kcmil
devices act quickly and posi- fast protective cables with 1/3 neutral. No. 2
tively to protect equipment AWG will be sufficient to bond
from excessive damage and
device operation. to 1/3 neutral 500- to 1,000-
reduce the possibility that any- kcmil cable.
one will be harmed. The neutrals of three-phase
Another function of the neutral circuit is to circuits should be connected together and ground-
provide a low-resistance ground at a pad- ed to keep them at or near ground potential. Un-
mounted transformer or other equipment loca- der fault conditions, interconnected neutrals and
tion. A low resistance is needed to reduce the grounding will reduce the probability of arcing
chance of a dangerous touch potential for an between the concentric neutral of a faulted cable
SLG fault in the transformer. The multigrounded and other nearby neutrals, or other grounded
neutral in parallel with ground rod(s) at the lo- metallic paths. This procedure also reduces the
cation will provide the necessary protection danger to personnel who may be working in a
under all except the most unusual conditions. manhole or enclosure when a cable fault occurs
JCN cable, with an insulated jacket, must be by keeping metallic objects at the same potential.
grounded at least four times per mile for delib- The secondary low-voltage neutral circuit is
erate-separation areas, and at least eight times grounded at the pad-mounted transformer second-
per mile for random-separation areas. (See the ary and at the service entrance of a consumer. At
2007 NESC, Rules 96C and 354D3c.) Cables with the point of delivery (the meter), another metallic
bare concentric neutrals or with a semiconduct- ground is required from the breaker panel to a
ing jacket (meeting NESC Rule 94B5) may em- metallic water pipe or a suitable made electrode.
ploy the concentric neutral as a made electrode The grounds are necessary to prevent excessive
and the grounding requirements for the cable voltages from developing between plumbing fix-
are met, provided the installation complies with tures and appliances connected to the household
2007 NESC Rule 354D2. If the required number wiring system. Another contingency corrected in
of grounds to the JCN (insulated jacket) is not part by the neutral grounding scheme is the pos-
obtained at sufficient transformer locations, the sibility of a fault between the high- and low-volt-
cable neutral must be connected to ground age windings of the transformer. In this scenario,
rod(s) at intermediate points. In three-phase primary voltage could be impressed on the fit-
runs, the neutrals of all three cables must be tings of 120/240-volt appliances, causing a fire. If
connected together with No. 4 or No. 2 AWG the secondary winding is grounded at the trans-
copper grounding conductor and tied to earth former, a high-voltage insulation failure involv-
ing the secondary winding will immedi-
ately be shorted to ground by the center
tap of the winding or by the core, blow-
LV ing the primary fuse and isolating the cir-
LV Fault
HV Core cuit from the source. The transformer
LV
HV ground thus prevents dangerous primary
voltage from existing on the secondary
Wingdings Core Secondary conductors. See Figure 5.1.
Neutral
Transformer
LV = Low Voltage Ground Service House SURGE PROTECTION GROUNDING
HV = High Voltage Ground Ground
Interest in the transient response or surge
FIGURE 5.1: Typical Distribution Transformer Core Form Design and Neutral impedance of tower footings and driven
Grounding Circuit. ground rods began in the early 1930s
1 7 0 – Se c t io n 5
5
when engineers were trying to improve the out- Previous field and laboratory tests have
age rates of transmission lines. The main cause of shown that the surge impedance of a ground
outages was found to be direct lightning strokes rod or a group of driven rods is defined as the
to phase conductors. The protection method de- ratio of peak voltage to peak current, and that
vised at the time required new line designs based ZSURGE, in ohms, is less than the 60-Hz measured
on shielding the conductors from direct strokes values. Results also show that the surge imped-
through a combination of shield wires connected ance decreases considerably with increasing cur-
to ground conductors plus adequate phase-to- rent. The actual magnitude of ZSURGE depends
ground insulation. When lightning strikes the on many different elements (Bellaschi, Arming-
shield wire, the surge current is diverted to ton, and Snowden, 1942):
ground. It was found that a low surge imped-
ance at the base of the structure is required to • Soil resistivity,
make the scheme work. Otherwise, a large surge • Soil critical breakdown gradient,
current will produce a voltage at the top of the • Surge current magnitude,
tower greater than the basic impulse insulation • Surge current waveshape (rate of rise), and
level (BIL) of the insulator string, causing a • Ground rod length, number, and configuration.
backflash to the conductor (Westinghouse T&D
Reference Book, 1964). This same principle ap- Ground rod resistance is usually expressed as
plies to the dissipation of surge currents in un- the measured 60-Hz value; however, transmis-
derground systems. Therefore, it is important to sion and distribution line lightning performance
know the value of protection obtained from depends on the impulse or surge value of the
grounds when they are required to carry light- ground rod impedance. In jacketed cable instal-
ning discharge currents. lations, the cable jacket “sees” a voltage which is
It is, thus, necessary to establish the relation- the sum of the IZSURGE (current × surge imped-
ship between what will be called the surge ance) of the ground electrode plus the down-
impedance (ZSURGE) of a ground rod and its lead component that is due to the surge current
measured 60-Hz resistance (R60-Hz ) and deter- flowing into ground at the riser pole. The mag-
mine how this difference does or does not affect nitude of the surge impedance at the base of the
lightning arrester protection. It is also necessary pole also determines how much surge current is
to understand the effect of lightning discharge diverted to the JCN and flows to remote con-
path surge impedance on the protection and op- nected grounds.
eration of underground systems using JCN cable. In soils of low or medium resistivity, driven
ground rods can usually obtain adequate
Difference Between 60-Hz grounding. For these grounds,
Grounding and Surge the surge impedance is less
Grounding ZSURGE decreases than the 60-Hz (R60-Hz) resis-
Ground rods are the most tance value. The decrease can
with increasing
common type of electrode be shown by plotting ZSURGE
used on utility distribution sys- lightning current against the peak current as
tems. The magnitude of their magnitude. shown in Figure 5.2, which
surge impedance (ZSURGE) and depicts the ZSURGE of various
the elements that affect it are grounds for peak surge cur-
of major concern. Counter- rents ranging up to 12 kA. In-
poise wires are also used to lower ground resis- specting the curves shows that, for clay soils
tance. Because their initial effect on grounding with relatively low resistivity, ZSURGE will be less
depends on the surge impedance of a buried than R60-Hz, but not to the extent exhibited by
wire, they are covered in the subsection, sandy soils with much higher resistivity. For in-
Counterpoise Application for Insulated stance, the top curve represents an eight-foot
Jacketed Cable, later in this section. rod driven into ordinary sand with a measured
5
60-Hz resistance of 120 ohms. At peak surge
120 currents above 6 kA, it can be seen that ZSURGE
60-Cycle Resistance is less than 40 ohms, a 67 percent decrease. For
grounding resistances of 10 ohms or less, the
100 surge impedance is not appreciably smaller
than the 60-Hz resistance value.
Different kinds of soil and types of ground can
80
also be compared by looking at the surge char-
acteristic of grounds shown in Figure 5.3. Here,
the ratio of surge impedance to 60-Hz resistance
ZSURGE (Ohms)
(ZSURGE/R60-Hz) is plotted against peak surge cur-

60
Rods In Sand rent. In this figure, curve 2 represents a 10-foot
galvanized steel rod one inch in diameter driven
into moist clay with a 60-Hz resistance measured
40
at 27.5 ohms. Curve 1 shows four of the same
rods as shown in curve 2, spaced in a square 10
feet apart with a measured R60-Hz of 9.7 ohms.
20
Rods In Clay As the surge current increases above 12 kA, the
ZSURGE/R60-Hz ratio of the single rod is less than
0.4, while the four rods in parallel will not have
0
2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000
a ratio substantially below 0.7 at higher currents.
Peak Surge Current (Amperes) To summarize,
• The surge impedance (ZSURGE) of a ground
FIGURE 5.2: Variation of Surge Impedance with Surge Current for rod or ground rod group is defined as the
Various Values of 60-Cycle Resistance. Source: Westinghouse T&D ratio of peak voltage to peak current.
Reference Book, 1964, page 593.
1.0
0.8
1.
Four 10-ft Rods in Parallel, in Clay
Ratio of ZSURGE to R60-Hz
2.
0.6
10-ft Rod in Clay

0.4
8-ft Rod in Sand
0.2 8-ft Rod in Gravel & Stones with Clay Mixture
8-ft Rod in Stones with Clay
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Peak Surge Current (Kiloamperes)
FIGURE 5.3: Surge Characteristics of Various Ground Rods. Source: Bellaschi, Armington, and
Snowden, 1942, page 353.
1 7 2 – Se c t io n 5
5
• ZSURGE is always less than or equal to the There are also various ways to reduce the magni-
measured 60-Hz resistance of the ground rod(s). tude of discharge currents on the neutral circuit.
• ZSURGE decreases with increasing surge current
magnitude. Arrester Leads
• The proportional reduction of ZSURGE is less Lightning is a current generator. Surge arresters
for grounds of low resistance than it is for are applied at riser poles to protect cables from
grounds of high resistance. lightning-induced overvoltages by shunting the
surge current to ground. Surge voltages pro-
Arrester Discharge Paths duced by a lightning flash are a function of the
Surge arresters are applied on distribution lines current magnitude, its rate of rise, and the dis-
for two main reasons: charge path impedance. The arrester is con-
nected to the overhead conductor and the pole
1. To shunt lightning current ground conductor. The dis-
surges to ground, which charge path that determines
reduces the magnitude of Keep arrester leads the voltage impressed across
surge voltages propagating short to maximize cable insulation is the arrester
on overhead and under- and its connecting leads that
protection.
ground systems, and carry lightning current in paral-
2. To limit overvoltages on lel with the cable termination.
protected equipment. This concept is illustrated in
Figure 5.4. Two riser pole installations are shown;
For the first application to be effective, there the lightning discharge paths are highlighted.
must be a low surge impedance to ground. In Pole 1 represents the desirable connection
the second application, ground resistance is not where no current flows through leads L1 and L2.
a consideration because the voltage across Cable phase insulation will “see” only the ar-
equipment is limited to the arrester discharge rester discharge voltage. Pole 2 is not desirable
voltage plus the voltage drop produced by the because the level of protection provided by the
arrester lead(s). However, other elements must arrester is reduced when lead voltages L1 and L2
be considered when arresters are applied to pro- are added to the arrester discharge voltage.
tect JCN cable. Arrester lead length must be considered in
At the riser pole on wye-connected distribu- calculating protective margin when evaluating
tion systems, the arrester down lead is con- current rate of rise. The protective margin is the
nected to the pole ground conductor, the difference between the arrester discharge voltages
multigrounded system neutral, and the concen- plus the lead L di/dt drop and cable withstand
tric neutral of the jacketed cable. Because pri- level, where di/dt is the change in current with
mary and secondary neutrals are tied together at time expressed as kA/µs (kiloamperes per micro-
the pad-mounted transformer, the JCN provides second). Protection standards suggest using an
a direct path for discharge currents to flow to average rate of rise of 4 kA/µs. Tests have shown
the neutrals of premises that the transformer that the conductor normally used for leads has
serves. The amount of surge current that flows an inductance, L, of about 0.4 µH/ft. The lead
on the various neutrals is determined mainly by lengths connecting the arrester to the termina-
the surge resistance of the pole ground. Surge tion will contribute approximately 1.6 kV/ft to
voltages induced by discharge currents can dam- the total voltage across the insulation if they car-
age the cable jacket and consumer appliances. ry lightning surge current. The 1.6 kV/ft figure is
Various arrester discharge paths that occur at a based on an average probable rise time. Field
riser pole have an effect on cable insulation pro- investigations have shown that this figure will be
tective margin, cable jacket neutral-to-ground exceeded 30 percent of the time. Some applica-
voltage rise, and how current surges on the section engineers believe 6 kV/ft or higher should
ondary neutral can damage consumer equipment. be used. To minimize the effect of current rate
5
Lead L1 Lead L1
Cable
Termination
Lead L2 Lead L2 JCN Cable
L1 + L2 = 0 L1 + L2 = Lead Length
(Desired) (Should Not Be Used)
• Objective is to make certain no lightning current flows

in the leads connected to the cable termination.
Pole 1 Pole 2
FIGURE 5.4: Arrester Lead Length for Two Riser Pole Installations.
of rise, the leads should be kept as short as pos-

sible and arresters with low discharge voltages
should be used. See Figure 5.5.
The effect of lead length on protective mar-
gins will be covered in more detail in the Surge
Arrester Application Factors subsection later in
this section.
Pole Ground Conductor

After a surge arrester operates to protect cable
insulation, some engineers assume no additional
damage will happen to other system compo-
nents. This assumption is not always true. Once
lightning current goes through an arrester, it
flows into the neutral and ground circuits, caus-
ing overvoltages on neutral-to-ground insulation.
This is especially a problem with electronic
equipment (controllers, RTUs, etc.) that might be
on the pole. Special methods should be consid-
ered to limit or eliminate problems this condition
can and will cause.
FIGURE 5.5: Three-Phase Installation Figure 5.6 shows a typical underground pri-
Showing Optimum Riser Pole Arrester
mary installation fed from a riser pole and pad-
Lead Connections.
mounted transformer. The direct-buried jacketed
1 7 4 – Se c t io n 5
5
cable and below-grade connections are also ence point. The condition could be compared to
shown. Figure 5.7 shows the same installation ground potential rise in a substation during a
except drawn in a way to highlight the various ground fault. Because the cable concentric neu-
arrester discharge paths: tral is tied to the ground rod, any transient volt-
age produced by the surge event is transferred
• Pole ground conductor, directly to it. The cable jacket, applied to protect
• Cable jacketed JCN, the concentric neutral from environmental dam-
• Counterpoise, and age, also insulates it from ground, which means
• Overhead multigrounded system neutral. the total ground potential rise is disseminated
across the jacket. The magnitude of the peak
After the lightning current passes through the ground potential rise can be estimated as the
arrester, it splits among the various paths. The peak current times the surge impedance of the
respective surge impedances of the conductors riser pole ground rod(s).
and the surge impedance of the pole ground de- Laboratory tests have shown that peak jacket
termine how the current initially divides. Result- voltage occurs at a distance where the electric
ing currents flow to both the local ground and field strength around the ground rod and the
remote grounds. ground potential rise approach zero. The con-
cept can be better understood by referring to
Jacket Voltages Figure 5.8. The area outside the circle represents
Local ground in this instance is the riser pole where ground potential rise is zero. The ground
ground rod. When the pole ground conducts rise is maximum at the center of the circle where
surge current, it produces a ground potential the ground rod is located. A jacketed cable starts
rise when measured relative to a remote refer- with its concentric neutral attached to the rod
Phase Conductor
Multigrounded System Neutral
Counterpoise
Loop Feed
Pad-Mounted
Transformer
Continuous
Counterpoise Triplex
To Next Transformer Secondary
Cable
JCN Cable
Connections Shown
Below Grade For Clarity Service Ground
Pole Ground
Transformer Ground
FIGURE 5.6: Typical Primary and Secondary Underground Installation.

5
½ ½
Phase Conductor
MOV Cable Pothead
Multigrounded System Neutral
Jacketed
Concentric
Neutral Consumer’s
Breaker
Pole Ground Pad-Mounted Panel
Conductor ZSURGE Transformer RS Loads
RL RN R1
R3
RS R2
Insulating
Groundline LL Jacket
RPole
ZSURGE RTX RService
Continuous Counterpoise
Wire to 1st Transformer
FIGURE 5.7: Schematic Diagram Showing Surge Current Paths After Lightning Arrester Discharge.
and extends radially from the center. It ends at a ving a two-foot spike in the ground at each
point that is not affected by surge current flow- point.) Because the concentric neutral of the
ing in the center ground rod. Measuring the JCN cable is tied to the ground rod, the peak
voltage rise at points A and B from a remote ref- ground potential rise is transferred on the neu-
erence gives maximum voltage at A and zero tral to point B, where maximum voltage-to-
volts at B. (The ground rise is measured by dri- ground exists across the jacket. Laboratory tests
At Point B:
Ground Potential Rise V=0
Jacket Voltage V = Max
Maximum Ground A B
Potential Rise
at Point A
V = Max Cable Start Cable End V
Jacket Voltage
at Point A
V=0
Ground Rod
Outside the Circle

Represents the Area of
Maximum Jacket Voltage
FIGURE 5.8: Maximum Jacket Voltage (Neutral to Ground) Produced by Lightning Current Surge
in Ground Rod.
1 7 6 – Se c t io n 5
5
show that maximum jacket voltage occurs within for the most commonly used jacket thicknesses.
50 feet of the riser pole. Laboratory tests have This analysis shows that the neutral on the
also shown that lower jacket voltages will be JCN cable will not be at ground potential when
measured at the end of the cable. Cable start and a surge occurs. As with an overhead system, the
cable end voltages should not be the same, be- neutral-to-ground voltage can reach dangerous
cause the cable neutral potential is produced by levels during surges.
the current in the two grounds and their respec-
tive surge resistances (GE Research Project, 1990). Jacketed Concentric Neutral
The ground potential rise and the maximum Any lightning current that does not propagate
jacket voltage are a function of the down-lead along the other paths attached to the arrester
current and the surge impedance of the riser pole down lead will flow on the concentric neutral.
ground rod. Increasing either of these quantities The JCN current magnitude depends on the
will lead to higher jacket voltages. If the ground surge impedances of all connected paths. Slow-
rise exceeds jacket withstand strength, a jacket front waves and 60-Hz currents do not “see” the
puncture will occur, allowing moisture to enter surge impedances of the JCN and the other
the cable. Over time, this condition could lead paths. The 60-Hz measured resistances and im-
to loss of one or more of the neutral conductors pedances will be seen instead. The 60-Hz im-
to corrosion. pedances of each path are lower than their surge
Unfortunately, no standards exist that define impedance values. If the paths are connected to
the withstand strength of 50- and 80-mil jackets ground resistances lower than or equal to the
most commonly used on underground cables. pole ground, a small change in the pole ground
The only voltage test required by standards is resistance can mean a large current increase on
the AC Spark Test that is used mainly as a qual- the concentric neutral and other paths. The path
ity control check during the jacket extrusion with the lowest ground resistance will receive
process. An 80-mil polyethylene jacket must most of the current.
withstand 7.0 kV applied be- Another look at Figure 5.7
tween an electrode on the out- shows that any increase in ca-
side surface of the jacket and ble neutral current is trans-
the concentric neutral for not Minimize jacket ferred directly to the neutral of
less than 0.15 seconds. Labora- voltage with low the pad-mounted transformer
tory tests have shown that new because of the cable insulating
polyethylene insulating jackets riser pole ground jacket. Any current discharged
have a surge (1.5 × 40 µs rod resistance. by a dead-front surge arrester
waveform) withstand strength applied on the primary termi-
of about 2,500 volts/mil at nals of the transformer will also
20°C. After being in service, add to the contribution from
this value drops to about 1,200 volts/mil after the JCN. If the transformer ground is much low-
moisture permeates the jacket. On the basis of er than the service ground, most of the lightning
these figures, Table 5.1 lists withstand strengths current on the neutral will flow to earth at the
transformer ground rod. If the reverse is true,
TABLE 5.1: Surge Withstand Strengths of Polyethylene Insulating most of the current will flow on the service neu-
Jackets for 15-kV, 25-kV, and 35-kV Class JCN Cable. tral and to the ground at the service entrance.
Damaging overvoltages can be induced on loads
Jacket Thickness* New Jacket Insulation Aged Jacket Insulation R1, R2, and R3 connected inside the residence
50 mil 125 kV 60 kV under this condition as a result of surge current
components flowing in the service neutral.
80 mil 200 kV 96 kV The surge impedance that has the greatest ef-
95 mil 240 kV 114 kV fect on current division between discharge paths
and surge voltages on the secondary is the pole
* Jacket thickness over neutral wires ground. Keeping this resistance as low as practi-
5
cable means minimum lightning energy on the
Equation 5.2
underground system neutral. The transformer
ground must be a minimum resistance because L 2h
some service grounds are tied to underground Z= = 138 log ohms
C r
metallic water systems. The most economical
way to obtain good grounds in the above two where: Z = Surge impedance of conductor
instances is by multiple ground rods, deep-dri-
L = Inductance of conductor (Henries)
ven rod(s), or the addition of counterpoise.
C = Capacitance of conductor (Farads)
Counterpoise h = Height of conductor above ground,
A continuous counterpoise conductor is shown in feet
connected to both ends of the jacketed cable in r = Radius of conductor in feet
Figures 5.6 and 5.7. It is buried with the cable 138 = Constant from L and C values in
and represents another arrester discharge path at Henries and Farads per mile
the riser pole. Laboratory tests have confirmed
that, applied as shown, counterpoise will reduce
the jacket voltage up to 50 percent under surge above ground and its size (Westinghouse T&D
conditions. Adding counterpoise also improves Reference Book, 1964).
the 60-Hz grounding of the riser pole arrester Reducing the surge impedance of the neutral
and cable neutral. Direct connection to the JCN would be desirable as an additional way to re-
decreases surge current transfer to the trans- duce the amount of surge current diverted to the
former neutral. Note that counterpoise is used underground neutral/ground system. Unfortu-
only for JCN applications and is not required nately, its wire size is set by system requirements
when BCN or semiconducting jacketed cable and reducing the height above ground is not an
is installed. option. For these reasons, the overhead neutral
How counterpoise reduces jacket voltage and is not a major factor in mitigating the effects of
improves 60-Hz grounding is explained in more surges on the underground system. However, it
detail in the subsection, Counterpoise Application is a vital part of the overhead neutral/ground
for Insulated Jacketed Cable, later in this section. system that acts with arresters to prevent light-
ning surges from propagating long distances
Overhead Multigrounded System Neutral from the strike point.
The overhead system neutral presents two dis- It should be noted here that some lightning
charge paths for lightning current once it passes strikes are of such a magnitude that distribution
through the arrester. Surge current will flow in both voltage systems cannot be effectively protected
directions away from the riser pole. The surge from them. However, the majority of lightning
impedance of the two paths is approximately outages and damage are caused by induced
500 ohms each, calculated from Equation 5.2 for lightning strokes (approximately 95 percent),
a single aerial conductor with ground return. which can almost always be eliminated by
As can be seen, the surge impedance is deter- effective lightning protection (including arrester
mined only by the height of the conductor protection, line configuration, and system BIL).
Factors Affecting UNDERGROUND CABLE SYSTEM by calculation. The resistance of an actual instal-
Cable Grounding CONFIGURATION lation can be found only by measurement. The
System The function of the cable grounding system is type of cable used—BCN, jacketed, or semicon-
to keep its entire length at ground potential at ducting jacketed—will determine the effective-
Performance
all times. Its ability to perform this function ness of the grounding system in performing its
under fault and surge conditions is determined intended function.
by the resistance of its electrical connections to Getting a low ground resistance can be diffi-
ground. Ground resistance can be approximated cult and is highly site-specific. A question often
1 7 8 – Se c t io n 5
5
asked about system grounding is, “How low predominant way to obtain grounds at riser poles,
does the ground resistance have to be before it intermediate points, and transformers, this sub-
is considered a good ground?” Answering the section reviews elements affecting their resistance
question with a specific ohmic value is difficult and required quantities. Soil resistivity also di-
because many variables are involved in an ap- rectly affects the resistance of a ground electrode.
plication. A low riser pole ground reduces the
jacket voltage on jacketed cable. A low pad- Bare Concentric Neutral Cable
mounted transformer ground—compared with Direct-buried, BCN cable is considered the ideal
the service ground—reduces surge voltage on configuration for a multigrounded neutral on a
consumer appliances. For JCN applications, the four-wire grounded-wye distribution system.
riser pole ground rod resistance should ap- Maximum continuous contact area between the
proach 10 ohms, if practical, whereas the trans- system neutral and soil ensures an effectively
former ground can have a higher value. grounded system. Correct operation of surge ar-
The system configurations of bare concentric resters is ensured under all conditions. Effective
neutral, semiconducting jacketed, and jacketed grounding limits neutral-to-ground voltages dur-
concentric neutral cables affect grounding sys- ing faults and surge events, which reduces stress
tem performance. Because ground rods are the on cable insulation. The highest degree of pub-
lic safety is also obtained. Unfortunately, corro-
sion problems associated with the BCN cable
configuration preclude its continued use in new
Lightning installations.
Current Solid grounding by the BCN means the riser
Overhead Phase
Conductor pole ground rod resistance has little effect on
MOV cable system surge protective levels. BCNs on di-
Arrester rect-buried cable provide an effective path to
Multigrounded Neutral ground under most conditions. The concept is il-
lustrated in Figure 5.9. The overall ground resis-
tance measured along the cable is significantly
Bare Concentric Neutral UD Cable
lower than the driven ground. With two arrester
discharge paths available, a poor riser pole
ground merely means more surge current flows
on the BCN, where it quickly goes to ground.
Although no longer in use by cooperatives,
BCN cable relieved most but not all grounding
concerns for direct-buried systems. Putting the
cable in nonmetallic conduit led to a lack of
continuous grounding and problems associated
with poor grounding. Burying the exposed neu-
tral in soil with different resistivities caused the
neutral to corrode to the point where it was lost
completely. Besides the reduction in grounding
efficiency, open neutral wires caused localized
electric field stresses. Over time, the insulation
Surge Current on BCN Dissipated in Earth shield deteriorated, causing primary cable faults.
The neutral wires of BCN cables were also more
susceptible to damage during cable pulling and
Ground Rod installation.
In recent years, all utilities have experienced
FIGURE 5.9: BCN Cable Riser Pole Installation Surge Arrester premature failures with direct-buried BCN cables.
Discharge Paths.
5
Resulting investigations found grounded only at both ends of
the primary causes to be elec- Insulated jacket the cable. This type of system
trochemical treeing in cable installation will decrease
insulation and BCN corrosion. reduces grounding grounding quality when com-
Accelerated tree growth was system performance. pared with a bare neutral con-
pinned to moisture in the in- figuration. For example, con-
sulation layer and high-voltage sider two 1/0 AWG, single-
stress. As noted, these findings phase, direct-buried cable runs
led the RUS to change Bulletin 50-70 (U-1) to re- of jacketed and BCN cables, 1,000 feet long, in
quire insulating jackets and thicker phase insulation soil of 100 ohm-m resistivity. The resistance-to-
on all underground cables. Addition of the jacket ground of the bare neutral cable, assuming a ca-
is a change from the BCN system configuration. ble effective diameter of 1 inch, is as follows:
Semiconducting Jacketed Cable 1.15 siemens per 1,000 ft =

According to tests conducted by General Electric 0.87 ohms for a 1,000-foot cable (from Table 7.6)
Company for NRECA and various utilities, the
concentric neutral-to-ground voltage of semicon-
ducting jacketed cable is essentially independent If the jacketed neutral is grounded by single
of riser pole ground rod resistance and arrester 10-foot ground rods at each end with diameters
discharge current. The semiconducting jacket acts of 3/4 inch, each rod would have a resistance of
like a BCN to provide good system grounding the following:
characteristics for underground installations. To
provide good grounding, the semiconducting
32.14 ohms or 0.0311 siemens
jacket must have a radial resistivity of less than (from Equation 5.9)
100 ohm-m (see 2007 NESC Rule 354D2c). If this
jacket resistivity requirement is met, intermediate
grounding for the cable run is not required. Un- To meet safety codes, the BCN cable must be
fortunately, this is not true for an insulating jacket; connected to ground rods at each end as well.
additional effort must be made to approach the Adding the two ground rods to the BCN cable
same grounding system performance level achiev- gives a total ground resistance for the installation.
able with semiconducting and BCN cable. Note: Conductance (siemens), which is the
reciprocal of resistance (ohms), will be used in
Insulated Jacketed Cable the calculation to avoid the cumbersome for-
An insulating, protective jacket provides many mula for three resistances in parallel. Conduc-
benefits. An exterior jacket provides mechanical tances of individual grounds in parallel can be
protection for the neutral during pulling and in- combined by simple addition:
stallation. The jacket isolates the copper neutral
from contact with corrosive soils. This isolation 0.0311 + 0.0311 + 1.15 = 1.2122 siemens
prevents galvanic cell formation and inevitable
1
neutral corrosion. A protective jacket offers sig- = ohms = 0.8249
nificant mechanical protection to the insulation 1.2122
shield and primary insulation. It also delays
moisture from reaching and damaging the insu- For this particular example, the JCN cable in-
lation layer, increasing cable life. However, insu- stallation has resistance equal to the two ground
lating the neutral from ground has some rods in parallel or 16.07 ohms; therefore, the
drawbacks. The most important is that the per- JCN cable has the following:
formance of the grounding system is reduced.
Jacketed cable installations less than 1,000 16.07 ohms ÷ 0.8249 ohms = 19.48 times the
feet long would normally have their neutrals ground resistance of a BCN cable installation
1 8 0 – Se c t io n 5
5
In the preceding case, both systems would be • Pad-mounted transformer locations, and
considered adequately grounded according to • Service entrances.
code. However, for longer runs or in higher re-
sistivity soil, the jacketed cable would not be ad- Ground rods normally carry high current only
equately grounded. Additional driven grounds after faults or lightning arrester operation.
could be added at both ends. For longer runs, Ground rods must be driven into undisturbed
the NESC requires at least four grounds in each soil. They should not be placed in the hole with
mile, not counting rods at indi- the riser pole or driven into
vidual services. To meet this backfill around an installation
requirement, the jacketed neu- Drive ground rods site. Loose soil will not pro-
tral must be attached to vide the necessary rod inter-
grounds at intermediate points
into undisturbed soil. face contact required for good
along the route. grounding. Rods should be
driven at least 2 feet from
DRIVEN GROUND RODS ON THE UD SYSTEM structures, concrete foundations, and poles with
Ground rods are the predominant type of made steel reinforcing to prevent the possibility of arc-
electrode on underground distribution systems. ing from the rod. See Figure 5.10.
They are mainly used at the following: Almost any metallic material may be used to
manufacture ground rods. Copper-clad and gal-
• Riser poles, vanized steel are most common. The measured
• Jacketed cable intermediate grounding points, resistance of the rod in the ground is the most
• Cable joints, important feature to consider. Rod material has
little effect. Economics and corrosion considera-
tions normally determine which rod material
is selected.
The ground resistance of driven rod(s) is
affected by various elements. There are several
ways to improve existing ground resistance.
Only the measured 60-Hz resistance will be
considered here because surge impedance has
already been reviewed. The number of rods
necessary for good grounding practice and re-
quired by the NESC is discussed here. Specific
equations for calculating rod ground resistance
for various configurations and examples are
given later in the System Ground Resistance
Measurement and Calculation subsection.
When multiple ground rod sections are
stacked on top of each other, a problem that
can affect the ground rod resistance generally
occurs. This problem is the lack of good soil
contact. Because of the larger diameter of the
coupling, the bottom ground rod is often the
only rod making full contact with soil. The first
coupling opens up a hole larger than the ground
rod body and subsequent ground rod bodies
make very little contact with the soil, and are
definitely not in contact with undisturbed soil.
FIGURE 5.10: Ground Rod Being Driven by This lack of contact with the soil (disturbed or
Hydraulic Tool.
5
undisturbed) can make a big difference in the substation ground mat in the same way.
resistance reading observed. As time passes and Soil resistivity depends on soil composition.
the soil fills in around the ground rod body, the Experience has shown that resistivity can vary
resistance values will change and most likely im- widely over a relatively small area. This variation
prove. The time required for this improvement throughout the soil volume cannot be modeled
is dependent on soil porosity, soil plasticity, and easily in ground resistance calculations. All for-
the amount of moisture in the soil. mulas developed in this section for ground elec-
trode resistances assume soil resistivity is con-
Ground Resistance of Driven Rods stant throughout its volume. This restriction must
The ground resistance of a rod (or group of rods) be considered when the results from formulas
is found by measuring it with a ground resis- are interpreted. Elements that affect soil resistiv-
tance tester. Resistance calculations can be made ity are given later in this section.
for specific installations and ground rod configu- The three primary factors that affect the ground
rations to estimate what the resistance will be. resistance of ground rods that the engineer can
Any theoretical calculations must start with the influence are the following:
basic equation in Equation 5.1 or its equivalent.
Equation 5.1 shows that the ratio between the 1. Length,
plied by the soil resistivity, ρ. The resistivity then

length and area of the current path must be multi- 2. Rod number, and
3. Spacing.
affects the ground resistance of any electrode
system, such as a single ground rod, BCN, or Resistance Variation with Depth
How the resistance of a single ground rod
varies with length can best be demonstrated
by considering its
1000 resistance formula expressed by Equation 5.3.
(Note that this formula assumes full contact of
3/4"
5/8" all rod sections to the soil.)
1-1/4"
Resistance does not decrease directly with
length. The actual variation can be seen in Fig-
ure 5.11, which plots resistance against rod
100
length. The curves are drawn for an earth resis-
tivity of 250 ohm-m.
Resistance (Ohms)
A handy approximation that generally can be

used is that doubling the rod length lowers the
resistance by only 40 percent. For example, as-
sume an eight-foot rod with a diameter of 5/8
inch has a measured resistance of 90 ohms.
10 Doubling the length to 16 feet will reduce the
resistance to about 54 ohms, 90 – (0.4 × 90),
Equation 5.3
ρ 4L
1
R= In –1 (ohms); where L » a
1 10 100 1,000 2πL a
where: ρ = Soil resistivity, in ohm-m

Length of Ground Rod (Feet)
L = Rod length, in meters

FIGURE 5.11: Resistance of Vertical Ground Rods as a Function of
Length and Diameter (Soil Resistivity = 250 Ω-m). a = Rod radius, in meters
1 8 2 – Se c t io n 5
5
which agrees closely with the 5/8-inch curve of Multiple Rods in Parallel
Figure 5.11. Doubling the length again to 32 feet Reduced ground resistance can be obtained by
would give a resistance of about 32 ohms, or paralleling rods to increase the cross-sectional
54 – (0.4 × 54). As the rod length keeps increas- area of the current path. Two identical rods dri-
ing, the law of diminishing returns applies. Ad- ven into soil some distance apart will not have
ditional length produces a very small reduction one-half the resistance of a single rod. The actual
in ground resistance. For the 5/8-inch rod of the ground resistance will be about 60 percent. The
above example, this point of diminishing returns reduction is about 40 percent for three rods in
occurs at about 40 or 50 feet. parallel and 33 percent when four rods are used.
These relationships hold true
Resistance Variation with for rods spaced about the same
Diameter Use a longer rod, distance apart as their length.
Another way to lower ground When multiple rods are ac-
resistance is to use a larger di-
not multiple rods,
tually applied, the separation
ameter rod. Doubling a rod’s to lower ground distance should be at least
diameter reduces its resistance resistance. twice the length of one rod.
by less than 10 percent. The The increased separation is
multiple rod diameter curves needed to get the most useful
in Figure 5.11 show the effect, effect of rod spacing. Figure
which is minimal. Normal rod diameters used 5.12 shows that, for rods spaced greater than
on distribution systems are 5/8 inch and 3/4 20 feet apart, the reduction of the ground resis-
inch. In most instances, increased rod diameter tance falls off rapidly. For example, assume a
is considered only when encountering hard soil single rod 10 feet long with a measured ground
or for driving deep rods connected to substation resistance of 60 ohms. Four rods spaced 20 feet
ground mats. apart would have an equivalent resistance of
100-Ft Spacing
20-Ft
40-Ft Spacing Spacing
20%
Resistance of Multiple Grounds
25%
10-Ft Spacing
30%
5-Ft Spacing
40%
50%
60%
70%
100%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Ground Rods
FIGURE 5.12: Resistance of Multiple Ground Rods (Single Rod Equals 100 Percent).
5
0.3 × 60 = 18 ohms. As the multiple rods or a deep-
separation distance approaches The NESC governs driven rod should be used.
infinity, the resistance of the Long rods can be hard to
four rods will equal 15 ohms. ground rods for JCN drive in soil with a high rock
If geological conditions cable installations, content. Multiple rods can
permit, a single, deep-driven take up a lot of area. If the
where practical.
rod should be used instead of decision is made to install a
multiple rods to lower ground rod grid, the rod arrangement
resistance. For example, if four is less important than the
10-foot ground rods are placed 2 L apart (where separation distance. The conductor length and
L is the length of the rod), they will have about number of connections should be kept to a
the same resistance as a 40-foot rod. If the sepa- minimum to tie the rods to the pole ground
ration distance is less than 2 L, the deep rod will conductor. Two types of multiple rod grounding
provide a much lower resistance than 4 × 10 layouts are shown in Figures 5.13 and 5.14 for a
feet of rod placed close together. riser pole application.
The above statements are based on a homoge-
neous soil profile. A deep rod will be expected Number of Driven Rods
to reach the permanent water table beneath the The NESC (ANSI C2) does not specify the
earth. The resistivity at this level will be consid- number of ground rods at specific locations on
erably lower than near the surface. The advan- underground cable systems. It also does not rec-
tage of the deep rod will be more pronounced in ommend what the ground resistance should be
this case. Another benefit is that soil resistivity at at any specific location. But the NESC does have
greater depths will not vary as much because of certain requirements for JCN installation ground-
changes in temperature and moisture content as ing methods that apply to BCN installations as
will resistivity near the surface. well. See the summary in Table 5.2. Specific
Site conditions will normally dictate whether locations for driven rods are the following:
Riser
Riser Conduit
Conduit Pole Ground
Conductor Vent
Pole Ground
Conductor Vent
2L .
min
2' min.
2L min.
Cable
L Cable L
2' min.
2L min.
FIGURE 5.13: Installation of Three Rods for a Riser Pole FIGURE 5.14: Installation of Four Rods for a Riser Pole
Ground. Source: Parrish, 1982. Ground.
1 8 4 – Se c t io n 5
5
TABLE 5.2: 2007 NESC Ground Rod Requirements for JCN Cable Installations.
Location Rule Comment

Riser Poles 92B2b(1) Concentric neutral must be connected to surge arrester grounds where
cables are connected to overhead lines
94B2a If a driven rod is used, minimum length is eight feet and minimum
diameter is 5/8 inch for steel and 1/2 inch for copper-clad. Longer rods
or multiple rods may be used to reduce ground resistance.
94B2b Minimum spacing between multiple rods is six feet.
94B2c Driven depth not less than eight feet, with exceptions.
Pad-Mounted 93C7 and 314 Concentric neutral and pad-mounted transformer and other equipment
Transformers cases must be connected to a ground rod.
94B2c (exception) If the rod is placed within the pad-mounted enclosure or pedestal, driven
depth can be 7-1/2 feet.
Joints/Intermediate 96C Concentric neutral must be connected to ground rods at least four times
Grounding Points per mile (service grounds not included).
354D3c For random separation with communications cables, grounding interval is
eight times per mile (service grounds not included).
Note. Consult the specific NESC rules cited in the text to avoid any misunderstandings caused by condensing
the rules in this table.
• Riser poles, A counterpoise is also considered a made elec-

• Pad-mounted transformers, trode if the following conditions are met:
• Joints/intermediate grounding points, and
• The bare wire is No. 6 AWG or larger,
• Service entrances.
• The length is greater than 100 feet, and
• The counterpoise is laid in the same trench as
Pertinent NESC sections are the following:
the buried cable (Rule 92B3).
• Section 9: Grounding Methods for Electric There is no suggested value for ground resis-
Supply and Communication Facilities, and tance at the riser pole. It is noted in Rule 96C
• Part 3: Safety Rules for the Installation and that multigrounded systems extend over a large
Maintenance of Underground Electric-Supply area and depend on a number of electrodes for
and Communication Lines. grounding purposes; therefore, no specific val-
ues are imposed for the resistance of individual
Riser Poles electrodes.
Rule 92B2b(2) says that a grounding conductor As already mentioned, the lowest practical
must be connected at the termination points of a ground resistance should be obtained at the
nonjacketed cable. Additional grounding points riser pole. As explained previously, low resis-
for jacketed cable are recommended in 92B2b(3) tance ensures a low jacket voltage and prevents
since the neutral is not exposed and is not pro- excessive surge currents flowing to remote
viding a ground connection. For a typical UD in- transformer and service grounds. For minimal
stallation, the first termination point is the riser effect on the system, a good goal is to have the
pole. If a driven rod is used, Rule 94B2a says lowest ground at the riser pole. The next highest
that the total length may not be less than ground should be at the first pad-mounted trans-
eight feet. Minimum rod cross-sectional areas former. The highest ground resistance compared
are also given. If longer or multiple rods are with the previous two should be at the service
needed, a minimum six-foot spacing is required. entrance.
5
Pad-Mounted Transformers
Transformer Installation This subsection covers only pad-
Note 1 (Front View)
mounted transformers. However, sug-
H1B gestions or recommendations are valid
X3 for any aboveground enclosure.
H1A X1 Rule 314 says that conductive parts
Ground Strap
must be grounded, including cases of
X2
Jumper #4 Copper
pad-mounted devices. Because the neu-
tral is brought to the transformer, it must
Tank Grounds be connected to a ground electrode ac-
#4 Copper
cording to Rule 96C. If a rod is used
Ground Rod Clamps
Tamp Well Under Pad
Ground Wire
7'6"
within the footprint of a pad-mounted
Note:
min. enclosure, an exception to Rule 94B2c
1. Tie concentric neutrals together before tap to ground states that its driven depth may be re-
loop to ensure same conductivity as cable neutral. duced to not less than 7-1/2 feet.
GUIDELINE ONLY Pad-mounted transformers are nor-
mally grounded with one driven rod,
except in areas of high soil resistivity
FIGURE 5.15: Grounding Assembly for Pad-Mounted Single-Phase Transformers. where up to four rods might be needed.
The resistance of the transformer
ground should be less than the ground
at the consumer’s service entrance to ensure neu-
Top View
tral surges are not transferred to wiring inside the
residence. Most cooperatives do not have control
over the value of the service ground. The engi-
neer should make a survey of existing grounds in
Note the area. After a representative value is found, a
3 target for transformer and riser pole grounds can
Opening
be determined.
Figure 5.15 shows a typical grounding assem-
bly for a single-phase, pad-mounted transformer.
A continuous ground conductor loop is shown
that ensures solid grounding if one connection
fails. Two clamps are shown for the ground rod.
Front View Pad These are recommended to prevent a high-resis-
tance contact when two wires are connected with
18" min.
one clamp and to maintain ground electrode ef-
fectiveness if one connection is defective.
8'0"
min. Two, three, or four rods are sometimes used
to obtain the proper ground resistance at a trans-
Notes:
former. The separation distance between rods
1. Place minimum of one ground rod at each corner to obtain low ground resistance of should be kept to at least twice the burial depth
grounding grid. Minimum distance between ground unit assemblies = 6'0". when possible. In some instances, installing a
2. Grounding grid 1/0 AWG bare copper buried 18” minimum below ground. Run wire four-point grounding grid will obtain a low
under pad to opening and allow 5'0" for grounding live front switch/fuse enclosures.
3. Place ground wire a minimum of 24" away from the side or sides of pad that a person
ground resistance and minimize the touch po-
would stand on to operate the equipment. The ground wire may be placed within 12" tential between case and ground. Figure 5.16
of the other sides.
shows a typical layout. The ground conductor
GUIDELINE ONLY should be a continuous wire connected to two
points on the transformer.
FIGURE 5.16: Grounding Grid for Pad-Mounted Equipment Installation.
1 8 6 – Se c t io n 5
5
Joints/Intermediate Figure 5.17 shows an instal-
Grounding Points BCN and lation that could be used at a
The 2007 NESC does not call jacketed cable joint or inter-
semiconducting
for ground rods to be installed mediate neutral connection to
at direct-buried joints if the
jacketed cables ground. These cable connec-
concentric neutral is effectively don’t need tions are aboveground to pre-
grounded. However, intermediate grounds. vent water from entering the
Rule 92B2b(3) recommends jacket where the neutral is
additional connections be- opened and sealed. An ideal
tween the concentric neutral situation is shown in which a
and ground for JCN systems. It also requires that continuous ground conductor is used to bond
the neutral be grounded at each cable joint that is the neutrals together and to make up the ground
not otherwise insulated to the voltage expected loop to and from the ground rod.
under normal conditions. Because jacketed cable Figure 5.18 shows a direct-buried installation
systems are not as well grounded as BCN sys- that could also be used at a jacketed cable joint
tems, any joint or splice should be used as a or intermediate neutral connection to ground. All
means for connecting the proper number of dri- three neutrals are tied to ground by separate
ven ground rods to improve system grounding. conductors attached to ground rods. Two
Rule 96C says that JCN must be grounded at jumpers are added between the cable phases to
least four times per mile, not including grounds provide a continuous grounding loop, so one
at individual services. Rule 354D says that, for failed connection will not affect grounding. The
random-lay installations with communication ca- connection to the concentric neutrals is made
bles in the same trench, there shall not be less similar to the installation shown in drawing
than eight grounding installations in each mile, UM48-3 of RUS Bulletin 1728F-806 (D-806)
not including the service grounds. Intermediate dated June 2, 2000. This connection should be
grounding is not required for BCN cables or properly sealed around the concentric neutral to
semiconducting jacketed cables with jacket ra- prevent moisture entrance.
dial resistivity less than 100 ohm-m. Figure 5.19 shows a direct-buried intermediate
grounding assembly using in-line ground con-
JCN Cable Joint nectors. The principle is to strip the jacket from
a short piece of cable, wrap a braid brazed to a
connecting rod around the concentric neutral,
and seal the connection against moisture. The
device holds promise as a quick and simple way
to make an intermediate grounding point in a
cable run. Extreme care should be used with this
type of connection below ground so the jacket is
adequately resealed to prevent moisture ingress.
The installations shown in Figures 5.17 and
5.19 could be connected to three adequately
Ground Rod spaced ground rods, if required for system
grounding. Note that rods should be installed
with an inter-rod distance equal to two rod
lengths for a reasonable degree of effectiveness.
Service Entrance
NESC Rule 250-84 requires one driven ground rod
GUIDELINE ONLY at the service entrance to a residence. Ground re-
sistance is to be 25 ohms or less. If the desired re-
FIGURE 5.17: Installation of JCN Connection in Above-Grade Pedestal.
sistance is not obtained, one rod must be added.
5
See Note 1
See
Note 3
Notes:
1. #2 Thru 4/0 conductor—use #4 stranded copper ground
wire, 500 kcmil conductor—use #2 stranded copper
ground wire.
0”
10’ um
im 2. Engineer to specify number and length of ground rods.
See Min
0”
Note 2 10’ um 3. Moisture seal around connections to the jacketed cable
im
Min neutral. Use solid copper inside and extended through
moisture seal.
4. Four grounds per mile minimum. More required with high
ground resistance.
GUIDELINE ONLY 5. Use this grounding assembly only with proper sealing on
concentric neutrals that prevent moisture permeating the
insulation.
FIGURE 5.18: Grounding Assembly for JCN Underground Primary Cable.
As noted, the cooperative usually has no con-

trol over the ground resistance at the meter base.
To lessen the probability that incoming surges
on a JCN cable will cause damage to voltage-
Grounding In-Line Connecting Rod sensitive consumer equipment, ensure that the
Conductor
Solid Copper Compression Connector service ground should have a value larger than
(Continuous) the transformer ground. It is not practical for a
#2–#4 Moisture Seal
as Required
cooperative to check every service ground in its
territory to determine its relative resistance value
compared with other system grounds. However,
Ground Rod(s)
if problems arise because of failed equipment in
the residence, the service ground would be a
logical component to investigate.
Notes: One installation that will provide a resistance
1. #2 AWG to 400 kcmil conductor—
use #4 AWG solid copper ground wire. to ground lower than the distribution trans-
500 kcmil to 1,000 kcmil conductor— former ground is a service neutral tied to the
use #2 AWG solid copper ground wire.
metal casing of a domestic water well. In this in-
2. Engineer to specify number and length
of ground rod(s). stance, trying to reduce the system ground
3. Adequate moisture seal must be would not be practical. Secondary metal oxide
provided around connections to varistor (MOV) arresters with low discharge volt-
jacketed cable neutral.
4. It is recommended that connections to
ages are a possible solution. The arresters
JCN be made above ground in an should be installed as close to the protected
enclosure when feasible to preserve
moisture integrity of jacket.
equipment as possible, preferably in the meter
base rather than at the transformer. Also, the
consumer should provide sensitive electronic
FIGURE 5.19: Intermediate Grounding Assembly, Underground equipment, such as personal computers, with in-
Primary Cable.
dividual protection.
1 8 8 – Se c t io n 5
5
Counterpoise Counterpoise is not frequently There is a method to esti-
Application for discussed in connection with Use counterpoise mate the ground resistance of
Insulated Jacketed BCN underground cable sys- a counterpoise installation.
tems. It is more often associ- only for insulated JCN Various aspects affect the
Cable
ated with transmission line cable installations. ground resistance of the con-
tower-footing surge resistances ductor. A counterpoise pre-
and line outage rates caused sents a surge impedance to
by lightning. RUS requires co- the flow of lightning current.
operatives to install cable with an insulating The impedance is different from the steady-state
jacket. With increasing use of this cable, system ground resistance. Surge impedance affects riser
ground quality is reduced in comparison with pole grounding and jacket overvoltage protec-
the quality that could be had with BCN and tion. It is recommended that a continuous coun-
semiconducting jacketed cable. A counterpoise terpoise be installed from the riser pole to the
is one method that will improve ground quality first transformer in the system.
when insulated JCN cable is used. It is a con-
ductor buried in the ground as a practical means COUNTERPOISE GROUND RESISTANCE
to reduce ground resistance at a desired loca- The steady-state, or R60-Hz, resistance to ground
tion. Lower ground resistance results from in- of a counterpoise electrode can be calculated
creasing the earth area in contact with the using Equation 5.4.
grounding system. Installation of a counterpoise
is particularly simple on underground systems
because a trench is usually being opened. Equation 5.4
ρ 2L
πL
R= In –1 for d < L
ad
where: ρ
50
= Soil resistivity, in ohm-m (Ω-m)
L = Conductor length, in meters (m)
a = Conductor radius, in meters (m)
40
Counterpoise Wire d = Burial depth, in meters (m)
5/16” Diameter, 3-Strand, Galvanized,
Annealed Iron Wire. Burial Depth = 30”
Figure 5.20 shows how the resistance of a #4

Ω)
60-Hz Resistance (Ω
30
AWG copper wire varies with length in soils of
different resistivities. Results are shown for burial
depths of 30 and 42 inches. When a counterpoise
500 Ω-M is used only to improve surge arrester ground-
20
ing, counterpoise lengths greater than 300 feet
250 Ω-M are not generally considered to be cost-effective.
Counterpoise can be extremely helpful where
10 100 Ω-M upper layer soil resistivity is less than that of the
soil below. When rock layers prevent driving rods
of a suitable length to the proper depth, counter-
poise may provide a workable alternative. So that
0 the ground resistance does not vary widely during
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
the year, special care should be taken to bury
Length (Feet)
counterpoise below a stable moisture level. Bury-
FIGURE 5.20: Counterpoise 60-Hz Resistance Variation with Length ing below the frost line must also be considered.
and Different Soil Resistivities. An analysis of Equation 5.4 shows that depth
5
does not dramatically affect counterpoise resis- impedance is usually designated by the symbol
tance. However, any increase in soil resistivity ZSURGE and is expressed by Equation 5.5.
will increase the ground resistance proportionally. Transient or surge current initially “sees” the
surge impedance of the conductor, whether it is
COUNTERPOISE SURGE IMPEDANCE hung in the air, buried in the ground, or run ver-
When lightning current travels along a conduc- tically on a riser pole. A horizontal buried coun-
tor, the resistance it encounters is the surge im- terpoise has an initial surge impedance that
pedance, not the steady-state resistance. Surge depends slightly on soil conditions and is as-
sumed to be about 150 ohms. As the wavefront
of a current surge travels along the conductor,
Equation 5.5 more and more of its length helps to shunt the
current to ground. The final result is that, after a
L
ZSURGE = ohms series of reflections, the surge impedance re-
C
duces to the steady-state resistance, R60-Hz. The
decay time depends on the length of the coun-
where: ZSURGE = Counterpoise surge impedance,
in ohms terpoise and the propagation speed of the surge.
Depending on the dielectric constant of the soil,
L = Conductor inductance, in
a surge travels at less than one-half the speed of
Henries/unit length
light (the speed of light is assumed to be 1,000
C = Conductor capacitance, in feet per microsecond). Tests have shown that a
Farads/unit length
1,000-foot counterpoise with an initial 150-ohm
surge impedance will reach a resistance equal to
its steady-state value in about six microseconds
150 (6 µs). A shorter counterpoise of 250 feet will
have the same 150-ohm initial surge impedance,
140 Z = 150-Ω Initial Surge Impedance
R = 10-Ω 60 Hz Resistance
but its steady-state resistance will occur in one-
130
Curves: Counterpoise Length
fourth the time (1.5 µs). Curves one to four of
1. 1,000 ft
Figure 5.21 show the relationship (Westinghouse
120
2. 750 ft T&D Reference Book, 1964).
110 3. 500 ft
4. 250 ft REASONS FOR COUNTERPOISE USE
100
Counterpoise is buried with jacketed cable to
90 reduce ground resistance at the point of applica-
Surge Impedance (Ω)
80
tion. Connection to the insulated cable neutral
improves grounding of the neutral and reduces
70 overall system ground resistance. If the counter-
60 poise wire is run from the riser pole to the first
transformer, it provides a parallel path for light-
50 ning currents to flow to ground. The additional
1
40 2 path diverts surge current from the pole ground
3 and JCN. Less surge current in the ground rod
30
4 decreases neutral-to-ground voltage and, thus,
20 the jacket voltage. Lower jacket surge voltages
will reduce the probability of jacket puncture
10
60 Hz Resistance over time. Less current on the JCN means less
0 current flowing to the transformer neutral.
1 2 3 4 5
Microseconds (µs) How the surge impedance of counterpoise
affects the pole ground and the jacket voltage is
FIGURE 5.21: Effect of Length on Transient Surge Impedance of
shown by Figure 5.22. Two possible counterpoise
Counterpoise.
configurations are shown. One is a continuous
1 9 0 – Se c t io n 5
5
MOV Cable
Arrester Termination
Riser
Pole
S1
Cable
Jacket
R
Dead-Front
MOV Pad-Mounted Service
L
Arrester Transformer Loads
150'
100'
ZSURGE S2
S3
Counterpoise
RG RG ZSURGE /R60–Hz RT RS
25 Counterpoise
Legend:
R = Riser pole ground conductor resistance
L = Riser pole ground conductor inductance
I = Surge current in riser pole ground conductor
RG = Riser pole ground rod resistance
RG/25 = Remote ground rod resistance
ZSURGE = Counterpoise surge impedance
RT = Transformer ground rod resistance
RS = Service entrance ground rod resitance
FIGURE 5.22: Counterpoise Application to Reduce Jacket Voltage.
counterpoise connected directly to the JCN at by the addition of counterpoise will be less than
the top of the pole and extending to the first the no-counterpoise case.
transformer. The other is connected to the riser A full-length counterpoise connected to the
pole ground rod and extends pad-mounted transformer
to a remote ground (RG/25) that neutral puts its surge im-
measures at least 25 times less pedance in parallel with the
than the pole ground (RG).
Always connect transformer ground rod, cable
In the examples in this sec- counterpoise at the concentric neutral, and the
tion, it is assumed an incoming top of the riser pole. service neutral. The connec-
lightning surge with a set mag- tion ensures the jacket voltage
nitude and rate of rise will will be less at the transformer
produce a certain voltage than at the riser pole. The
across the cable jacket, with no counterpoise ap- parallel impedance reduces the surge current
plied. Any changes in the jacket voltage caused flowing on the JCN from the riser pole and the
5
EXAMPLE 5.1: No Counterpoise Added (Switches S1, S2, and S3 Open). EXAMPLE 5.2: Attaching a 100-Foot
Counterpoise to the Riser Pole Ground Rod
When a surge arrester conducts, lightning current will split between the pole and the Other End to a Remote, Smaller
Resistance (Switch S2 Closed, S1 and S3
ground conductor and the JCN in proportion to their respective surge imped-
Open).
ances. The surge impedance of the concentric neutral depends on the geom-
etry of the cable and the dielectric constant of the jacket material. It will fall
somewhere between the 35-ohm cable surge impedance and the 150-ohm This case represents laying counterpoise termi-
counterpoise surge impedance. If the pole ground has a surge impedance of nated in a ground rod or running a connection to
less than 15 ohms, most of the current will be diverted to the ground rod. One an existing electrode to decrease 60-Hz grounding.
component of the peak jacket voltage at the sending end of the cable is then Initially, the counterpoise will present a 150-ohm
equal to the ground potential rise caused by surge current flow through the impedance in parallel with the riser pole ground
ground rod. The jacket voltage at the transformer or receiving end of the cable rod. For surge currents peaking in 0.5 to eight
will not be the same as the sending end because the voltage on the cable neu- microseconds, the slight decrease in the ground
tral is determined by the respective currents flowing in each ground and the re- resistance will reduce ground potential rise by a
sistance of each ground. The receiving end voltage will always be the smaller factor depending on the difference between the
of the two. magnitude of the riser pole ground (RG) and the
150-ohm surge impedance of the counterpoise.
Another component of the neutral-to-ground voltage at the riser pole is the This counterpoise installation will not reduce
L di/dt voltage of the pole ground conductor. For the configuration depicted in Fig- jacket voltages very much, but still should be con-
ure 5.22, the total neutral-to-ground voltage can be represented by Equation 5.6. sidered to improve system grounding.
Equation 5.6
Vng = I(R + RG) + L di/dt EXAMPLE 5.3. Continuous or Full-Length

Counterpoise (Switches S1 and S3 Closed,
S2 Open).
where: Vng = Riser pole neutral-to-ground voltage, in volts
I = Current in riser pole ground conductor, in amperes
In Figure 5.22, the counterpoise is shown con-
R = Riser pole ground conductor resistance, in ohms
nected in parallel with the jacketed concentric
RG = Riser pole ground rod 60-Hz resistance, in ohms neutral at both ends of the cable. With the coun-
L = Pole ground conductor inductance, in Henries terpoise run to the top of the riser pole, its surge
di/dt = Surge current rate of rise, in amperes per second impedance is connected directly in parallel with
the surge impedance of the concentric neutral
and the down-lead conductor. This connection
For a standard 8 × 20 µs current waveform, maximum di/dt occurs during the will reduce the current to the pole ground. As a
initial part of the wavefront. Laboratory tests have shown that the L di/dt com- consequence, it also lowers both the ground
ponent is usually less than the IR component and will peak before the surge cur- potential rise and the L di/dt component of
rent waveform peaks. Therefore, the peak neutral-to-ground voltage and, thus, the down-lead voltage. Connecting a continuous
the peak jacket voltage is caused mainly by the surge current magnitude: counterpoise at the riser pole ground rod, as ex-
I (R + RG). Because R is less than RG, the jacket peak voltage can be accurately plained in Example 5.2, will not give the same ef-
represented by the product of the pole ground conductor current and the surge fect. Test data have shown that connection of
impedance of the ground rod. continuous counterpoise to JCN cable near the
riser pole arrester will reduce jacket voltages by
However, for steep-front currents peaking in less than two microseconds, the up to 50 percent for fast-front waveforms and
L di/dt voltage could exceed the IR component in the case of a low down-lead 35 percent for slow-front waveforms (General
current. The same could happen for a high di/dt and low ground surge imped- Electric, July 1990).
ance. In both cases, the L di/dt component would predominate and produce
peak jacket voltage.
1 9 2 – Se c t io n 5
5
amount of current on the service neutral. The 3. The counterpoise must be attached to the
counterpoise will also divert transformer MOV insulated JCN at the top of the riser pole to
arrester current from the service neutral in case obtain optimum jacket voltage reduction.
of a high transformer ground resistance (RT). It 4. A continuous counterpoise should be in-
also improves the 60-Hz ground resistance at the stalled to the first transformer for every un-
pad-mounted transformer. derground installation, if practicable.
Although the previous discussion mentioned 5. If a full-length counterpoise cannot be
only direct-buried JCN cable, very similar results justified economically, counterpoise of
will be obtained for JCN cable installed in conduit. 100 to 300 feet should be installed at the
riser pole, depending on soil resistivity
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR JACKETED CABLE and condition.
6. The conductor is to be random-lay in the
1. Obtain a low ground resistance (10 ohms or same trench as the cable. The counterpoise
less is desired) at the riser pole for any jack- must be surrounded by soil. A driven
eted cable installation. This strategy is best ground rod is used to terminate the coun-
to reduce jacket voltages for all types of terpoise conductor. The rod is counted to-
surges, fast-front or slow-front. The induc- ward the four- or eight-grounds-per-mile
tance of the pole ground conductor cannot NESC requirement.
be reduced. A measured ground resistance 7. Counterpoise will not significantly reduce
of 10 ohms or less is desired at riser poles. touch potentials on jacketed cable installa-
2. Counterpoise will reduce jacket voltages to tions. Therefore, proper safety procedures
some extent, regardless of the riser pole must be followed.
ground resistance.
System Ground FIELD MEASUREMENT OF SYSTEM GROUNDS equal thickness; therefore, the shell nearest the
Resistance To correctly measure the resistance of a system rod has the smallest surface area and conse-
Measurement ground, the engineer needs to understand quently the greatest resistance. The farther the
ground resistance. Ground resistance consists of shell is from the rod, the greater the surface
and Calculation
the following: area, which results in a lower resistance in the
shell. At some remote point,
• Resistance of the ground rod, an additional shell does not
• Resistance of the contact The main component significantly add to the earth
between the ground rod and resistance surrounding the
the soil directly in contact
of ground resistance rod. The final shell is consid-
with the rod, and is resistance of the ered the effective resistance
• Resistance of the body of area and depends on the dri-
earth surrounding
earth surrounding the ven depth and the diameter of
ground rod. the ground rod. the ground rod.
The resistance of the ground Three-Point Meter

rod and the contact resistance A three-point ground resistance
are usually extremely small To measure ground tester can measure the ground
compared with the earth resis- resistance, use a resistance of the following:
tance. To understand earth re-
sistance, think of the ground three-point or • A single ground rod,
rod as being surrounded by clamp-on ground • Multiple ground rods, and
concentric shells of earth (see • Small grids of ground
Figure 5.23). These shells have
resistance tester. conductor.
5
These measurements must be made before
the ground rod or grid is connected to the sys-
tem ground. Unfortunately, the tester cannot
practically measure the ground resistance of a
long counterpoise.
This ground resistance tester has three termi-
nals as shown in Figure 5.24. The current (C)
terminal and the potential (P) terminal are each
connected to separate test probes. The third ter-
minal (X) is attached to the grounding electrode
that is being tested. Figure 5.24 shows the correct
test setup. The tester injects a current through
test probe C and grounding electrode X. The re-
sulting potential drop is measured between test
probe P and grounding electrode X. The resis-
tance reading shown on the test is the ground
resistance of the electrode. This test procedure is
known as the Fall-of-Potential Method. For addi-
Current Current tional information on this test method, see IEEE
Standard 81.
During this test, it is important to space the
FIGURE 5.23: Earth Resistance. test probes and electrodes correctly. If the three
electrodes are too close together, then the effec-
tive resistance areas of probes C and X will over-
lap (see Figure 5.25). This overlapping produces
X P C
inaccurate resistance readings. For readings to
Grounding
Electrode Test Test
Grounding Under Test Probe Probe
Electrode Test Test
Under Test Probe Probe
X P C
X P C
Effective
Effective Resistance
Resistance Areas
62% of D Areas Do Overlap
Not Overlap D
D
Resistance
Resistance
Resistance of Test Probe C
Resistance of Grounding Electrode Distance
FIGURE 5.25: Incorrect Ground Resistance

FIGURE 5.24: Correct Ground Resistance Test Setup. Test Setup.
1 9 4 – Se c t io n 5
5
TABLE 5.3: Spacing of Test Probes for Testing Resistance of a Single be correct, the spacing must be increased so the
Ground Rod. Source: AEMC Corp., 1990. effective resistance areas do not overlap. Table 5.3
lists the recommended distances for probe C
Depth of Driven Rod (ft) Distance to P (ft) Distance to C (ft) when testing a single ground rod. Also listed are
6 45 72 the distances to the P probe.
Probe P is placed at 62 percent of the distance
8 50 80 from the ground rod to the C test probe. As
10 55 88 shown in Figure 5.24, the 62 percent method
should place the potential probe outside the ef-
12 60 96 fective resistance area of the other two elec-
18 71 115 trodes. The preferred placement for P is in a
straight line between C and X.
20 74 120
To test multiple ground rods or small grids,
30 86 140 increase the distance to the C probe. Table 5.4
provides a list of recommended spacing for the
C and P test probes.
The maximum dimension is the diagonal dis-
TABLE 5.4: Spacing of Test Probes for Testing Resistance of an tance across the electrode system area. For ex-
Electrode System. Source: Biddle Instruments, 1981. ample, if four rods form a square with 20-foot
sides, the electrode system area is 20 feet × 20
Maximum Dimension (ft) Distance to P (ft) Distance to C (ft)
feet. This area has a diagonal of approximately
2 40 80 28 feet. Using Table 5.4, choose the next highest
maximum dimension, which is 40 feet. The table
4 60 100
shows that P should be at 200 feet and C at 320
6 80 125 feet. The preferred placement for P is still at 62
percent of the total distance and is in a straight
8 90 140
line between C and the electrical center of the
10 100 160 electrode system.
12 105 170 Most three-point meters have a resistance
range of 0 to 500 ohms and are accurate for test
14 120 190 probe resistance values of up to 5,000 ohms.
16 125 200 Most newer models have an indicator to signal
the operator if the test probe resistance values
18 130 210 are excessive or if there is a lack of continuity
20 140 220 between the leads and the test electrode.
40 200 320
Clamp-On Meter
60 240 390 Another type of meter used to make ground re-
sistance measurements is the clamp-on ground
80 280 450
resistance tester shown in Figure 5.26. This in-
100 310 500 strument clamps around a ground rod or ground
120 340 550 conductor and displays a resistance reading. Un-
like the three-point test, this measurement is made
140 365 590 with the ground rod or conductor still connected
160 400 640 to a multigrounded system. The tester contains a
constant voltage source that induces a current
180 420 680 into the test ground. This current is detected and
200 440 710 used to determine the resistance.
5
Figure 5.27 shows a circuit diagram for a
multigrounded system with the clamp-on tester
in place. Rx represents the ground being mea-
sured. R1 through Rn represent the remaining
grounds in a multigrounded system. Because the
parallel combination of R1 through Rn is much
smaller than Rx, most of the voltage drop is
across Rx. Therefore, the resistance reading on
the meter is basically the value of Rx.
To work properly, the meter must be clamped
on a ground rod or conductor that has only one
return path to the neutral. If the meter is
FIGURE 5.26: Clamp-On Ground Resistance Tester. Source: AEMC clamped onto a ground loop, the induced cur-
Corporation, 1992. rent will circulate around the loop and the meter
will show a very low resistance reading. Placing
the clamp below the loop or disconnecting one
Ground Resistance of side of the loop forces the induced current to
Multigrounded System flow through the test ground (Rx). Ground loops
are often inside pad-mounted transformers.
I
Here, several ground conductors and one or
E more ground rods are bonded together. Clamp-
ing the meter around the ground rod and below
the common attachment point should allow an
accurate ground resistance reading of the rod.
RX This test setup is shown in Figure 5.28.
R1 R2 Rn–1 Rn
Ground Resistance This meter has a resistance range of two to
of Ground Rod that
is being Tested 1,990 ohms and a ground current range of zero
to 1.99 amperes. If the ground current exceeds
1.99 amperes during the test, ground resistance
measurements are not possible.
FIGURE 5.27: Circuit Diagram for Multigrounded System.
Front View of Transformer
H1B
X3
H1A
Ground Strap X1
X2
Copper Ground Wire
Tank Grounds
Copper Ground Wire Ground Rod Clamps

Clamp-On Ground Resistance Meter
(See Note 1) Note:
1. For best reading, clamp meter onto the ground rod itself,
below the point where ground conductors are attached.
FIGURE 5.28: Ground Resistance Test Setup for Clamp-On Tester.

1 9 6 – Se c t io n 5
5
SOIL RESISTIVITY conducted at substation sites
MEASUREMENTS Knowing the soil or along transmission lines. If
In addition to thermal resistiv- the cooperative engineer does
ity (discussed in Section 4 of
resistivity helps in not have soil data for the area
this manual), soil has an elec- the design of an of underground cable installa-
trical resistivity. The electrical tion, then soil resistivity mea-
adequate grounding
resistivity is the resistance of a surements may be necessary.
unit cross-sectional area of soil system. After the engineer collects soil
per unit length and is ex- data from different areas, he
pressed by Equation 5.7. may be able to assign approxi-
mate resistivity values through-
out the service territory. It will probably become
Equation 5.7 apparent that each different soil type present in
the service area has a relatively narrow range of
ρ=R×
A resistivity. These approximate values can be
L used instead of measuring the soil resistivity for
where: ρ
every underground system that is to be installed.
= Soil resistivity, in ohm-m
R = Resistance, in ohms Four-Point Meter
A = Cross-sectional area, in meters2 Measuring soil resistivity requires use of a four-
L = Length, in meters point earth resistance tester. This tester is similar
to the three-point tester and can be used to mea-
sure the resistance-to-ground of a ground elec-
Soil resistivity directly affects trode. However, the three-
the resistance-to-ground of a point tester will not measure
grounding electrode. Knowing Use a four-point soil resistivity. The four-point
the soil resistivity for a particu- tester is more sensitive than the
lar site allows the engineer to
earth resistance three-point tester, measuring
design adequate grounding for tester to measure values as low as 0.01 ohms. As
the underground cable system. evident from the name, the
soil resistivity.
The cooperative may have four-point tester has four ter-
soil resistivity data from tests minals instead of three (see
Figure 5.29).
Measuring soil resistivity requires that four test
probes be driven in the ground. The test probes
C1 P1 P2 C2 must be equally spaced and in a straight line as
shown in Figure 5.29. It is important that all test
probes are driven to the same depth. A depth of
six to 18 inches is acceptable. Equally important,
the test probes must have good soil contact.
Loose test probes can lead to erroneous readings
C1 P1 P2 C2 because of high probe resistance.
b The tester continues the test setup by placing
test leads from the four terminals to the four test
Small-Sized probes. The two current terminals (C1 and C2)
Electrodes
connect to the two outer test probes. The two
a a a potential terminals (P1 and P2) connect to the
two inner test probes. Figure 5.29 also illustrates
these connections. The tester injects a current
FIGURE 5.29: Setup for Soil Resistivity Test.
into the two outer probes and measures the
5
corresponding potential drop between test probes This apparent resistivity is the average resistivity
P1 and P2. Using these two values, the tester defor a block of soil with a depth equal to the
termines the resistance. This resistance value is spacing between the test probes. For example, if
what the operator reads when making soil resis- the test probe spacing is five feet, then the resis-
tivity measurements. (For more information on tance reading is the average resistivity to a depth
this test method, refer to IEEE Standard 81-1983.) of five feet. To get a complete soil profile, the
Most four-point testers give indication of high operator needs to take measurements at various
probe resistance. If an operator gets this indica- probe spacings.
tion, he should first check to see if test probes
are secure in the ground. If test probes are Elements Affecting Soil Resistivity
loose, the operator needs to drive rods deeper Several elements affect soil electrical resistivity,
or relocate one or more rods. If the tester still including the following:
shows high probe resistance, then the operator
needs to pour water around each test probe to • Soil type,
help reduce the test probe resistance so mea- • Moisture and chemical content,
surements can be made. Test accuracy will not • Temperature, and
be affected if the probe spacing significantly ex- • Seasonal variations.
ceeds the diameter of the wetted area.
The resistance value shown on the four-point Different soil types have different resistivity
tester is a function of the apparent soil resistivity. values, as shown in Table 5.5.
TABLE 5.5: Soil Resistivities for Different Soil Types and Geological Formations. Adapted from
IEEE Standard 81-1983.
Cretaceous Cambrian Precambrian
Earth Resistivity Tertiary Carboniferous Ordovician and Combination
(ohm-m) Quaternary Quaternary Triassic Devonian w/Cambrian
1 Sea Water
Loam
10 Unusually Low Clay
Chalk Chalk
30 Very Low Trap
Diabase
100 Low Shale
Limestone Shale
300 Medium Sandstone Limestone
Sandstone Sandstone
1,000 High Dolomite Quartzite
Coarse Slate
3,000 Very High Sand and Granite
Gravel in Gneiss
10,000 Unusually High Surface
Layers
1 9 8 – Se c t io n 5
5
Typically, the earth surface Moisture and chemical con-
is composed of layers of An increase in tent dramatically affect soil
different soil types. These soil resistivity. The moisture dis-
types have varying resistivities; moisture and salt solves the naturally occurring
therefore, soil resistivity mea- content decreases salts in the soil. The resulting
surements often show different electrolyte improves the con-
soil resistivity.
values at different depths. duction of current through the
soil and, thus, reduces the soil
resistivity. As the moisture
content increases, the soil resistivity decreases.
10,000
This decrease is rapid until the moisture content
5,000 reaches 20 percent to 30 percent (see Figure
5.30). The amount of dissolved salt that is pre-
sent in the soil also affects the resistivity. As the
1,000 salt content increases, the resistivity decreases.
Ω-m)
However, the decrease in resistivity is minimal

Soil Resistivity (Ω
500
after the salt content reaches five percent. The
graph of Figure 5.31 shows the effect of salt in
soil that contains 30 percent moisture.
100 A third element affecting soil resistivity is tem-
50 perature. Temperatures above freezing have little
effect on resistivity. However, as the temperature
drops below freezing, the soil resistivity increases
rapidly. To illustrate this effect, Table 5.6 shows
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Percentage Moisture
FIGURE 5.30: Effects of Moisture on Soil Resistivity. Adapted from

IEEE Standard 80-1986. Soil resistivity varies
as a result of
10,000 seasonal changes.
5,000
1,000
TABLE 5.6: Effect of Temperature on Soil
Ω-m)
Resistivity. Adapted from Biddle Instruments,

Soil Resistivity (Ω
500
1981.
Temperature Resistivity
100
°C °F (ohm-m)
50 20 68 72
10 50 99
0 32 (water) 138
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 32 (ice) 300
Percentage Salt
-5 23 790
FIGURE 5.31: Effects of Salt Content on Resistivity in Soil Containing
30 Percent Moisture. Adapted from IEEE Standard 80-1986. -15 14 3,300
5
how temperature affects the resistivity of sandy
Equation 5.8
loam that contains 15.2 percent moisture. At the
ρ=
freezing point, the resistivity more than doubles. 4πaR
Soil temperature and moisture content usually 2a a
vary throughout the year. As a result, soil resis- 1+ –
2
a + 4b 2 a + b2
2
tivity also varies throughout the year. These
where: ρ = Soil resistivity, in ohm-m
changes must be considered when the ground-
ing for an underground system is designed. The
ground resistance of a counterpoise increases if R = Resistance readings, in ohms
the soil around it freezes during the winter a = Spacing between test probes,
months. Table 5.6 shows that the soil resistivity in meters
increases from 138 to 300 ohm-m at the freezing b = Depth of test probe, in meters
point. This change produces a proportional
change in the ground resistance of the counter-
poise. A counterpoise with a ground resistance If the depth (b) of the probes is small (five
of 38 ohms in the summer could increase to 83 percent of the probe spacing), Equation 5.8
ohms when the ground freezes. The counter- reduces to
poise should thus be buried below the frost line.
ρ = 2πaR
Likewise, ground rods should be driven to a
depth that is below the frost line.
In some areas, the summer months are often
dry. As the soil around the grounding electrode The resistivity values can be plotted against the
dries out, its ground resistance increases. If the test probe spacings. This information is needed
loss of moisture increases the soil resistivity by to determine an appropriate soil model.
50 percent, then the ground resistance of the
electrode will also increase by 50 percent. Resis- SIMPLIFIED DESIGN OF GROUNDING SYSTEM
tance increase caused by loss of soil moisture is USING RESISTIVITY DATA
a major concern. A reduction of moisture con- Resistance-to-ground (ground resistance) calcula-
tent from 25 percent to 15 percent can cause tions can be used when a grounding system is
electrode resistance to triple. Extending ground designed. Using these calculations, the engineer
rods into an area with permanent moisture con- can compare the ground resistance of several
tent can minimize this problem. A rod that ex- ground electrode configurations:
tends into the water table has a more stable
ground resistance. • A single ground rod,
Because seasonal changes can affect soil re- • Groups of ground rods, and
sistivity, it is important to note the temperature • Counterpoise.
and the soil moisture content of the soil at the
time of a four-point soil resistivity test. This in- The ground resistance of an electrode is a
formation will help the engineer design a function of the soil resis-
grounding system that performs ef- tivity and the electrode
fectively throughout the year. geometry. Therefore, the
Use ground resistance calculations require
Equation for Deriving Resistivity knowledge of the soil re-
calculations to
from Resistance Reading sistivity. If the soil resistiv-
The measurements made with a compare grounding ity is unknown, the
four-point tester are resistance val- systems. engineer can get this in-
ues. These resistance values must formation from a soil re-
be converted to soil resistivity mea- sistivity test as described
surements using Equation 5.8. earlier in this section.
2 0 0 – Se c t io n 5
5
ρ 4L ρ 4L 2K L 2
R= In –1 R= In –1 + 1 n – 1
2πL a 2πnL a A
where: R = Ground resistance, in ohms where: R =Ground resistance, in ohms

ρ = Soil resistivity, in ohm-m ρ =Soil resistivity, in ohm-m
L = Ground rod length, in meters L =Ground rod length, in meters
a = Ground rod radius, in meters a =Ground rod radius, in meters
A =Area occupied by ground rods,
in meters2
Equation 5.10 K1 = Constant obtained from Figure 5.32
ρ 4L ρ L2 2 L4 n = Number of rods in the group
R= In –1 + 1– 2 +
4πL a 4πs 3s 5 s4
where: R = Ground resistance, in ohms Equation 5.13

ρ = Soil resistivity, in ohm-m ρ 2L L 2d d2 d4
L = Ground rod length, in meters R= In + In –2 + – 2 + 4
2πL a d L L 2L
a = Ground rod radius, in meters
s = Distance between ground rods, where: R = Ground resistance, in ohms
in meters ρ = Soil resistivity, in ohm-m
L = Length of counterpoise, in meters
Equation 5.11 a = Radius of counterpoise, in meters
ρ
d = Depth of counterpoise burial,
4L 4L s s2 s4 in meters
R= In + In –2 + – +
4πL a s 2L 16L 512L4
2
where: R = Ground resistance, in ohms Equation 5.14

ρ
ρ
2L
πL
L = Ground rod length, in meters R= In –1
ad
a = Ground rod radius, in meters
s = Distance between ground rods, where: R = Ground resistance, in ohms
ρ
in meters
L = Length of counterpoise, in meters
a = Radius of counterpoise, in meters
d = Depth of counterpoise burial,
The most simple grounding electrode is a sin-
in meters
gle ground rod. Equation 5.9 (Dwight, 1936)
provides the ground resistance of a single rod.
The ground resistance of two ground rods in The equation becomes more complicated for
parallel separated by a distance, s, is given in groups of ground rods that are connected. In ad-
Equations 5.10 and 5.11 (Dwight, 1936). If the dition to individual rod geometry, the area (A)
spacing between the rods is greater than the rod occupied by the group of rods and a coefficient
length (s > L), use Equation 5.10. If the spacing (K1) affect the equation. The coefficient K1 is re-
is less than the length (s < L), use Equation 5.11. lated to the geometry of the rod group and can
5
1.40
1.35
1.30
1.25
A
1.20 Curve A: For Depth h = 0
K1 = –0.04x + 1.41
Coefficient K1
1.15 Area
Curve B: For Depth h =
10
K1 = –0.05x + 1.20
1.10
B Area
Curve C: For Depth h =
6
1.05 K1 = –0.05x + 1.13
C
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Length-to-Width Ratio, X
FIGURE 5.32: Coefficient K1 for Ground Resistance Calculations. Adapted from IEEE Standard
80-1986.
EXAMPLE 5.4: A Single 8-Foot × 3/4-Inch Ground Rod Driven in Soil be obtained from the graph of Figure 5.32 or
with a Resistivity of 250 Ohm-M. from the associated equation. Equation 5.12
provides the ground resistance of a group of
ground rods (Schwarz, 1954).
To calculate the ground resistance, use Equation 5.9:
Equation 5.13 provides the ground resistance
of a counterpoise (Dwight, 1936).
ρ 4L In underground system applications, the
R= In –1 length of the counterpoise is often much greater
2πL a
than the depth of burial. For these cases, a sim-
where: ρ = 250 Ω-m pler equation, Equation 5.14, provides a suitable
approximation of the ground resistance value.
L = 8 ft (0.3048 m/ft) = 2.44 m
Examples 5.4, 5.5, and 5.6 illustrate how the
a = .5 (.75 in.)(0.0254 m/in.) = 0.0095 m ground resistance of a grounding system
changes for different configurations.
Increasing the number of ground rods is one
By substituting the values,
way to decrease the ground resistance. However,
the spacing between the ground rods affects
250 Ω-m 4 × 2.44m how much the ground resistance decreases. As
R= In –1 = 96.8Ω
2π(2.44m) 0.0095m the separation increases, the ground resistance
decreases.
2 0 2 – Se c t io n 5
5
EXAMPLE 5.5: Two 8-Foot × 3/4-Inch Ground Rods Placed 5 Feet Apart.
Because the spacing is less than the ground rod length (s < L), use Equation 5.11:
ρ 4L 4L s s2 s4
R= In + In –2 + – +
4πL a s 2L 16L2 512L4
where:
ρ = 250 Ω-m a = 0.375 in.(0.0254 m/in.) = 0.0095 m
L = 8 ft = 2.44 m s = 5 ft (0.3048 m/ft) = 1.52 m
250 Ω-m 4 × 2.44m 4 × 2.44m 1.52m (1.52m)2 (1.52m)4

R= In + In –2 + – + = 57.7Ω
4π(2.44m) 0.0095m 1.52m 2 × 2.44m 16(2.44m)2 512(2.44m)4
The addition of a second rod reduced the ground resistance from 96.8 to 57.7 ohms, approximately 40 percent. If
the two rods are spaced further apart, the ground resistance becomes even lower.
EXAMPLE 5.6: Two Rods Spaced 16 Feet Apart.
For a spacing of 16 feet, use Equation 5.10:
ρ 4L P L2 2 L4
R= In –1 + 1– 2 +
4πL a 4πs 3s 5 s4
where:
ρ = 250 Ω-m a = 0.375 in.(0.0254 m/in.) = 0.0095 m
L = 8 ft = 2.44 m s = 16 ft (0.3048 m/ft) = 4.88 m
250 Ω-m 4 × 2.44m 250 Ω-m (2.44m)2 2 (2.44m)4

R= In –1+ 1– 2
+ = 52.2Ω
4π(2.44m) 0.0095m 4π(4.88m) 3(4.88m) 5 (4.88m)4
The increased spacings reduced the ground resistance from 57.7 to 52.2 ohms.
The distance between the rods can be 1

increased until there is no mutual resistance R = R1
2
effect. The ground resistance of the two rods where: R1 = 96.8 Ω
is equal to the parallel combination of two
individual rods. Because two identical rods By substituting the values,
have the same ground resistance, the parallel
R = (96.8 Ω) = 48.4 Ω
resistance is one-half the single rod ground 1
resistance. 2
For the two eight-foot by 3/4-inch ground
rods, the limiting ground resistance value is This is not a significant improvement from the
52.2 ohms at a 16-foot spacing.
5
EXAMPLE 5.7: Group of Four Rods.
Using a grouping of four ground rods gives a more dramatic improvement. For this
example, use the layout of Figure 5.33.
Using Equation 5.12,
ρ
(4.9 Meters)
16 Feet
4L 2K L 2
R= In –1 + 1 n – 1
2πnL a A
where:
ρ = 250 Ω-m n = 4
16 Feet
L = 2.44 m K1 = 1.375 (obtained from Figure 5.32)
(4.9 Meters) a = 0.0095 m A = (4.88 m)2
FIGURE 5.33: Grouping of Four Ground Rods By substituting the values,

with 16-Foot Spacing.
250 Ω-m 4 × 2.44m 2(1.375)(2.44m) 2
R= In –1 + 4 – 1 = 29.8Ω
2π(4)(2.44m) 0.0095m (4.88m)2
Increasing
Increasing the
the
(1.5 Meters)
number of ground
5 Feet
number of ground
rods decreases
rods decreases the
the
ground
ground resistance.
resistance.
The area occupied by the rods also affects the ground resistance. A smaller area
5 Feet
results in a higher ground resistance. For example, consider the arrangement of
(1.5 Meters) Figure 5.34. Here,
250 Ω-m 4 × 2.44m 2(1.375)(2.44m) 2

FIGURE 5.34: Grouping of Four Ground Rods R= In –1 + 4 – 1 = 42.2Ω
with 5-Foot Spacing. 2π(4)(2.44m) 0.0095m (1.52m)2
Another way to reduce The soil resistivity test may

ground resistance is to Increasing the rod show that the soil has two lay-
increase the rod length. ers with different resistivity
(See Example 5.8.) length decreases the values. If a driven rod is in
Soil resistivity influences ground resistance. contact with the two layers, then
ground resistance. Ground its ground resistance will differ
resistance is directly propor- from the ground resistance in
tional to soil resistivity; for ex- homogeneous soil. If the lower
ample, a 20 percent decrease in soil resistivity layer has a lower resistivity than the upper layer
decreases the ground resistance by 20 percent. does, then driving a rod into the lower layer re-
(See Example 5.9.) duces the ground resistance of the rod.
2 0 4 – Se c t io n 5
5
EXAMPLE 5.8: Increase in Rod Length. EXAMPLE 5.9: Change in Soil Resistivity.
Use Equation 5.9 to calculate the ground resistance of a 16-foot ground rod: If the soil resistivity is 100 instead of 250 ohm-m, the
resistance of a single eight-foot rod changes from 96.8
ρ 4L (Example 5.4) to 38.7 ohms. This resistance can be
R= In –1
with ρ = 100 ohm-m:
2πL a calculated in two ways. The first uses Equation 5.9
where: ρ = 250 Ω-m

100Ω-m 4 × 2.44m
L = 16 ft (0.3048 m/ft) = 4.88 m R= In –1 = 38.7Ω
2π(2.44m) 0.0095m
a = 0.0095 m
proportionality to ρ:
By substituting the values, The second method calculates R based on its direct
R100 100 Ω-m

250Ω-m 4 × 4.88m
R= In –1 = 54.0Ω
R250 250 Ω-m
2π(4.88m) 0.0095m =
Doubling the rod length decreased the ground resistance from 96.8 (Example 5.4)
to 54.0 ohms, a 44 percent reduction. If the ground rod length is 24 feet (7.32 m), where:
R250 = 96.8 Ω
then the following results:
R100 = 96.8 Ω = 38.7 Ω

100
250Ω-m 4 × 7.32m
R= In –1 = 38.2Ω 250
2π(7.32m) 0.0095m
Table 5.7 shows the ground resistance of a single
This is a reduction of 61 percent. However, this calculation has used the assumption eight-foot by 3/4-inch ground rod driven in varying soil
that the average soil resistivity is constant for eight-foot, 16-foot, and 24-foot rods. resistivities.
This is generally not the case. Soil resistivity often decreases substantially between
the surface and a depth of 24 feet. TABLE 5.7: Ground Resistance in Varying
Soil Resistivities.
Equation 5.15 Ground Resistance R Soil Resistivity
L(ρ1ρ2)
(ohm) (ohm-m)
ρa =
ρ2H + ρ1(L – H)
10 26
15 39
where: ρa = Apparent resistivity, in ohm-m 25 65

ρ1 = Soil resistivity of top layer, in ohm-m
ρ2 = Soil resistivity of bottom layer, in
50 130
75 195
ohm-m
L = Ground rod length, in meters 100 260
H = Thickness of top soil layer, in meters 500 1,300
1,000 2,600
Calculating the effect of a two-layer soil
This table shows how difficult it is to achieve a low
ρa, as defined in Equation 5.15.
requires the use of an apparent soil resistivity,
ground resistance with a single eight-foot ground rod.
replaces the soil resistivity, ρ, in Equations 5.9

Equation 5.15 is valid only when the ground
Standard 80-1986). The apparent resistivity, ρa,

rod is in contact with both soil layers (IEEE
through 5.12.
5
EXAMPLE 5.10: The Effect of a Tw0-Layer Soil with a Top-Layer Resistivity of 250 Ohm-M and
a Bottom-Layer Soil Resistivity of 50 Ohm-M.
The top-layer thickness is 5 feet. Using Equation 5.15,
L(ρ1ρ2)
ρa =
ρ2H + ρ1(L – H)
where: ρ1 = 250 Ω-m

ρ2 = 50 Ω-m
L = 2.44 m
H = 5 ft (0.3048 m/ft) = 1.52 m
Substituting the values yields the following:
2.44m(250 Ω-m)(50 Ω-m)

ρa= =99.7 Ω-m
(50 Ω-m)(1.52m) + 250 Ω-m (2.44m – 1.52m)
The value ρa replaces ρ in Equation 5.9:
ρa 4L
R= In –1
2πL a
where: ρa = 99.7 Ω-m

L = 2.44 m
a = 0.0095 m
99.7Ω-m 4 × 2.44m
R= In –1 = 38.6Ω
2π(2.44m) 0.0095m
Rod contact with the more conductive lower layer reduced the ground resistance of a single eight-foot rod from 96.8
16-foot (4.88 m) rod changes ρa to

(Example 5.4) to 38.6 ohms. The lower layer is even more effective if a longer ground rod is driven. For example, a
4.88m(250 Ω-m)(50 Ω-m)

ρa = =66.6 Ω-m
(50 Ω-m)(1.52m) + 250 Ω-m (4.88m – 1.52m)
Equation 5.9 yields the following:
66.6Ω-m 4 × 4.88m
R= In –1 = 14.4Ω
2π(4.88m) 0.0095m
The presence of a more conductive lower layer reduced the ground resistance of a 16-foot rod to 14.4 from 54.0
ohms, as calculated in Example 5.8.
2 0 6 – Se c t io n 5
5
EXAMPLE 5.11: Counterpoise of #2 AWG Conductor Buried 30 Inches Examples 5.11, 5.12, and 5.13 calculate the
Deep for a Distance of 100 Feet. ground resistance of different counterpoise
A more conductive soil (a lower ρ) also

configurations.
The burial depth is much smaller than the counterpoise length (d < L). Therefore,
use Equation 5.14: reduces the ground resistance, as seen in
Example 5.12.
ρ 2L The depth of burial (see Example 5.13) is
πL
R= In –1 another element that affects ground resistance.
ad
where: ρ = 250 Ω-m

L = 100 ft (0.3048 m/ft) = 30.48 m A more conductive
d = 30 in. (0.0254 m/in.) = 0.76 m soil reduces the
a = 1/2 (0.292 in.)(0.0254 m/in.) = 0.0037 m ground resistance.
Substituting the values yields the following
250Ω-m 2 × 30.48m EXAMPLE 5.12: More Conductive Soil.

π(30.48m)
R= In –1 = 15.8Ω
(0.0037m)(0.76m)
If the soil resistivity is 100 ohm-m instead of 250
As the length of the counterpoise increases, the ground resistance decreases. For ohm-m, a 100-foot counterpoise will have a ground
example, if the counterpoise length is increased to 200 feet (60.96 m), then resistance of:
250Ω-m 2 × 60.96m 100Ω-m 2 × 30.48m

π(30.48m)
R= In –1 = 6.3Ω
π(60.96m)
R= In –1 = 8.8Ω (0.0037m)(0.76m)
(0.0037m)(0.76m)
Doubling the counterpoise length reduced the ground resistance by 44 percent. This is a 60 percent reduction from 15.8 ohms (Ex-
ample 5.11). Because soil resistivity and ground re-
reduction in ρ produces a 60 percent reduction in R.

sistance are directly proportional, a 60 percent
EXAMPLE 5.13: Counterpoise Burial Depth.
If the burial depth is increased to 60 inches (1.52 m) and the counterpoise length remains at 100 feet (30.48 m),
then, using Equation 5.13,
ρ 2L L 2d d2 d4
R= In + In –2 + – 2 + 4
2πL a d L L 2L
where:
ρ = 250 Ω-m a = 0.0037 m
L = 30.48 m d = 1.52 m
250Ω-m 2 × 30.48m 30.48m 2 × 1.52m (1.52m)2 (1.52m)4

R= In + In –2 + – + = 14.1Ω
2π(30.48m) 0.0037m 1.52 30.48m (30.48m)2 2 × (30.48m)4
Doubling the burial depth decreases the ground resistance by only 1.7 ohms, or about 11 percent.
5
Underground Protecting underground distribution from light- installations are protected only at the riser pole,
System Surge ning surges originating on overhead lines is cru- the traveling wave phenomenon points out the
cial. Analyzing the effect of transient voltages problem inherent in protecting underground
Protection
and currents is one of the most complex subjects equipment by locating arresters as close as pos-
in distribution engineering. Accurate solutions to sible to the protected equipment.
overvoltage problems often require higher math- Protection of underground systems served
ematics and sophisticated computer simulations. from overhead lines is complex. The critical case
The methods presented in this manual are ap- generally involves lightning striking the line
proximations and should be viewed as such. within one span of the riser pole. For high-cur-
Most of the recommendations and protective rent-magnitude, fast-front surges, the pole top
measures reviewed are based on complicated will flash over, diverting the surge current to the
analyses. In most instances, only the results are pole ground conductor, bypassing the arrester
given. For more information on why certain rec- entirely. In theory, a riser pole arrester need op-
ommendations were made, consult the refer- erate only for low-magnitude, slow-wavefront
ences listed at the end of this manual. lightning currents left on the overhead line after
an insulator flashover (Parrish, 1982). But voltage
OVERVIEW doubling plus reflections on the cable requires a
In general, the equipment that must be pro- riser pole arrester with the best available charac-
tected from lightning surges on an underground teristics. Normally, a single arrester at the riser
system is the same as on an overhead system: can keep voltages below the BIL withstand of
12.47-kV cable and equipment. Dead-front ar-
• Transformers, resters now available will reduce reflected surge
• Switchgear, and voltages by up to 50 percent. They should be
• Cable insulation. used at 12.47 kV to reduce insulation voltage
stress. However, 25-kV systems require open-
Installed cable is the most significant cost of point arresters, because equipment BIL does not
an underground system. Unfortunately, under- double as the system voltage doubles, resulting
ground cable insulation is not self-restoring like in reduced protective margins. Historical outage
overhead insulation because it is not surrounded data at 25 kV has shown additional dead-front
by air. An underground cable fault is much more arresters are justified at cable taps and additional
expensive to locate and repair than a fault on an transformer locations. (See Table 5.14 for recom-
overhead line, which, most of the time, will be mended arrester ratings and locations.) Most co-
cleared by a recloser operation. Limiting the operatives install open-point arresters on both
number and severity of surge voltages will pro- 12.47/7.2 kV and 24.94/14.4 kV.
long cable life. Therefore, it is important to pro- Several sources of transient overvoltages of
vide the proper surge protection. system origin must be considered when surge
Underground feeders consist of radial taps arresters are applied. Overvoltages caused by
from overhead distribution circuits. Normal prac- neutral displacement during line-to-ground faults
tice is for a cable run to have pad-mounted and voltage regulation are addressed later in this
transformers connected along its route. A typical section. Overvoltages caused by ferroresonance
installation could be a short run of a few hun- and possible solutions are presented in Section 6
dred feet or a long rural feeder terminated in an of this manual. Capacitor switching and current-
open point, usually at a transformer. A lightning limiting fuse operation are two other possible
surge traveling down the cable from the over- surge sources. These sources do not cause se-
head line will double in magnitude at the open vere extra duty for arresters applied for under-
point as it reflects back on itself. As the reflected ground lightning protection because of their
surge propagates back toward the riser pole, the infrequent occurrence. Shunt capacitors are not
doubling effect is transferred throughout the needed on most cooperatives’ underground
length of the cable. Because some underground feeders. Current-limiting fuses usually do not
2 0 8 – Se c t io n 5
5
cause harmful voltage levels because of circuit SURGE ARRESTER SELECTION
impedances and the nonlinear magnetizing im- Surge Arrester Types
pedance of pad-mounted transformers. In addi- The first device connected between line and
tion, both of these sources can be minimized by ground to protect power circuits from lightning-
proper equipment selection. induced overvoltages was the simple air gap. To
Any discussion of lightning protection re- prevent breaker operation every time the gap
quires some knowledge of lightning phenomena flashed over, the device had to be able to inter-
and its electrical characteristics. Volumes of liter- rupt an arc at a current zero. This need led to
ature have been written on the subject since the development of the first expulsion arrester.
electricity was harnessed for domestic use. A Continued research to develop a better arrester
thorough review of the subject is beyond the that would protect large power transformers led
scope of this manual. However, an NRECA pub- to the gapped silicon carbide (SiC) valve arrester.
lication entitled Lightning Protection Manual for Silicon carbide provided so many advantages
Rural Electric Systems, NRECA Research Project over previous designs that some pundits said no
92-12, by D.E. Parrish, offers an excellent start- further improvements in the device were needed.
ing point and an extensive bibliography for fur- Researchers who continued testing SiC ar-
ther reading. resters found that, when hit with steep-front
waves, gapped designs exhibited an undesirable
characteristic. For waves with very fast rise times,
a gap requires a considerably higher voltage to
Line Connector
break down, which adds a sharp spike to the
External Gap Porcelain Insulator
protective characteristic. Solving this problem re-
Gasket seal
quired elimination of the gap, which was possi-
ble with the discovery of metal oxide as a valve
Compression Spring
material. The result was the introduction of the
Porcelain Housing
gapless metal oxide varistor (MOV) surge ar-
Valve Element
rester in the late 1970s. It was one of the most
Gap Assembly
significant advances in the history of overvoltage
protection, as proven by the wide acceptance of
Gasket & Seal metal oxide technology by electric utilities since
the mid-1980s. Manufacturers generally no longer
Ground Connector
Externally Gapped make SiC arresters.
Silicon Carbide Valve Arrester Metal oxide and SiC distribution arresters have
some similarities in construction (see Figure 5.35).
The only real difference besides valve element
composition is the gap assembly in the SiC unit.
Line Connector Figure 5.35 also shows an externally gapped SiC
Gasket Seal arrester. The external gap will increase the rated
Gap Assembly sparkover voltage of an arrester, but helps to re-
Valve Elements duce outages caused by arrester failures. While
Porcelain Housing
this was an important factor with silicon carbide
arresters, the overvoltage protection benefits of not
Compression Spring
using external gaps for riser pole applications far
Ground Lead Disconnector
outweighs any perceived outage rate reduction.
Ground Connector MOV designs are more efficient and offer bet-
Gapless
MOV Arrester ter protective margins at the same voltage rat-
Internally Gapped
Silicon Carbide Valve Arrester ings. For these reasons, only MOV arresters will
be considered in later discussions of under-
ground system surge protection.
FIGURE 5.35: Types of Arresters and Their Construction.
5
TABLE 5.8: Comparison of Protective Characteristics of Heavy-Duty Riser pole arresters represent a small percentage
Distribution Class Silicon Carbide, MOV, and Riser Pole MOV Arresters.* of the total arrester population on a system and
should not contribute significantly to extended
Maximum Discharge Voltage for 8 x 20 µs outage times. Because most underground risers
Arrester Rating Discharge Current Wave (kV Peak) are fused ahead of the lightning arrester, failure
kV rms HD SiC (20 kA) HD MOV (20 kA) RP MOV (20 kA) of the ground lead disconnector to operate
properly will affect only the underground feeder.
9 40 34 27
The overhead circuit will not suffer an outage in
10 45 37 29 a properly coordinated system. The benefits of
18 81 68 53 not using an external gap far outweigh any per-
ceived reduction in quality of service that might
21 94 79 62 occur.
*Characteristics shown are for Cooper Power Systems arrester types EL, AZL, and AZR400.
Note. HD = Heavy Duty RP = Riser Pole Gapless MOV Arrester
In an MOV arrester, the valve elements are made
Table 5.8 lists the maximum discharge voltage from zinc oxide (ZnO). The valve elements or
for three MOV heavy-duty distribution class disks are about 90 percent ZnO and are com-
arresters for a 20-kA, 8 × 20 µs bined with a variety of other
discharge current wave. The materials to determine the
first two arresters are standard MOV arresters have electrical characteristics of the
heavy-duty distribution class varistor. The ingredients are
SiC and MOV arresters. The better protective first mixed and then pressed
third is a special MOV arrester characteristics than into disks at extremely high
with better characteristics de- pressure. They are then fired
do SiC arresters.
veloped especially for riser in a kiln into a ceramic resistor
pole applications. with a very nonlinear volt-am-
Because increased protective pere characteristic.
margins can extend cable life and reduce equip- The MOV valve elements are very nonlinear.
ment failures, external gaps should not be used The 60-Hz leakage current is in the low milli-am-
on MOV arresters for cable circuit protection. pere range at normal line-to-ground voltage, which
eliminates the need for a series gap to insulate the
Discharge Voltage arrester from ground. The sharp knee of the volt-
ampere curve means that the disks go into con-
duction at a precise voltage level and stop con-
ducting when the voltage drops below that level.
25ºC MOV A series gap is, therefore, not needed to inter-
Silicon
Carbide rupt power follow current after a current surge
Normal Line-to- passes through the arrester. The MOV arrester
Voltage
Neutral Voltage
75ºC eases out of conduction after the surge voltage
125ºC Power
Follow Surge passes, without allowing hundreds of amperes
Current Current
of power follow current to flow, as does an SiC
arrester. The MOV also eases into conduction
without producing a sharp voltage spike at the
start of a lightning surge. This valve element
Leakage Current property represents a significant advantage over
SiC technology in equipment overvoltage protec-
< 0.1 Amp 100–500 Amps 1–100 kA
Current tion. The nonlinear characteristics of SiC and
MOV valve elements are compared in Figure
FIGURE 5.36: Comparison of Nonlinear Characteristics of SiC and MOV 5.36, which shows the extreme nonlinearity of
Valve Elements. Source: Kershaw, Gaibrois, and Stump, 1989.
the MOV (Kershaw, Gaibrois, and Stump, 1989).
2 1 0 – Se c t io n 5
5
A second MOV arrester quality that makes it
better suited for cable protection is its protective
1.8 characteristic when subjected to current surges
with fast rise times. A standard 8 × 20 µs current
1.6 wave is used to represent lightning in arrester
Silicon Carbide
Arrester testing. It is considered by many experts much
1.4
too slow to accurately model a lightning surge.
1.2
Fast wavefronts of one to three microseconds are
not uncommon for lightning strokes. The response
Voltage (Per Unit)
1.0 of an arrester to steep-front waves should be

Metal Oxide Varistor
Arrester considered in the arrester selection process for
0.8 cable protection.
Figure 5.37 illustrates the effects of fast rise time
0.6
surges for both MOV and SiC arresters as a mul-
0.4 tiplier of the arrester discharge voltage (Niebuhr,
1982). Inspection of the curves shows that the
0.2 increase in arrester discharge voltage under
steep-front waves is more severe for SiC than for
0 MOV arresters. Moreover, the sparkover charac-
0.1 1.0 10 100
Time (Microseconds)
teristics of a gapped silicon carbide arrester will
increase for steep-front surges. Insulation protec-
tion will be reduced accordingly. A gapless
FIGURE 5.37: Effect of Fast Rise Times on IR Discharge. MOV arrester will not exhibit this behavior.
Internally Gapped MOV Arresters

As discussed in the previous subsection, tempo-
rary overvoltages (TOV) are a primary concern
when gapless MOV arresters are applied be-
cause they cannot tolerate voltages above the
MOV valve-on voltage for long periods. Two
Shunt-Gap
Module manufacturers have taken different approaches
to solve this problem. One uses a series resis-
Insulated Terminal Cap tance-graded gap structure and a reduced stack
of MOV valve elements. The design provides in-
creased TOV capability and improved protective
characteristics over gapless designs. The other
MOV Discs
uses an increased number of disks for more
Gap(s)
overvoltage capability. More valve elements re-
Series-Gap duce the leakage current during expected tem-
Spacer
porary overvoltage conditions, thus preventing
thermal runaway. Spark gaps are then used to
Steel Coil Spring
Coil Spring short the extra disks during a surge event and
Desiccant give increased protective levels. Comparing the
Isolator two gapped MOV arrester designs with a heavy-
Isolator
duty gapless design shows that a 20 percent re-
Series-Gap Design Shunt-Gap Design
duction in discharge voltage can be obtained.
Figure 5.38 shows a cutaway view of the two
gapped arresters for riser pole applications and
FIGURE 5.38: Series- and Shunt-Gapped MOV Distribution Arresters. the location of the gaps and disks.
5
According to the manufac- Arrester engineers have
turers, the two different Consider gapped known about these problem
gapped arresters provide the areas for years from experi-
following improvements over MOV arresters ence with SiC arresters and
a gapless design: where temporary early gapped MOV station
class arresters. The presence
• Lower discharge voltage
overvoltages occur. of gaps should not prevent co-
characteristics, operatives from considering
• Higher temporary overvolt- their use to take advantage of
age capability, and increased protective margins and better tempo-
• Increased thermal capacity. rary overvoltage capability offered by these de-
signs for specific applications.
Although these designs have been in the field
for some time, application engineers still have a Dead-Front Lightning Arresters
few concerns about adding gaps to MOV arresters: Dead-front arresters were developed to solve the
major problem inherent in the protection of UD
• Gap sparkover variability resulting circuits: locating arresters as closely as possible
from erosion, to the protected equipment. Various arrester de-
• Contamination affecting sparkover level, signs and accessories provide convenient, eco-
• Changes in arrester characteristics with nomical, and reliable means to connect them to
time, and UD systems. Previously, gapped SiC arresters
• Stability of internal seals and gaskets in the were used in live-front applications in pad-
presence of ozone caused by gap operation mounted transformer enclosures with limited
inside the housing. success. In addition to safety considerations
required for live-front operation and the added
expense of larger cabinets, the gapped arrester
relies on a spark-gap operation to protect the
5 6 equipment. Gap operation is sensitive to ground
7
4 planes in enclosures; unless this effect is ad-
dressed in the overall design of the protection
scheme, the arrester sparkover level will be
affected. The advent of gapless MOV arresters
3 eliminated the concern with gap operation and
2 made the development of dead-front arresters
feasible for underground equipment protection.
1
MOV arresters for underground use are called
dead-front arresters because a semi-conducting
grounded shield is molded around the insulation
8 and valve elements. Dead-front arresters have
9
been in service for a number of years and their
10
configurations have been standardized for inter-
Features: changeability. Typical installations are in pad-
1. Metal oxide valve elements 6. Locking ring mounted transformer enclosures, entry cabinets,
2. Semiconducting moulded shield 7. Operating eye vaults, and switching enclosures.
3. Rubber insulation 8. Grounding eye
4. Probe 9. Stainless steel end cap
A cutaway view of a dead-front design mated
5. Insert interface 10. Ground lead to a load-break elbow connector is shown in
Figure 5.39.
FIGURE 5.39: Dead-Front Arrester Elbow Configuration. The electric utility industry uses three basic
dead-front arrester configurations:
2 1 2 – Se c t io n 5
5
1. Elbow Arrester. This is an and reducing clutter within the
MOV arrester used with a Dead-front arresters transformer.
load-break elbow connec-
tor. It is used mainly to are applied close to Dead-front MOV arresters
connect directly to a trans- protected equipment. with elbow connectors, bushing
former bushing. In other arresters, and parking stand
applications, it is used with arresters are available from
a feed-through device or a manufacturers in all three volt-
feed-through insert. age classes: 15, 25, and 35 kV. Figure 5.40 shows
2. Parking Stand Arrester. This is an arrester the three types of dead-front arrester designs.
combined with an insulated parking bushing IEEE/ANSI C62.11, the IEEE Standard for
for mounting on a transformer or switching Metal Oxide Surge Arresters for AC Power Cir-
enclosure parking stand. Typical use is at cuits, now covers the operating characteristics of
the open-point transformer of a loop-feed dead-front arresters. Dead-front arresters are
distribution circuit to park the disconnected classified as light-duty arresters capable of pass-
elbow connector. This arrangement helps re- ing the following tests:
duce transformer faceplate overcrowding.
3. Bushing Arrester. The bushing arrester con- • 40-kA high-current withstand test;
figuration combines an MOV arrester with a • 75-ampere, 2,000-µs low-current,
load-break bushing insert for mounting direct- long-duration test; and
ly to the pad-mounted transformer bushing • 5-kA duty cycle test.
well. It is used at the end of a radial circuit
or at the open point of a loop. Surge protec- The continuous ambient temperature require-
tion is provided while increasing operability ments are -40°C to 65°C, whereas the temporary
maximum arrester temperature is 85°C. For com-
parison, ambient temperatures set by the stan-
dard for overhead arresters are -40°C to 40°C
continuous and 65°C maximum. Thus, under
normal service conditions, underground arresters
may operate at temperatures 25°C higher than
overhead arresters. The higher operating temper-
ature requirement is intended to address MOV
arrester stability at high application temperatures
inside pad-mounted transformer enclosures.
Because metal oxide dead-front arresters are
Dead-Front Elbow Arrester considered light-duty devices, they do not have
the same protective characteristics as heavy-duty
and specially designed arresters for riser pole
protection. Expected current magnitudes on un-
derground circuits are not as severe as those on
overhead circuits because the riser pole arrester
operation reduces the surge magnitude on the
protected underground cables. Therefore, match-
ing characteristics are not required, and under-
ground arresters are designed with discharge
voltages approximately 20 to 40 percent higher
than arresters used for riser pole applications at
Bushing Arrester Parking Stand Arrester
the same surge current magnitudes. Their dis-
FIGURE 5.40: Dead-Front Surge Arresters. charge voltages are listed only for current surges
5
TABLE 5.9: Typical Electrical Ratings and Characteristics of Dead-Front Surge Arresters.
Duty Cycle Equivalent

Voltage Rating MCOV Front-of-Wave Discharge Voltage (kV) **
(kV) (kV) (kV)* 1.5 kA 3 kA 5 kA 10 kA 20 kA
3 2.55 13.4 10.6 11.5 12.1 13.2 15.1
6 5.10 26.5 21.2 23.0 24.6 27.0 32.5
10 8.40 39.8 31.7 34.5 36.3 41.0 47.3
12 10.20 46.1 36.5 39.7 42.3 46.9 55.3
15 12.70 58.0 46.2 50.3 53.5 59.5 70.6
18 15.30 69.8 56.0 61.0 65.2 72.6 86.5
21 17.00 83.0 67.0 74.0 77.0 88.5 105.1
24 19.50 96.5 78.0 85.0 90.0 103.4 123.3
27 22.00 99.4 78.5 87.0 93.5 104.5 130.3
* Equivalent front-of-wave voltage is the expected discharge voltage of the arrester when tested with a 5-kA current
surge peaking in 0.5 µs.
** Maximum discharge voltage for an 8/20 µs surge current.
up to 20 kA versus 100 kA for surge current carried by the

some heavy-duty designs. Coordinate riser pole riser pole arrester (Osterhout,
Table 5.9 lists typical ratings 1989). This condition can nor-
and characteristics for dead- and dead-front mally be achieved by keeping
front arresters. The voltage rat- arresters for proper the riser pole ground leads as
ings and maximum continuous short as possible and using ar-
operating voltage (MCOV) are
current sharing. resters with the same voltage
standard values, whereas the rating. If the riser pole leads
protective characteristics rep- are substantially longer than
resent industry values compiled from various the normal three-foot elbow arrester lead, the
manufacturers. dead-front arrester can be overloaded, especially
When dead-front arresters and riser pole ar- for fast-front incoming surges.
resters are applied on UD feeders, they are con-
sidered to be in parallel when subjected to surge Arrester Performance Classes
currents. Proper coordination is required to en- There are four basic classifications of lightning
sure the larger riser pole arrester takes the bulk arresters:
of the surge current so the discharge capacity of
the lighter duty underground arrester is not ex- 1. Station,
ceeded. Current sharing between the two de- 2. Intermediate,
vices depends on the discharge voltage of each 3. Distribution, and
arrester when subjected to the same surge cur- 4. Secondary.
rent and the total impedance between them.
The total impedance is the cable surge imped- These classifications differ in voltage rating,
ance plus the ground leads of both arresters. For thermal capacity, protective characteristics, stan-
proper current sharing, the dead-front arrester dard tests, and whether pressure relief is required.
should see between 10 and 20 percent of the For the most part, the major difference between
2 1 4 – Se c t io n 5
5
discharge characteristic than a normal-duty distri-
TABLE 5.10: Comparison of Standard Requirements for Surge Arrester
bution class arrester. Various manufacturers have
Classifications.
developed what is called within the industry a
Arrester Class “riser pole” class of arrester. This class is not rec-
Characteristic Distribution Intermediate Station ognized by standards. To obtain better protective
or Feature (1-30 kV) (3-120 kV) (3-684 kV) characteristics, the manufacturers have essential-
ly taken intermediate class blocks and packaged
Approximate Protective 3.5 pu 3.0 pu 2.7 pu
Characteristics (at 10 kA)* them in different housings. In short, taking blocks
with better characteristics and placing them in
Current Discharge Requirements distribution class housings of porcelain or polymer
High Current, Short Duration 65 kA (ND) 65 kA 65 kA construction results in better protective characteris-
100 kA (HD) tics at a reduced cost. The distribution class
housing surrenders the pressure-relief capability
Duty Cycle 22-5 kA (ND) 5 kA 10 kA (>550 kV)
of intermediate class units, but their electrical
20-10 kA & 2-40 kA 50 kA (550 kV)
characteristics are kept. The units are also much
(HD) 20 kA (800 kV)
easier to mount on distribution crossarm struc-
Low Current, Long Duration 20-75 A (ND) Transmission Line Discharge tures. These arresters should be strongly consid-
20-250 A (HD) Test Required ered for any underground application because
Pressure Relief they provide better protective margins.
High Current Not Required 16.1 kA 40–65 kA SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATION FACTORS
Low Current Not Required 400–600 A 400–600 A Voltage Rating
The voltage rating of an MOV arrester is based
* In pu of arrester rating
on its operating duty-cycle test. The duty-cycle
Note. ND = Normal duty; HD = Heavy duty
test defines the maximum permissible voltage
that can be applied to the arrester and still have
it discharge its rated current. For an MOV ar-
each arrester class is the physical size of the disk rester to be applied, the voltage rating must be
or block. A larger diameter block reduces IR dis- above the maximum expected line-to-ground
charge voltage and greatly increases energy ab- voltage at which the arrester will have to dis-
sorption capability and reliability. The proper charge a current surge. Under most conditions,
choice of arrester class depends on the system the maximum voltage will occur on the un-
voltage, protected equipment insulation level, faulted phases of a three-phase circuit during a
and the size and cost of the equipment. The first single-line-to-ground fault.
three arrester classes can be used on a distribu- The explanation above alludes to an impor-
tion system because their voltage ratings over- tant quality of metal oxide arresters. Because of
lap. Distribution class arresters are usually used the thermal properties of metal oxide, they can
on feeders, whereas intermediate and station dissipate current surges at higher system volt-
class arresters are used in substations. ages than would be seen under normal operat-
Because the various classes tend to overlap, ing conditions. Figure 5.36 shows that the ZnO
the easiest way to distinguish among them is to current characteristic will shift to the right with
know the different standard tests performed for increasing temperature. The shift also produces
each class. Table 5.10 lists the tests required by increased leakage current. The material will re-
ANSI/IEEE Standards C62.1 and C62.11. main stable as long as a surge event does not in-
For the protection of underground circuits at crease the temperature to a point where increas-
riser poles, MOV heavy-duty distribution class ing leakage current causes thermal runaway
arresters are normally used. The greater current (Kershaw, Gaibrois, and Stump, 1989).
discharge requirements of the HD designation Increasing normal line-to-neutral voltage above
inherently mean these arresters will have a lower the knee of the leakage-current characteristic
5
curve for a sustained period across the arrester during nor-
will also cause thermal run- An MOV arrester mal service. For arresters on
away. For this reason, the se- effectively grounded systems,
lection of an MOV arrester is rating is set by its the MCOV is based on the
based on the MCOV applied MCOV. nominal system line-to-neutral
voltage, plus a continuous
overvoltage operating factor.
TABLE 5.11: Metal Oxide Surge Arrester For well-regulated systems, this
Ratings in (kV) Root Mean Square. Source: factor is often considered to be five percent. How-
ANSI/IEEE C62.11-1987. ever, the engineer selecting MOV arresters should
review the system operating characteristics to de-
Duty-Cycle Voltage MCOV termine the applicable factor. The MCOV require-
ment would be 7.56 kV for a 12.47-kV nominal
system voltage (1.05 × 12.47 kV ÷ 3) under
3 2.55
6 5.10 most conditions. A more thorough discussion of
9 7.65 MOV arrester voltage rating selection is given in
the next subsection, Line-to-Ground Faults.
10 8.40 The standard voltage rating and MCOV for all
12 10.20 distribution class arresters are shown in Table 5.11.
Another consideration in the application of
15 12.70
MOV arresters is temporary overvoltages, such
18 15.30 as the single-line-to-ground fault mentioned pre-
viously. A metal oxide arrester will operate suc-
21 17.00
cessfully as long as it is not required to dissipate
24 19.50 more than its design energy level. Operating
27 22.00 time above arrester voltage rating is set by the
amount of energy the arrester must dissipate
30 24.40 during the event. If the overvoltage on the ar-
rester is reduced to its MCOV before it gets too
hot, thermal runaway will not occur and the ar-
1.50 rester will not fail.
Temporary overvoltage capability curves are
1.40 published by each manufacturer for its products.
60-Hz Voltage—Per Unit Arrester Rating
Typical overvoltage curves are shown in Figure

1.30 5.41. Similar curves should be considered when
No Pr an arrester is subjected to system overvoltage
ior Du
ty
1.20 conditions.
Prior D
uty Two system conditions that can affect the
1.10 voltage rating selected for a riser pole MOV
arrester application are overvoltages caused by:
1.00
• Line-to-ground faults, and
60ºC Ambient • Voltage regulation.
0.90
Line-to-Ground Faults
0.80
0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000 Selecting the proper MOV arrester voltage rating
Permissible Duration (Seconds) is based on experience and on calculated over-
voltage values for the unfaulted phases of three-
FIGURE 5.41: Temporary 60-Hz Overvoltage Capability Curves—
Typical MOV Distribution Arrester. phase circuits during a single-line-to-ground
2 1 6 – Se c t io n 5
5
doubt, some cooperatives are now using a factor
Equation 5.16
of 1.35 instead of 1.25, which would lead to the
selection of the next higher arrester duty-cycle
Arrester Rating ≥ (Line-to-neutral voltage) × (Range A factor 1.05 × 1.2) voltage rating at 12.47 and 25 kV (10 kV and 21 kV
rather than 9 kV and 18 kV).
fault. The most common application rule for Voltage Regulation

open-wire, four-wire wye, effectively grounded RUS Bulletin 1724D-112, The Application of Ca-
systems is shown in Equation 5.16. pacitors on Rural Electric Systems, calls for maxi-
The Range A factor is 1.05 when voltage lim- mum service voltages to be no greater than five
its are as follows: percent above nominal for
Range A voltage limits. The
• Minimum service voltage = Pick the next higher bulletin does not limit voltage
114 Volts, and arrester rating fluctuations on feeders. Capac-
• Maximum service voltage = itor operation at light loads,
126 Volts. when unsure about lightly loaded underground
overvoltage duration. primary cables, or voltage reg-
The equivalent primary volt- ulator malfunction can lead to
age values are as follows: system voltages up to 10 per-
cent above nominal without
• Minimum service voltage = 6,840 Volts, and the cooperative’s immediate knowledge. A 10
• Maximum service voltage = 7,560 Volts. percent voltage increase on a 12.47-kV feeder
with a 9-kV riser pole arrester would lead to
The 1.2 in Equation 5.16 represents a safety about a four percent MCOV overvoltage on the
factor of 20 percent. Equation 5.16 represents arrester (120 × 1.1 × 60 ÷ 7.65 kV = 1.035 pu of
the maximum voltage rise on the unfaulted MCOV rating). The problem is that these feeder
phases of a loaded circuit. The voltage rating is overvoltages may be present for hours, not sec-
then equivalent to 1.25 times the nominal line- onds. The long-term stability of metal oxide
to-neutral system voltage. The calculation for a valve elements has been proven at the MCOV,
12.47-kV system is 7,200 × 1.25 = 9 kV. not at these possible higher voltages. Prior duty
This application rule is very conservative for on the arrester will also increase thermal aging.
SiC arresters. The maximum calculated voltage is Range A voltage levels must not be exceeded
equal to the arrester rating, and arrester spark- on feeders if 9- and 18-kV MOV arresters are in-
over far exceeds the rating. For an SiC arrester stalled on the system. If higher voltages are known
to operate, a transient voltage surge will have to to occur for sustained periods, the next higher
occur while the 60 Hz overvoltage due to neu- arrester duty-cycle voltage rating should be used
tral shift exists. (10 kV and 21 kV).
The same rule is not as conservative for metal
oxide arresters unless it is known that the sys- Protective Margin
tem is truly effectively grounded. For riser pole The level of protection provided by an arrester is
applications with BCN cable, effective ground- called the protective margin. It can be defined as
ing can be assumed with a reasonable degree of the percentage that insulation strength exceeds
accuracy. With the installation of jacketed cable, the maximum surge voltage allowed by the
effective grounding might not be achieved. An surge arrester and its leads. Insulation strength is
accurate estimate of the voltage on the unfaulted commonly referred to as the BIL, which is based
phases can be calculated by factoring in ground on the industry standard lightning voltage wave-
wire size, ground rod spacing, fault resistance, shape of 1.2 × 50 µs. The standard lightning cur-
earth resistivity, and system impedance. The calcu- rent waveshape is an “8 × 20” wave, meaning
lated overvoltage is then compared with the MOV that its rise time to peak is 8 µs with a time-to-
arrester temporary overvoltage curves. When in half value of 20 µs. Figure 5.42 shows the current
5
rise time, which is much slower than a typical
stroke discharged by an arrester. As noted earlier
in this section, the change in current magnitude
with time is sometimes expressed as di/dt.
To calculate protective margin, add the L di/dt
inductive voltage drop in the arrester leads carry-
Current (kA)
ing surge current to the arrester discharge voltage.

The inductance of solid wire used for connec-
tions is a constant and is typically assumed to be
I I/2
0.4 microhenries per foot (µH/ft). Research data
have shown that the average rise time for a typi-
cal lightning stroke, which is defined as the rate
of current increase per microsecond, is closer to
0µs 10µs 20µs 100µs
4 kA/µs than the 1.25 kA/µs value mentioned
Time
above. Using a di/dt of 4.0 kA/µs gives a voltage
FIGURE 5.42: Typical Test Current Waveshape: Sinusoidal Wavefront. of 4.0 × (0.4) = 1.6 kV/ft of lead, which must be
added to the discharge voltage to calculate the
total protective margin. For more information on
Equation 5.17 this subject, see the IEEE guide on arrester lead
length calculations.
BIL The protective margin for a cable installation
PM(%) = –1 × 100 may be calculated using the following basic for-
IR + LV
mula in Equation 5.17.
where: BIL = Equipment BIL, in kV Comparing the above margin with the 20 per-
cent recommended industry standard shows the
IR = Arrester discharge voltage, in kV
installation is more than adequately protected.
LV = Lead voltage, in kV After other elements are considered, it will be
shown that the above level of protection is opti-
mistic in most cases.
EXAMPLE 5.14: Protective Margin Calculation for Riser Pole
Application: Industry Standard 4 kA/µs Average Rise Time for Rate of Rise
Lightning Strokes Assumed. The standard 8 × 20 µs current waveshape used
for testing was intended to represent a typical
Assume a 12.47-kV riser pole installation lightning stroke. Recent field tests and recorded
is protected by a 10-kV MOV arrester 95 data show much greater variation than that rep-
connected with a two-foot lead. Arrester PM(%) = –1 × 100
26.5 + 2(16) resented by the standard. Surge current rise
IR discharge voltage for a 10-kA, 8 × 20 times vary with each lightning discharge. Ac-
current surge is 26.5 kV. A lead voltage PM(%) = [3.20 –1] × 100
cording to recent data compiled on electrical pa-
of 1.6 kV/ft will be assumed. Equipment PM = 220% rameters of lightning return strokes, typical rise
BIL is 95 kV. times can vary anywhere from 0.1 to 30 µs with
current magnitudes greater than 110 kA. Proba-
bility data from recorded lightning strokes are
waveform. This test wave is used to establish shown in Figure 5.43 and are more representa-
comparative IR discharge voltage data shown in tive than the 8 × 20 µs wave. Researchers have
catalogs of arrester characteristics. For example, reported rise times higher than 10 kA/µs for more
a heavy-duty MOV riser pole arrester with a 9-kV than 50 percent of stroke currents. Maximum rise
rating might have a maximum discharge voltage rates greater than 75 kA/µs have been recorded.
of 24.5 kV when impulsed with a 10-kA, 8 × 20 µs Standards recognize that some fast-front surge
current wave. This current wave produces conditions produce current waves peaking in
approximately a 10-kA/8 µs = 1.25 kA/µs average less than eight microseconds. For surges that
2 1 8 – Se c t io n 5
5
a voltage wave across the arrester peaking in 0.5
0
µs. The resulting peak voltage is the value listed
Percentage Probability That Time to
Peak Will Equal or Be Less Than
in tables of arrester characteristics. The question
20 17%
the Time Shown on the X Axis of what rate of rise to use with the equivalent
Percentage Probability
FOW characteristic is still an open debate among

40 protection engineers. The consensus has nar-
rowed the rate down to between 10 and 20
60 57% kA/µs, depending on experience and the fre-
quency of lightning in the area. Multiplying by
80 0.4 µH/ft gives a lead wire voltage drop of
between four and eight kilovolts per foot.
Because FOW characteristics for MOV
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 arresters are higher than standard discharge
Time to Peak (Microseconds) voltages, and high rate-of-rise surges produce
greater voltages per foot of lead, fast-front surge
FIGURE 5.43: Lightning Rise Time to Peak. conditions put maximum stress on cable insula-
tion. When protective margins are calculated,
some application engineers
peak in two microseconds or recommend that FOW
less, the insulation strength is For fast-front waves, protective levels for MOV
the Chopped Wave Withstand arresters be used along
(CWW). For oil-filled equip-
use the FOW with lead length voltage
ment, including pad-mounted characteristic to of six kilovolts per foot.
transformers, the CWW is 15
calculate protective
percent higher than the BIL. Lead Length
The insulation strength of margin. Discharge voltages from surge
cable, unlike oil-filled equip- arresters travel through a cable
ment, does not increase as the at half the speed of light.
rise time of the applied surge When a traveling wave
voltage decreases. For the purpose of insulation reaches a point of high impedance such as an
coordination, the CWW of a cable is considered open point on a loop, it reflects on itself. This
equal to its BIL for all surge voltage waveshapes. reflection doubles the voltage at the open point
For the comparison of various arrester charac- and along the cable as the incoming and re-
teristics under these conditions, an Equivalent flected waves overlap. Voltage doubling on the
Front-of-Wave (FOW) protective level was derived cable system must be considered when protec-
specifically for gapless MOV arresters. It denotes tive margins of arrester installations are calcu-
the fact that a surge current with a faster rise time lated. To minimize the surge voltage entering a
to peak than the standard 8 × 20 µs test wave will cable, install an arrester with low discharge char-
produce a higher discharge voltage in an MOV acteristics at the riser pole, connected with the
arrester. This increased voltage is more severe for shortest leads possible.
SiC arresters. For example, referring to Figure Tables 5.12 and 5.13 compare protective mar-
5.37, assume a time-to-peak of one microsecond. gins on 24.9- and 12.47-kV systems using three
The curves show that the IR characteristic of an different arrester types. The BIL margin percent-
SiC arrester increases approximately 30 percent, ages are calculated using the industry standard
while the MOV increase is about 10 percent. 10-kA, 8 × 20 µs waveshape, which is assumed
The equivalent FOW characteristic for an to produce 1.6-kV/ft inductive voltage drop in
MOV arrester is the arrester discharge voltage the series arrester leads. The CWW insulation
for current pulses having a time-to-peak of withstand is based on a 10-kA surge current
about 0.6 µs. This current waveshape produces that produces a discharge voltage that peaks in
5
0.5 µs. This type of wave produces the discharge
voltages with kV peaks shown in the Arrester
Data FOW columns. A rise time of 15 kA/µs will
be assumed to produce a six-kilovolt per foot
voltage drop in the leads to represent severe
fast-front lightning strokes. The IR discharge and
Lead = 18”
lead length voltages are added and then multi-
Lightning Arrester plied by two to represent the voltage doubling
effect caused by reflections.
Inspecting the tables shows that, for the stan-
dard 8 × 20 µs waveshape and three-foot leads,
Lead = 18” the 12.47-kV system has 20 percent or better
JCN Cable margins. Only the special riser pole MOV can
provide this level of protection on the 24.9-kV
system. For fast-front surges, the protective mar-
gins drop drastically when lead length effects are
included. In the 24.9-kV system, eliminating the
arrester lead length entirely results in a 20 per-
cent margin for the riser pole MOV. The other
arresters provide no protective margin when
lead effects are considered. To provide the great-
est protective margins for underground cables,
keep the arrester discharge path (lead length) as
short as possible in all installations.
Arrester lead length is the combined line and
ground lead length in series with the arrester
and in parallel with the cable’s termination.
Figure 5.44 shows an installation that corre-
FIGURE 5.44: Arrester Lead Length Equal to Three Feet. sponds to the three-foot-lead examples in
Tables 5.12 and 5.13.
TABLE 5.12: Protective Margin, 24.9-kV Underground Distribution System: 125-kV BIL Insulation,
18-kV Arresters at Riser Pole Only, 10-kA Lightning Discharge, Surge Voltage Doubled by
Reflection.
Arrester Data Protective Margin (%)*

10 kA IR (kV Peak) Zero Lead Length 1.5-Foot Lead 3-Foot Lead
Arrester Type 8 × 20 FOW** 8 × 20 FOW** 8 × 20 FOW** 8 × 20 FOW**
Heavy-Duty SiC 69 80 -9 -22 -12 -30 -15 -36
Heavy-Duty MOV 60 66 4 5 0 -17 -4 -26
Riser Pole MOV 48 52 30 20 24 2 18 -11
BIL
*Protective Margin (%) = –1 × 100
2 × (LPL + LV)
LV = lead voltage = feet × 6 kV/ft for FOW LPL = Lightning Protective Level
LV = lead voltage = feet × 1.6 kV/ft for 8 × 20 LPL = FOW or 8 × 20 for 10-kA IR (kV Peak)
**Based on 10-kA current impulse that results in a discharge voltage peaking in 0.5 µs
2 2 0 – Se c t io n 5
5
TABLE 5.13: Protective Margin, 12.47-kV Underground Distribution System: 95-kV BIL Insulation,
9-kV Arresters at Riser Pole Only, 10-kA Lightning Discharge, Surge Voltage Doubled by
Reflection.
Arrester Data Protective Margin (%)*

10 kA IR (kV Peak) Zero Lead Length 1.5-Foot Lead 3-Foot Lead
Arrester Type 8 × 20 FOW** 8 × 20 FOW** 8 × 20 FOW** 8 × 20 FOW**
Heavy-Duty SiC 35.0 42 36 10 27 -9 20 -22
Heavy-Duty MOV 30.0 33 58 44 47 13 36 -7
Riser Pole MOV 24.5 27 94 76 77 32 62 6
BIL
*Protective Margin (%) = –1 × 100
2 × (LPL + LV)
LV = lead voltage = feet × 6 kV/ft for FOW LPL = Lightning Protective Level
LV = lead voltage = feet × 1.6 kV/ft for 8 × 20 LPL = FOW or 8 × 20 for 10-kA IR (kV Peak)
**Based on 10-kA current impulse that results in a discharge voltage peaking in 0.5 µs
Remember, keep lead

length short to
increase protective
Lead = 0” margin.
Cable Termination Figure 5.45 shows a similar installation except

the line connection is taken to the arrester and
then to the termination. All arrester line lead is
Lead = 18”
eliminated because the wire carrying surge cur-
rent through the arrester is not in parallel with
the termination.
Figure 5.46 shows how arrester lead length can
be virtually eliminated by modifying the installa-
tion of Figure 5.45. The arrester is mounted be-
tween the termination and the pole ground con-
ductor, so the pole ground conductor can be car-
ried directly to the base of the arrester. The con-
nection makes the arrester ground lead length
zero with respect to the concentric neutral of the
jacketed cable. Because no surge current flows
in either line or ground leads, the surge voltage
across the termination is limited to the discharge
voltage of the arrester and represents the “zero
lead length” examples in the tables.
The easiest way to remember how to make
FIGURE 5.45: Arrester Lead Length Equal to 1.5 Feet.
the best connections can be summarized as fol-
5
Connect to the
arrester first, then to
the cable, to minimize
lead length.
Lead = 0”
lows. Carry the line and ground connections to

Cable Termination
the arrester terminals first, and then to the con-
ductor and ground terminals of the cable termi-
Lead = 0” nation. This procedure will ensure the leads are
kept as short as physically possible to make full
use of the protective margin provided by riser
pole arresters (Hubbell/Ohio Brass Co., Hi-Ten-
sion News, 1989).
The engineer must recognize the extreme im-
portance of arrester lead arrangement on effective
overvoltage protection for underground systems.
Furthermore, the engineer must communicate
this importance to installation crews, who have
final control over this item. Improper arrester
lead arrangement can cancel the advantages of
even the most advanced arresters and lead to
premature failures on underground systems.
TRAVELING WAVES ON UNDERGROUND

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
FIGURE 5.46: Zero Arrester Lead Length.
A lightning stroke to an overhead line will cause
a transient condition to occur. This rapid voltage
buildup caused by the discharge of energy from
Equation 5.18
a charged cloud is not transferred instantaneous-
ly to all points on the overhead line or connect-
≈ 3 × 1010 cm/second = 984 ft/microsecond
1
V= ed cable. In fact, the surge requires a finite time
LC0
to propagate down the line. The surge movement
is in the form of a traveling wave. The traveling
where: L = Inductance, in Henries per unit length
wave characteristics are determined by the dis-
C0 = Capacitance, in Farads per unit length in free space tributed nature of the capacitance and inductance
of the line. Its propagation speed is also set by
line characteristics.
For overhead lines, the velocity of wave propa-
Equation 5.19
gation, V, is calculated as shown in Equation 5.18.
≈
1 3 × 1010 cm/second 984 The calculated value of 984 feet/µs is approxi-
V= = ft/microsecond mately the speed of light. For overhead lines in
LC k k
open air, the line conductor acts only as a guide
for the electromagnetic disturbance and the ve-
where: k = Insulation dielectric constant (typical values from 2 to 4)
locity of propagation is near the speed of light.
2 2 2 – Se c t io n 5
5
For underground cables, the Figure 5.47 is the classic
electromagnetic wave does not Surges travel at representation of a transmis-
travel through air, but through sion or distribution line with
the cable insulation. The ve- approximately half distributed L and C parame-
locity in this instance depends the speed of light ters. Also depicted in the fig-
on the L and C of the cable, ure is the current I, which
which are determined by its
in cables. represents the charging cur-
insulation material and physi- rent produced by the voltage
cal dimensions. Equation 5.19 surge as it travels along the
shows the calculation for the velocity of the line. The current waveshape is the same as the
wave in a cable with a dielectric constant of “k.” voltage, and these parameters are related by the
The capacitance of the cable is increased in pro- surge impedance of the line:
portion to the dielectric constant of the insula-
tion. Therefore, the velocity in cable is where k
is the dielectric constant of the cable insulation. V L
I= ZSURGE =
ZSURGE C
Therefore, the velocity in cable is

1
V= For overhead lines:
LkC0 ZSURGE = Surge impedance
where k is the dielectric constant = 500 ohms (400- to 600-ohm range)
of the cable insulation.
For underground cables:
ZSURGE = 35 ohms (20- to 60-ohm range)
Two types of cable insulation—TR-XLPE and
EPR—are normally used by cooperatives for un- The line charging current should not be con-
derground applications. The approximate dielectric fused with lightning surge current, which will not
constants for these two insulation materials are flow until a discharge path to ground is formed.
typically 2.3 and 3.0, respectively. If 984 ft/µs is Once a traveling wave is initiated, it will con-
assumed to be the speed of light, surge propaga- tinue along a line until its energy is dissipated
tion speeds within the two cables are as follows: or until a change in surge impedance occurs.
Changes in surge impedance that are important
for cable protection occur at overhead/under-
TR-XLPE: V = 649 ft/µs
ground connections (riser poles), open cable
EPR: V = 568 ft/µs end points, and midpoint cable taps. The magni-
tude of the traveling voltage and current waves
is changed at the junction points. Waves divide
Voltage Surge in proportion to the equivalent surge impedance
V at the junction according to Kirchhoff’s laws.
This division gives rise to reflected and refracted
L L L L (continuing) portions of the incident wave.
Equations 5.20 and 5.21 may be used to
C C C C C calculate the traveling wave voltages and cur-
rents where a line terminates on an equivalent
I I I
surge impedance. Figure 5.48 shows the effect
1 L of a traveling voltage wave meeting a change in
V= ZSURGE =
LC C surge impedance at a junction. After the incident
wave encounters the discontinuity, three compo-
FIGURE 5.47: Representation of Distributed Parameter Distribution Line. nents of the wave exist:
5
Junction Point
(JP)
Incident V1
Refracted V2
Reflected V3
Z1 Z2
I1 = V1 /Z1 V2 = V1 + V3
I2 = V2 /Z2 I2 =I1 + I3
I3 = –V3 / Z1
V1 /Z1 – V3 /Z1 = V2 /Z2

V1 /Z1 – V3 /Z1 = (V1 + V3) /Z2
Equation 5.20
The Reflection Coefficient (K)

V3 /V1 = (Z2 – Z1)/(Z2 + Z1) = K
Equation 5.21
The Refraction Coefficient is Then:

V2 /V1 = 2Z2 /(Z1 + Z2) = 1 + K
Where: V1, I1 = Incident Voltage and Current Approaching Junction Point

V2, I2 = Refracted Voltage and Current Continuing Beyond the Junction Point
V3, I3 = Reflected Voltage and Current from the Junction Point
Z2 = Equivalent Surge Impedance Beyond the Junction Point
(Z2 = Parallel Impedance at all Lines Connected to the Right of
the Junction Point)
Z1 = Equivalent Surge Impedance to Incident and Reflected Waves
FIGURE 5.48: Change in Surge Impedance at a Junction Point—Effect on Traveling Voltage Wave.
1. Incident wave (V1), traveling wave (in rectangular form for simplicity)
2. Refracted wave (V2 ), and approaching a junction point (JP) on impedance
3. Reflected wave (V3). path Z1. Various surge impedance conditions be-
yond point JP are shown in the other four views
Traveling voltage waves are illustrated in Fig- (Kershaw, 1970).
ure 5.49. The (a) view of Figure 5.49 shows a
2 2 4 – Se c t io n 5
5
(a)Traveling Wave V1 Incident on Junction Point (JP) on Impedance Path Z1 (e) Z2 = 0.1Z1 Represents an Overhead Line Dead-Ending at a Riser Pole
V1
JP
V1
Z2 Represents
equivalent surge
JP impedance
Z1 Z2 V1
beyond junction
point V2
V3
(b) Z1 = Z2, All of the Voltage Is Refracted V3

V2
V1 = V2 Z1 Z2
V1
V2
Shows Progression of Waveforms:
Z1 Z2 Incident (V1), Refracted (V2), Reflected (V3)
Equation 5.22
(c) Z2 = 0 Represents a Ground or Short Circuit
2Z2 2(0.1)
Voltages Cancel V2 = V1 = V1
V1
at a Short Circuit Z1 + Z2 1.1
V2 = 0.182 V1
V3
Z1 Z2
Equation 5.23
(d) Z2 = ∞ Represents an Open Circuit
Z2 – Z1 0.1Z1 – Z1
V3 = V1 = V1
I = 0 at All Times Z2 + Z1 0.1Z1 + Z1
at an Open point
V3 V3 = –0.818 V1
V1 In this case a voltage wave of 18% of the incident value continues on

Z1 Z2 the cable, while 82% of the wave is reflected back toward the source,
cancelling a like portion of the incident wave.
May also be assumed to model the response at an end-of-line transformer.
Transformer HV windings represent a small capacitance at transient frequencies.
Voltage doubling still occurs; however, the reflected wave front would have a
different shape.
FIGURE 5.49: Traveling Wave Behavior at Junction Points Terminated with Various Surge Impedances.
Cable Open-End Point Terminated by Nonlinear arrester response at an open point presents an
Resistance (Gapless MOV Arrester) interesting case because it is a nonlinear resis-
Until now in the discussion of wave behavior at tance. The incident voltage wave starts to dou-
a junction point, only differences in surge imped- ble as previously described for an open point
ance magnitude have been considered. An MOV until the MOV valve elements start to conduct
5
toward the source superimposed on the incom-
ing wave, V1 (Cooper Power Systems, 1990).
The preceding analysis shows that an MOV
Incoming Wave V1
Before Valve-On arrester at a cable open-end point will prevent
voltage doubling and transfer of the overvoltage
to the sending end of the cable by reflections.
Voltage doubling does not occur, but the re-
flected voltage is increased by one-half the
valve-on voltage of the arrester. The percentage
V1
At Valve-On of voltage increase over the limited riser pole
VT
let-through voltage depends on the IR character-
Valve-On
V2 Voltage istics of the two arresters.
PROTECTION METHODS ARRESTER LOCATIONS

VT The decision of where to place arresters on un-
derground systems for equipment protection is
After Valve-On V1
based on how the cable is configured and how
Valve-On
its conductor is terminated. The previous subsec-
V2 Voltage
tion on traveling waves showed that a change in
VT surge impedance, whether caused by tapping a
cable or an open point, would cause reflections.
V1
The equivalent surge impedance at the disconti-
Peak Voltage = VT = V2 + V1 Peak nuity sets the magnitude of the reflected wave.
Valve-On At an open point, the voltage doubles back to-
V2 Voltage ward the source, subjecting the entire cable
length to the overvoltage. If the cable has one or
more open-ended lateral taps, the reflected
waves added together can produce more than
twice the riser pole let-through voltage. Proper
location of dead-front or elbow surge arresters
FIGURE 5.50: Traveling Waves at a Cable Open-End Point Terminated will offer increased protective margins at all
by an MOV Arrester. points within the underground system. Engineers
should consider using them even on 15-kV sys-
tems to reduce overvoltage magnitudes and pro-
(Figure 5.50). At this point, the excess voltage is long cable life.
short-circuited to ground through the arrester. It The engineer cannot calculate protective lev-
is also assumed the IR discharge voltage equals els at each piece of underground equipment
the valve-on voltage and remains constant through- without transient analysis software, but general
out the surge event. The reflected wave, V3, is rules will produce adequate protection for most
positive and adds to the incoming wave, V, until commonly encountered situations. To provide an
the arrester starts to conduct. Voltage at the idea of the effectiveness of various protection
junction point is then canceled as the negative schemes without doing sophisticated traveling
portion of the wave is reflected upon the incom- wave analyses, this subsection will evaluate sev-
ing wave. However, before wave cancellation eral schemes that utilities use. The effectiveness
starts, it is preceded by the positive reflected of the schemes will be determined by comparing
portion of the wave, which adds to the incom- their protective levels at various locations to the
ing wave. The positive reflection adds about level provided by a single riser pole arrester.
one-half the valve-on voltage to the incoming The following seven overvoltage protection
wave. The peak voltage, VT, then travels back schemes will be considered:
2 2 6 – Se c t io n 5
5
1. Riser pole arrester; heavy-duty arrester on a 7.2/12.5-kV system
2. Riser pole arrester and cable-end arrester; could lead to cable voltages extremely close to
3. Riser pole, cable-end, and an arrester new 15-kV equipment strength (95-kV BIL).
applied at the first transformer on the source Using a specially designed riser pole MOV
side of the open point (third arrester); arrester instead of an SiC design should reduce
4. Riser pole arrester protecting a cable with a maximum cable surge voltage (VC ) by 40 to 60
lateral tap; percent. A reduction of this amount is important
5. Lateral tapped cable with riser pole and when aged insulation is considered or when
open-end arresters; fast-front surge currents enter the system.
6. Lateral tapped cable with riser pole, open-
end arresters, and an arrester at the tap Riser Pole and Cable-End Arrester
point; and (Figure 5.51, No. 2)
7. Riser pole arrester and under-oil arresters at Placing an arrester at the open point terminates
every transformer. the cable with a low impedance when the ar-
rester conducts. The low arrester impedance
The seven protection schemes are shown in generates a negative reflected wave that works
Figure 5.51. to reduce the voltage at the open point and
along the entire cable length. The maximum
Riser Pole Arrester Only (Figure 5.51, No. 1) system surge voltage is given by Equation 5.25.
For 15-kV class systems and below, a single Figure 5.50 shows that maximum voltages will
arrester at the riser pole will generally provide always occur away from the cable-end arrester.
adequate protective margins for cable-connected The dead-front arrester eliminates cable-end
equipment. As system voltages increase to voltage doubling and limits the open-point volt-
25 kV, equipment insulation levels, unfortu- age to its protective level. The reflected voltage
nately, do not double as well. For 25-kV systems (VT) appears as a triangular spike that is super-
with 125-kV BIL using 18- or 21-kV arresters, the imposed on the incident voltage wave and trav-
protective margins for a riser-pole-only arrange- els back toward the riser pole. The peak of the
ment can be nonexistent. In this case, arresters spike is approximately equal to 50 percent of the
must be added to the open-end points. dead-front arrester discharge voltage at a current
The maximum voltage stress that the entire level of 1.5 kA.
cable and connected equipment can be roughly As the spike returns to the riser pole, it subjects
calculated using Equation 5.24, which shows the most of the cable run to surge voltages that ex-
doubling effect. ceed the protective levels of the arresters at either
Equation 5.24 shows that, if care is taken to end of the cable. However, the overvoltages are
reduce arrester lead length, the major contribut- less than the doubling of the riser pole arrester
ing factor to cable voltage stress is the doubling
of the riser pole discharge voltage. Using a SiC
Equation 5.25
Equation 5.24 1
VC = VRP + VL + VOP
2
VC = 2(VRP + VL)
where: VC = Maximum cable and equipment
surge voltage, in kV
where: VC = Maximum cable and equipment VRP = Riser pole arrester discharge voltage,
surge voltage, in kV in kV
VRP = Riser pole arrester discharge voltage, VL = Lead voltage drop, in kV
in kV VOP = Open point arrester discharge
VL = Lead voltage drop, in kV voltage, in kV
5
1. Single-Phase UD Feeder 4. Single-Phase Feeder with Lateral Tap
Open Open
Point Tap Point
Jacketed Cable Point
Neutral Neutral
Riser Pole Arrester Only Lateral Tapped Cable with Riser Pole Arrester
Open Open
Point Point
Riser Pole Plus Cable-End Arrester Lateral Tapped Cable, Riser Pole, and Open-End Arresters
Open Open
Point Point
Riser Pole, Cable-End, and Third Arrester Lateral Tapped Cable, Riser Pole, Open-End Arresters, and Tap-Point Arrester
7. Single-Phase UD Feeder
Under-Oil
Arrester
Open
Point
Riser Pole Arrester and Under-Oil Arresters at Every Pad-Mounted Transformer
FIGURE 5.51: Arrester Locations.

2 2 8 – Se c t io n 5
5
let-through voltage. Simulations and laboratory Lateral Tapped Cable with Riser Pole Arrester
tests have shown that maximum cable surge (Figure 5.51, No. 4)
voltage will be reduced by 25 percent with the Cooperatives sometimes tap a radial cable sys-
addition of cable-end arresters. tem to provide service to nearby loads. Tapping
In most instances, 25-kV system protective the cable produces parallel cable runs where
margins obtained with this arrester configuration surge voltages can propagate independently. A
are less than the recommended 20 percent level. tapped configuration will produce higher cable
If protective margins of 20 percent or more are voltages than will a simple radial system because
desired, additional arresters must be added to multiple traveling waves can add and subtract in
protect cable and equipment remote from the complex ways.
two end points. Assume a voltage surge enters the tapped sys-
tem at the riser pole with no other arresters ap-
Riser Pole, Cable-End, and Third Arrester plied. When the surge reaches the tap point, it
(Figure 5.51, No. 3) sees an equivalent surge impedance of approxi-
Additional surge protection can be provided by mately 15 to 20 ohms. The impedance is the par-
adding a third arrester between the two ends of allel combination of the surge impedance of each
the cable. The function of the third arrester is to cable leg. Because of the discontinuity, portions
suppress the voltage spike reflected from the of the incident wave will be reflected back to-
cable-end arrester. For limiting surge voltage ex- ward the riser pole and simultaneously refracted
posure to a minimum, the most effective loca- onto the two cable legs. When the two refracted
tion for the arrester is the first transformer on voltage waves reach the respective cable ends,
the source side of the cable-end arrester. The they will double and travel back to the tap
separation distance between the two protective point, where they will again be reflected and re-
devices must be at least 200 to 300 feet for the fracted. Because of the unequal travel times on
third arrester to effectively suppress the reflected the cable sections, the multiple reflections and
wave. If the first transformer upstream from the refractions will ultimately lead to an increase in
open point is fewer than 200 feet away, the cable-end voltage. The voltage increase can be
third arrester can be applied at the next up- up to 30 percent more than the voltage doubling
stream transformer, leaving the first unit with re- normally experienced on a radial cable run pro-
duced protection. The maximum system surge tected only by a riser pole arrester.
voltage with third arrester protection can be cal-
culated using Equation 5.26. Lateral Tapped Cable, Riser Pole, and
Equation 5.26 shows that, except for the cable Open-End Arresters (Figure 5.51, No. 5)
section between the third and cable-end ar- Installing MOV arresters at both open points will
resters, the maximum system surge voltage is reduce their voltages to the protective level of the
limited to the protective level provided by the arresters. Arresters at the end points will also keep
riser pole arrester (Lat, 1987). the tap-point voltage within reasonable magni-
tudes. In one laboratory test, the tap-point voltage
was 13 percent higher than the maximum mid-
Equation 5.26
span voltage on a radial system under the same
conditions (riser pole and cable-end arrester).
VC = VRP + VL
Lateral Tapped Cable, Riser Pole, Open-End
Arresters, and Tap-Point Arrester
where: VC = Maximum cable and equipment
(Figure 5.51, No. 6)
surge voltage, in kV
Placing an arrester at the tap point will tend to
VRP = Riser pole arrester discharge voltage, further reduce voltages along the tapped feeder.
in kV
This is due to the shunting effect of the arrester
VL = Lead voltage drop, in kV to limit the initial surge as well as the reflected
5
waves. A more definite statement cannot be made or under-oil designs, which are very expensive
unless a specific example is analyzed in detail. to add to existing installations. However, some
An arrester at the tap point should not be con- utilities are considering under-oil arresters for
sidered as adequate protection for the two open every new or replacement transformer installa-
cable ends. Tests have shown that positive wave tion as a way to prolong cable life. Under-oil ar-
reflections can act to more than double the ca- resters are good; however, one must consider
ble-end voltage, when compared with a tapped the cost to replace an under-oil arrester when it
system protected by a riser pole arrester only. fails, and some will fail. Replacing under-oil ar-
The following general conclusions can be resters can be very expensive. It does, however,
drawn from investigations into the effects of remain to be seen whether this overall scheme
cable taps on surge voltage magnitudes: will prove to be a cost-effective approach.
• A primary tap will increase surge voltage RECOMMENDED ARRESTER LOCATIONS

magnitudes above levels that will exist with- AND RATINGS
out a tap. The information presented above has shown that
• The surge voltage magnitude increase will many factors affect arrester protective margins. It
typically be 10 to 30 percent. is not possible to consider all factors in an appli-
• Taps located close to the riser pole tend to cation because they can change for many differ-
produce greater surge voltage magnitudes. ent reasons. Experience has shown that the
• Multiple taps do not appear to produce surge recommendations in Table 5.14 should be used
magnitudes significantly greater than a single for radial feeders and tapped laterals for conser-
tap (Ros, 1988). vative underground protection.
The recommended arrester locations given in
Riser Pole Arrester and Under-Oil Arresters Table 5.14 are based on the application of riser
at Every Pad-Mounted Transformer pole MOV arresters with 10-kV and 21-kV duty-
(Figure 5.51, No. 7) cycle voltage ratings. The MCOV for these ar-
The ultimate surge protection scheme is to pro- resters is 1.17 pu and 1.18 pu of nominal line-to-
vide arresters at every convenient and accessible neutral system voltage. The recommended voltage
point on the underground system. Besides the ratings are one step above the 9-kV and 18-kV
riser pole, possible locations could be tap ratings that can be used on effectively grounded
points, sectionalizing points, and pad-mounted neutral circuits that have close voltage regulation
transformers. The arresters have to be dead-front (Range A voltage levels).
Distribution systems are susceptible to long-
term overvoltages caused by the following:
TABLE 5.14: Recommended Arrester Locations.
Voltage Feeder Configuration Arrester Locations • Line-to-ground faults,

• Poor voltage regulation,
12.47 kV Radial Riser Pole • Line voltage regulator malfunctions,
Open Point • Ferroresonance,
25 kV Radial Riser Pole • Fixed shunt capacitors, including long cables,
Open Point • Circuit backfeed,
Third Arrester Near Open Point* • Load rejection, and
• Other system contingencies.
12.47 kV Tapped Lateral Riser Pole
Open Points
The lower-rated arresters provide additional
25 kV Tapped Lateral Riser Pole protective margin, especially at 25 kV. However,
Open Points the higher-rated arresters are recommended to
Tap Point* prevent premature arrester failures as the instal-
*Optional application lation ages. The following examples will show
2 3 0 – Se c t io n 5
5
PRACTICAL DEAD-FRONT ARRESTER
INSTALLATIONS
The introduction of dead-front MOV arrester de-
Feed-Through
signs and their accessories for use inside UD en-
H1A H1B closures has introduced flexibility into under-
ground system protection. Product evolution now
allows choices in the selection of optimum protec-
tion schemes based on cost and protection levels.
Elbow Arrester Elbow Arrester In the previous discussion of protection methods
and arrester locations, four locations were sug-
gested for the installation of dead-front arresters:
To Riser Pole To Riser Pole
1. On the cable end at the open-point trans-
(a) Two Elbow Arrester and a Feed-Through former between two sections of a loop-feed
circuit,
2. At the first upstream transformer from the
open point,
3. At a tap point, and
H1A H1B 4. At the cable end of a lateral tap (radial-feed
Elbow Connector
circuit).
Parking Stand The following will describe practical ways to

Arrester
Elbow Arrester
physically connect arresters at all four locations
using load-break elbow-type connectors and
elbow, bushing, and parking stand arresters de-
To Riser Pole To Riser Pole scribed previously in the subsection, Dead-Front
Lightning Arresters. To get flexibility with dif-
(b) Elbow Arrester and Parking Stand Arrester
ferent arresters and components, purchase only
transformers with bushing wells.
Cable-End Arrester at Open Point

Three configurations can be used for this instal-
H1A H1B lation. The configuration chosen will depend on
operating practices and available space inside
the pad-mounted transformer cabinet.
Bushing Arrester Figure 5.52(a) shows an open-point trans-
Insulating Cap
former with an arrester attached to each cable
Parking Stand end. The arrangement uses two elbow-type ar-
Arrester resters and a feed-through mounted on the park-
To Riser Pole To Riser Pole ing stand. This installation takes up the most
room on the transformer faceplate.
(c) Bushing Arrester and Parking Stand Arrester Figure 5.52(b) shows a different approach that
can be taken at the open-point transformer. It
FIGURE 5.52: Cable-End Arresters at Open Point. uses an elbow arrester and a parking stand ar-
rester to reduce overcrowding by eliminating the
feed-through device.
that using the recommended arrester locations The third configuration, Figure 5.52(c), allows
and voltage ratings will result in higher protec- increased operational flexibility and reduces
tive margins than those suggested by standards. overcrowding by using bushing and parking
5
stand arresters. Operational flexibility is obtained
because the open point can be closed by mov-
ing the parked cable to H1B without removing
the parking stand arrester. Once a cable fault is
H1A H1B repaired, the elbow connector is easily placed
back on the parking stand arrester to reestablish
Feed-Through
Bushing Insert
the open point. The bushing arrester on H1A re-
quires less space than an elbow arrester/feed-
through bushing insert combination mounted in
the same location.
Elbow
Arrester
Arrester Upstream from Open Point
To Riser Pole To Open Point Two arrester configurations may be used to pro-
vide additional protective margins at 25-kV and
(a) Elbow Arrester on Feed-Through Insert above by clipping the voltage spike generated by
operation of the open-point arrester. An elbow
arrester or a bushing arrester may be applied.
Figure 5.53(a) is a schematic of how an elbow
arrester combined with a feed-through bushing
insert can be mounted on the transformer face-
H1A H1B
plate. To reduce clutter inside the enclosure,
mate a bushing arrester to the source-side cable
Bushing Arrester Elbow Connector
as shown in Figure 5.53(b). Figures 5.54 through
5.58 show the five installation configurations dis-
cussed above.
Lateral Tap Cable-End Arrester

For lateral taps off all underground feeders, ar-
To Riser Pole To Open Point resters should be placed at open points to pre-
vent reflections from increasing surge voltages
(b) Bushing Arrester Only
above levels that would exist without the tap(s).
FIGURE 5.53: Arrester Upstream from Open Point (Third Arrester). Figure 5.59 shows the desired ways arresters can
be applied to two- and single-bushing transform-
ers at the end of radial-feed circuits. To add
surge protection to a two-bushing loop-feed
H1B X3 unit, an elbow arrester or a bushing arrester
X1 must be connected to the unoccupied terminal.
H1A For the radial-feed transformer, the least-cost ap-
X2
plication is to add a bushing arrester.
Tap Point Arrester

For tapped lateral feeder configurations 25 kV
and above, an arrester should be added at the
tap point as well as on the open points. Many
connection methods can be used, but the one
Primary Source shown in Figure 5.60 offers a simple, low-cost
Alternate Source
approach to establish a tap point, have load-
break switching capability, plus add an arrester.
FIGURE 5.54: Two Elbow Arresters and a Feed-Through. The cable-to-cable connections can be made by
2 3 2 – Se c t io n 5
5
using a four-point load-break junction bolted to
H1B X3 the inside surface of a suitable pad-mounted en-
X1 closure. The three cables are connected together
H1A using load-break elbow connectors attached to
X2
three terminals of the junction. An elbow surge
arrester is installed on the fourth terminal to
complete the installation.
UNDERGROUND SURGE PROTECTION

EXAMPLES
The five examples in this subsection are based
on a typical underground loop feed to a subdivi-
Primary Source Alternate Source
sion with an open point between the two later-
als. Only one underground radial with four
FIGURE 5.55: Elbow Arrester and Parking Stand Arrester. pad-mounted transformers will be investigated.
The system is protected by a riser pole MOV ar-
rester with discharge characteristics that are
H1B X3 readily available within the industry. Dead-front
X1 arresters are used at strategic locations for in-
H1A creased protective margins. Arrester lead lengths
X2
are assumed to be one foot at the riser and three
feet at the pad-mounted transformer locations.
Various surge current waveshapes and magni-
tudes are used to evaluate the effectiveness of
the different recommended protective schemes.
The many calculations were made by a travel-
ing-wave computer program (Cooper Power Sys-
tems’ UDSURGE™).
Primary Source Alternate Source
A simplified schematic of the system is shown
in Figure 5.61.
FIGURE 5.56: Bushing Arrester and Parking Stand Arrester.
H1B X3 H1B X3
X1 X1
H1A H1A
X2 X2
Primary Source Primary Source To Open

To Open Point Point
FIGURE 5.57: Elbow Arrester on Feed-Through Insert on FIGURE 5.58: Bushing Arrester on Transformer Upstream
Transformer Upstream from Open Point. from Open Point.
5
Two-Bushing Single-Bushing
Pad-Mounted Transformer Pad-Mounted Transformer
H1A H1B H1A
Elbow Bushing Arrester

Arrester
To Tap Point To Tap Point
FIGURE 5.59: Lateral Tap Cable-End Arrester (Radial Feed Circuit).
Pad-Mounted Enclosure
Surge Voltage Magnitudes Calculated

Four-Point Load Break Junction at Riser Pole and the 4 Pad-Mounted
Transformer Locations
Conduit
Pad Pad Pad Pad

#1 #2 #3 #4
Open
1,000' 400' 400' 400' Point
Elbow
Arrester
To Riser Pole To Open Point Dead-Front Arrester Locations
Riser Pole Arrester
Protecting Jacketed Cable Ratings: 10- and 21-kV
Underground Lateral: 12.47 kV and 25 kV 3-Foot Leads
Arrester Ratings: 10 kV and 21 kV
Total Arrester Lead Length = 1 Foot
Tap Line
FIGURE 5.60: Tap-Point Arrester. FIGURE 5.61: Typical Underground Subdivision Loop Feed with
Open Point.
Tables 5.15 through 5.19 summarize the surge and calculating the voltage at all nodes enables
voltages calculated by the computer program at most of the variables that go into the protective
the riser pole and the four transformer locations. margin (lightning variability, arrester characteris-
Different surge current characteristics are used tics, lead length, BIL deterioration, reflections,
to illustrate how variable lightning characteris- and so forth) to be considered. In this way, for
tics can affect equipment protective margins. this particular system, recommended arrester lo-
Varying the current rate-of-rise and magnitude cations can be evaluated on their merits.
2 3 4 – Se c t io n 5
5
EXAMPLE 5.15: MOV Riser Pole Arrester: Arrester Rating, 10 kV.
Table 5.15 considers a 12.47-kV system protected by TABLE 5.15: MOV Riser Pole Arrester: Arrester Rating, 10 kV;
a 10-kV MOV riser pole arrester. ANSI Standards sug- Equipment BIL, 95 kV; Aged BIL, 76 kV.
gest a 20 percent margin for an 8 × 20 µs surge at
10 kA. Most protection engineers realize this sug- Surge Surge Voltage Magnitudes (kV)
gestion does not consider many of the variables men- Current Padmount Padmount Padmount Padmount
tioned in the previous paragraph and is used mostly Characteristics Riser Pole No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4
on overhead systems. To provide added security in 8 × 20 µs 26.9 50.1 51.4 51.9 52.1
underground applications, many engineers double the 10 kA (46% margin)
current magnitude to 20 kA. If a 20 percent or greater
8 × 20 µs 29.7 56.0 57.4 57.9 58.2
margin is obtained, the system is considered ade-
20 kA (31% margin)
quately protected. Under these conditions, Table 5.15
shows protective margins of 46 and 31 percent, re- 1 × 50 µs 36.4 64.1 64.2 64.4 71.9
spectively, for aged insulation. Further examination 20 kA (6% margin)
reveals that, for the two fast-front, high-magnitude 1 × 50 µs 54.8 87.8 88.0 88.4 108.1
current surges depicted in the last two rows of the 50 kA (-30% margin)
table, the margin is reduced below 20 percent and
Note. Percent margins in parentheses are for aged insulation BIL.
actually becomes negative for the worst case.
Protective margin calculations at any of the other lo-
Equation 5.27
cations on the radial feeder are simple to make. The
listed surge voltage magnitudes include lead voltage
BIL
drop. Protective margin is then simply as shown in PM(%) = –1 × 100
Equation 5.27. Surge Magnitude
EXAMPLE 5.16: MOV Riser Pole Arrester and Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester (No. 4): Arrester Rating, 10 kV.
The system in Table 5.16 is pro- TABLE 5.16: MOV Riser Pole Arrester and Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester (No. 4):
tected with a riser pole arrester Arrester Rating, 10 kV; Equipment BIL, 95 kV; Aged BIL, 76 kV.
and a cable-end arrester. Placing
the arrester at the end of the Surge Surge Voltage Magnitudes (kV)
cable prevents voltage doubling Current Padmount Padmount Padmount Padmount
and keeps a minimum 39 percent Characteristics Riser Pole No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4
margin for aged insulation 8 × 20 µs 26.7 38.2 37.1 34.9 28.3
throughout the entire length of the 10 kA (99% margin)
cable in the worst case. Cable-
8 × 20 µs 29.6 41.6 40.2 36.8 29.4
end arresters are strongly recom-
20 kA (83% margin)
mended at 12.47 kV to protect
equipment insulation from fast- 1 × 50 µs 36.4 43.5 43.5 43.7 36.9
front, high-magnitude lightning 20 kA (74% margin)
surges. 1 × 50 µs 54.8 54.6 54.5 54.3 37.2
50 kA (39% margin) (104% margin)
5
EXAMPLE 5.17. MOV Riser Pole Arrester: Arrester Rating, 21 kV.
The summary of surge cur- TABLE 5.17: MOV Riser Pole Arrester: Arrester Rating, 21 kV; Equipment BIL, 125 kV; Aged
rent magnitudes for a 25-kV BIL, 100 kV.
lateral protected by an MOV
riser pole arrester rated 21 Surge Surge Voltage Magnitudes (kV)
kV is shown in Table 5.17. Current Padmount Padmount Padmount Padmount
The standard 8 × 20 µs Characteristics Riser Pole No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4
waveform with 10- and 20- 8 × 20 µs 56.6 103.5 106.5 107.9 108.6
kA magnitudes produces 10 kA (-7% margin aged)
negative margins for aged (16% margin new)
insulation and less than 20
8 × 20 µs 62.3 115.6 119.0 120.2 120.5
percent margin for new in- 20 kA (-17% margin aged)
sulation. This example reit- (4% margin new)
erates that a riser pole
arrester cannot protect a Note. Percent margins in parentheses are for aged insulation BIL.
25-kV radial cable with an
open-point termination.
EXAMPLE 5.18: MOV Riser Pole Arrester and Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester (No. 4): Arrester Rating, 21 kV.
The example in Table 5.18 TABLE 5.18: MOV Riser Pole Arrester and Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester (No. 4): Arrester
represents a 25-kV system Rating, 21 kV; Equipment BIL, 125 kV; Aged BIL, 100 kV.
with arresters located at the
riser pole and open point. The Surge Surge Voltage Magnitudes (kV)
arresters limit the voltage to Current Padmount Padmount Padmount Padmount
acceptable levels at both Characteristics Riser Pole No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4
cable ends. Voltage magni- 8 × 20 µs 55.9 79.8 77.5 73.0 57.0
tudes on the interior cable 10 kA (25% margin)
section cause inadequate
8 × 20 µs 61.8 85.1 82.4 75.8 58.1
margins for the 8 × 20 µs,
20 kA (18% margin)
20-kA case and both fast-
front, high-current cases. 1 × 50 µs 66.4 90.8 90.9 91.2 72.0
The higher voltages in the 20 kA (10% margin)
middle of the cable are 1 × 50 µs 89.5 98.6 98.8 99.2 70.4
caused by the addition of the 50 kA (1% margin aged) (42% margin)
dead-front arrester valve-on (26% margin new)
voltage to the reflected volt-
age traveling back toward
the sending end of the
cable. For further informa-
tion, refer to the earlier ex-
planation of traveling waves.
2 3 6 – Se c t io n 5
5
EXAMPLE 5.19: MOV Riser Pole Arrester Plus Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester (No. 4) and Dead-Front Third Arrester (No. 3):
Arrester Rating, 21 kV.
The example in Table 5.19 TABLE 5.19: MOV Riser Pole Arrester Plus Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester (No. 4) and
shows the addition of a Dead-Front Third Arrester (No. 3): Arrester Rating, 21 kV; Equipment BIL, 125 kV;
dead-front arrester to the Aged BIL, 100 kV.
next transformer upstream
Surge Surge Voltage Magnitudes (kV)
from the open point. This ar-
rester at transformer No. 3 Current Padmount Padmount Padmount Padmount
cancels the valve-on voltage Characteristics Riser Pole No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4
spike from the open-end ar- 8 × 20 µs 55.9 64.2 61.5 57.0 57.0
rester. The three arresters 10 kA (55% margin)
working together provide
8 × 20 µs 61.2 68.0 64.7 57.9 58.0
acceptable protective mar- 20 kA (47% margin)
gins along the entire cable
length. 1 × 50 µs 66.4 69.7 67.3 66.6 71.9
20 kA (39% margin)
1 × 50 µs 89.5 89.3 89.0 68.7 70.3
50 kA (12% margin aged)
(40% margin new)
Some protection engineers recommend riser To protect against these lower probability
pole and open-end arresters at 25 kV. A two-ar- events, the three-arrester scheme is recom-
rester protection scheme is adequate for most mended for underground installations. It is a
lightning conditions. However, field tests have conservative approach that balances increased
shown fast-front high-magnitude surges can arrester costs against increased MOV arrester
occur 20 percent of the time (see Figure 5.43.) and cable life.
Summary and 1. The purpose of the grounding system is to fast operation of protective devices. It also
Recommendations maintain all points connected to it at earth prevents dangerous touch potentials on
potential under various conditions. equipment cases and frames.
2. The grounding system consists of the 5. A ground rod has a 60-Hz measured resis-
grounding and neutral circuits. The ground- tance and a surge impedance (ZSURGE).
ing circuit is made up of ground electrodes, ZSURGE is defined as the ratio of the peak
ground conductors, and all connections. The voltage to current on the rod caused by a
neutral circuit includes the JCN and all con- lightning discharge.
nections to it. 6. ZSURGE is always less than, or essentially
3. The return current path must be a continu- equal to, the rod’s 60-Hz resistance value.
ous metallic circuit along the entire route of 7. When a riser pole arrester conducts, light-
energized conductor(s). The earth should ning surge current flows on the following
never be used as the only path for the return components:
of normal load current.
4. Under fault conditions, the neutral circuit a. Arrester leads,
provides a low resistance path to ensure b. Pole ground conductor,
5
c. Jacketed cable neutral, 16. Counterpoise will reduce jacket voltages.
d. Counterpoise, and The counterpoise should be attached at the
e, Overhead multigrounded system neutral. cable termination for best results.
17. Continuous counterpoise should be installed
The surge currents produce undesirable to the first transformer, if practical.
effects that, except for arrester lead length, 18. If full-length counterpoise is not justified,
are reduced by a low ground rod resistance 100- to 300-foot lengths should be used.
when compared with the surge impedances 19. An ideal ground has a low ground resistance
of the various paths. value. To measure the ground resistance,
8. Low ground rod resistance will reduce jacket one of the testers listed in Table 5.20 should
voltage and the amount of surge current be used.
flowing on the JCN to the transformer and
service neutrals.
9. Continuous counterpoise connected to the TABLE 5.20: Ground Resistance Testers.
JCN at the pole top and extended to the
transformer ground rod will reduce jacket Type of
voltage up to 50 percent. Grounding Clamp-On* 3-Point** 4-Point**
10. Take special measures to adequately ground System Meter Meter Meter
JCN cable installations when compared with Single X X X
semiconducting jacketed and BCN cable Ground Rod
systems.
Multiple X X X
11. Ground rods are the primary means to re- Ground Rod
duce ground resistance on JCN cable instal-
lations. The three factors that affect ground Counterpoise X
resistance are the following: * Measurement must be made with the ground under
test connected to a multigrounded system.
a. Length, ** Measurement must be made before connecting the
b. Number of rods, and ground under test to the system ground.
c. Spacing.
12. Where possible, use longer rods, not multi- 20. Soil resistivity directly affects ground resistance.
ple rods, to lower ground resistance. Therefore, an engineer will need the soil resis-
13. When multiple rods are used because of tivity value before designing a grounding sys-
rocky soil, space them at least two rod tem. If this information is not available, the
lengths apart. soil resistivity should be measured using a
14. The required number of driven rods for a four-point earth resistance tester.
JCN cable installation is set by the NESC. 21. Counterpoise and ground rods should be in-
Table 5.2 summarizes ground rod rules and stalled below the frost line. Doing so helps
requirements. prevent an increase in ground resistance
caused by frozen soil.
a. Power cable only: four rods per mile. 22. If possible, counterpoise and ground rods
b. Random lay: eight rods per mile. should be placed in an area with permanent
c. Counterpoise is considered a made moisture content. When the surrounding soil
electrode. dries out, the ground resistance of the coun-
terpoise or ground rod increases.
15. Ideally, the riser pole ground resistance 23. Ground resistance calculations should be
should have the lowest value, followed by used to compare different ground system
the transformer ground rod, and then the configurations. If the ground resistance value
service ground. is high, it should be decreased by:
2 3 8 – Se c t io n 5
5
a. Increasing the length of the ground rod voltage. When this value is multiplied by 0.4
or counterpoise, or µH/ft, it gives 1.6 kV/ft lead voltage, which
b. Increasing the number of ground rods. is the value to use with 8 × 20 µs arrester
data. Recent studies have shown this value
24. MOV arresters should be used for riser should be somewhere between four to eight
pole applications because they provide kilovolts per foot when using arrester FOW
better protective margins than do similar characteristics to calculate protective margin.
SiC designs. 33. Arrester lead lengths must be kept as short
25. Series and shunt-gapped MOV riser pole as physically possible to obtain the maximum
arresters have better temporary overvoltage protective margin. For riser pole installations,
capability and slightly better protective char- this is accomplished by making connections
acteristics than gapless models. They should to the arrester terminals first, and then to the
be considered in areas where inadequate conductor and ground terminals of the cable
voltage regulation occurs. termination.
26. Dead-front lightning arresters should be 34. It is important to remember how an incident
applied close to protected equipment on traveling voltage wave reacts when it meets
underground systems to increase protective a change in surge impedance at a junction
margins. point such as an open point, midpoint cable
27. Light-duty dead-front arresters should be tap, or MOV arrester.
coordinated with riser pole arresters so their 35. If the junction point is an open circuit (infinite
discharge capability is not exceeded because surge impedance), the reflected voltage is posi-
of current sharing. Short riser pole leads and tive and produces a voltage doubling effect.
duplicate voltage ratings help ensure proper If this line is terminated in a short circuit, the
current sharing. reflected voltage is negative, which cancels
28. Selection of MOV arrester voltage rating is the incoming wave. For a line terminated by
based on the MCOV the arrester sees during an MOV arrester, voltage doubling does not
normal service. occur, but the reflected voltage is increased
29. Maximum voltage rise on the unfaulted by one-half the arrester valve-on voltage.
phases of a loaded three-phase circuit and 36. Necessary and optional arrester locations
voltage regulation on distribution feeders that will minimize cable and transformer
above five percent can cause long-term overvoltages should be used.
overvoltages on MOV arresters. When un- 37. After the decision is made where to place
sure about overvoltage duration, choose the the arresters, elbow, bushing, and parking
next higher MOV arrester rating (10 kV and stand dead-front arresters should be physi-
21 kV rather than the usual 9 kV and 18 kV). cally connected at the following:
30. Protective margin depends on protective
characteristics of the arrester, lightning surge a. Open-point transformer between two
current magnitude, and equipment BIL. sections of a loop-feed circuit,
31. Protective margin is calculated using b. First upstream transformer from the
Equation 5.17: open point,
c. Tap point, and
d. Open end of a lateral tap.
BIL
PM(%) = –1 × 100
IR + LV 38. MOV arrester voltage ratings of 10 kV and
21 kV may be used instead of 9-kV and 18-kV
32. Standards recommend using an average rise units, if problems are encountered with
time (di/dt) of 4 kA/µs when calculating lead overvoltages.
Ferroreso n a n c e – 2 3 9
6 Ferroresonance
In This Section: Allowable Overvoltages During Ferroresonance

Distribution Transformer Connections
Qualitative Description of Ferroresonance
Ferroresonance When Switching at the Primary Terminals of
Overhead and Underground Transformer Banks
Delta or Ungrounded-Wye Connected Primary Windings
Grounded-Wye Primary Winding and Five-Legged Core
Grounded-Wye Primary Windings and Triplex Construction
Ferroresonance in Underground Feeders Having More Than One Transformer
Summary of Techniques for Preventing Ferroresonance in Underground Systems
Summary and Recommendations
References
Before the use of primary voltages above 15 kV were used instead of bare overhead conductors
in overhead systems, and before the use of for primary circuits—operating at any voltage
medium-voltage power cables for primary distri- level—ferroresonance occurred during the
bution circuits, engineers designing and operat- switching of the cable circuit and the distribu-
ing distribution systems were not concerned tion transformers connected to them.
with ferroresonance. However, when 24.9-kV Ferroresonance in underground systems re-
and 34.5-kV phase voltage lev- sults from single phasing in
els were introduced for over- three-phase primary circuits
head distribution systems, Single phasing in with distribution transformers,
ferroresonance occurred dur- which establishes configura-
three-phase primary
ing the switching of small tions where the capacitances
transformer banks at their pri- circuits can cause of the primary circuit and the
mary terminals. Correspond- ferroresonance. nonlinear inductances of the
ingly, when shielded cables transformers are arranged so
2 4 0 – Se c t io n 6
6
that nonlinear resonance can newer low-loss transformers,
occur. Single-phase conditions Modern low-loss and has generated updated
occur during the normal oper- ferroresonance avoidance
ation of fused or nonfused dis- transformers are much guidelines. The findings of this
connects, elbow connectors, more susceptible to research, including the new
single-pole reclosers, and sin- guidelines, have been incorpo-
gle-pole sectionalizers when
ferroresonance. rated into this section.
circuits and their connected Field experience has shown
transformers are energized and that overvoltages occurring
de-energized. Single phasing also occurs if a sys- during ferroresonance can cause failure of both
tem component fails in a way that produces an metal oxide and gapped silicon carbide surge ar-
open conductor condition. Ferroresonance may resters, distribution transformers, cables, elbow
cause very high overvoltages that damage connectors, splices, and equipment connected
equipment and cause failures. to the secondary side of the distribution trans-
Those responsible for the design and opera- former, including consumer appliances, comput-
tion of rural distribution systems need to be fa- ers, and electronic home entertainment equip-
miliar with ferroresonance to prevent extremely ment. System designs and transformer connec-
high ferroresonant overvoltages from occurring tions that are prone to ferroresonance should be
during single-phase conditions in the primary avoided wherever possible. If the system design
three-phase systems. or topology does not eliminate the chance of
Experience and previous guidelines for avoid- ferroresonance under all possible switching con-
ing ferroresonance are not always good indica- ditions, operating personnel must be able to rec-
tors of conditions in which ferroresonance may ognize when ferroresonance may occur during
occur. Most guidelines predate the present wide- single-pole switching of cable circuits with con-
spread evaluation of losses by utilities in the nected transformer(s) and know how to section-
transformer procurement process. No-load losses alize and switch the system so that ferroreso-
have a direct effect on the ferroresonance sus- nance will not occur.
ceptibility of a transformer, and the substantial This section provides the system designer
decrease in transformer losses in recent years with information needed to design a system
makes the transformers of today much more in which ferroresonance is less likely. It identi-
susceptible to ferroresonance than those in use fies the distribution transformer connections that
when previous ferroresonance guidelines were are highly susceptible to ferroresonance during
developed. A major investigation of ferroreso- single-phase switching. Under some circum-
nance in modern grounded-wye pad-mounted stances, it may not be possible to design a sys-
transformers was completed in 1992. This inves- tem in which ferroresonance is prevented for
tigation, sponsored by the Distribution Systems any switching procedure or sequence selected
Testing, Application, and Research (DSTAR) by operating personnel. However, certain switch-
consortium, of which NRECA is a member, has ing procedures and sequences will minimize the
obtained results showing that some previous chance of ferroresonance during normal switch-
guidelines about ferroresonance are not valid for ing operations.
Allowable Most rural primary distribution systems operat- that is grounded at least four times per mile. As
Overvoltages ing at nominal phase voltages up to and includ- noted in Section 5, codes in some states require
ing 35 kV (line-to-ground voltages up to 20 kV) that the neutral conductor be grounded more
During
are multigrounded neutral systems. Each pri- frequently than four times per mile.
Ferroresonance mary feeder in these systems, whether overhead When ground faults occur on the primary
or underground, and whether single-phase, vee- feeder of these systems, the voltage between
phase, or three-phase, has a neutral conductor any unfaulted phase and the neutral conductor
6
will rise above the nominal line-to-neutral voltage nominal line-to-neutral voltage. For example, on
for the system. For overhead construction with a 12.47/7.2-kV rural system, the duty cycle volt-
conductors on an eight-foot or longer crossarm, age rating of the surge arrester is either nine or
or primary feeders with concentric neutral cables, 10 kV. The wide acceptance of this application
the voltages from the unfaulted phases to the guide for surge arrester voltage rating acknowl-
neutral conductor in a typical rural system will edges that the equipment connected from phase
not exceed 1.25 times the nominal line-to-neu- to neutral on rural distribution systems is sub-
tral voltage (1.25 per unit or pu). If the primary jected to and can tolerate temporary line-to-
feeders employ spacer cable or armless con- neutral overvoltages of 1.25 times nominal. This
struction, which is not common on most rural 1.25-per-unit overvoltage is also the upper limit
systems, the voltage from an unfaulted phase to on the temporary overvoltages that can be permit-
the neutral conductor can exceed 1.25 pu, rising ted during single-phase switching in rural distribu-
as high as 1.46 times nominal value (1.46 pu). tion systems. The application tables and equations
The 1.25-pu voltage present during ground in this section for determining the allowable
faults is the basis for selecting the duty cycle cable lengths during the switching of cable cir-
voltage rating of the surge arresters applied on cuits and connected transformers are based on
most rural distribution systems. Arrester duty limiting temporary overvoltages to 1.25 pu.
cycle ratings are at least 1.25 times the system
Distribution Ferroresonance in distribution systems occurs The transformer connections shown in Fig-
Transformer during the single phasing of circuits, usually ures 6.1(c), (d), (e), and (f) are used to supply
Connections underground cable circuits, and their connected four-wire delta secondary systems, operating at
distribution transformers. Whether ferroreso- a nominal voltage of 240/120 volts. The open-
nance is possible—as well as the maximum delta/open-delta connections and the open-wye/
allowed length of a circuit with a connected open-delta connections usually are made from
transformer that can be switched with single- two single-phase distribution transformers, al-
pole switches without exceeding 1.25-pu voltage though some “three-phase” transformers have
—depend on the connections of the distribution been made with the open-wye/open-delta con-
transformer primary windings. Certain winding nections. The delta/delta and the ungrounded-
connections are highly susceptible to ferroreso- wye/delta connections are found in some
nance, whereas other winding connections three-phase transformers, and are used in con-
prevent ferroresonance under all practical necting single-phase transformers into three-
conditions. phase banks. In the four-wire delta secondary
Figure 6.1 shows the more common trans- systems, the three-phase, three-wire load is sup-
former connections found in rural distribution plied phase-to-phase at 240 volts, and the sin-
systems. gle-phase, three-wire 120/240-volt lighting load
The delta/grounded-wye connections and the is connected across the secondary winding with
grounded-wye/grounded-wye the center tap and secondary
connections in Figures 6.1(a) neutral conductor.
and (b) are used to supply With certain distribu- As discussed in detail later
four-wire wye secondary sys- in this section, transformers
tion transformer
tems, operating at nominal with ungrounded primary
voltages of either 208Y/120 winding connections, windings (delta, open-delta,
volts or 480Y/277 volts. These ferroresonance is and ungrounded-wye) are
winding connections are used highly susceptible to ferro-
in three-phase transformers very likely during resonance during single-phase
and in banking three single- single phasing. switching in underground sys-
phase transformers. tems. In contrast, three-phase
2 4 2 – Se c t io n 6
6
P S P S P S
Neutral Neutral
Neutral
(a) Delta/Grounded-Wye (b) Grounded-Wye/Grounded-Wye (c) Delta/Delta
P S P S P S
Neutral Neutral Neutral
(d) Ungrounded-Wye/Delta (e) Open-Delta/Open-Delta (f) Open-Wye/Open-Delta
P = Primary
S = Secondary
FIGURE 6.1: Transformer Connections for Four-Wire Wye and Four-Wire Delta Services.
transformers or transformer banks with the and may even prevent ferroresonance from
grounded primary windings (grounded-wye or occurring, depending on construction of the
open-wye) are less susceptible to ferroresonance three-phase transformer or transformer bank.
Qualitative DEFINITION First, review the response of the series resis-

Description of Ferroresonance is a complex electrical phenome- tive-inductive-capacitive (RLC) circuit with linear
Ferroresonance non in electrical circuits having at least one non- parameters, and second, look at the effect of a
linear inductor and at least one linear capacitor nonlinear inductor in the circuit. With this back-
that is fed by one or more voltage sources having ground, it is then possible to consider the effects
a sinusoidal waveshape. The nonlinear inductor of this phenomenon on the distribution system.
is a saturable circuit element such as an iron core
transformer. When ferroresonance occurs from a RESONANCE IN THE LINEAR
switching operation to energize or de-energize a INDUCTIVE-CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
circuit, an initial transient response may eventu- Figure 6.2 shows a series RLC circuit, in which
ally settle into a sustained steady-state response. the resistor, inductor, and capacitor are linear.
In general, the steady-state voltage and current Linear means that the resistance, inductance,
waveforms are not sinusoidal like those of the and capacitance of the elements do not change
source voltage. with time, current, or any other parameter. The
There can be more than one steady-state re- source is a sine wave voltage with a peak mag-
sponse mode in a specific circuit. The steady-state nitude of VM, having a frequency of ω radians
mode may depend on the initial or transient per second. In the 60-Hz system, the radian
conditions in the circuit. Ferroresonance can be frequency is 377 radians per second.
a chaotic phenomenon, meaning that a switch- The circuit is energized by closing switch S1 at
ing event repeated identically on the same cir- time zero. Following switch closure, the current in
cuit yields results that are substantially different. the circuit and the voltage across each element
The circuit may never settle into a steady-state consist of a steady-state response and almost
condition and may erratically jump from one always a transient response. The transient re-
mode to another indefinitely. sponse decays with time to zero, leaving just the
6
XL = ωL
Equation 6.1 gives the rms value of the cur-
S1 R
rent in the circuit.
In Equation 6.1, ωL is the inductive reactance,
XL, and 1/ωC is the capacitive reactance, XC, with
both reactances having units of ohms. When the
inductive reactance ωL is equal to the capacitive
VMsin(wt+θ)
XC = 1/ωC
reactance, 1/ωC, the denominator of the equation

has a minimum value equal to R, the circuit resis-
XL = Inductive reactance tance, and the current in the circuit has a maximum
ω = Frequency of the system, in radians per second value equal to Vrms/R amperes. Also, at this point,
XC = Capacitive reactance the input impedance to the circuit of Figure 6.2 is
purely resistive and the circuit is in resonance.
FIGURE 6.2: Series RLC Circuit with Sinusoidal Excitation. If the inductance L and capacitance C are con-
stant, the frequency at which resonance occurs
is called the resonant frequency. The resonant
steady-state response. The steady-state response frequency, designated as ω0 in radians per sec-
continues as long as the circuit is connected to ond, is given by Equation 6.2.
the source. When there is no trapped voltage on During resonance, the voltage across the resis-
the capacitor and no current in the inductor, the tor is at its maximum possible value and equal
point on the source voltage wave at which switch to the source voltage, Vrms. The magnitudes of
S1 is closed (closing angle θ) determines if there the voltage across the inductor and capacitor at
is a transient response and the initial magnitude
of that response. Just two closing angles do not
produce a transient response (occurring, of course, Equation 6.2: Resonant Frequency.
at the zero crossings).
ω0 =
1
With linear parameters in the circuit, only one radians/second
LC
steady-state response is possible, and it is inde-
where: ω0 = Resonant frequency, in radians

pendent of the closing angle and initial condi-
tions at switch closure, such as capacitor voltage
per second
and inductor current. In steady-state conditions,
after the transient response subsides, the current L = Inductance of the inductor, in Henries
and the voltages vary sinusoidally with time at C = Capacitance of the capacitor,
the same frequency as the source voltage. in Farads
Equation 6.1: RLC Current Response. Equation 6.3: Resonant Voltage.
Vrms L
Irms =
R2 + (ωL – 1/ωC)2 C
VL = Vrms
R
where: Irms = rms value of the current
Vrms = rms value of the source voltage where: VL = Voltage across the inductor
and capacitor at resonance
R = Resistance of the resistor, in ohms
L = Inductance of the inductor,
L = Inductance of the inductor,
in Henries
in Henries
C = Capacitance of the capacitor,
C = Capacitance of the capacitor,
in Farads
in Farads
ω = Frequency of the system, in radians
R = Resistance of the resistor, in ohms
per second Vrms = rms value of the source voltage
2 4 4 – Se c t io n 6
6
resonance are equal to each other, the value ther full-scale testing, transient network analyzer
given by Equation 6.3. (TNA) studies, or digital transient programs.
From Equation 6.3 it can be seen that the Graphical techniques give an approximate solu-
voltage across the inductor and capacitor at res- tion for the fundamental frequency component
onance in a series RLC circuit can be greater of the response of the ferroresonant circuit, giv-
than the source voltage. If there were no resis- ing some insight into the phenomenon (Ruden-
tance in the circuit, the capacitor and inductor berg, 1970, Chapter 48). Graphical techniques
voltages would be infinite at the resonant fre- also show that two steady-state solutions are
quency, but the resistance prevents this. In addi- possible for many ferroresonant circuits.
tion, when there is resistance in the circuit, the The two steady-state responses in the single-
voltage across the inductor has its maximum at a phase ferroresonant circuit are called the nor-
frequency that is somewhat above the resonant mal mode and the ferroresonant mode (Feldman
frequency, and the capacitor voltage has its and Hopkin, 1974). The ferroresonant mode is
maximum at a frequency that is slightly below characterized by substantial saturation of the
the resonant frequency. nonlinear inductor, high capacitor voltages, and
In the linear circuit of Figure 6.2, the initial relatively high currents. When the steady-state
conditions and the closing angle have no effect ferroresonant mode occurs, the current and volt-
on the steady-state response, including whether age waveforms in the circuit are periodic but
resonance does or does not occur. But if the in- not sinusoidal like the source voltage. Also, the
ductor is nonlinear, because of the presence of peak values of the inductor and capacitor volt-
an iron core, the initial conditions and closing ages can be higher than the peak value of the
angle do affect the probability of resonance oc- source voltage, just as in a linear circuit that is in
curring. The resulting response in circuits with resonance. Ferroresonant voltage waveshapes
iron core inductors is called ferroresonance. can be classified into three types of repetitive
patterns or modes. Three steady-state ferroreso-
FERRORESONANCE IN THE NONLINEAR nant modes are, thus, possible (Germany, Mas-
INDUCTIVE CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT tero, and Vroman, 1974):
When the inductor in the series RLC circuit of
Figure 6.2 is nonlinear and the circuit is ener- 1. Fundamental,
gized by closing switch S1, there is both a tran- 2. Subharmonic, and
sient response and a steady-state response. The 3. Higher harmonic.
transient response decays to zero, leaving just
the steady-state response, but the time for this to With fundamental ferroresonance, the cur-
happen with the nonlinear circuit frequently is rents and voltages are badly distorted, but the
much greater than in a linear circuit. Generally, component at the system frequency is the great-
two steady-state responses are possible in a sim- est. In subharmonic ferroresonance, the current
ple single-phase circuit with one nonlinearity, and voltage waveforms repeat at intervals of
with the response determined by the closing two or more fundamental-frequency cycles. In
angle and the initial conditions. However, the subharmonic ferroresonance, the currents and
probability of the two possible steady-state re- voltages contain a large component whose fre-
sponses is not the same or easily definable. quency is less than the frequency of the supply
Simple equations can be written and solved system. And with higher harmonic ferroreso-
for both the transient and steady-state responses nance, the response quantities include a large
of the linear RLC circuit when energized from a component whose frequency is higher than that
sinusoidal voltage source. For example, see of the supply voltage. All three of these re-
Equation 6.1 for the steady-state current. How- sponses have been observed during ferroreso-
ever, when the inductance is nonlinear, the nance in cable-fed five-legged core, grounded-
equations describing the circuit do not have a wye/grounded-wye transformers used on the
simple solution. Most studies of ferroresonance systems of RUS borrowers (Smith, Swanson, and
in power systems have been performed with ei- Borst, 1975).
6
Relatively, the normal mode is characterized Ferroresonance in distribution circuits can occur
by lower values of flux, current, and voltage if a capacitor is placed in series with a nonlinear
than occur in the ferroresonant mode. In addi- inductor. This condition is present when one or
tion, with sinusoidal voltages applied, the re- two phases of the primary line are open and
sponses in the normal mode are more or less there are unloaded transformers downstream
sinusoidal. from the open conductor. The capacitance can
The final ferroresonant mode that has been be either upstream or downstream of the trans-
observed in some nonlinear circuits is one in former as long as both are downstream from the
which the responses are nonperiodic. That is, a open-phase point.
steady-state response never develops. This
mode can occur in distribution systems during SWITCHING OPERATIONS PRODUCING
ferroresonance. FERRORESONANCE IN THREE-PHASE
When both the ferroresonant mode and nor- DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
mal mode responses are possible in circuits as Figure 6.3 shows a typical situation in which fer-
in Figure 6.2 and there is no trapped charge on roresonance can occur. One three-phase trans-
the capacitor or flux in the nonlinear inductor, former is fed through a cable circuit from an
the point on the voltage wave at switch closing overhead line, or from a pad-mounted switching
determines the response mode. A range of clos- enclosure on an underground feeder. The trans-
ing angles give the ferroresonant mode response former primary windings are connected in delta,
and a range of closing angles give the normal and load is not connected to the secondary dur-
mode response. ing switching. The fuses providing fault protec-
tion to the transformer and cable circuit are lo-
cated at the cable riser pole or switching enclo-
sure, whatever the situation may be. A perma-
Surge Arresters nent connection is made between the trans-
former primary terminals and the cable circuit.
Fused Switches
Shielded Cable Circuit Pad-Mounted Transformer When the unloaded three-phase transformer
φA
and cable circuit, as in Figure 6.3, are energized
H1 X1 No or de-energized with single-pole switches, and
H2 Load just one or two switches are closed, a series LC
X2
φC
circuit, similar to that in Figure 6.2, is estab-
X3
MGN Feeder (Overhead or Underground)
H3 lished, where the inductance is nonlinear. The

φB
capacitance is from the primary cable on the
open phase(s), and the nonlinear inductance is
due to the transformer exciting impedance(s). If
Cable Capacitance the values of L and C are in a specific range, fer-
Neutral Conductor
Cable Shield and roresonance can occur, producing overvoltages

Concentric Neutral from both phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground
Riser Pole or
Switching Enclosure on the open phases. In Figure 6.3, only the
phase A switch is closed, so overvoltages can
appear on phases B and C. These overvoltages
can persist as long as one or two primary phases
remain open. After all three phases are closed or
opened to eliminate the single-phase condition,
ferroresonance is not possible.
When ferroresonance occurs, the transformer
may be very noisy because of magnetostriction in
FIGURE 6.3: Cable-Fed Three-Phase Transformer Susceptible to the core. The sound emitted by the transformer
Ferroresonance. frequently is described as rattling, whining, or
2 4 6 – Se c t io n 6
6
loud humming. However, (Walling, 1992) with grounded
when low-level overvoltages Ferroresonance is wye-wye transformers on five-
occur across the transformer legged cores have shown that,
windings during ferroreso- not a high-current when sufficient capacitance is
nance, or the voltages are phenomenon, but present to create ferroreso-
less than rated, the trans- nance, the overvoltage was
formers may not emit any
high overvoltages present in virtually every
unusual noises. may be present. switching event. From case to
If the overvoltages do not case, the maximum overvolt-
cause an insulation failure or age magnitudes varied within
short circuit, the currents usu- a range.
ally will not activate overcurrent protective de- The preceding discussion assumed that load
vices. Consequently, the overvoltages on the was not connected to the secondary side of the
open phases persist until all three phases are ei- transformer in Figure 6.3. If sufficient resistive
ther connected to, or disconnected from, the load (reasonably balanced) is connected to the
source. However, if the overvoltages cause the secondary, ferroresonant overvoltages will not
failure of cable insulation, transformer insula- occur. However, most system operators will not
tion, or surge arresters on the open phases, the intentionally switch a cable circuit and connected
currents may operate overcurrent devices. If a transformer with consumer load connected to
cable insulation failure occurred on open phases the secondary because doing so makes a single-
B or C in Figure 6.3 when just the phase A fused phase condition that may cause harmful over-
switch was closed, the fault current would not voltages if insufficient load is connected.
blow the fuse in phase A. The operator at the
switch location might not be aware of the insu- EQUIPMENT AFFECTED BY
lation failure. But, when the fused switch in the FERRORESONANT OVERVOLTAGES
faulted phase is subsequently closed, high cur- The overvoltages produced by ferroresonance
rent blows the fuse in the faulted phase. can cause insulation in major equipment to fail.
When the transformer primary windings are As early as 1954, the literature mentioned the
ungrounded as in Figure 6.3, and the cable cir- failure of reclosers and surge arresters in 24.9-kV
cuit is a specified length, a defined switching rural systems from higher than normal 60-Hz
operation may produce ferroresonant overvolt- overvoltages (Crann and Flickinger, 1954). When
ages some of the time and, at other times, over- cable-fed transformers are energized or de-ener-
voltages will not occur. That is, there is a finite gized by switching from a riser pole (as in Fig-
probability that ferroresonant overvoltages will ure 6.3), transformer insulation failures are
occur when the single-pole switches energize or numerous, especially in the early days of under-
de-energize the circuit and transformer (Young, ground distribution when some pad-mounted
Schmid, and Fergestad, 1968). Factors affecting three-phase distribution transformers employed
the probability are the point on the voltage the T-T winding connections. Tests with T-T
wave at which the switch is operated, the resid- cable-fed transformers produced transient peak
ual flux in the core of the transformer, the initial voltages as high as nine times normal peak volt-
charge on the cable capacitance at the time of age during ferroresonance (Young, Schmid, and
switching, the cable circuit length, the size of Fergestad, 1968).
the transformer, and the switching sequence. Other components damaged by ferroresonant
The ferroresonant overvoltage probabilities re- overvoltages are cables and elbow connectors.
ported by Young, Schmid, and Fergestad (1968) Overvoltages have caused corona in separable
are the probabilities of obtaining the ferroreso- insulated connectors used in 34.5-kV under-
nant mode rather than the normal mode. ground systems (Locke, 1978).
Earlier investigations (Smith, Swanson, and Surge arresters applied on the distribution
Borst, 1975) and more recent investigations system are either gapped SiC arresters, gapless
6
MOV units, or gapped MOV units. In general, a
B gapped arrester of a given duty cycle voltage
rating can withstand a higher ferroresonant over-
4 7” 47” voltage than a gapless arrester can, provided the
A C peak voltage does not exceed the gap sparkover
88”
voltage. The effect of ferroresonant overvoltages
on gapless MOV arresters is much less than
49” would be presumed by examining the standard
temporary overvoltage (TOV) curves (Walling et
58 ”
” 52 al., 1992). The standard TOV curves are devel-
oped using stiff 60-Hz sources, but the ferroreso-
nant circuit is weak compared to the load im-
posed by the MOV arrester in its conductive state.
N
This means that the arrester can hold down the
voltage, usually without drawing a large amount
Conductor Heights Above Ground of current. However, depending on the heat
A = 300”
CL of Pole
transfer characteristics of a given MOV arrester
B = 317”
design, the arrester may eventually overheat.
C = 300”
N = 267”
IMPACT OF CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION
One of the parameters that determines if ferrores-
onance occurs with single-pole switching of a
circuit with an unloaded transformer is the circuit
capacitance. The equivalent capacitances of over-
head lines are much less, by at least a factor of
FIGURE 6.4: Conductor Spacings for an Overhead Line on an
ten, than the phase-to-ground capacitance of an
Eight-Foot Crossarm.
underground distribution cable of equal length.
Because of the higher capacitance, ferroresonance
is more likely in underground systems than in
overhead systems.
φB
CAB CBC
φA φC Circuit and
CAC transformer capaci-
tances are important
in ferroresonance
equations.
CAG CBG CCG
Capacitances of Overhead Lines

An overhead line, consisting of three phase con-
ductors and a multigrounded neutral conductor,
as shown in Figure 6.4, is represented by six
Ground
equivalent capacitors as shown in Figure 6.5.
FIGURE 6.5: Equivalent Capacitance Network for an Overhead There is an equivalent capacitance between each
Multigrounded Neutral Line. pair of phase conductors and from each phase
conductor to ground. The neutral conductor does
2 4 8 – Se c t io n 6
6
not appear in this representation because, capaci- For symmetrical three-phase distribution lines,
tively, it is at the same potential as the ground. the phase-to-phase equivalent capacitances are
about 0.002 microfarads per mile, and the phase-
to-ground capacitances are about 0.010 micro-
TABLE 6.1: Values for Equivalent Capacitances of an Overhead Line
farads per mile (Hopkinson, 1965). These are
With 4/0 ACSR Phase Conductors and a 1/0 ACSR Neutral Conductor.
easy-to-remember, rule-of-thumb values. For a
Phase-to-Ground Capacitances Phase-to-Phase Capacitances line with 4/0 ACSR phase conductors and a 1/0
(microfarads/mile) (microfarads/mile) ACSR neutral conductor, with the conductor
CAG = 0.0090 CAB = 0.0033 heights and spacings in Figure 6.4, values for the
equivalent capacitances are given in Table 6.1.
CBG = 0.0081 CBC = 0.0032 The three phase-to-ground capacitances are not
CCG = 0.0092 CAC = 0.0016 equal because of the unsymmetrical conductor
configuration. Also, the phase-to-phase capaci-
tances are not the same, with the capacitance
from A to C being the smallest as these two
Insulation phase conductors are the farthest apart.
(220 Mils)
Capacitances of Cable Circuits
Insulation
With single-conductor shielded cable, all capaci-
Shield tance is from phase to ground; there is no phase-
to-phase capacitance. Figure 6.6 shows a cross
section of a concentric neutral cable. The separa-
D d tion between the two “plates” making the capac-
itor—the conductor shield and the insulation
Phase shield—is the thickness of the insulation, which
Conductor
is less than one-half inch. In contrast, the con-
Conductor ductor separation in an overhead line is several
Shield
feet or more, so the cable capacitance is much
larger than any of the equivalent capacitances of
Neutral Wire
an overhead line.
Although the calculation of the equivalent ca-
FIGURE 6.6: Cross Section of a Multiwire Concentric Neutral Cable. pacitances for the overhead line is rather involved,
the calculation of the shielded cable capacitance
is straightforward. The capacitance is found with
Equation 6.4. In Equation 6.4, the logarithm is to
Equation 6.4: Shielded Cable Capacitance. the base 10.
0.03886 K Tables 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, and 6.5 list the capaci-
C= µFarads/mile tance of cables with nominal insulation thick-
log D/d
nesses of 175, 220, 260, and 345 mils in sizes up
through 1,000 kcmil. Each table gives the con-
where: C = Capacitance, in microfarads/mile
ductor size, diameter over the insulation, the ca-
D = Diameter over the insulation, pacitance for cables with HMWPE and XLPE
in inches insulation, and the cable charging in kVA per
d = Diameter over the conductor shield, mile for a three-phase circuit operating at the in-
in inches dicated phase-to-phase voltage. For cables with
K = Dielectric constant of the insulation EPR insulation with the same nominal diameter
(For HMWPE and XLPE insulation, K over the insulation and the same insulation
is about 2.3. For EPR insulation, K is thickness, the capacitances are approximately
about 3.0.) 1.3 times those in the tables.
6
TABLE 6.2: Representative Capacitance and Three-Phase Charging for XLPE Insulated Cables
With 175 Mils Insulation.*
Conductor Size Nominal O.D. of Insulation Capacitance Three-Phase Charging
(AWG or kcmil) (inches) (µFarads/mile) @ 12.47 kV (kVAC/mile)
2 0.655 0.269 15.8
1 0.690 0.291 17.0
1/0 0.725 0.312 18.3
2/0 0.765 0.336 19.7
3/0 0.855 0.391 22.9
4/0 0.915 0.427 25.0
250 0.965 0.457 26.8
300 1.020 0.490 28.7
350 1.065 0.517 30.3
400 1.110 0.543 31.9
500 1.195 0.594 34.8
600 1.275 0.641 37.6
750 1.375 0.701 41.1
1,000 1.520 0.786 46.1
* Dielectric constant of 2.3. For EPR cables with same nominal O.D., multiply capacitance and charging values in table by 1.3.
Note. 175 mil insulation no longer allowed by RUS
TABLE 6.3: Representative Capacitance and Three-Phase Charging or XLPE Insulated Cables
2 0.745 0.230 13.5
1 0.780 0.248 14.5
1/0 0.810 0.263 15.4
2/0 0.850 0.282 16.6
3/0 0.940 0.326 19.1
4/0 1.005 0.357 21.0
250 1.050 0.379 22.2
300 1.105 0.405 23.8
350 1.155 0.429 25.2
400 1.200 0.451 26.4
500 1.280 0.489 28.6
600 1.360 0.527 30.9
750 1.465 0.576 33.8
1,000 1.610 0.645 37.8
2 5 0 – Se c t io n 6
6
1 0.902 0.240 28.0
1/0 0.942 0.256 30.0
2/0 0.986 0.275 32.1
3/0 1.036 0.295 34.6
4/0 1.092 0.318 37.3
250 1.158 0.345 40.4
300 1.210 0.366 42.9
350 1.261 0.387 45.3
400 1.306 0.405 47.4
500 1.389 0.439 51.4
600 1.443 0.461 53.9
750 1.578 0.515 60.3
1,000 1.767 0.590 69.1
Conductor Size Nominal O.D. of Capacitance Three-Phase Charging Three-Phase Charging
(AWG or kcmil) Insulation (inches) (µFarads/mile) @ 24.94 kV (kVAC/mile) @34.5 kV (kVAC/mile)
1/0 1.070 0.199 46.6 89.3
2/0 1.110 0.212 49.7 95.1
3/0 1.200 0.241 56.4 108.1
4/0 1.265 0.261 61.2 117.1
250 1.310 0.275 64.5 123.4
300 1.365 0.292 68.5 131.0
350 1.415 0.308 72.2 138.2
400 1.460 0.322 75.4 144.5
500 1.540 0.346 81.2 155.3
600 1.620 0.371 87.0 166.5
750 1.720 0.401 94.1 179.9
1,000 1.870 0.447 104.8 200.6
The capacitance values in the tables assume vary somewhat from manufacturer to manufac-
that the diameter over the conductor shield, d, turer, with the values in the second column
is the diameter over the insulation, D, minus taken from one manufacturer’s handbook. Cable
twice the insulation thickness. The diameter size has a major effect on capacitance and, con-
over the insulation of a given size cable will sequently, the likelihood of ferroresonance. The
6
TABLE 6.6: Phase-to-Ground Capacitance of Three-Phase Grounded- is particularly true of banks with ungrounded
Wye Capacitor Banks.* primaries (e.g., floating wye, delta, or open
delta). It is also true of grounded-wye/grounded-
Nominal Three-Phase Capacitance in Microfarads wye pad-mounted transformers using five-legged
Rating (kVA) 12.47 kV System 24.9 kV System cores at 24.9 and 34.5 kV.
150 2.94 0.75 While there are many inherent capacitances
internal to a transformer, the relevance of each
300 5.88 1.53 depends on the primary winding connection.
450 8.83 2.21 For a grounded-wye primary, the net capaci-
tance between primary winding layers is the ma-
600 11.77 2.94
jor contributor to phase-ground capacitance in
900 17.65 4.41 transformers with the primary winding wound
outside of the secondary (SP construction). Mi-
* Capacitance values based on 115 percent of nominal kVA rating.
nor contributions are made by the capacitance
between the outer primary winding layer to the
capacitance values in the tables are used in ap-
core and tank. In transformers with the secondary
plication criteria for calculating the maximum
wound on both the inside and the outside of the
cable length that can be switched without ex-
primary (SPS construction), the capacitance be-
ceeding 1.25-pu ferroresonant overvoltages.
tween the outer layer of the primary winding
and the first layer of the outer half of the sec-
Capacitance of Capacitor Banks
ondary winding is also a major contributor. It
Capacitor banks on a three-phase primary circuit
should be noted that there is no simple means
being switched with a transformer may cause
to measure the equivalent phase-to-ground ca-
ferroresonance because the capacitor acts like a
pacitance of a grounded-wye winding and man-
long cable circuit. Table 6.6 gives the capaci-
ufacturers’ design data are needed to calculate
tances of three-phase grounded-wye capacitor
this parameter. The equivalent phase-to-ground
banks installed in 12.47- and 24.9-kV systems.
winding capacitances of a number of grounded-
The capacitance values are based on capacitors
wye pad-mounted transformers have been calcu-
rated either 7.2 or 14.4 kV, with the capacitance
lated; the average trend versus rated line-to-line
calculated with the assumption that the capaci-
primary winding voltage (in kV) and rated kVA
tor may deliver up to 115 percent of nominal
has been reduced to the empirical calculation in
kVAR at rated voltage. Even the smallest capaci-
Equation 6.5 (Walling, 1992).
tor banks on a three-phase circuit look like at
least a mile of shielded cable.
Equation 6.5
Capacitance of Transformer Windings
0.000469 × (kVA)0.4
Transformer windings have an inherent capaci- CXFMR =
tance to ground. This capacitance adds to that (kVA)0.25
provided by underground cables, overhead lines,
or capacitor banks and it contributes to creating For transformers with ungrounded primary
a ferroresonant circuit. For a given transformer, connections (e.g., floating wye, delta, or open-
a maximum capacitance to ground can be left delta), the winding capacitances contributing to
connected to an open phase during single-phase ferroresonance are not the same as just described
switching without risking excessive ferroreso- for grounded-wye primaries and the empirical
nant overvoltage. The transformer capacitance, equation does not necessarily apply. The layer-
thus, directly reduces the allowable amount of to-layer capacitance does not contribute to the
capacitance that can be provided by the con- phase-to-ground capacitance, for example. In a
nected cable, overhead line, or capacitor bank. transformer with SPS construction, the capaci-
In some cases, the transformer capacitance tance between both (a) the outer layer of the
alone is sufficient to create ferroresonance. This primary and the first layer of the outer secondary
2 5 2 – Se c t io n 6
6
and (b) the innermost primary winding layer Because the winding in transformers with un-
and the last layer of the inner secondary add to grounded primaries does not shunt the phase-
the phase-to-ground capacitance and, thus, have to-ground capacitances, the total capacitance
an effect on the likelihood of ferroresonance. can be easily measured.
Ferroresonance Ferroresonance can occur with certain trans- The primary windings of single-phase distribu-
When Switching former connections and switching operations in tion transformers in banks in the overhead sys-
at the Primary overhead distribution systems when the switch- tem, and in the underground system, may or may
ing is done at the primary terminals of the trans- not be grounded by connection to the multi-
Terminals of
former bank (two or three single-phase trans- grounded neutral conductor of the primary system.
Overhead and formers). Similarly, ferroresonance can occur in
Underground underground systems with the same transformer GROUNDED PRIMARY WINDINGS
Transformer connections when the switching is done at the When the primary windings of the single-phase
Banks primary terminals of the bank. The capacitance transformers in the bank are grounded, either
forming the ferroresonant circuit in these cases the grounded-wye or the open-wye connection
is the inherent capacitance of the transformer is employed. With grounded primary windings,
windings as discussed in the previous subsection. whether the secondary is in wye or delta, ferrores-
Before widespread loss evaluation, ferroreso- onance is impossible during single-pole switch-
nant overvoltages seldom occurred on five- and ing at the primary terminals of the transformer
15-kV class overhead distribution systems when bank, at any primary voltage level, whether load
the switching was done at the primary terminals is or is not connected to the secondary side of
of the bank (Stoelting, 1966). Ferroresonance did the bank. But if power factor capacitors, con-
occur during this era in 24.9- and 34.5-kV over- nected in either delta or floating-wye, are ap-
head systems when energizing or de-energizing— plied on the secondary side of the otherwise un-
with single-pole switches located at the primary loaded bank, ferroresonance is possible.
terminals—small transformer banks connected When opening and closing switches at the
floating-wye on the primary and delta on the primary terminals of transformer banks (with
secondary. Recent tests performed on a bank of two or three single-phase transformers) with the
modern low-loss 13.8-kV (line-to-line) trans- grounded-wye or the open-wye primary wind-
formers, with the primaries connected in float- ings, whether the primary circuits are overhead
ing-wye, have shown very se- or underground, disconnect
vere ferroresonant overvolt- secondary capacitors before
ages. Thus, it is no longer safe All switching of the switching is performed if
to consider 15-kV class trans- the capacitors are connected
transformers or
formers immune to ferroreso- in delta or ungrounded wye.
nance when switching at the transformer banks
terminals of banks with un- with ungrounded UNGROUNDED PRIMARY
grounded primary windings. WINDINGS
This subsection considers primary connections In the past, when the primary
situations in which the switch- should be considered windings of the single-phase
ing is done at the primary ter- transformers in the bank were
as having the potential
minals of transformer banks not grounded in 12.47-kV and
made from single-phase trans- for ferroresonance. lower voltage systems, and
formers when no primary cir- load was not connected to the
cuits are connected to the secondary system, ferroreso-
open terminals. The lessons learned when nance and harmful overvoltages generally did
switching transformer banks in overhead systems not occur when single-pole switching was per-
apply equally well to underground systems. formed at the primary terminals (Ferguson,
6
1968). One can no longer transformers in a 34.5-kV
assume this to always be true Temporary system resulted in steady-state
when more modern loss-eval- voltages to ground on the
uated distribution transformers neutral-point grounds open phases of about 2.2 times
are used. Connections in installed for switching normal (Pennsylvania Electric
which the windings are Company, 1964). More recent
ungrounded are delta, open-
must always be full-scale tests of modern low-
delta, and floating-wye. If load removed for normal loss 25-kVA transformers with
is connected to the secondary operation. silicon-steel cores, banked in a
when the switching is per- floating-wye/delta connection
formed at the primary termi- at 25 kV, yielded peak over-
nals, and the load is voltages in excess of four per
reasonably balanced, overvoltages also will not unit (Walling, 1991). Whether the primary system
occur. is overhead or underground, overvoltages can
When 24.9-kV and higher voltages were adopt- occur during single-pole switching at the primary
ed for overhead distribution systems, ferroreso- terminals of small floating-wye/delta banks in 15-,
nance did occur when switching at the primary 25-, and 35-kV class systems.
terminals of small floating-wye/delta transformer The neutral point of the primary windings
banks without load on the secondary. Tests by should be temporarily connected to the neutral
the RUS showed that phase-to-ground overvolt- conductor of the primary system to prevent
ages as high as 2.5 pu occurred on the open pri- overvoltages during the single-pole switching at
mary phase when switching banks made from the primary terminals of the smaller floating-
10- and 25-kVA transformers in 24.9-kV systems wye/delta banks. This connection is represented
(Crann and Flickinger, 1954). Full-scale tests by in Figure 6.7 by the closing of switch SW1 in the
one utility with three 15-kVA units in a 34.5-kV connection between the neutral of the bank and
floating-wye/delta bank resulted in phase-to- the neutral conductor of the primary system. Fer-
ground overvoltages of five per unit (Shultz, roresonance occurs during single-phase condi-
1964). Tests by another utility with three 50-kVA tions, and it doesn’t matter if the cutouts are
being closed to energize the bank or opened to
de-energize the bank. Thus, the switch in the
neutral is closed before the three fused cutouts
Multigrounded Neutral Primary Feeder
are closed to energize the bank, and the neutral
φA
switch is also closed before the three fused
Neutral Conductor cutouts are opened to de-energize the bank.
φB After the cutouts are closed to energize the
bank, neutral switch SW1 must be opened. If the
φC switch remains closed, the transformer bank acts
Fused Cutouts
φA φB φC as a ground source for the primary feeder under
Service normal conditions, tending to balance the load
Surge Arresters Switch on the three primary phases. Furthermore, if an
open phase occurred on the primary feeder
between the substation and the location of the
Pole-Top grounded-wye/delta transformer bank, the bank
Transformer Bank
SW1
would supply the load on the open primary
phase beyond the open point. This condition
may produce loadings where the fuses for the
grounded-wye bank do not provide overload
FIGURE 6.7: Floating-Wye/Delta Transformer Bank with Fused Cutouts
protection. The transformers can fail thermally
at Primary Terminals.
before the fused cutouts operate to relieve the
2 5 4 – Se c t io n 6
6
overload. Of even more importance is the fact the floating-wye/delta bank; if the two trans-
that the backfeed condition from the grounded- formers in the open-wye/open-delta bank are
wye bank will be hazardous to personnel work- inadvertently connected to the same primary
ing on the lines. phase, the secondary phase-to-phase voltage
Temporarily grounding the neutral of the float- across the missing leg will be two times normal.
ing-wye/delta bank prevents ferroresonance As shown in Figure 6.7, if load is connected
during planned single-pole switching. This to the secondary of the floating-wye/delta bank
grounding will not prevent ferroresonance if a during switching and the load is reasonably bal-
phase opens in the primary supply lines when anced, overvoltages will not occur from phase
the bank and lines are unloaded or lightly to neutral on the bank side of the open cutouts
loaded, as the neutral will not be grounded. on the primary side regardless of primary system
The floating-wye/delta bank is employed to voltage. However, if the load connected to the
supply three- and four-wire delta secondaries. secondary is badly unbalanced or connected
An alternative to temporarily grounding the neu- across just one phase, the phase-to-neutral volt-
tral of the floating-wye/delta bank, to prevent age at the open primary terminal can be as high
ferroresonance during switching at the primary as 2.65 pu. This is not due to a nonlinear reso-
terminals, is to select transformer connections nance, but to voltage feedback through the sec-
that can be grounded yet do not act as a ground ondary load (Gasal, 1986). Such occurrences have
source for the primary system. The open-wye/ caused the failure of gapped SiC and MOV surge
open-delta transformer bank satisfies these crite- arresters connected to the terminals of the bank.
ria for service to three- and four-wire delta loads If a floating-wye/delta bank is to be switched at
in 25- and 35-kV class systems. However, al- its primary terminals with load connected to the
though this connection prevents ferroresonance secondary, regardless of primary voltage, the
for single-pole switching, it may create higher load should be reasonably balanced.
voltage unbalance in the secondary system than
Ferroresonance When 15-kV class voltages were selected for Sometimes the arresters failed. The cause of
with Cable-Fed, overhead multigrounded neutral systems, the these problems was ferroresonance.
Three-Phase ungrounded-wye or delta connections frequently For the system configuration of Figure 6.8,
were employed for primary windings in distribu- Figure 6.9 shows the measured voltage wave-
Transformers
tion transformer banks and in three-phase trans- forms and current into terminal H2 of the trans-
with Delta or formers. These connections had been used former when the cable and transformer are
Ungrounded-Wye successfully in lower voltage primary systems. In energized with single-pole switches. These
Connected the 1950s and ’60s, when pad-mounted and sub- waveforms are from tests on a 150-kVA delta/
Primary Windings mersible transformers were first produced for grounded-wye transformer bank fed through a
UD systems, many of them also had the delta or cable circuit with a phase-to-ground capacitance
ungrounded-wye primary windings that had of 0.1 microfarads per phase. Terminal H1 is en-
been applied successfully in overhead systems. ergized first by closing the switch in phase A,
Early UD systems often consisted of a three- followed 12 cycles later by closing the switch in
phase transformer fed through a cable circuit phase B to energize terminal H2. During this 12-
from an overhead line, with fused cutouts at the cycle interval, the voltages from H2 to ground
riser pole to energize and de-energize the cable and H3 to ground are as high as three per unit,
and connected transformer. This arrangement is and the transient response has not fully de-
shown in Figure 6.8. During single-pole switch- cayed. From the waveforms, the ferroresonant
ing at the riser pole, transformers with un- mode response in the first 12 cycles is at funda-
grounded primary windings sometimes failed, or mental frequency. After the switch in phase B is
emitted unusual noises, and externally gapped closed, the transient voltage from terminal H3 to
surge arresters “spat” across the external gap. ground approaches four per unit. Although not
6
Surge Arresters Shielded Cable Circuit Transformer Pad-Mounted Transformer
Switch kVAT
Fused Cutouts L∆ kV
IE%
φA H1 X1 No
XC Load
H2
φC
X2
X3
XC H3
φB
XC
Cable Capacitance
FIGURE 6.8: Three-Phase Cable-Fed Transformer with a Delta-Connected Primary Winding.
2 pu
The factors with the greatest effect on the
3 pu
likelihood of overvoltages on the open phases
H3V during the switching of a cable circuit and a
connected transformer are the following:
• Transformer kVA size (kVAT in Figure 6.8),
4 pu
• Primary voltage level (kV in Figure 6.8),
• Phase-to-ground capacitance (cable length)
H2V
of the circuit being switched with the trans-
former, and
H2 Energized • Transformer exciting current at rated voltage
(IE% in Figure 6.8).
1 pu
H1V Measures that can limit the voltage on the
open phases to 1.25 pu are as follows:
H1 Energized
• Grounding, through a resistor, the neutral of the
wye-connected primary windings (secondary
H2 I connected in delta). This approach has not
been widely accepted because of cost, com-
FIGURE 6.9: Voltage and Current Waveforms During Ferroresonance plexity, and the fact that it cannot be used
with a 150-kVA Delta/Grounded-Wye Bank. with transformers having the delta-connected
primary winding.
• Connecting resistive load to the secondary
shown, closing the switch in phase C terminates side of the three-phase transformer during
ferroresonance and eliminates the overvoltages. single-pole switching. Most users rejected
Other full-scale tests show that, when cable-fed reliance on secondary load as they did not
transformers have the delta or ungrounded-wye want to intentionally single-phase their
primary windings, steady-state overvoltages as customers. Also, if the load was not large
high as four per unit can occur during ferroreso- enough, high overvoltages could occur and
nance (Young, Schmid, and Fergestad, 1968). damage the customer’s load.
2 5 6 – Se c t io n 6
6
• Applying three-pole switches at the riser pole. simulations. Normally, the transformer is at the
Many users rejected three-pole switches end of the cable circuit as in Figure 6.8, but it
because of their high cost in comparison to may be connected at any point along the cable.
fused cutouts. The results from TNA simulations are more con-
• Performing the single-pole switching at the servative than those obtained from the full-scale
primary terminals of the three-phase trans- tests performed in the same era. Therefore, the
former, with no cable connected to the conventional criteria for maximum allowed
de-energized primary terminals. The de-ener- cable lengths have been based on the TNA stud-
gized primary terminals of the transformer are ies for transformers with both the delta and un-
those that are not connected directly to the grounded-wye connected primary windings
source system, but can have voltage on them (Hopkinson, 1967, 1968).
because of coupling through the transformer, The significance of no-load loss to ferroreso-
or because of load on the secondary side of nance susceptibility was not understood at the
the transformer. time the TNA work was performed because there
• Limiting the length of the cable circuit being was good correlation between rated-voltage ex-
switched with the transformer. citing current and ferroresonance susceptibility.
More recent investigations on grounded-wye
A 1.25-pu voltage level is used for establish- transformers indicate that exciting current at
ing ferroresonance criteria for the maximum ca- rated voltage does not accurately reflect ferro-
ble length that can be switched with a connect- resonance susceptibility, but no-load loss does
ed transformer, as temporary overvoltages at this (Walling et al., 1992). Computer simulation of
level should not be harmful to the system or delta-wye transformers tends to indicate that the
equipment. Overvoltages of this and higher same is true for transformers with ungrounded
magnitudes occur during ground faults. Gapped primaries (Walling, 1992). Full-scale testing with
SiC arresters can withstand 1.25-pu temporary modern transformers has yet to be performed to
overvoltages without trouble. Distribution class determine if the previous approach to ferroreso-
and riser pole MOV surge arresters can with- nance guidelines, based on rated exciting cur-
stand temporary overvoltages of 1.25 times sys- rent, is valid for low-loss units. In the absence of
tem line-to-neutral voltage (about 1.0 times ar- a verified new approach, the conventional ap-
rester duty-cycle voltage rating) for one to two proach based on the TNA investigations of the
hours or more, depending on the specific design late 1960s is used in this subsection.
and manufacturer. The 1.25-pu voltage level is When the phase-to-ground voltages on the open
significantly below the applied voltage test given phases are limited to 1.25 pu, the voltage across
to transformers with ungrounded primary wind- the windings, either delta- or wye-connected, will
ings and the induced voltage test given to trans- be less than 1.1 times winding rated voltage. Such
formers with a grounded primary winding. overvoltage will not damage transformers as they
Similarly, the insulation of other equipment such can continuously withstand across their windings,
as cables, cable terminators, splices, separable at no load, 110 percent of winding rated voltage.
connectors, and fused cutouts can withstand the
1.25-pu line-to-neutral voltages from ferroreso- Application Criteria
nance, and commonly occurring ground faults. For a three-phase unloaded transformer with the
delta-connected primary windings fed through a
MAXIMUM ALLOWED CABLE LENGTHS TO cable circuit (as in Figure 6.8), the voltages to
LIMIT OPEN-PHASE VOLTAGES TO 1.25 PU ground on the open phases during single-pole
The maximum cable lengths with a connected switching will not exceed 1.25 pu if the inequal-
transformer that can be switched with single- ity of Equation 6.6 is satisfied.
pole switches so that voltages do not exceed This inequality is expressed in terms of more
1.25 pu were found using either full-scale tests readily available transformer and system para-
(Young, Schmid, and Fergestad, 1968) or TNA meters by the inequality of Equation 6.7.
6
It should be noted that Equation 6.7 ignores depending on transformer voltage and kVA rat-
the capacitance contribution provided by the ing plus the manufacturer’s design practices.
transformer windings. This transformer capaci- From the inequality of Equation 6.7, it can be
tance parameter is not readily available to utili- seen that ferroresonant overvoltages above 1.25
ties but it can be very important because it may pu are more likely to occur with smaller trans-
equal the capacitance of 50 or 100 feet of cable, formers and longer cable circuits, and at the
higher primary voltage levels. The term involv-
ing primary voltage, kV, is squared, so doubling
Equation 6.6 the primary voltage reduces the term on the left
side of the inequality by a factor of four.
≥ 40
XC
XM
Ferroresonance is
where: XC = Phase-to-ground capacitive reactance of one phase of the
cable circuit, in ohms. This capacitive reactance is identified in more likely with small
Figure 6.8. transformers, higher
XM = Equivalent exciting reactance of the transformer, in ohms. This is
equal to the line-to-line rated voltage of the primary winding in
primary voltages, and
volts divided by the rated voltage exciting current in amperes, longer cable circuits.
divided by √3.
When the transformer parameters and cable

capacitance are known, the maximum length
Equation 6.7 (L∆max) of cable circuit that can be switched with
the transformer with the delta-connected primary
≥ 0.286
kVATIE%
winding, so that the voltages do not exceed 1.25
kV2CµF/ML∆ pu, is given by Equation 6.8. This equation in-
cludes the correction for transformer winding ca-
where: kVAT = Nameplate kVA rating of the three-phase transformer pacitance.
IE% = Exciting current of the transformer at rated voltage in percent- Use of Equation 6.8 is illustrated by the fol-
age of rated current lowing example and data:
kV = Rated phase-to-phase voltage of the transformer primary wind-
ing in kV. This is the voltage on the nameplate. kVAT = 1,500 kVA
IE% = 1.0%
CµF/M = Capacitance of the shielded single-conductor cable in micro-
kV = 12.47 kV
farads per mile. This capacitance is found from Equation 6.4.
Representative values are given in Tables 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4. CµF/M = 0.312 µF/M (for 1/0 phase conduc-
tor with 175 mils of XLPE insulation
L∆ = The total length of the cable being switched with the trans-
per Table 6.2)
former with delta-connected primary winding. If the cable ex-
tends beyond the transformer, this is the total length of the CXFMR = 0.006 µF
cable being switched.
Placing these values in Equation 6.8 gives the
following:
Equation 6.8
L∆max =
3.5kVATIE% CXFMR × 5,280
L∆max = – 3.5 × 1,500 × 1.0 0.006 × 5,280
kV2CµF/M CµF/M –
12.472 × 0.312 0.312
where: CXFMR = The equivalent phase-to-ground winding capacitance of the = 6.7 feet
transformer in µF
2 5 8 – Se c t io n 6
6
This example reveals that, even with larger by elbows), three-phase ganged switches must
kVA transformers with the delta primary wind- be provided or other means used to control the
ing, the allowed length of cable to limit the overvoltages.
overvoltage to 1.25 pu is impractically short, 6.7
feet, at 12.47 kV. If the primary voltage was 24.9 SWITCHING (OPERATING) PROCEDURES
kV, the winding capacitance correction would TO PREVENT FERRORESONANCE
exceed the other term and this equation would If transformers with the delta or ungrounded-
yield a negative critical cable length. The voltage wye primary windings must be used in the UD
could, therefore, exceed 1.25 pu if the trans- system, there are two options for preventing fer-
former was switched single phase, solely as a roresonant overvoltages above 1.25 pu: either
result of internal transformer capacitances. use three-pole switches or do single-pole switch-
For three-phase transformers with the un- ing at the transformer terminals. The latter is ef-
grounded-wye primary winding, the voltages on fective only when the internal capacitance of the
the open phases during remote single-pole transformer is less than the critical capacitance.
switching through a shielded cable will not ex- This tends to be true for higher loss transformers
ceed 1.25 pu if the ratio of XC to XM is greater in 15-kV class systems and with the larger trans-
than 30 (Hopkinson, 1968). From this, it is con- formers in the 25-kV class systems. It is not rec-
cluded that the maximum length of cable circuit, ommended for any size transformer in 35-kV
identified as LYmax, and connected transformer class systems. Reasons sometimes given for the
with the floating wye-connected primary wind- requirement of the delta or ungrounded-wye pri-
ing that can be switched so that the voltages do mary winding connections, rather than the
not exceed 1.25 pu is given by Equation 6.9. grounded-wye primary connections, especially
for the larger three-phase distribution transform-
ers, are as follows:
Equation 6.9
4.7kVATIE% CXFMR × 5,280 • To isolate the primary and secondary systems

LYmax = – feet so that the fundamental frequency component
kV2CµF/M CµF/M
of the unbalanced load current, the third har-
monic load current, and its odd multiples (9th,
All terms in Equation 6.9 are the same as in 15th, 21st harmonic . . .) do not flow in the
Equation 6.8. From the constant terms, the al- neutral conductor of the primary system, and
lowable cable lengths with the ungrounded-wye • To isolate the primary and secondary systems
primary winding are, at most, 34 percent greater so that ground relays on the primary system
than those allowed with the delta primary wind- do not see ground faults on the secondary
ing. However, with the ungrounded-wye pri- system.
mary windings, the lengths that limit voltages to
1.25 pu are so short that practical applications Single-Pole Switches
usually cannot be made. When only single-pole switches are available,
In light of the low loss levels and small excit- ferroresonant overvoltages above 1.25 pu can be
ing currents in modern distribution transformers, prevented by switching procedures whereby un-
there is little value in specifying maximum cable loaded transformers and cable circuit are not
lengths for transformers with ungrounded pri- switched as a single entity. This is accomplished
mary windings. In all cases, prudence dictates by first, energizing the cable circuit with all
that these transformers be switched only at the transformers disconnected and second, connect-
primary terminals. Phase-to-ground winding ca- ing the transformers to the energized cable cir-
pacitance varies with rating and also greatly with cuit with switching devices at the primary termi-
transformer design practices. For those units in nals of the transformer. When the transformer is
which unacceptable overvoltages result from connected to the cable circuit, no cable is con-
single-phase switching at the terminals (such as nected to the de-energized primary terminals.
6
This procedure is effective at voltage levels of the time between closing of the first pole and
15 kV and below, as long as the transformers closing of the third pole, referred to as pole
are not low loss. However, at the 24.9-kV volt- span, must not be too long, or high overvoltages
age level, or in the case of low-loss transform- will build up. With pole spans of one cycle (16.6
ers, single-pole switching at the transformer ter- milliseconds) or less, harmful overvoltages will
minals to energize just the transformer may re- not develop. Similarly, the switch pole span
sult in high overvoltages as a result of the inter- must be one cycle or less on opening.
nal capacitances of the transformer. Single-pole A three-pole switch installed in the three-
switching of transformers with ungrounded pri- phase transformers with the delta or un-
mary windings is not recom- grounded-wye primary
mended in 34.5-kV systems. windings prevents overvolt-
Switching at the transformer Do not do single-pole ages for switching at the pri-
primary terminals can be done mary terminals to energize
with load-break elbow con- switching of just the transformer. This
nectors, load-break fusing de- transformers with switch is closed to energize
vices internal to the trans- the transformer after the cable
former, or switches internal to
ungrounded primary circuit is energized from a re-
the transformer. This is illus- windings at 34.5-kV. mote location, with either sin-
trated with an example using gle- or three-pole switches.
the radially fed transformer in Similarly, the three-pole switch
Figure 6.8. at the transformer is opened
To energize the cable and connected trans- before the cable circuit is de-energized at the
former, do the following: remote location.
STEP 1: Open the switching devices at the trans- Temporary Grounding of the Neutral
former, disconnecting the transformer If the three-phase transformer has the un-
from the cable. grounded-wye primary windings with the neu-
STEP 2: Close the single-pole switches at the tral of the wye available external to the case,
source end of the cable circuit to ener- overvoltages do not occur if the neutral is
gize just the cable circuit. grounded during single-pole switching of the
STEP 3: Close the switching devices at the trans- cable circuit and connected transformer, or dur-
former to energize the transformer. ing switching of just the transformer. When the
primary winding of the transformer is rated EY
If the cooperative desires to energize trans- volts, where E is the phase-to-phase rated volt-
formers from a remote location, for operator age of the primary, the neutral of the wye is not
safety, this switching procedure is unacceptable. brought outside the tank. If the primary winding
To de-energize the cable circuit and trans- is rated 3 EY/E volts, where E is the rated
former, as in Figure 6.8, just the opposite proce- phase-to-neutral voltage of the primary wind-
dure is used. First, the switching devices at the ings, the neutral of the wye-connected primary
transformer are opened, de-energizing the trans- is brought out. If the installation is made from
former. Second, the single-pole switching de- three single-phase transformers, the neutral of
vices at the source end of the cable circuit are the primary windings is available.
opened to de-energize just the cable. Temporary neutral grounding is effective at
any primary voltage level. The neutral point
Three-Pole Switches should be grounded only during the switching.
Three-pole switching of the cable circuit and If left permanently grounded, the transformer
connected transformer prevents ferroresonance may be damaged thermally if single-phasing oc-
for either energizing or de-energizing opera- curs on the primary system on the source side
tions. For the three-pole switch to be effective, of the grounded-wye/delta bank.
2 6 0 – Se c t io n 6
6
Ferroresonance For transformers with ungrounded primary windings, and power factor capacitors con-
with Cable-Fed windings, the cable lengths that allow single- nected in delta or ungrounded-wye are not
Three-Phase pole switching are so short that practical systems connected to the secondary, ferroresonance
usually cannot be operated. Single-pole switch- and overvoltages will not occur for single-
Transformers with
ing at the transformer primary terminals to ener- pole switching of the cable circuit and
Grounded-Wye gize or de-energize just the transformer (without transformer or for single-pole switching at the
Primary Winding cable connected to the de-energized primary ter- primary terminals.
and Five-Legged minals) usually prevents objectionable overvolt- • When the transformer has a five-legged core
Core ages in 12.47-kV systems, but is not effective in and grounded-wye primary windings, over-
24.9- and 34.5-kV systems or where lower loss voltages can occur when a cable circuit and
transformers are applied. And installation of connected transformer are switched with sin-
three-pole switching devices is expensive com- gle-pole switches. In general, much longer
pared with installation of single-pole switching lengths of cable and connected transformer
devices. As a result of these limitations, alterna- can be switched when the transformer has
tive transformer designs allowing single-pole grounded-wye primary windings rather than
switching without objectionable overvoltages ungrounded primary windings without
were sought by the utility industry. exceeding 1.25-pu voltage.
Some papers on ferroresonance written in the • When the transformer has a five-legged core
1960s suggested that the grounded-wye primary and grounded-wye primary windings, overvolt-
winding connections would prevent overvoltages can occur during single-pole switching at
ages during single-pole switching of a cable cir- the primary terminals of the lower-kVA, lower-
cuit and a connected transformer. Operating loss transformers used in 24.9- and 34.5-kV
experience and tests showed that the effective- systems. These overvoltages occur due to the
ness of the grounded-wye primary windings in internal capacitances of the transformer.
preventing overvoltages depended on whether
the transformer was assembled on a five-legged The performance of the five-legged core
core or used triplex construction. From tests, the transformer with grounded-wye connected pri-
following was learned: mary windings is discussed in the following sub-
section. Grounded-wye primary windings are
• When the three-phase transformer employs used with grounded-wye secondary windings or
triplex construction with grounded primary ungrounded-wye secondary windings, depend-
ing on the type of service. Delta-connected sec-
ondary windings should not be used with
H1 H2 H3 grounded-wye primary windings.
CORE CONFIGURATION
Most three-phase distribution transformers with
grounded-wye primary windings are constructed
on a five-legged, wound-type core. Transformers
with grounded-wye primary windings cannot be
constructed on a three-legged core as common
unbalances in the primary system give severe
heating in the transformer tank.
Figure 6.10 illustrates the configuration of the
five-legged, wound-type core. The core assem-
bly is made from four individual wound-type
cores. The two inner core loops have the same
FIGURE 6.10: Five-Legged Wound-Type Core with Grounded-Wye mean length and the two outer core loops have
Primary Windings.
the same mean length, but the mean length of
6
an inner core loop is longer than the mean 1.47 pu. These transformers had lower loss lev-
length of an outer core loop. In Figure 6.10, els than did the transformers used in prior tests
only the primary winding for each phase is de- in the early 1970s.
picted. The secondary winding for each phase is The voltages appearing at the open-circuited
wound concentric to the primary winding. terminals demonstrate that magnetic coupling
Disregarding the effects of transformer wind- exists between the phases of the five-legged
ing capacitances, the magnetic circuit of the five- core transformer. This magnetic coupling be-
legged core transformer in Figure 6.10 shows tween phases, in conjunction with the capaci-
that, when rated voltage is applied between the tance to ground (neutral) of the primary cable
line terminal of any one winding and ground, connected to the open phases, or the internal
with all other windings open circuited, voltage capacitance of the transformer if high enough,
appears between the line terminal and ground produces a series/parallel LC circuit in which
of the open windings. Similarly, if voltages from overvoltages are possible.
two phases of a three-phase system are applied Most published information on the perfor-
between the line terminal and ground of any mance of the five-legged core grounded-wye/
two windings, voltage appears between the line grounded-wye transformer is based on tests and
terminal and ground of the open winding. TNA simulations done in the early 1970s, before
Tests run in the 1970s on transformers rated losses were evaluated by most utilities. The sig-
12.47/7.2 kV showed that the rms value and the nificance of the age of this information is that
peak value of the voltage from the open terminal the losses of transformers on which the applica-
to ground did not exceed winding rated rms and tion criteria in this section are based are higher
peak voltages, respectively (Smith, Swanson, than the losses of many newer transformers. The
and Borst, 1975). The voltage appearing on the material on ferroresonance with five-legged core
open phases is not sinusoidal as is the applied grounded-wye transformers in this section and,
voltage because of the nonlinear characteristics in particular, the criteria for allowed cable length
of the core loops. Tests run more recently with to limit the overvoltages to 1.25 pu, is based on
low-loss transformers rated 12.47/7.2 kV also the published literature (Smith, Swanson, and
show that the rms value of the voltages from Borst, 1975; Millet, Mairs, and Stuehm, 1990) and
the open terminals to ground does not exceed personal experience. However, recent tests with
winding rated rms voltage, but the peak value is newer transformers having lower core losses
about two percent above rated peak voltage as a show that the currently accepted application cri-
result of harmonics (Millet, Mairs, and Stuehm, teria for allowed cable lengths need to be modi-
1990). Thus, for practical purposes, switching at fied to take into account the lower losses. In
the primary terminals of the grounded-wye pri- fact, core loss is a better indicator of the critical
mary five-legged core transformers prevents capacitance than is exciting current as used in
overvoltages in systems with voltages of 15 kV the older guidelines (Walling et al., 1992).
and below. The maximum peak voltage during ferroreso-
However, test results made available in the nance with the five-legged core grounded-wye
summer of 1992 show that the five-legged core transformer is 2.1 pu, based on tests in the
transformer internal capacitances can react with 1970s. Tests on the lower loss five-legged core
the magnetic circuits to produce overvoltages grounded-wye transformers of more recent de-
when the switching is done at the primary ter- sign show that the sustained voltages during fer-
minals of the smaller low-loss transformers used roresonance are as high as 2.4 pu (Walling et al.,
in 24.9- and 34.5-kV systems (Walling et al., 1992). In comparison, the maximum steady-state
1992). From tests on transformers applied in overvoltages possible with the delta or un-
24.9-kV systems, the peak line-to-ground voltage grounded-wye windings are 4 pu (Young,
was 1.29 pu; for transformers applied in 34.5-kV Schmid, and Fergestad, 1968).
systems, the peak line-to-ground voltage was
2 6 2 – Se c t io n 6
6
Shielded Cable Circuit Transformer Pad-Mounted Transformer
MAXIMUM ALLOWED CABLE LENGTHS TO
Surge Arresters
Switch Five-Legged Core LIMIT OPEN-PHASE VOLTAGES TO 1.25 PU
LGY Figure 6.11 shows a five-legged core transformer
Fused Cutouts
φA fed through a cable circuit. The length of the
H1 X1
XC circuit is designated as LGY. Although the trans-
No
φC Load
former is connected to the end of the cable,
XC the system response is the same irrespective of
φB H3 H2 X3 X2 where the transformer is located along its length.
XC The reason for this is that the voltage drop
through the series impedance of the cable circuit
Cable Capacitance
is negligible during ferroresonance.
FIGURE 6.11: Three-Phase Cable-Fed Transformer with a Grounded- The type of response and peak value of the
Wye Primary Winding on a Five-Legged Core. overvoltages on the open phases for single-pole
switching are affected to a great extent by the
distance between the switches and transformer.
Roughly, when switching is performed at the
__1.02 pu primary terminals of the five-legged core trans-
__1.09 pu former (no cable connected to the de-energized
terminals), the voltages to ground on the open
phases are at a minimum. As the cable length
being switched with the transformer increases,
1 Cyc. at 60 Hz
1 Cyc. at 60 Hz the voltage increases, reaching a maximum of
(a)
about two to 2.5 pu. The distance at which this
maximum occurs depends primarily on the kVA
rating of the transformer, transformer core loss
level, primary voltage, and cable capacitance.
__.71 pu Whether one or two phases are connected to the
__1.41 pu source also affects the responses. Generally, for
1 Cyc. at 60 Hz
a given cable length, the overvoltages are higher
1 Cyc. at 60 Hz when just one phase is open.
(b)
Figure 6.12 shows examples of the steady-state,
__2.0 pu
phase-to-ground voltages on the open phases
during single-pole switching, based on full-scale
tests with 150-, 225-, and 500-kVA transformers
(Smith, Swanson, and Borst, 1975). The response
represented by the two voltage waveforms in
Figure 6.12(a) is cyclical at fundamental frequency
1 Cyc. at 60 Hz and symmetrical, as only odd harmonics are pre-
(c)
sent. In Figure 6.12(b), the voltage waveforms
also are cyclical at fundamental frequency, but
__.77 pu
they are not symmetrical about the time axis be-
cause of the presence of even harmonics. Nonhar-
monic responses also occur during ferroresonance
__1.04 pu
with the five-legged core transformers, as illus-
1 Cyc. at 60 Hz 1 Cyc. at 60 Hz trated in Figure 6.12(c). Here the waveform
(d)
never repeats itself and there are no identifiable
cyclical patterns. These responses produced the
FIGURE 6.12: Open-Phase Voltage Waveforms with Five-Legged Core, maximum voltage of 2.1 pu, and it is during
Grounded-Wye Transformers. these types of responses that the transformer
6
can be very noisy because of magnetostriction. The guidelines in this subsection are based on
Twenty- and 30-Hz subharmonic steady-state more recent research. They apply to a single
responses also occur with the five-legged core transformer, without secondary load, connected
transformer, as shown in Figure 6.12(d). to cable circuit as shown in Figure 6.11.
Work completed in 1992 has re-examined
the ferroresonance susceptibility of grounded Application Criteria
wye/wye transformers using a five-legged core For the voltage to ground to be limited to 1.25
(Walling, 1992). This investigation concluded that pu during single-pole switching of the cable cir-
core loss is the key parameter defining the criti- cuit and connected transformer, the inequality of
cal capacitance creating ferroresonant overvolt- Equation 6.10 must be satisfied (Walling, 1992).
age. Previous guidelines using exciting current From the inequality of Equation 6.10, over-
as a basis have been generally satisfactory be- voltages above 1.25 pu are more likely to occur
cause core losses and exciting current have his- with the smaller or more efficient transformers at
torically correlated. New low-loss designs and the higher primary voltage levels and with longer
wider variations in design flux density have cable circuits. The maximum length of cable cir-
shown the pitfalls of exciting-current-based cuit, LGYmax, that can be switched with the trans-
guidelines. One such shortcoming, for example, former so that the voltages do not exceed 1.25 pu
is that the measured exciting current on a trans- is given by Equation 6.11. This equation is the
former can be dominated by the winding capaci- inequality of Equation 6.10 combined with an
tance. The older guidelines yield a longer critical approximate empirical relationship between
cable length for a transformer that has a high transformer rating and internal capacitance and
measured exciting current because of a high in- solved for LGY.
ternal capacitance. This internal capacitance adds If the primary cable extends beyond the trans-
to that of the cable, however, and the actual criti- former in Figure 6.11, but does not serve any
cal cable length should be shorter than for that of other transformers, LGY is the total length of cable
a transformer with a smaller exciting current that being switched with the unloaded transformer.
is more inductive. Transformer no-load loss values can vary widely
for transformers of a given kVA rating. This wide
variation occurs because the loss evaluation fac-
Equation 6.10
tors used in transformer procurement by various
utilities vary widely, and the core losses of vari-
≤ 0.00493
kV2Ct
ous manufacturers’ designs also vary, even when
Pnl
bid to the same loss evaluation specification.
Where possible, the actual no-load loss should
where: kV = Rated phase-to-phase voltage of the transformer primary winding
be used in Equation 6.11 but this is not always
in kV; the voltage on the nameplate
feasible when standard practices are developed.
Ct = Total capacitance in µF connected to the open phase, including Equation 6.12 provides an approximate empiri-
both cable and internal transformer capacitance
cal relationship between transformer kVA rating
Pnl = Three-phase, no-load loss of the transformer at rated excitation and no-load losses, reflecting the fact that the
in watts percentage of losses tends to decrease for larger
transformers (Walling, 1992). This loss relation-
ship is also used in the guidelines of Tables 6.6,
Equation 6.11 6.7, and 6.8 provided later in this section.
1 Pnl kVA0.4
LGY = 26.0 – 2.48
CµF/M kV2 kV0.25 Equation 6.12
where: LGY = Length of cable in feet with connected transformer having the Pnl = kVA [4.54 – 1.13 Log10 (kVA)]
grounded-wye primary winding and five-legged core
2 6 4 – Se c t io n 6
6
Application Data Tables—Maximum
EXAMPLE 6.1: Maximum Lengths of Cable Circuit Possible.
Cable Lengths
With Equation 6.11, and using Equation 6.12 to
kVA = 150 kVA = Nameplate kVA rating of the three-phase
approximate typical core losses, the length of
transformer with the five-legged core
cable that can be switched with a five-legged
kV = 12.47 kV = Rated phase-to-phase voltage of the transformer core transformer with grounded-wye primary
primary winding in kV
winding is easily calculated. From this, application
CµF/M = 0.312 µF/M = Capacitance of the shielded cable circuit in data tables can be prepared from typical data.
microfarads per mile At the 12.47-kV primary voltage level, in many
Placing these values into Equations 6.12 and 6.11 and solving the equations cases the allowed cable lengths permit remote
gives the following. single-pole switching of radially fed transform-
From Equation 6.12: ers. But in 24.9-kV systems, the allowed cable
lengths with the smaller and medium-size trans-
Pnl = 150 [4.54 – 1.13 Log109 (150)] = 312.2 watts formers are so short that, for most practical situa-
tions, single-pole switching must be performed
From Equation 6.11: at the primary terminals of the transformers. For
34.5-kV systems, as well as low-loss 24.9-kV
1 312.2 1500.4 transformers, the internal transformer capaci-
LGY = 26.0 – 2.48
0.312 12.472 12.470.25 tances of the smaller kVA-rated transformers are
sufficient to create ferroresonant overvoltages in
LGY = 136 feet excess of 1.25 pu even when switched at the ter-
minals without connected cable.
For transformers that have small kVA ratings
and, consequently, low no-load loss wattage, 12.47-kV Systems
highly efficient transformers, or transformers Table 6.7 lists the maximum cable lengths that
with high primary voltage ratings, Equation 6.11 can be energized or de-energized with the trans-
can yield a negative maximum cable length. Of former (unloaded) in a 12.47-kV system if the
course, a negative cable length is physically voltages are not to exceed 1.25 pu during single-
meaningless except that it indicates that the pole switching. Values are given for transformers
transformer internal capacitance is likely to be fed by cables of three different sizes, and typical
large enough that sustained voltages exceeding core loss values are assumed for each kVA rat-
1.25 pu can occur for single-phase switching at ing. For a transformer with greater no-load loss
the transformer terminals. than assumed here, the maximum cable length
Example 6.1 illustrates the use of Equations will be longer. Likewise, a more efficient trans-
6.11 and 6.12. former will have a shorter maximum length. The
In comparison, with the delta-connected pri- effect of loss variations do not make an exactly
mary winding, all other parameters being the proportional effect on maximum length because
same, the allowed length of cable found from of the winding capacitance term (the second
Equation 6.8 is 5.4 feet even if the transformer is term on the right-hand side of Equation 6.11).
assumed to have no capacitance. The maximum Note the effect of cable size on allowed lengths.
cable length calculated above (136 feet) is suffi-
ciently long to permit single-pole switching in 24.9-kV Systems
many practical applications in which a single Table 6.8 lists the maximum cable lengths that
transformer is fed radially from an overhead line can be switched with the transformer in a 24.9-
or from a switching compartment in a UD system. kV system if the voltages on the open phases are
But, if the primary voltage level is 24.9 kV, and not to exceed 1.25 pu. If the cable extends be-
everything else remains the same, Equations 6.12 yond the transformer, but serves only one trans-
and 6.11 give a maximum allowable cable length former, the total length of cable being switched
of 24 feet. Lengths this short will not allow sin- should be limited to the value given in the table.
gle-pole switching for any practical application. The maximum allowed cable lengths to limit
6
TABLE 6.7: Maximum Allowed Cable Lengths in 12.47-kV Systems to the voltage to 1.25 pu with the small and medium
Limit Open-Phase Voltages to 1.25 PU. kVA five-legged core grounded-wye transformers
are very short. Single-pole switching of the cable
Maximum Cable Length in Feet circuit and connected transformer cannot be per-
for the Indicated Cable Size formed in many practical systems. For the larger
Transformer Assumed No-Load Grounded-Wye Primary kVA transformers, the allowed cable lengths are
Nameplate (kVA) Loss (w) #2 1/0 4/0 sufficiently long that single-pole switching can
75 182 100 87 64 be performed.
112.5 250 144 126 93
34.5-kV Systems
150 312 184 161 119
Table 6.9 gives the maximum cable length with a
225 423 257 225 166 connected transformer that can be energized or
300 522 323 283 208 de-energized with single-pole switches in a 34.5-
kV system if the voltages on the open phases are
500 745 473 413 305
not to exceed 1.25 per unit. For the smaller kVA
750 968 623 545 401 transformers, overvoltages are likely with single-
1,000 1,150 745 652 480 pole switching at the transformer terminals even
without connected cable. The allowed cable
1,500 1,426 930 813 599
lengths are very short even with the larger kVA
2,000 1,619 1,057 924 681 transformers, virtually excluding the use of sin-
2,500 1,750 1,141 998 735 gle-pole switches other than for switching at the
primary terminals of the larger transformers
Note. Cable capacitances of #2, 1/0, and 4/0 cables are 0.230, 0.263, and 0.357 µFarads/
without cable connected to the de-energized ter-
mile, based on 220 mils of TR-XLPE insulation. Allowed cable lengths are longer with
minals.
260-mil insulation because of lower capacitance.
SWITCHING (OPERATING) PROCEDURES TO

PREVENT FERRORESONANCE
TABLE 6.8: Maximum Allowed Cable Lengths in 24.9-kV Systems to
If the cable lengths are longer than those listed
Limit Open-Phase Voltages to 1.25 PU.
in the tables or calculated from Equation 6.11,
Maximum Cable Length in Feet there are two options for preventing overvoltages
for the Indicated Cable Size above 1.25 pu. The first is to use only three-pole,
Transformer Assumed No-Load Grounded-Wye Primary gang-operated switches when energizing or de-
Nameplate (kVA) Loss (w) 1/0 4/0 energizing a cable circuit and connected trans-
75 182 5 4 former. The second is to do single-pole switching
at the primary terminals of the transformer so
112.5 250 12 10
that, when the transformer is being energized or
150 312 19 15 de-energized, no cable is connected to the de-
225 423 31 25 energized primary terminals. Although this ap-
proach is effective for any size transformer at
300 522 42 34
15-kV and below, it may not limit the overvolt-
500 745 69 56 ages to 1.25 pu with the smaller kVA, low-loss
750 968 96 77 24.9- and 34.5-kV transformers. To limit the volt-
ages in these cases, install a three-pole switching
1,000 1,150 118 95
device in the transformer.
1,500 1,426 151 122
2,000 1,619 172 139 Single-Pole Switches
For situations in which overvoltages above 1.25
2,500 1,750 185 149
pu will not occur from single-pole switching at
Note. Cable capacitances of 1/0 and 4/0 cables are 0.256 and 0.318 µFarads/mile, based on the primary terminals of the five-legged core
260 mils of TR-XLPE insulation.
2 6 6 – Se c t io n 6
6
TABLE 6.9: Maximum Allowed Cable Lengths in 34.5-kV Systems to To energize the cable and transformer, open
Limit Open-Phase Voltages to 1.25 PU. the single-pole switching devices at the trans-
former; of course, the switching devices for the
Maximum Cable Length in Feet cable circuit are open. Then close the single-
for the Indicated Cable Size pole switches for the cable circuit to energize
Transformer Assumed No-Load Grounded-Wye Primary just the cable. Finally, close the single-pole
Nameplate (kVA) Loss (w) 1/0 4/0 switches at the transformer to energize the
75 182 unloaded transformer.
Do not switch single-phase, To de-energize the transformer and cable cir-
112.5 250
even at terminals cuit in Figure 6.11, use the opposite procedure.
150 312
Specifically, open the single-pole device at the
225 423 1 1 transformer. Then open the single-pole switches
300 522 5 4 to de-energize the cable.
Although the preceding example is for the
500 745 16 13
simple case of a radially fed transformer at the
750 968 26 21 end of the cable circuit, it can be adapted to ra-
1,000 1,150 35 28 dial systems with more than one transformer and
to multiple cable segments. This is discussed
1,500 1,426 47 38
later in this section.
2,000 1,619 71 54
2,500 1,750 58 47 Three-Pole Switches
Three-pole switches allow the energization and
Note. Cable capacitances of 1/0 and 4/0 cables are 0.256 and 0.318 µFarads/mile, based on
de-energization of the circuit and unloaded trans-
260 mils of TR-XLPE insulation.
former with grounded-wye primary without fer-
roresonant overvoltages if the switch pole span
does not exceed one cycle. Furthermore, the
grounded-wye transformers (power factor ca- three-pole switch will prevent ferroresonant over-
pacitors are not connected to the secondary), voltages even if power factor capacitors are con-
switching procedures exist that allow the ener- nected to the secondary side of the transformer.
gization of the smaller kVA transformers con- Three-pole switches in the lower kVA, low-
nected to, or at the end of, long cable circuits. loss 24.9- and 34.5-kV transformers also will pre-
Such procedures will be illustrated with the vent overvoltages above 1.25 pu that otherwise
arrangement in Figure 6.11, where the cable cir- can occur with single-pole switching at the pri-
cuit does not extend beyond the transformer. mary terminals.
Ferroresonance With grounded-wye primary windings and five- FIVE-LEGGED CORE, GROUNDED-WYE
with Cable-Fed, legged core construction, there are limitations TRANSFORMER TANK HEATING
Three-Phase on allowed cable lengths, especially at the 24.9- The five-legged core transformer with grounded-
and 34.5-kV primary voltage levels, when ener- wye primary windings can experience severe
Transformers with
gizing and de-energizing cable circuits and con- tank heating during certain unbalances in the
Grounded-Wye nected transformers with single-pole switches. system. Although the five-legged core prevents
Primary Windings Switching procedures exist that allow single-pole tank heating for most unbalances, some unbal-
and Triplex switching without producing overvoltages above ances have caused transformer fires. Figure 6.13
Construction 1.25 pu with the five-legged core grounded-wye illustrates how this happens.
transformer, excluding the lower loss, lower kVA With a solid ground fault on phase A of the
24.9- and 34.5-kV transformers. But these proce- shielded cable circuit, the riser-pole fuse in the
dures may be difficult to implement with multi- faulted phase blows. The voltage from terminal
ple transformers on a circuit. H1 to ground at the transformer is zero, with
6
The five-legged core prevents tank heating in
Surge Arresters transformers with the grounded-wye primary
Pad-Mounted Transformer
Fused Cutouts Five-Legged Core windings during phase-to-ground faults whether
Shielded Cable Circuit or not single-pole overcurrent devices are in-
φA H1 X1 stalled in the primary feeder. All faults on circuits
XC No made with concentric neutral cable will be from
Load
one or more phases to ground. Consequently,
φC when all segments of the primary feeder be-
XC H3 H2 X3 X2
φB
tween the substation and transformer are made
with concentric neutral cable, tank heating in
XC
Overhead MGN Feeder
five-legged core transformers is unlikely.

Cable Capacitance
Cable Shield and
Line-to-ground faults, with only the overcur-
Multigrounded Neutral
Concentric Neutral rent devices in the faulted phases opening,

Riser Pole would have caused excessive tank heating if the
transformer in the preceding example had been
Line Fuses
constructed on a three-legged core.
If a solid ungrounded phase-to-phase fault
occurs from phases B to C in Figure 6.13 on the
overhead line and the fuse in only one of the
φA φB φC Single-Phase Reclosers two faulted phases blows, say phase B, then
phase C voltage is applied to terminals H2 and
H3 of the transformer and phase A voltage is ap-
plied to terminal H1. That is, the same voltage is
FIGURE 6.13: Overhead System Supplying a Cable-Fed, Grounded-Wye applied to two of the primary phases downstream
Transformer on a Five-Legged Core. from the fuses and to two of the high voltage
terminals of the transformer. A solid ungrounded
fault can occur in an overhead
approximately rated voltage line if an insulator breaks at an
applied from terminal H2 to Five-legged core angle pole and the phase con-
ground and from terminal H3 ductor is pulled across one of
to ground. The current in the transformers with the other two phase conduc-
B and C phase fuses at the grounded-wye tors. Manufacturing tolerances
riser pole is due to the load and/or different preloadings
on the transformer and a small
primary windings can are reasons only one of the
component fed back to the experience severe tank two line fuses blows.
ground fault on phase A. Con- heating during certain An ungrounded phase-to-
sequently, the fuses in phases phase fault also happens when
B and C do not blow and the system unbalances. line crews jumper two phases
transformer remains energized together to bring temporary
until switching is manually service to single-phase con-
performed. Because the trans- sumers following a fault. These
former is constructed on a five-legged core, tank conditions impress approximately 58 percent
heating does not occur. Similarly, if the solid zero-sequence voltage across the primary wind-
fault to ground (concentric neutral) involves two ings of the transformer, induce currents into the
of the single-conductor cables in Figure 6.13, the tank, and cause tank heating unless the trans-
fuses at the riser pole supplying the two faulted former is quickly de-energized. Because the five-
phases blow and one phase of the transformer legged core transformer is not symmetrical, the
remains energized until switching is manually time to produce high temperatures is a function
performed, but tank heating does not occur. of which two terminals are fed from the same
2 6 8 – Se c t io n 6
6
primary phase, the induction level at rated volt- depending on the connection of the secondary
age, and other design parameters. Regardless, load. In Figure 6.13, assume a fuse opens at the
tanks have heated the oil above the flash point, riser pole and sufficient load is connected to the
which caused the bushings to leak oil, which secondary such that the secondary load deter-
caused a fire. mines the voltage appearing at the transformer
Ungrounded three-phase solid faults on over- terminals. That is, the primary cable is so short
head feeders, with only two of the three single- that its capacitance is not a factor. If all sec-
pole overcurrent devices opening, energize all ondary load is constant impedance connected
three phases downstream from the overcurrent from phase to neutral, tank heating will not
devices at the same voltage. Then the same volt- occur. The voltage on the open phase will col-
age is applied to all three HV terminals of the lapse to zero, just as for a ground fault on the
five-legged core transformer. Because the un- primary cable. If all secondary load is constant
grounded three-phase fault applies 100 percent impedance connected from phase to phase, and
zero-sequence voltage, the tank currents are balanced, the voltages impressed on the trans-
higher and heating occurs in a shorter time than former have a zero-sequence component of 50
for the ungrounded phase-to-phase fault. During percent and tank heating can occur. If all load is
these conditions, the currents in the transformer three-phase induction motors that maintain a
fuses usually are not high enough to blow the speed such that the motors’ negative-sequence
fuse unless a short circuit develops. impedance is less than one-half the motors’ pos-
The I2R losses in the tank from the tank cur- itive-sequence impedance, tank heating will not
rents are the main source of heating. The tank occur. In an actual system, the total secondary
heating raises the transformer oil temperature load is connected from both phase to phase and
because there is an inward heat flow. A few phase to neutral and may not be balanced, and
users have applied eutectic fuse links inside the a portion is induction motor; thus, it is difficult
five-legged core transformer to sense oil temper- to predict whether tank heating will occur with
ature and de-energize the transformer before the just an open phase. Regardless, tank heating in-
oil reaches the flash point, the bushings leak, or cidents have occurred for an open primary
a fire starts. The effectiveness of the eutectic phase in the absence of a fault.
fuse links is not documented in the literature.
However, several utilities have indicated the eu- TRIPLEX TRANSFORMER CORE
tectic fuse links prevented severe tank heating CONFIGURATION…
that otherwise would have occurred with fuse Three-phase distribution transformers with
links that do not respond to oil temperature. triplex construction have three single-phase
If only three-pole overcurrent devices are in core-coil assemblies inside a common tank, as
the primary circuits (see Figure 6.13), tank heat- illustrated in Figure 6.14. When the primary
ing with a five-legged core transformer will not windings are connected in grounded-wye and
occur from ungrounded phase- the secondary windings are
to-phase faults because all connected in either grounded-
three phases are de-energized. Triplex transformers wye or ungrounded-wye,
Or, if ungrounded phase-to- there is no magnetic coupling
phase faults are impossible be- with grounded-wye between phases of the trans-
cause concentric neutral cable primary windings are former. There is no possibility
is used for all primary circuits of tank heating for unbalances
from the station to all trans-
not susceptible to where two or three terminals
formers, tank heating will not ferroresonance. of the transformer are ener-
occur, even when single-pole gized at, or below, rated volt-
overcurrent devices are used. age from the same primary
However, if a primary phase phase. Also, they are not sus-
opens in the absence of a fault, the five-legged ceptible to ferroresonance during single-pole
core transformer may experience tank heating, switching, regardless of the primary circuit
6
the secondary during single-pole switching, volt-
H1 H2 H3 age appears on the open primary phases. The
voltage is due to the phase-to-phase connected
load on the secondary applying voltage to the
secondary (LV) terminals corresponding to the
open primary phases. The magnitude of the
voltage to ground on the open primary phase is
determined primarily by the ratio of the phase-
to-ground load to the phase-to-phase load on
the secondary side, the magnitude and power
factor of the phase-to-phase secondary load,
FIGURE 6.14: Triplex-Type Wound Core with Grounded-Wye Primary
the transformer leakage impedance, and the
Windings.
phase-to-ground capacitive reactance of the
primary feeder. The phase-to-ground voltage
length or voltage, if it is made with single-con- on the open phase almost always is less than
ductor shielded cables and ungrounded capaci- nominal, although voltages five to 10 percent
tors are not connected to the secondary system above nominal phase-to-ground voltage are
at the time of switching. theoretically possible.
…WITHOUT SECONDARY POWER FACTOR …WITH SECONDARY POWER FACTOR

CORRECTION CAPACITORS CORRECTION CAPACITORS
Figure 6.15 shows a triplex transformer with If capacitors are connected to the secondary
grounded-wye primary and grounded-wye sec- side of the triplex-core transformer having the
ondary windings fed through single conductor grounded-wye primary windings and grounded-
shielded cables. With no capacitive coupling be- wye secondary windings, single-pole switching
tween phases of the primary cable circuit, with remote from the transformer or at the trans-
no magnetic coupling between phases of the former, with no other load connected to the
transformer, and with no load on the secondary, secondary, may cause ferroresonance. Whether
single-pole switching does not cause ferroreso- it does depends on the connections of the sec-
nance or overvoltages, regardless of the length ondary capacitors.
of the primary cable circuit. If the capacitors are connected in grounded-
If lagging power factor load is connected to wye (from phase to neutral) on the secondary
Shielded Cable Circuit Transformer Pad-Mounted Transformer

Surge Arresters Triplex Core
Switch
L
Fused Cutouts
φA
H1 X1
φC
No
Load
φB
H3 H2 X3 X2
Cable Capacitance
FIGURE 6.15: Cable-Fed, Triplex-Core Transformer with Grounded-Wye Primary Windings.

2 7 0 – Se c t io n 6
6
system ahead of the service disconnect switch in side of the triplex-core transformer, secondary
Figure 6.15, ferroresonance and overvoltages capacitors should be disconnected.
will not occur for single-pole switching on the In UD systems with single-pole switching on
primary side, either at the primary terminals of the primary, three-phase transformers supplying
the triplex-core transformer or remote from the four-wire wye services, as well as three-wire
transformer. delta services, should have grounded-wye pri-
If the capacitors are connected in delta or un- mary windings. The secondary is connected in
grounded-wye on the secondary system ahead grounded-wye or ungrounded-wye. With triplex
of the service disconnect switch in Figure 6.15, construction, the possibility of tank heating and
ferroresonance and overvoltages can occur for ferroresonance, which can occur with five-
single-pole switching on the primary side, either legged core transformers, is virtually eliminated.
at the primary terminals of the triplex-core trans- Also, there is no need to develop special switch-
former or remote from the transformer. Most ca- ing procedures to prevent ferroresonance.
pacitors for application in low-voltage secondary Triplex transformers are, however, inherently
systems are connected in delta. Thus, when sin- heavier and may cost more than five-legged,
gle-pole switching is performed on the primary wound-core designs.
Ferroresonance When there is more than one three-phase trans- an equivalent magnetizing reactance were found.
in Underground former on a cable circuit when single-pole This method can be extended to five-legged
Feeders Having switching is performed, the total length of cable core, grounded-wye primary transformers, using
being switched should be limited so that the the no-load-loss-based approach presented in
More Than One
voltage to ground does not exceed 1.25 pu. this section.
Transformer DiPietro and Hopkinson (1976) studied this
situation. Their investigations were performed APPLICATION CRITERIA
on the TNA with transformers having the delta- Transformers with delta or ungrounded-wye pri-
connected HV windings. They concluded that mary windings are not recommended in UD sys-
the criterion for limiting the voltage to ground tems that use single-pole switching. If triplex-core
on the open phase to 1.25 pu was the same as if transformers are used, ferroresonance is not a
there were just one transformer on the circuit, concern and operators can design and switch the
provided an equivalent capacitive reactance and system without developing complex procedures.
Fused Single-Pole Switches
L1(C1) L2(C2) Lj(Cj) LS(CS)

SW1 T1 Ti TN-1 TN
kVA1 kVAi kVAN-1 kVAN
PNL1 PNLi PNLN-1 PNLN
L3(C3)
T2
Symbols kVA2
Lj - Length of section j in feet PNL2
Cj - Capacitance of section j in µf/mile
FIGURE 6.16: Circuit with “S” Cable Sections and “N” Five-Legged Core Grounded-Wye Primary
Transformers.
6
The multiple transformer criterion given is for
Equation 6.13
cable circuits with transformers having the
grounded-wye primary windings and constructed
[C1µF/ML1 + C2µF/ML2 + CjµF/MLj + CSµF/MLS] + on a five-legged core. With reference to the sys-
[kVA10.4 + kVA20.4 + kVA0.4 + kVAN0.4 ] ≤

2.476 tem in Figure 6.16, which has “S” three-phase
cable sections and “N” three-phase transformers,
kV0.25
the voltage to ground during single-pole switch-
26 ing at SW1 will not exceed 1.25 pu if the in-
[Pnl1 + Pnl2 + Pnli + PnlN]
kV2 equality of Equation 6.13 is satisfied.
When Equation 6.13 is applied, the number of
where: CjµF/M = Capacitance of cable section “j” in microfarads per mile three-phase cable sections, “S,” and the number of
Lj = Length of cable section “j” in feet three-phase transformers, “N,” on the circuit need
S = Number of cable sections in the system during the switching not be the same. Each cable section “j” can have
operation a different length and capacitance pu of length,
kVAi = Nameplate kVA rating of three-phase transformer “i” that is and each transformer “i” can have different no-
connected to the circuit being switched load loss and kVA rating. There are no restrictions
Pnli = No-load loss in watts of three-phase transformer “i” that is in the topology of the circuit to which Equation
connected to the circuit being switched 6.13 applies. However, it assumes all transform-
ers are three-phase, five-legged core units.
kV = Rated phase-to-phase voltage in kV of the primary windings of
the transformers on the circuit; all transformers are assumed to Application of Equation 6.13 is demonstrated
have the same rated voltage with the three-phase system in Figure 6.17 and
Example 6.2, assuming the system phase-to-
N = Number of transformers connected to the cable circuit during
the switching phase voltage is 12.47 kV. Table 6.10 lists the
transformer and cable data for the system.
Fused Single- 3-Way Junction

Pole Switches
L1(C1) L2(C2) L3(C3) L4(C4)

N.C. N.O.
T1 T2 T3
kVA1 kVA2 kVA3
PNL1 PNL2 PNL3
L5(C5)
T4
Symbols kVA4
- Normally closed separable connector PNL4
- Normally opened separable connector
Lj - Length of section j in feet
Cj - Capacitance of section j in µf/mile
FIGURE 6.17: Circuit Configuration for Switching Example 6.2.

2 7 2 – Se c t io n 6
6
TABLE 6.10. Transformer and Cable Data for the System of Figure 6.17.
Transformer Data Cable Circuit Data

Rating No-Load Section Capacitance
Number (kVA) Loss (w) Number Size (AWG) Length (feet) (µF/mile)
T1 500 745 1 4/0 330 0.427
T2 225 850 2 4/0 280 0.427
T3 300 810 3 4/0 350 0.427
T4 75 182 4 4/0 1,500 0.427
5 2 130 0.269
Note. Based on 175 mil TR-XLPE Insulation.
If all transformers in Figure 6.17

EXAMPLE 6.2: Energizing Multiple-Transformer System with Single-Pole Switches.
employed triplex construction
(grounded-wye primary windings),
In Figure 6.17, transformers T1, T2, and T3 are loop-feed units with two HV bushings per phase, and the entire system could be ener-
transformer T4 is a radial-fed unit supplied from the three-way junction. The normally open point of gized by closing the single-pole
the loop is at transformer T3. To determine if the entire system can be energized with the single- switches at the source end of cable
pole switches at the source end of cable section 1, assuming that load is not connected to the section 1, and voltages above 1.25
transformers, place the data in Table 6.10 into Equation 6.13 as follows: pu would not occur. Triplex trans-
formers greatly simplify operating
procedures, reduce the time to en-
[(330 × 0.427) + (280 × 0.427) + (350 × 0.427) + (1,500 × 0.427) + (130 × 0.269)] + ergize or de-energize a circuit with
(5000.4 + 2250.4 + 3000.4 + 750.4) ≤ 0.167(745 + 850 + 810 + 182) or

2.476 multiple transformers, and prevent
12.470.25 ferroresonance if a conductor or
jumper opens at light load.
1,133 > 432
SWITCHING (OPERATING)
As 1,133 is not less than 432, single-pole switching at the source end of cable section 1 causes PROCEDURES TO PREVENT
phase-to-ground voltages above 1.25 pu. The data in Table 6.10 show that cable section 4 is quite VOLTAGES ABOVE 1.25 PU
long, 1,500 feet, which suggests that disconnecting cable section 4 from transformer T2 may en- When transformers have grounded-
able energizing transformers T1, T2, and T4 with single-pole switching at the source end of cable wye primary windings (five-legged
section 1. Assuming that cable section 4 is disconnected from transformer T2, placing the data core), procedures can be developed
into Equation 6.13 gives the following: that allow single-pole switching of
the cable circuit and connected
transformers without producing
[(330 × 0.427) + (280 × 0.427) + (350 × 0.427) + (130 × 0.269)] + voltages above 1.25 pu. This is
possible because switching at the
(5000.4 + 2250.4 + 750.4) ≤ 0.167(745 + 850 + 182) or
2.476
primary terminals without cable
12.470.25 connected to the de-energized pri-
480 > 297 mary terminals and without capaci-
tors on the secondary does not
produce voltages above 1.25 pu
As 480 is still more than 297, this example illustrates that energizing practical multitransformer
(excluding the lower loss, lower
loop circuits on a single-pole switching basis often cannot be performed without creating ferrores-
kVA units in 724.9- and 34.5-kV
onant overvoltages in excess of 1.25 pu, even on 12.47-kV circuits.
systems).
6
Also, if only three-pole switching is per- transformers, tables can be developed giving the
formed to energize the cable circuit and con- maximum length of cable that can be switched
nected transformer, overvoltages will not occur. with a transformer of a given size. Ferroreso-
nance always should be considered when you
Single-Pole Switches are switching in UD systems.
Figure 6.17 shows numerous possibilities for en-
ergizing or de-energizing a system with single- Three-Pole Switches
pole switches when the transformers are loop Three-pole switches at switching enclosures and
feed and load-break separable connectors are in three-phase loop-feed transformers with the
used at each transformer, junction, and switch- grounded-wye primary windings will allow the
ing compartment. With Equation 6.13, switching greatest flexibility for energizing and de-energiz-
procedures can be developed for taking a circuit ing circuits and connected transformers. Howev-
out of service and then restoring it, so that the er, having three-pole switches at each loop-feed
voltages do not exceed 1.25 pu. For radially fed transformer may be difficult to justify economically.
Summary of There are two options for preventing ferroreso- be switched with the transformer. When the
Techniques for nance under all conditions that can exist in the transformers have ungrounded primary wind-
Preventing UD system if all capacitor banks are connected in ings, limiting the length is almost always not
grounded wye. First, use only three-pole switch- practical. Furthermore, single-pole switching at
Ferroresonance in
es to energize and de-energize cable circuits and the primary terminals of the transformer with
Underground their connected transformers if any of the trans- ungrounded primary windings can produce volt-
Systems formers have primary windings connected in ei- ages to ground above 1.25 pu.
ther delta, floating-wye, or grounded-wye wind- When the transformers have grounded-wye
ings. The second option, which enables single- primary windings and are constructed on a five-
pole switching of the cable circuit and connect- legged core, the cable lengths that can be ener-
ed transformer, uses only grounded-wye primary gized or de-energized with single-pole switches
windings and triplex construction for three-phase without producing voltages above 1.25 pu are
transformers, or else uses three single-phase long enough that systems can be designed and
transformers with grounded-wye primary connec- operated at the 12.47-kV primary level for many
tion. This second option also prevents ferroreso- situations. But at the 24.9-kV voltage level, and
nance should a jumper or conductor open under especially at the 34.5-kV voltage level, the cable
light load conditions. The second option is the lengths are short. With the lower loss, lower
recommended approach for new systems and ad- kVA transformers used in 24.9- and 34.5-kV sys-
ditions. Also, cable-fed transformers with open- tems, overvoltages above 1.25 pu occur when
wye/open-delta connections are not susceptible switching at the terminals of the transformer.
to ferroresonance during single-pole switching.
For conditions other than those defined above, Three-Pole Switches
the possibility of ferroresonance always exists. Another system design option for controlling over-
However, design and operating procedures that voltages is to use only three-pole switches at loca-
limit the voltages on the open phases to 1.25 pu tions where single-pole switching of the cable
during single-pole switching are available. These circuit and connected transformer(s) will pro-
are summarized in the following subsections. duce voltages above 1.25 pu. If the transformers
have ungrounded primary windings, a large
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESIGN number of three-pole switches will be required.
Primary Cable Circuit Length When the five-legged core transformers have
Ferroresonant overvoltages can be limited to grounded-wye primary windings, the number of
1.25 pu, when designing the system, by limiting three-pole switches required in the 15-kV class
the length of the primary cable circuit that can systems may be small because of the relatively
2 7 4 – Se c t io n 6
6
long lengths of cable and connected transformers above 1.25 pu may occur for single-pole switch-
that can be switched with single-pole switches. ing at the primary terminals of the transformer.
But at the 24.9- and 34.5-kV voltage levels, the To recap the switching procedures for limiting
lengths of cable that can be switched with five- overvoltages during single-pole switching, consid-
legged core, grounded-wye primary transformers er a system represented by Figure 6.18. Assuming
are much shorter, by factors of approximately that energizing cable section 1 (SEC 1) and the
four and nine, respectively. transformer with single-pole switches at location
SW1 produces voltages above 1.25 pu, either of the
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OPERATION following two switching procedures could be used.
(SWITCHING PROCEDURES) First, assume the single-pole switches at loca-
With existing distribution systems, switching tions SW1, SW2, and SW3 are open but the
procedures can be developed that limit overvolt- switches are closed at location SW4. This repre-
ages during single-pole switching operations to sents the situation in which the transformer is
1.25 pu when the transformers have grounded- loop feed with load-break elbow connectors, or
wye primary windings and a five-legged core. internal loop-feed switches, but does not have a
Implementation of these switching procedures field-operable disconnect between the loop-feed
requires that switching devices—such as load- bus of the transformer and the primary winding.
break elbow connectors, fused or solid discon- To energize the system, do the following:
nects, or internal under-oil switches—are locat-
ed at the transformer primary terminals. They 1. Close the switches at location SW1 to ener-
can be used in 15-kV and lower voltage systems gize cable section 1 (SEC 1).
having five legged-core transformers with ground- 2. Close the switches at location SW2 to ener-
ed-wye primary windings because switching at gize the transformer.
the primary terminals, without connected cable, 3. Close the switches at location SW3 to ener-
does not result in objectionable overvoltages. gize cable section 2 (SEC 2) up to the nor-
They can also be used in 24.9- and 34.5-kV sys- mally open point.
tems if it is recognized that 1.5 pu overvoltages
may occur when switching the lower loss, lower If the switches at SW3 were closed before the
kVA grounded-wye transformers at their termi- single-pole switches at SW2 were closed, cable
nals. However, implementing these procedures would be connected to the de-energized pri-
in the field may be difficult, especially when mary terminals of the transformer, and overvolt-
restoring service during and after severe storms. ages could occur for single-pole switching at
These switching procedures generally are not location SW2.
practicable in systems with delta or ungrounded- Second, assume the single-pole switches are
wye primary windings because overvoltages open at all four locations shown in Figure 6.18.
Single-Pole Switching Devices
SW1
SW2 SW3 N.O.
SEC 1 SEC 2
SW4 Single-Pole Switches or

Fused Disconnect Devices
Five-Legged Core
FIGURE 6.18: Single-Line Diagram of a Portion of a UD System.

6
This represents the situation in which the trans- that prevent overvoltages above 1.25 pu usually
former is loop feed with internal single-pole can be developed. Implementation of these proce-
switching devices for connecting the transformer dures may be difficult under practical conditions.
primary windings to the internal loop-feed bus. For the basic types of services supplied by
To energize the transformer and cables, close three-phase transformers, or banks of single-
the single-pole switches at locations SW1 and phase transformers, the preferred winding con-
SW2. The order of closing is not significant from nections in the UD system, from a ferroreso-
a ferroresonance standpoint because the switches nance standpoint, are defined below.
at location SW4 are open. Then the transformer
windings are energized by closing the single- Four-Wire Wye Services
pole switching devices at location SW4, either Figure 6.1 shows the two most common con-
before or after the switches at location SW3 are nections for supply of four-wire wye services.
closed to energize cable section 2 (SEC 2). Delta/grounded-wye connections should be
In developing switching procedures to pre- avoided in cable-fed transformers unless only
vent or limit ferroresonant overvoltages, the co- three-pole switching devices are used.
operative should consider whether it matters if Grounded-wye/grounded-wye connections
liquid-filled transformers are energized with should be used in transformers supplying four-
switching devices at their primary terminals or at wire wye services in UD systems. Triplex con-
a remote location. struction of three-phase transformers, or use of
three single-phase transformers, prevents fer-
SELECTION OF DISTRIBUTION roresonance and eliminates the possibility of
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS tank heating that can occur with the five-legged
Transformer connections in UD systems affect core transformer. Triplex construction is recom-
the likelihood of ferroresonance during single- mended for three-phase units. Use of five-legged
pole switching of cable circuits and connected core, three-phase transformers with grounded-
transformers (or just one transformer). In gen- wye primary windings usually prevents voltages
eral, delta and ungrounded-wye connected pri- above 1.25 pu for switching at the primary ter-
mary windings should not be used for cable-fed minals and with reasonable lengths of cable
transformers in 15-, 25-, and 35-kV class UD sys- connected to the primary terminals.
tems, unless only three-pole switches are used.
For transformers in UD sys- Four-Wire and Three-Wire
tems, grounded-wye primary Delta Services
windings are preferred. With Transformer Figure 6.1 shows transformer
triplex-core three-phase trans- winding connections for sup-
formers and banks of single- connections in UD plying the 240/120-volt, four-
phase transformers with systems affect the wire and 240-volt, three-wire
grounded-wye primary wind- delta services. Delta/delta,
ings, ferroresonance will not
likelihood of floating-wye/delta, and open-
occur during single-pole ferroresonance delta/open-delta connections
switching of cables and con- during single-pole should be avoided if single-
nected transformers. With the pole switching of cable circuit
five-legged core, voltages switching. and connected transformers is
above 1.25 pu will occur if contemplated. These connec-
cable lengths are too long, or tions are acceptable only if
if switching is done at the pri- three-pole switches are used
mary terminals of the lower loss, lower kVA for all switching operations.
24.9- and 34.5-kV transformers. When the cable Open-wye/open-delta connections prevent
lengths are greater than the length allowed to ferroresonant overvoltages during single-pole
limit voltages to 1.25 pu, switching procedures switching of cable circuits and connected
2 7 6 – Se c t io n 6
6
transformer. However, these connections are not Another option is to provide two separate
symmetrical and are a source of voltage unbal- service voltages. The 240-volt, three-wire load is
ance. Intentional oversizing of supplied from a triplex-core
the transformers in this config- grounded-wye/grounded-wye
uration will minimize voltage transformer with a secondary
Use grounded-wye
unbalance on the secondary rated 240Y/138 volts. The neu-
side. As long as the connec- primary windings tral point of the wye-connect-
tions do not cause objection- and triplex cores ed secondary windings may
able voltage unbalance, and be grounded or floating. The
the possibility of energizing in three-phase 120/240-volt, single-phase
both high-voltage terminals transformers to avoid load is supplied from a single-
from the same primary phase phase transformer with its
is minimal, these are the rec-
ferroresonance. primary connected from phase
ommended connection for to neutral. The experience of
cable-fed transformers. Other- the cooperative with the open-
wise, delta/delta or floating-wye/delta connec- wye/open-delta connection in overhead systems
tions must be used with appropriate installation can serve as a benchmark in determining the
of three-pole, gang-operated switches and oper- acceptability of the connections for cable-fed
ating procedures to prevent ferroresonance. transformers.
Summary and Ferroresonance in UD systems is a complex that the overvoltages are limited to 1.25 pu.
Recommendations phenomenon. The probability of its occurring Do not exceed these cable lengths. If the
and the severity of the associated overvoltages physical location of the equipment makes it
are a function of many parameters. If the follow- impossible to limit the length of cable, de-
ing recommendations are observed in the design velop switching procedures whereby the
and operation of the system and in the selection cable circuit can be energized or de-ener-
of transformer connections, problems caused by gized with the transformer(s) disconnected
ferroresonance will be minimized. If only ground- from the cable circuit. Switching at the pri-
ed-wye primary windings and triplex cores are mary terminals of the lower loss, lower kVA
used in three-phase transformers, ferroresonance grounded-wye primary five-legged core
during single phasing is virtually impossible. It is transformers in 24.9- and 34.5-kV systems
not necessary to develop special switching or may produce voltages above 1.25 pu. If the
operating procedures, use three-pole switches, three-phase transformer has triplex construc-
or limit cable length as may be required with tion, there are no limits on cable length dur-
five-legged core transformers with grounded- ing the single-pole switching of the cable
wye primary windings. Triplex construction of circuit and transformer with grounded-wye
three-phase transformers with grounded-wye primary windings. Triplex core transformers
primary windings prevents tank heating. will not experience tank heating as is possi-
ble with five-legged core transformers with
1. For service to four-wire wye loads from grounded-wye primary windings.
12.47-, 24.9-, and 34.5-kV UD systems, use When purchasing three-phase transform-
grounded-wye/grounded-wye winding con- ers with grounded-wye/grounded-wye wind-
nections. If the three-phase, cable-fed trans- ing connections, always consider both
former is constructed on a five-legged core, triplex and five-legged core designs, espe-
there are limits on the length of cable with a cially in the lower kVA sizes. Always pur-
connected transformer that can be energized chase triplex designs if their evaluated cost
or de-energized with single-pole switches so (includes first cost, cost of losses, etc.) is less
6
than or equal to that of the five-legged core always be grounded before the transformer
unit. Because the triplex designs simplify is energized.
switching and operating procedures and The neutral point of the low-voltage
eliminate the possibility of tank heating, these windings rated 480Y/277 volts, in either
benefits should be evaluated in the purchas- case, should be brought out through an in-
ing decision. Installation of three single-phase sulated bushing so that the transformer can
transformers, from a ferroresonance and tank- serve either a four-wire grounded wye sec-
heating standpoint, offers the same advan- ondary, a three-wire delta (ungrounded) sec-
tages as do the triplex design transformers. ondary system, or a corner-grounded
2. For service to three-wire ungrounded (delta) secondary system. When the transformer
loads from the 12.47-, 24.9-, and 34.5-kV UD serves the ungrounded or corner-grounded
systems, use the grounded-wye/floating-wye systems, the secondary neutral bushing (ter-
winding connection. This connection may minal) should be insulated by the coopera-
also be used to supply the corner-grounded tive to avoid unintentional grounding. When
delta secondary system by grounding one of the low-voltage windings are rated 240Y/138
the secondary phase conductors. If the three- volts to supply a 240-volt ungrounded or
phase, cable-fed transformer is constructed corner-grounded system, the neutral may or
on a five-legged core, there are limits on the may not be brought out, depending on the
length of cable with a connected transformer preference of the user. However, if the sec-
that can be energized or de-energized with ondary neutral is not brought out on an in-
single-pole switches so that the overvoltages sulated bushing, it must be floated (isolated)
are limited to 1.25 pu. Do not exceed these within the tank.
cable lengths. If the physical location of the 3. For service to 240/120-volt four-wire delta
equipment makes it impossible to limit the loads in the 12.47-kV UD system employing
length of cable, develop switching procedures single-pole switching of cable circuit and
whereby the cable circuit can be energized connected transformers, use open-wye/open-
or de-energized with the transformer(s) dis- delta connections. An alternative is to pro-
connected from the cable circuit. If the three- vide two separate services. The 240-volt,
phase cable-fed transformer has triplex three-wire service is supplied from a triplex-
construction, there are no limits on cable core transformer or three single-phase trans-
length during the single-pole switching of formers with the primary and secondary
the cable circuit and connected transformer windings connected in grounded wye. The
with grounded-wye primary winding. secondary winding of the three-phase unit
When purchasing three-phase transformers must be rated 240Y/138 volts. The single-
with grounded-wye/floating-wye winding phase 120/240-volt service is supplied from
connections, always consider both triplex and a single-phase transformer with its primary
five-legged core designs, especially in the winding connected from phase to neutral.
lower kVA sizes. Always purchase triplex de- Some utilities discourage new applications
signs if their evaluated cost (including first for the 240/120-volt, four-wire delta services.
cost, cost of losses, etc.) is less than or equal Instead, they promote four-wire wye service
to that of the five-legged core unit. at 208Y/120 volts. This type of service al-
Three-phase transformers for this appli- lows use of grounded-wye/grounded-wye
cation either should have the neutral of the connections with triplex construction.
primary windings connected to the trans- If only three-pole switching is used to en-
former tank or else should have the primary ergize or de-energize the cable circuit and
neutral brought out through a separate insu- connected transformers, delta, open-delta, or
lated bushing. When the neutral of the high- floating-wye connections may be used for
voltage winding is brought out through the primary windings, provided three-pole
an insulated bushing, the neutral should switches are also installed at each transformer
2 7 8 – Se c t io n 6
6
to connect and disconnect the transformer possibility of ferroresonance only if three-
from the cable. The advantage of the closed- pole switches are used to energize and de-
delta connection is that the maximum possi- energize cable circuits and their connected
ble voltage unbalance, under worst-case transformers and three-pole switches are
conditions, is lower than with the open- used at the HV terminals to connect the
wye/open-delta connections. transformer to the cable circuit. Single phas-
4. For service to 240/120-volt, four-wire delta ing, caused by conductor or jumper open-
loads in 24.9- and 34.5-kV systems, use ing, may result in ferroresonance under light
open-wye/open-delta connections. An alter- load conditions.
native is to provide two separate services as Cable-fed transformers with delta or un-
described in recommendation three, or else grounded-wye primary windings are not rec-
promote the 208Y/120-volt, four-wire wye ommended for use in new UD systems.
service over the four-wire delta service with 7. Delta or ungrounded-wye primary winding
grounded-wye windings. connections should not be used with cable-
If only three-pole switching is used to en- fed, three-phase transformers or banks of
ergize and de-energize the cable circuit and single-phase transformers in 12.47-, 24.9-,
connected transformers, and only three-pole and 34.5-kV UD systems when single-pole
switches are used to connect the transformer switching of cable circuits and connected
to the cable circuit, delta, open-delta, or transformers will be performed. The only
floating-wye connections may be used for exception to this recommendation is if the
the primary windings. transformer primary windings are connected
5. Consumer load connected to the cable-fed ungrounded-wye and provisions are made at
transformer should not be used or relied on the transformer to temporarily ground the
to prevent ferroresonance during single-pole neutral during single-pole switching operations.
switching on the primary side of the distrib- 8. Delta or ungrounded-wye connected primary
ution transformer. If the load is too small, it windings should not be used for three-phase
will not prevent overvoltages, yet may be transformers or banks of three single-phase
damaged by the resultant overvoltages. With transformers even when single-pole switching
floating-wye/delta transformer connections, will be done only at the primary terminals of
badly unbalanced secondary load will prevent the transformer. The only exception to this
ferroresonance but cause high overvoltages by recommendation is if the transformer primary
a different mechanism during single phasing. windings are connected ungrounded-wye
6. Delta or ungrounded-wye primary windings and provisions are made at the transformer
can be used with three-phase transformers to temporarily ground the neutral during
or banks of single-phase transformers in single-pole switching operations.
24.9- and 34.5-kV UD systems without the
6
References Anderson, P.H. Analysis of Faulted Power Systems. Hopkinson, R.H. “Ferroresonant Overvoltage
Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1982. Control Based on TNA Tests on Three-Phase
Wye-Delta Transformer Banks.” IEEE Transac-
Crann, L.B., and R.B. Flickinger. “Overvoltages tions on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS87,
on 14.4/24.9kV Rural Distribution Systems.” AIEE no. 2 (February 1968): 352–361.
Transactions (Power Apparatus and Systems) 73,
part III (October 1954): 1208–1212. Locke, P. “Check Your Ferroresonance Concepts
at 34 kV.” Transmission and Distribution (April
DiPietro, J., and R.H. Hopkinson. “Ferroresonance 1978): 3239.
on Underground Feeders Having Several Trans-
formers.” Southeastern Electric Exchange Engi- Millet, R.D., D.D. Mairs, and D.L. Stuehm. “The
neering and Operating Meeting, New Orleans, Assessment and Mitigation Study of Ferroreso-
La., April 26–27, 1976. nance on Grounded-Wye/Grounded-Wye Three-
Phase Pad-Mounted Transformers.” Final Report:
Feldman, J.M., and A.M. Hopkin. “A Simple NRECA Energy Research Division, January 1990.
Nonlinear Analysis of the Single-Phase Ferrores-
onant Circuit.” Paper C 74 233-3, IEEE PES Win- Pennsylvania Electric Company. “Field Investiga-
ter Meeting, New York, N.Y., January 27, 1974. tion of Ferroresonance on 20/34.5-kV Distribu-
tion Three-Phase Transformer Banks.” PENELEC,
Ferguson, J.S. “A Practical Look at Ferroreso- October 14, 1964.
nance.” Missouri Valley Electric Association Engi-
neering Conference, Kansas City, Mo., April Rudenberg, R. Transient Performance of Electric
17–19, 1968. Power Systems. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT
Press, May 1970.
Gasal, J. “Prevent Overvoltage Failure of Ar-
resters.” Electrical World (July 1986): 47. Schultz, R.A. “Ferroresonance in Distribution
Transformer Banks on 19.8/34.5 kV Systems.”
Germany, N., S. Mastero, and J. Vroman. “Re- Rocky Mountain Electric League Spring Confer-
view of Ferroresonance Phenomena in High- ence, Boulder, Colo., April 21, 1964.
Voltage Power System and Presentation of a
Voltage Transformer Model for Predetermining Smith, D.R., S.R. Swanson, and J.D. Borst. “Over-
Them.” CIGRE Paper 33-18, August 21–29, 1974. voltages with Remotely Switched Cable-Fed
Grounded Wye-Wye Transformers.” IEEE Trans-
Hendrickson, P.E., I.B. Johnson, and N.R. actions on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS94,
Schultz. “Abnormal Voltage Conditions Produced no. 5 (September/October 1975): 1843–1853.
by Open Conductors on Three-Phase Circuits
Using Shunt Capacitors.” AIEE Transactions 72, Stoelting, H.O. “A Practical Approach to Ferrores-
part III (1953): 1183–1193. onance as Established by Tests.” Pacific Coast
Electric Association Engineering and Operating
Hopkinson, R.H. “Ferroresonance During Single- Meeting, San Francisco, Calif., March 4, 1966.
Phase Switching of Three-Phase Distribution
Transformer Banks.” IEEE Transactions on Walling, R.A. “Ferroresonance in Today’s Distribu-
Power Apparatus and Systems PAS84 (April tion Systems.” Presentation to the Western Under-
1965): 289–293, discussion June 1965, 514–517. ground Committee, Palo Alto, Calif., May 2, 1991.
Hopkinson, R.H. “Ferroresonant Overvoltage Walling, R.A. “Ferroresonance Guidelines for

Control Based on TNA Tests on Three-Phase Modern Transformer Applications.” Final Report
Delta-Wye Transformer Banks.” IEEE Transac- to the Distribution Systems Testing, Application,
tions on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS86, and Research (DSTAR) Consortium, July 1992.
no. 10 (October 1967): 1258–1265.
2 8 0 – Se c t io n 6
6
Walling, R.A., K.D. Barker, T.M. Compton, and Young, F.S., R.L. Schmid, and P.I. Fergestad. “A
L.E. Zimmerman. “Ferroresonant Overvoltages in Laboratory Investigation of Ferroresonance in
Grounded Wye-Wye Pad-Mounted Transformers Cable-Connected Transformers.” IEEE Transac-
with Low-Loss Silicon-Steel Cores.” Presentation tions on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS-87,
at the IEEE 1992 Summer Power Meeting. no. 5 (May 1968): 1240–1248.
Cathodic Protection Require m e n t s – 2 8 1
7 Cathodic Protection
Requirements
In This Section: Special Note Cathodic Protection Design with

Introduction Galvanic Anodes
What to Protect Cathodic Protection Installation
and Follow-Up
Where to Protect
Calculation of Resistance to Ground
Types of Cathodic Protection Systems
Amount of Cathodic Protection
Special Note With the 2006 transition to jacketed medium- precaution to avoid corrosion on the exposed
voltage distribution-class cables, cathodic protec- bare concentric neutrals in certain soil types.
tion is not generally needed in today’s applica- This section is being left in this manual as a
tions. With the older BCN cables (now not RUS historical reference for those situations in
accepted), cathodic protection was a necessary which BCN cables are still in operation.
Introduction Cathodic protection is an effective and economi- of buried steel, together with surface films on
cal means for avoiding underground corrosion the copper, caused the resulting corrosion of
in electrical grounding to ensure safe and reli- steel to be so slow that it was generally ignored.
able operation of the electric system. Cathodic Now, copper-jacketed ground rods and copper
protection is protection of the neutral, ground wires may be the only earth contact for safety
electrodes, and other metal in contact with soil and electrical protection. With no steel connect-
through the use of sacrificial anodes or rectifiers ed, the copper is vulnerable to corrosion because
and impressed-current anodes. of variations in the soil and from ac voltages
Cathodic protection has become a necessity present on the neutral. Corrosion of copper in
for electric utilities because of the broad shift to these circumstances can result in loss of electri-
underground construction and the use of non- cal protection, property damage, and hazards to
conducting materials. In the past, the electric operating crews and the public.
neutral and ground wires were connected to This section explains, step by step, how to
buried steel piping, conduit, tanks, wells, and design and install cathodic protection with sacri-
anchors at many locations. Copper grounds and ficial anodes, and how to recognize where such
copper wires in soil received cathodic protection protection will be the most important.
at the expense of buried steel. The large extent
2 8 2 – Se c t io n 7
7
What to Protect THE ELECTRIC NEUTRAL AND GROUNDS OTHER BURIED, GROUNDED METAL
The first requirement is to protect the electric Buried steel conduit, anchors, pipes, and well cas-
neutral and grounds. The necessity for effective ings are subject to corrosion when they are con-
grounding and continuity of the neutral return nected to the common neutral, particularly when
conductor should be obvious. Cathodic protec- the grounding is with copper materials. Cathodic
tion is a cost-effective means for avoiding prob- protection of the neutral and grounding system is
lems in these areas. needed to avoid or control such corrosion.
Where to Protect Consider cathodic protection at the time of con- are vulnerable to accelerated corrosion
struction where any of the following apply: because of the effects of dissimilar metals.
• At the ends of copper-grounded cable routes
• In new residential subdivisions with nonmetal- in very high-resistivity soils, where ac voltages
lic sewer lines, water lines, gas lines, and on the neutral may cause accelerated corro-
copper-grounded electric facilities, where the sion of buried copper (Zastrow, 1981).
only buried metal connected to the neutral is • Near cathodically protected pipelines and in
copper. Copper may corrode rapidly in these the vicinity of rectifiers that supply dc for
situations because of the mixing of soils dur- cathodic protection; also, near dc-powered
ing regrading and the absence of the cathodic railways and mining operations. Control of
protection usually provided by buried steel. corrosion from external dc sources may
• Along other routes with widely variable soil require special measures in addition to instal-
conditions that may result from differences in lation of cathodic protection (Zastrow, 1979).
terrain, soil moisture, drainage, and the pres-
ence of contaminants such as ashes, coal, To understand underground corrosion and
dumped refuse, or drainage from barnyards corrosion-control measures, one must recognize
or irrigated fields. that the electric neutral and ground connections
• At services from copper-grounded electric cir- behave as a dc circuit and must be treated as such.
cuits where steel pipes, tanks, or well casings The electric neutral, ground electrodes, and other
buried metal components connected to them act
as a huge galvanic cell. The more noble buried
metal surfaces, usually copper, become cathodes
and are protected against corrosion. The less
Pole Line
noble metals, usually iron and steel, become
anodes and are corroded (see Figure 7.1).
Electron Flow The electric grounding system may be in an
area of widely varying soil resistivity (see Figure
7.2). Shaded areas on the map represent loca-
Anchor
(Anode) Copper Grounds
Copper Grounds tions of low-resistivity, corrosive soils. Metals in
(Cathodes)
(Cathodes) corrosive soil become anodes and corrode, where-
as the metals in less-corrosive soil are protected
against corrosion. See Section 5 for a detailed
discussion of soil electrical resistivity.
Copper Irrigation Well
Grounds
When both copper and steel are present in
(Anode)
Steel Pipe variable soils, as at a connection between an un-
(Anode) derground cable and pole line (see Figure 7.2),
the steel anchor in corrosive soil becomes the
FIGURE 7.1: Dissimilar Metal Effects Between Buried Metals anode and corrodes, whereas the copper in less
Connected to the Neutral of an Electric Distribution Line. corrosive soil is protected against corrosion. If
7
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DC POTENTIALS
Underground corrosion occurs because of differ-
ences between dc potentials of the buried metals,
Electron Flow Electron Flow
either because of dissimilar metals or because of
differences in soil.
B B B Typical dc potentials of some common metals
and of carbon are shown in Table 7.1. The high-
er (more negative) the dc potential, the more
A likely the metal is to corrode when connected to
other buried metals.
(A) Corrosive soils (B) Less corrosive soils Potentials such as shown in Table 7.1 are
measured with a high-resistance voltmeter and
FIGURE 7.2: Electric System Map Shaded to Show Corrosive Soil copper-copper sulfate half cell (see Figure 7.3).
Locations. If two buried metals are connected, the one
with a higher negative potential is corroded
while the other is protected (see Figure 7.4).
only buried copper is present, as may be true A single buried metal, such as copper, cor-
with underground cables, the copper in corro- rodes in varying soils as shown in Figure 7.5.
sive soils sacrifices itself to protect the copper in
less corrosive soils. SOIL RESISTIVITY
Include soil resistivity measurements as part of a
preconstruction survey along each proposed un-
TABLE 7.1: Typical DC Potentials in Soil.
derground cable route. At the same time, record
Material Potential, Volts* the locations of pipeline crossings and other pos-
sible dc sources that may cause cathodic protec-
Zinc -1.1
tion interference.
Iron -0.6 to -0.7 Soil resistivity is measured with a four-termi-
Copper 0 to -0.1 nal ground test instrument, with four equally
spaced probes placed in a straight line (see Fig-
Carbon +0.2
ure 7.6). If measurements are made in the vicin-
* To a copper-copper sulfate half cell ity of a BCN cable or buried pipe, the probes
should be off to one side and at right angles to
the buried metal.
Detail of Half Cell
To Voltmeter Voltmeter
Copper Rod Soil resistivity

measurements are
Copper Sulfate Solution essential for success
in any corrosion
Excess Crystals
Half Cell control effort.
Porous Plug
Soil Soil
SOIL AND TERRAIN FEATURES
Metal The appearance of soil and the nature of the ter-
rain often reveal locations of corrosive soils as
FIGURE 7.3: Measurement of Potential to a Copper-Copper Sulfate well as soils not likely to be corrosive. Swamps,
Half Cell.
2 8 4 – Se c t io n 7
7
–0.05V –0.06V Electron Flow EXAMPLE 7.1: Measuring Earth Resistivity.
In Figure 7.6, if A = 5.2 feet, multiply the meter reading

by 10 to find earth resistivity in ohm-m. For 5.2-foot
spacing, if the meter reads R = 2.4 ohms, soil resis-
Soil C
o
Soil
I
tivity is 24 ohm-m. For 10.4-foot spacing, multiply the
p
p
r
o + Ions meter reading by 20.
e n
r Additional information about soil resistivity measure-
Copper Iron Protected Corroding ments and grounding is given in Section 5 of this manual.
FIGURE 7.4: Dissimilar Metal Effects Between Copper and Steel. streams, and poorly drained areas indicate se-
verely corrosive soils. Well-drained areas and
presence of carbonates (lime) usually indicate
locations of no significant corrosion.
Soil
The appearance of soils at cable depth may
be significant for the following reasons.
Bare-
Neutral
Cable • Red clay is only mildly corrosive to buried
steel. Red signifies the presence of iron oxide,
indicating the presence of oxygen, which helps
Electron Flow form passive protective films on iron or steel.
Ions Ions
Anodic (Corroding) Area Cathodic (Protected) Area • Blue or gray clay, sometimes mottled with white,
Arrows represent the flow of electrons in connecting wires and movement of positive ions in
is severely corrosive to both copper and steel.
the soil. To show “conventional flow” (movement of positive charge), reverse the arrows that This usually dense clay is deficient in oxygen
represent electron flow.
and associated with poorly drained soils.
FIGURE 7.5: Dissimilar Soil Effects on Buried Copper Wires. • White alkali on the surface in dry areas, or low
locations including marshes where drainage is
poor, represent corrosive soils. These may be
good locations for sacrificial anodes.
P1 P2
C1 C2 Recollections of
underground crews
about soil types may
be valuable.
CORROSION EXPERIENCE
Make use of maintenance and replacement
A A A records and recollections of underground crews
to identify the areas of most probable corrosion.
A = Distance between probes Cable Note the locations and ages of components
(cable neutrals, ground wires, ground rods, and
FIGURE 7.6: Measurement of Earth Resistivity with a Four-Terminal anchor assemblies) as well as their condition at
Ground Tester.
the time of observed deterioration or failure.
7
Types of Cathodic Cathodic protection may be provided by sacrifi- of proven competence who have experience
Protection cial anodes of magnesium or zinc, or by recti- with such installations. Special attention must be
fiers and impressed-current anodes. given to the location of anodes and adjustment
Systems
of the rectifiers to avoid serious damage to the
RECTIFIER SYSTEMS grounding system or other nearby facilities.
Rectifier systems are used where there is a need Small constant-current rectifier units are used
for higher output voltages and/or currents than to provide more current output than is available
galvanic anodes can provide. Rectifiers use an from sacrificial anodes. They are usually installed
ac source to apply a negative potential to the at pad-mounted equipment where the anodes
protected structure and return the dc to earth can be buried at minimum cost with a minimum
by means of one or more impressed-current of digging. They have been suggested for retro-
anodes. Rectifier systems are more exacting in fitting along existing BCN underground cables.
their requirements for design and regular atten- Results have been mixed in terms of reliability
tion to maintenance. A rectifier system may and service life, particularly in soils with very
either prevent or cause corrosion problems, high resistivities. Use of these units should be
depending on design and the physical location limited at first in order to gain experience.
of the anode or anode bed.
Adjustable rectifiers, along with impressed- SACRIFICIAL ANODE SYSTEMS
current anodes, are used for protecting large un- Sacrificial anodes are widely used for cathodic
derground structures such as pipelines, storage protection on electric distribution facilities for
tanks, and wells in oil fields. They may be the reasons of cost and the minimum maintenance
most economical means for protecting grounding required. The balance of this section will be
systems at generating stations, substations, and addressed to cathodic protection by means of
major industrial facilities. These rectifier systems sacrificial anodes.
should be designed and installed by individuals Sacrificial anodes make use of dissimilar metal
effects to protect buried metals against corro-
sion. For example, if steel is corroding because
of a connection to copper (see Figure 7.4), a
zinc anode can be added to provide protection
–0.4V –1.1V –0.8V (see Figure 7.7).
Electrons Electron The potentials in Figure 7.7 show the effect of
Flow surface films, which have the effect of reducing
the amount of current required for cathodic pro-
tection. The potentials of the individual metals in
soil for copper, iron, and zinc are 0, -0.6, and -1.1
volts, respectively (see Table 7.1). Note: When
they are connected together, the potential that
+
Ions results is more negative than the average of the
Positive Ions
individual metal potentials. For the copper-iron
Copper Iron Zinc Copper Iron Zinc
(Protected) (Corroding) (Protected) (Corroding) couple, the resulting potential is -0.4 instead of
-0.3 volt. The potential of the copper-iron-zinc
combination is -0.8 volt, even though the average
FIGURE 7.7: Potentials of a Copper-Steel Couple Before and After of the three is -0.57 volt. The difference is due to
Connecting a Zinc Anode. films that usually form on cathodic surfaces.
2 8 6 – Se c t io n 7
7
Amount of The cathodic protection should cause enough than those shown in Table 7.2. More negative
Cathodic current flow to make the dc neutral potential potentials provide a greater margin of protec-
Protection sufficiently negative to prevent corrosion. The tion; less negative potentials increase the proba-
potential selected for providing protection is im- bility of underground corrosion problems.
portant, as the cost of cathodic protection in- The potentials in Table 7.2 are intended to pro-
creases directly with the shift in dc potential to vide a starting point until experience is gained in
be achieved. Experience in the cooperative’s selecting potentials to provide the desired degree
service area is the best guide for deciding on of protection at an acceptable cost. Experience in
potentials that are effective yet practical. the service area, interpreted in light of “as found”
Steel or iron in soil is usually regarded as pro- dc potentials, should be helpful for deciding on
tected against corrosion at potentials of -0.85 volt or the ones to be used for cathodic protection design.
more negative. In most soils, however, steel an- Noncorrosive soils are defined as those in which
chor assemblies and ground rods are lasting more steel ground rods and steel anchor assemblies,
than 25 years at potentials such as -0.5 to -0.6 volt. pipes, and wells connected to a copper-grounded
Buried copper is generally free of corrosion at neutral lasted for 20 years or more without sig-
potentials of -0.1 to -0.25 volt, but may corrode nificant losses resulting from underground corro-
at more negative potentials in the presence of ac sion. Anchor assemblies bonded to pole line
voltages (Zastrow, 1981). neutrals would not have experienced difficulty
Examples drawn from RUS experience are before underground construction, with first fail-
given in Table 7.2. With these potentials as a ures after 20 years or more. No underground
guide, cathodic protection is designed to maintain corrosion of copper would have been noticed
dc neutral potentials equal to or more negative before the installation of BCN underground cables.
Corrosive soils are those in which significant
numbers of anchor rods bonded to a copper
TABLE 7.2: Suggested DC Potentials for Cathodic Protection.* grounded neutral failed within 15 years after in-
Conditions Potential (volts dc)** stallation, or in which significant corrosion of
buried copper has been experienced.
Along jacketed cables*** At locations of steel wells, tanks, pipes, and
In noncorrosive soils -0.7 conduit, the design should avoid any objection-
able flow of dc in service neutrals.
In corrosive soil areas -0.85 At connections to extensive copper-grounded
At locations of grounded steel wells, tanks, conduit -0.85 facilities, the dc potentials are strongly influ-
enced by “as-found” conditions. To achieve a
Along BCN cables
more negative cable neutral potential at such lo-
In noncorrosive soils -0.3 cations, the owner may need to provide cathodic
protection for the “foreign” grounding system.
In corrosive soil areas -0.4 to -0.7
Or, as an alternative, the owner should install
At locations of grounded steel wells, tanks, conduit -0.85 anodes at locations of grounds along the new
cable so that, after a mile or so, the desired
At cable terminal poles
potentials will be achieved.
In noncorrosive soils -0.6 Cathodic protection designs, and these specifi-
In corrosive soil areas -0.85 cations, are only approximate because of wide
variations in soil properties, variable effects of
At connections to extensive copper-grounded facilities -0.4 polarization films, and uncertainties about the
* From long-term personal experience on electric systems financed by RUS. characteristics and extent of buried metal struc-
** Volts to a copper-copper sulfate half cell. tures connected to the neutral. Even so, proce-
***There is a lack of experience with protection of cables with semiconducting jackets. dures such as these are necessary to avoid the
Use the same values as for cables with insulating jackets, if these levels are practical; high cost of ineffective installations and wasted,
otherwise, try, as a minimum, to achieve those indicated for BCN cables. improperly located anodes.
7
Cathodic A cathodic protection system is actually a dc cir- Cables in Conduit, Large Power Users, and
Protection Design cuit (see Figure 7.8). The anode is the voltage Connections to Other Facilities—only addi-
with Galvanic source, ground connections (metals buried in tional factors to be considered are included.
soil) are the load, and the neutral conductor and
Anodes
ground wires provide the connections to the JACKETED CABLES AND OVERHEAD POLE LINES
load. The current return path is through the soil. A jacketed underground cable, with an insulat-
(See Figures 7.4, 7.5, and 7.7.) ing jacket over the neutral wires, is similar to a
The object of cathodic protection is to shift pole line with regard to grounding and cathodic
the dc potential of the neutral to a sufficiently protection design. In both, most of the ground-
negative value to control or stop corrosion. ing is by means of driven ground rods along the
Cathodic protection design requires at least line and on consumers’ premises. Additional
five steps: grounding is provided by other buried metal
(conduit, pipes, wells, tanks, and pole anchor
STEP 1: Calculate the neutral resistance to assemblies) connected to the common neutral
ground. and in contact with the soil.
STEP 2: Decide on the shift in dc neutral
potential that will be necessary for STEP 1: Calculate the Neutral Resistance
adequate control of corrosion. and Conductance to Ground
STEP 3: Calculate the anode output current The discussions that follow refer to conductance
required. (the reciprocal of resistance) instead of resistance
STEP 4: Select the anode types, sizes, and to avoid the cumbersome formulas that are nec-
numbers. essary for finding the equivalent of resistances in
STEP 5: Decide on approximate locations for parallel. Conductances of individual grounds in
anodes along the cable. parallel can be combined by simple addition or
multiplication.
These steps will now be described in detail Note: There is a great difference between the
for Jacketed Cables and Overhead Pole Lines. value of resistance or conductance to ground per
For the following other types of situations— unit length (per mile or kft) of neutral and the
Protection of Bare Concentric Neutral Cables, value for the complete neutral, which usually has
Cables with Conducting (Semicon) Jackets, a resistance to ground of a fraction of one ohm.
Rw
Ea = Open circuit anode potential,

the dc potential the anode
would assume if not connected
Ea En to anything else
En = DC neutral potential
Rn = Resistance-to-earth of the
neutral and grounds
Ra Rn Ra = Anode resistance
Rw = Resistance of the anode lead
FIGURE 7.8: Equivalent Circuit for a Galvanic Anode Connected to the Electric Neutral.
2 8 8 – Se c t io n 7
7
EXAMPLE 7.2: Calculating the Neutral Conductance to Ground Per 1,000 Feet of Cable.
TABLE 7.3: Calculated Resistance and Conductance to Ground of Individual

Ground Rods as Related to Soil Resistivity.
Soil Resistivity (ohm-m*)
Ground 5 10 15 20 100 500 2,500
Rod Size (Resistance, ohms, and conductance, siemens)
5/8 in. x 8 ft.
Resistance 1.995 3.990 5.985 7.981 39.90 199.5 997.6
Conductance 0.5013 0.2506 0.1671 0.1253 0.0251 0.00501 0.00100
3/4 in. x 8 ft.
Resistance 1.936 3.871 5.807 7.743 38.71 193.6 967.9
Conductance 0.5168 0.258 3.1722 0.1291 0.0258 0.00517 0.00133
3/4 in. x 10 ft.
Resistance 1.607 3.214 4.821 6.427 32.14 160.7 803.4
Conductance 0.6223 0.3111 0.2074 0.1556 0.0311 0.00623 0.001245
* For resistivity in ohm-cm, multiply by 100.
Estimate the number of ground rods per 1,000 feet (kft) along the line and The conductance per eight-foot ground rod (Table 7.3) is as follows:
on consumers’ premises. If soil resistivities vary substantially, indicate
In 20 ohm-m soil,
separately the numbers of ground rods in the lower or higher resistivity
5/8-in. rods = 0.125 siemens
areas. (Note that this calculation is not precise!) If pole line anchors are
included, assume that each is equivalent to half a ground rod.
In 500 ohm-m soil,
Determine the conductivity to ground from the numbers of driven
grounds and the information in Table 7.3.
Equations for calculating the values given in Table 7.3 are explained later
Conductance to ground per mile of cable neutral:
in the subsection, Calculation of Resistance to Ground.
For 5/8-in. rods,
Assume that this is an underground cable with an insulating jacket over
5 rods in 20 ohm-m soil: 5 × 0.125 = 0.625 siemens
the neutral wires. There are, on average, 15 driven grounds per mile, in-
cluding those on consumers’ premises. One-third of them are in soils
Sum: 0.675 siemens
with resistivities of approximately 20 ohm-m, and two-thirds are in high-
resistivity soils, 500 ohm-m and higher. Calculate the conductance to For 3/4-in. rods,
ground per mile of cable: 5 rods in 20 ohm-m soil: 5 × 0.129 = 0.645 siemens
• If grounding is with 5/8-in. × 8-ft rods, and
Sum: 0.697 siemens
• If grounding is with 3/4-in. × 8-ft rods.
7
STEP 2: Determine the Shift in a compromise between an “ideal” level of protec-
Potential Required tion desired and cost of the cathodic protection.
To determine the dc shift in neutral potential to See Example 7.3.
be achieved by cathodic protection, select the
neutral potential needed for adequate protection STEP 3: Calculate the Anode Output
(Table 7.1 or 7.2). The selection will usually be Current Required
Calculate the anode output current required
from Ohm’s law, I = V × G, where V is the shift
in potential to be achieved and G is the neutral
EXAMPLE 7.3: Determining Required Shift in Potential.
conductance (reciprocal of resistance), in
siemens, to ground. See Example 7.4.
Assume, for this example, that the selected neutral potential is -0.7 volt, to minimize
probable corrosion of buried steel connected to the neutrals along the cable route. STEP 4: Select Anode Types, Sizes,
The shift in potential required is the difference between -0.7 volt and the potential and Numbers
the neutral would have without cathodic protection. Decide on the anode types and sizes needed.
The potential of a neutral without cathodic protection is determined by ground rods The selections of anodes and their locations are
and other buried, connected metals. Potentials that are likely, with no cathodic pro- likely to determine the effectiveness—and in-
tection, are -0.1 volt if all grounding is with copper and -0.6 volt if grounding is with deed, the success or failure—of the cathodic
steel disregarding the short-term effects of galvanizing (Table 7.4). protection installation. The selections will de-
pend on soil resistivities at anode locations and
on the anode characteristics that determine out-
TABLE 7.4: Potentials to a Copper-Copper Sulfate Half Cell. put, service life, and installed cost.
Table 7.5 provides information about standard
Buried Metal or Material Typical DC Potential (volts)
sizes and types of anodes, as follows:
Zinc or new galvanized steel –1.1
Old steel or iron –0.5 to –0.6
• Column (a), anode weight and the backfill
package size, for calculating resistance.
Copper 0 to –0.1 • Column (c), anode resistance in soil with the
Carbon (in insulation shield or jacket) +0.2 resistivity shown in column (b).
• Column (d), the current output and estimated
life when protecting the neutral at each of
The shift in neutral potential needed to achieve a neutral potential of –0.7 volt is –0.1 volt four potentials shown. The driving potential
for steel and –0.6 volt for copper. for each output calculation is equal to the
solution potential indicated for each anode
material less the structure potential.
EXAMPLE 7.4: Calculating Required Anode Output Current. The estimated lives in Table 7.5 are based on
ampere years’ output of magnesium and zinc
anodes as follows:
With copper-jacketed ground rods,
Magnesium anodes:
I = 0.6 × 0.675 = 0.405 A (405 milliamperes [mA]) per mile 17- and 20-lb. sizes, 1.0 ampere year
32-lb. size, 2.0 ampere years
With steel ground rods, 48- and 50-lb. sizes, 3.0 ampere years
I = 0.1 × 0.697 = 0.0697 A (70 mA) per mile Zinc anodes:

2 9 0 – Se c t io n 7
7
TABLE 7.5: Sacrificial Anode Resistance, Output Current, and Estimated Life.
Horizontal Anodes at 6-Foot Depth

(a) (b)* (c) (d)
Anode Current Output and Estimated Life for Structure Potential (volts)
Nominal Package Soil Resistivity Anode Resistance –0.3 –0.5 –0.7 –0.85
Weight (lb.) Size (in.) (ohm-m**) (ohms) (mA) (yrs) (mA) (yrs) (mA) (yrs) (mA) (yrs)
Standard Magnesium (Solution Potential = –1.55V)
17 22 × 7 2 9 139 7 117 9 94 11 77 13
50 23 54 19 46 22 37 28 30 33
100 46 27 37 23 ! 18 ! 15 !
32 26 × 8.5 20 7.7 162 12 136 15 110 18 91 22
50 19 66 30 55 36 45 ! 37 !
100 38 33 60 28 ! 22 ! 18 !
50 22 × 10 20 7.1 176 17 147 20 120 25 99 31
50 18 69 43 58 ! 47 ! 39 !
High-Potential Magnesium (Solution Potential = 1.73V)
17 38 × 6 50 19 75 13 65 15 54 19 46 22
100 39 37 32 32 23 26 38 23 43
200 78 18 ! 16 ! 13 ! 11 !
20 64 × 5 100 31 46 22 40 25 33 30 28 36
200 62 23 44 20 ! 17 ! 14 !
500 154 9 ! 8 ! 7 ! 6 !
48 34 × 8 20 7.2 199 15 171 18 143 21 122 25
50 18 79 38 68 44 57 ! 49 !
Zinc (Solution Potential = –1.10V)
30 66 × 6 20 5.7 140 8.5 105 11 70 17 44 27
30 8.6 93 13 70 29 47 26 29 41
50 14 57 21 43 28 29 41 18 !
60 66 × 6 10 2.9 275 8.7 207 12 138 17 86 28
20 5.7 140 17 105 23 70 34 44 !
30 8.6 93 26 70 34 47 ! 20 !
! = Not meaningful; exceeds 45 years.
* At anode depth.
** To express in ohm-cm, multiply by 100.
7
soil resistivity locations available, but use discretion
EXAMPLE 7.5: Selecting Anode Types, Sizes, and Numbers.
regarding maximum distances between anodes.
See Table 7.5, in the columns for a 0.7-volt structure potential, to find the anodes that Give special attention to locations where the
might be selected, calculated current outputs, and estimated lives: newly installed cable is connected to other facili-
ties (particularly copper-grounded stations), old
In 20 ohm-m soil: Standard magnesium, 32-lb., 110 mA, 18 years BCN cables, and loads such as irrigation wells
High-potential magnesium, 48-lb., 143 mA, 21 years with unusual amounts of grounded metal sur-
Zinc, 30-lb., 70 mA, 17 years rounded by irrigated soil areas.
Zinc, 60-lb., 70 mA, 34 years
In 500 ohm-m soil: High-potential magnesium, 20-lb., 7 mA, the anode life will PROTECTION OF BARE CONCENTRIC
exceed 45 years. NEUTRAL CABLES
Most of the grounding of BCN cable is by direct
For copper-grounded cable, the 405 mA required for each mile can be provided with contact with the concentric neutral wires. Addi-
four 32-lb. standard magnesium anodes (440 mA), or three 48-lb. high-potential tional grounding is by means of driven ground
magnesium anodes (429 mA), or six zinc anodes (420 mA), if they can be located rods and by other buried metal connected to the
in 20 ohm-m soil. neutral and ground wires.
For steel-grounded cable, the 70 mA required can be provided with one zinc anode
per mile, installed in 20 ohm-m soil. Prior experience with steel-grounded pole lines, Neutral Conductance to Ground
if available, may show that little cathodic protection is needed for cables with insu- Table 7.6 shows calculated conductances to
lating jackets and galvanized steel ground rods. ground of BCN neutrals with effective diameters
as indicated. The conductances are inversely
proportional to soil resistivity, so values in soils
TABLE 7.6. Conductance to Ground of BCNs with Effective Diameters with other resistivities can be determined with-
as Indicated.* out the need for detailed calculations.
The effective diameter in Table 7.6 is the di-
Soil Effective Diameter (inches) ameter of the individual cable, or of the group
Resistivity 1.00 2.00 4.00 8.00 12.00 of cables in a multiphase circuit. If cables are in
(ohm-m) (siemens per 1,000 feet of cable) a flat or irregular configuration, an estimate
5 23.03 24.03 25.12 26.32 27.07 should be made of an equivalent circle that
would enclose the conductor cross sections.
10 11.51 12.01 12.56 13.16 13.54
Soil resistivity is the most important variable of
25 4.61 4.81 5.02 5.26 5.41 all, as is shown in Table 7.6. Yet soil resistivity data
are subject to considerable error because of practi-
50 2.30 2.40 2.51 2.63 2.71
cal limitations of field surveys, seasonal tempera-
100 1.15 1.20 1.26 1.32 1.35 ture variations, and changes in soil moisture.
150 0.768 0.801 0.837 0.877 0.902
How accurate can the cooperative afford to
be? Do the following:
500 0.230 0.240 0.251 0.263 0.271
1,500 0.077 0.080 0.084 0.088 0.090 1. Obtain the best soil resistivity data at cable
depth that time and resources allow. Particu-
7,500 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.018 larly, find the approximate boundaries of
* For method of calculating, see information later in this section. lowest and highest resistivity areas if variations
are in the range of five to one or greater.
Learn to identify the extremes from the na-
STEP 5: Decide on Approximate Anode ture of terrain, soil appearance, and vegeta-
Locations Along the Route tion. The rate of progress in field surveys is
Decide on approximate anode locations along the slow at first but will increase with experience.
route, and also the kinds of anodes, using soil 2. To calculate the neutral conductance to
resistivity profiles obtained during preconstruction ground if there are wide variations in soil re-
surveys. Take maximum advantage of the lowest sistivity, do the following:
2 9 2 – Se c t io n 7
7
a. Estimate the proportion of cable in each re-
EXAMPLE 7.6: Estimating Neutral Conductance to Ground of BCN Cable.
sistivity range as suggested in Example 7.6.
b. Calculate the conductance separately for
Assume a single-phase one-inch-diameter cable installed with one-third of its length
cables in each resistivity range and add
in soils with resistivities on the order of 20 ohm-m and two-thirds of its length in soil
them together to obtain the total.
with resistivities of 400 to 1,000 ohm-m (500 ohm-m average).
From Table 7.6, conductance to ground of one-inch-diameter cable neutrals in 20 3. Locate anodes of suitable size and type in
ohm-m soil is 5.75 (half of 11.51) siemens per kft, and for cables in 500 ohm-m soil, the lowest resistivity soil locations available
0.23 siemens per kft. at reasonable intervals and in numbers suffi-
cient to provide the total output needed.
Following the above proportions, a mile of BCN cable will have 1,760 ft (1.76 kft) of
4. Recognize as normal the wide seasonal vari-
its length in 20 ohm-m soils and 3.52 kft in the 400 to 1,000 ohm-m soils. The
ations in soil resistivity that follow variations
neutral conductance to ground per mile of cable is as follows:
in temperature and soil moisture. A sacrificial
In 20 ohm-m soil, 5.75 × 1.76 = 10.12 siemens anode system is largely self-adjusting, with
In 500 ohm-m soil, 0.23 × 3.52 = 0.81 siemens anode outputs and current requirements
Total per mile = 10.93 siemens going up and down together.
Conductance to ground of driven rods along the cable, based on 15 per mile, is as
Concerning “accuracy,” recognize that results
follows:
from a first installation are likely to miss the de-
For copper rods, 5/8 in. × 8 ft, sign objective, in terms of potential shift achieved,
by a considerable margin. Reliability of design
In 20 ohm-m soil, 5 × 0.125 = 0.625 siemens
estimates will improve with experience.
Sum = 0.675 siemens
Shift in Neutral Potential Required
For steel rods, 3/4 in. × 8 ft, From Table 7.1 or 7.2, select the potential that
should be achieved by cathodic protection. The
selected potential might be -0.2 or -0.3 volts to a
copper-copper sulfate half cell to protect copper
Sum = 0.697 siemens
concentric neutral wires and grounds, or it might be
Note that more than 90 percent of the conductance to ground—and, therefore, -0.7 volts (or even -0.85 volts in corrosive soils) to
most of the need for cathodic protection—is in the 20 ohm-m soil. protect anchor rods and other buried steel connect-
ed to the neutral. The level of protection selected
makes a great difference in the cost of cathodic
EXAMPLE 7.7: Determining Required Shift in Neutral Potential. protection, particularly where grounding is main-
ly by means of copper in contact with the soil.
For this example, assume that the selected potential is -0.5 volts to a copper-copper
sulfate half cell. As -0.1 volts is the probable potential of copper without cathodic Anode Output Current and Anodes Required
protection (Table 7.4), the shift in potential needed is -0.4 volts for copper and zero The required anode output current per mile of
for steel rods. cable, to achieve the desired potentials, is given
by Equation 7.1. See Example 7.8.
CABLES WITH CONDUCTING

Equation 7.1
(SEMICON) JACKETS
Cables with a conducting (semiconducting) jacket
I=E×G
over the concentric neutral wires provide conduc-
tivity to surrounding earth through the jacket in
where: I = Current, in amperes addition to that provided by the metallic grounds.
E = DC potential shift, in volts Additional cathodic projection capacity will be
G = Conductance, in siemens needed to accommodate the conductivity effect
of the jacket. The amount of additional cathodic
7
BCN cables must not be installed in direct-buried,
EXAMPLE 7.8: Determining Output Current and Anodes Required.
nonmetallic conduit. Cables in conduit are much
more vulnerable to underground corrosion than
Using the assumptions of Examples 7.6 and 7.7, determine the anode output current
are cables in soil. Variations in the environment
and anodes required.
are extreme, going from soil to mixed air and
With copper-jacketed ground rods, the potential shift required is –0.4 volts for BCN soil, into a humid atmosphere and possible
wires and the ground rods. water and then back into soil.
Conduit made of nonconducting material
Conductance to ground:
presents an insulating barrier around the cable
BCN wires = 10.93 siemens, as in Example 7.6 so that cathodic protection from sources outside
Ground rods = 0.68 siemens cannot reach the cables inside. Steel conduit, on
Sum = 11.61 siemens the other hand, tends to sacrifice itself to protect
bare copper neutral wires inside.
Output current required for –0.4 volt shift:
If BCN cables must be inside nonmetallic con-
I = 11.61 × 0.4 = 4.644 A (4,644 mA) per mile duit, a length of zinc ribbon anode should be pulled
in with the cables and the core wire connected to
With steel ground rods, the potential shift required is –0.5 volts for the BCN wires the cable neutrals at a splice at one or both ends.
and zero for steel ground rods: For new construction, cables with insulating
jackets should be installed inside conduit.
Output current required:
LARGE POWER USERS
I = 10.93 × 0.4 = 4.372 A (4,372 mA) per mile
The grounds at a large power load, such as an
industrial grounding system or a center-pivot irri-
See Table 7.5, in the columns for a –0.5 volt structure potential, to find the anodes
gation well, may present a resistance to ground
that might be selected, calculated current outputs, and estimated lives:
that is low compared with that of the electric
In 20 ohm-m soil: Standard magnesium, 50-lb., 147 mA, 20 years neutral at that location. Such a ground has a dc
High-potential magnesium, 48-lb., 171 mA, 18 years potential that is not readily changed unless the
Zinc, 60-lb., 105 mA, 23 years owner installs cathodic protection in addition to
that along the electric line. Two alternative ap-
In 500 ohm-m soil: High-potential magnesium, 20-lb., 8 mA, the life
proaches to consider are as follows:
of the anode will exceed 45 years.
If all anodes can be installed in 20 ohm-m soil, the numbers needed are as follows: 1. Encourage the owner to install cathodic
protection.
For 4,644 mA per mile: 32 per mile of 50-lb. standard magnesium (4,704 mA), or
2. Install additional anodes at grounding loca-
27 of 48-lb. high-potential magnesium (4,617 mA), or
tions nearby. The anodes provide a zone of
44 of 60-lb. zinc (4,620 mA).
protection for individual grounds and anchor
For 4,372 mA per mile: 30 per mile of 50-lb. standard magnesium (4,410 mA), or assemblies, some protection to the consumer-
26 of 48-lb. high-potential magnesium (4,446 mA), or owned grounds, and, over a distance along
42 of 60-lb. zinc (4,410 mA). the line, bring the neutral to the desired
potential.
protection capacity will be dependent on the CONNECTIONS TO OTHER FACILITIES

volume resistivity of the jacket and the neutral Install additional cathodic protection where a
configuration. It also may depend on the pres- new cable is connected to an existing BCN cable
ence of ac voltages (Zastrow, 1981). or a copper-grounded substation. Follow proce-
dures as for large power loads. Or install ca-
CABLES IN CONDUIT thodic protection for the existing station or other
Virtually all cooperatives now use jacketed cable. facility at the time the new cable is installed.
However, if the cooperative still uses BCN cables, (See information later in this section.)
2 9 4 – Se c t io n 7
7
Cathodic Making a diligent effort at cathodic protection existing equipment, the cathodic protection
Protection design, as discussed in the previous subsection, should be further adjusted to those locations
Installation and will be wasted effort and expense without the as long as they are also near existing corro-
same diligent effort in the actual installation of sion areas and/or lower soil resistivity areas.
Follow-Up
the cathodic protection. Particular attention • Banking Anodes. A final adjustment may be
should be paid to the following: made to the cathodic protection design to
locate the greatest amount of cathodic protec-
• Where the anodes are installed along the route, tion at those locations that meet the above
• The location of the individual cathodic pro- criteria. This adjustment, of course, needs to
tection installations relative to the protected be tempered by the fact that better overall
equipment, protection may be provided by cathodic pro-
• How the cathodic protection should be tection distributed along the route rather than
installed, and lumped together at one or more locations.
• How the cathodic protection is connected to
the equipment. After cathodic protection locations are deter-
mined along a particular route, the same effort
In addition, determining the long-term perfor- must continue relative to positioning the ca-
mance of the cathodic protection requires a thodic protection with respect to the protected
means to monitor the performance. equipment (such as cable) and how it is installed.
After the preliminary cathodic protection re- As discussed in the cathodic protection design
quirements have been determined and the ap- subsection, the anode output is dependent on
propriate spacing calculated, the practical as- the soil resistivity (the resistance between the
pects of locating this cathodic protection come anode and protected equipment) and the anode
into play. Spacing the cathodic lead length. Consequently, the
protection equally along the position of cathodic protection
route without regard to soil is a compromise between
Consider soil
conditions, existing equipment these two elements. In addi-
locations, and so on should be condition, equipment tion, practical considerations
avoided at all costs. Cathodic locations, and so concerning easements and the
protection installed at equal expense to trench in cathodic
distances along the route is on when spacing protection conductors have to
wasteful and expensive and cathodic protection. be considered.
will generally not provide the On the one hand, installing
best protection. Cathodic pro- anodes far from the cable will
tection should be adjusted in protect the greatest length of
accordance with the following (in priority order): cable. On the other hand, the protection level is
reduced and the existing easements and expense
• Known Corrosion Locations. If the existing may not permit installation of cathodic protection
equipment is corroding at a particular loca- a greater distance away from the cable. As a prac-
tion, it is a good assumption that the cathodic tical matter, cathodic protection should be located
protection will corrode (i.e., protect) at the 10 to 50 feet from the protected equipment with
same location. 25 feet as a practical compromise (see Figure 7.9).
• Soil Resistivity. As discussed in the previous Anodes can be installed either vertically in au-
subsection, the cathodic protection output is gured holes with a shallow trench to the pro-
greater in lower soil resistivity areas. Conse- tected equipment, or horizontally in a trench.
quently, reasonable effort should be made to Either method will provide similar protection re-
locate the cathodic protection in these areas. sults. The method used is generally dependent on
• Existing Equipment. Because above-ground the equipment available and personal preference.
connections can be completed more easily at In either case, the anode should be installed
7
• Do not use the anode lead to install the anode.
Roadway
A disconnection may render the anode useless.
• To improve anode performance, distribute the
Ditch anode backfill to surround the anode.
Cable • In horizontal installations, turn the anode paral-
lel to the cable or with the anode lead connec-
Anode Possible Lead tion furthest from the cable. Doing so will re-
Routes duce the possibility of the anode corrosion
10-Ft Minimum disconnecting itself, although this is unlikely.
(25 Ft Preferred)
Anode connections to the neutral are often a
FIGURE 7.9: Anode Positioning. compromise. In all cases, the connection to the
neutral should be with the best connection (com-
pression, if possible). It is relatively easy to com-
Hose
plete a compression connection at above-ground
Clamp Concentric locations and when completing the connection
Neutrals on newly installed cable. Existing cable that has
Hose Clamp- been in the ground a number of years makes the
Type Connector
Neoprene use of compression connections difficult, if not
Anode Cushion
Lead impossible. In these cases, the use of RUS-ap-
Cable
proved connectors should be considered (see
Tinned Copper Figure 7.10). In all connections below ground,
Cable Strap the concentric neutrals should be thoroughly
cleaned and the connection sealed to the extent
FIGURE 7.10. Anode Connector. possible to reduce exposure to soil moisture.
In the years after the cathodic protection is in-
stalled, it will be necessary to determine whether
the cathodic protection is still operating and pro-
Threaded Post viding the necessary protection levels. Determi-
0.01-ohm Shunt
1
nation of continuing anode effectiveness is facili-
tated by the installation of test stations along the
2
route. It is not necessary to install test stations at
all cathodic protection locations. Test stations
3 should be installed to provide a representative
sample of the cathodic protection. For example,
if a number of cathodic protection locations are
in similar soil along the route, only one or two
test stations are necessary. This is based on the
assumption that whatever happens at each loca-
Leads to Anode Lead
Equipment/Cable tion is similar. Of course, test stations adjacent to
or inside existing equipment are preferred.
There are many commercially available test
FIGURE 7.11. Test Station Connector. stations in either freestanding or flush-mount
models. Freestanding models are much easier to
find in rough terrain but may not be aesthetically
with its entire length below (one-foot minimum) pleasing if installed in someone’s front yard. It is
the protected equipment, which will put the recommended that the anode and neutral be
anode generally in more moist soil and will give connected through a 0.1-ohm shunt resistor at
maximum output. A few guidelines relative to test stations to facilitate testing without discon-
the actual installation should be observed: nection in the future (see Figure 7.11).
2 9 6 – Se c t io n 7
7
Calculation of The calculation of resistance to ground for pur- anodes for cathodic protection. The source is a
Resistance to poses of cathodic protection is different from work published in 1936 by H.B. Dwight entitled
Ground the calculation of ground resistance for purposes Calculation of Resistances to Ground. Dwight
of lightning protection as discussed elsewhere in gives equations for resistance to ground of a
this publication. A search of literature on calcu- long-buried cylinder (wire, pipe, or BCN cable),
lations of resistance to ground reveals that all a short buried cylinder (anode), and a vertical
seem to come from one primary source. This rod or cylinder.
calculation method applies to the resistance of The resistance of a long horizontal wire or
ground rods, buried pipes and conductors, and cylinder buried in soil is given by Equation 7.2.
(The conductances to ground of BCN cables,
Table 7.6, are calculated by use of Equation 7.2.)
Equation 7.2 See Equation 5.13 for an equivalent expres-
ρ
sion using more conventional measurements.
4L 4L s s2 s4 The resistance of a short wire (or cylinder) at
R= In + In – 2 + – 2 + ...
4πL a s 2L 16L 512L4 a depth greater than its length is given by Equa-
tion 7.3. (The resistances of sacrificial anodes,
where: R = resistance, in ohms Table 7.5, are calculated by use of Equation 7.3.)
ρ = soil resistivity, in ohm-cm (ohm-m × 100) The resistance of a vertical rod is given by
Equation 7.4. (The resistance and conductance
L = half the length, in cm (the wire length is 2L cm)
to ground of driven ground rods, Table 7.3, are
a = wire radius, in cm
calculated by use of Equation 7.4.)
s = twice the depth, in cm (the depth is s/2)
Equation 7.3
ρ 4L ρ L2 2L4
R= In – 1 + 1 – 2 + 4 ...
4πL a 4πs 3s 5s
where: R = resistance, in ohms

ρ = soil resistivity, in ohm-cm (ohm-m × 100)
L = half the length, in cm (the wire length is 2L cm)
a = wire radius, in cm
s = twice the depth, in cm (the depth is s/2)
Equation 7.4
ρ 4L
R= In – 1
2πL a
where: R = resistance, in ohms

ρ = soil resistivity, in ohm-cm (ohm-m × 100)
L = length of the rod, in cm
a = radius of rod, in cm
7
Summary and 1. Cathodic protection is now a necessity, no widely used because of differences between
Recommendations longer an option, because of the broad shift underground pipelines, from which the
to underground construction and the use of practices evolved, and electrical grounding
nonconducting materials underground. systems.
2. Without cathodic protection, serious property 7. Anodes must be placed at the lowest soil re-
damage and electric shock hazards may occur. sistivity locations available. Otherwise, many
3. Buried copper as well as steel is vulnerable may be ineffective.
to corrosion. 8. Rectifiers must be used with great care until
4. Soil resistivities must be known. Without soil experience has been gained.
resistivity data, efforts to control corrosion are 9. Follow-up measurements to monitor the ef-
likely to fail. Soil resistivities must be mea- fectiveness of the cathodic protection should
sured as part of the preconstruction survey. be planned.
5. The electric neutral and grounding system 10. A schedule must be established for monitor-
must be treated as a dc circuit; design by ing cathodic protection.
“rules of thumb” and assumptions must be 11. Follow-up measurements should be made
avoided. after construction to monitor performance of
6. The steps for cathodic protection in electric the cathodic protection.
grounding differ from the practices now
Direct-Buried System De s i g n – 2 9 9
8 Direct-Buried System Design
In This Section: Trench Construction Considerations Depth of Burial

Trench Design Components Joint-Occupancy Trenches
Trench Layout/Routing Considerations Summary and Recommendations
Most cooperatives find that direct-buried electrical Many of these factors are standard and
distribution systems are the most cost-effective generic for all parts of the country, and the
method to use for serving residential, commercial, 2007 National Electrical Safety Code (NESC)
and some industrial consumers. Material costs (ANSI/IEEE C2) mandates many specific re-
are generally less expensive—and labor costs quirements that are to be followed without ex-
are far less—than for conduit systems, in most ception. However, a good working knowledge
cases. However, the benefits of a direct-buried of local considerations is also a necessary fac-
system can be realized only if the cooperative’s tor. Soil conditions, climate, other utility prac-
engineer uses sound judgment in the following: tices, U.S. Department of Transportation issues,
local railway system policies, and so on must
• Route selection, be thoroughly understood and applied. Over
• Coordination with other utilities, time, working relations with local developers
• Trench construction details, and building contractors come into play in es-
• Designs based on method of installation (e.g., tablishing methods to use (or not use) in de-
trenching, plowing, directional boring), signing direct-buried systems.
• Roadway/railway standards, and
• Terrain considerations.
Trench RUS Bulletin 1728F-D806 (U.G. Distribution represent a style of construction that is minimally
Construction Specifications) and the 2007 NESC describe the protected from dig-ins by other utilities or other
Considerations basic standards of trench construction, princi- outside agents. The following questions should
pally in terms of depth, width, and cable separa- be asked when making the decision to use di-
tions. (Later in this chapter, burial depths are rect-buried systems:
described in detail.) However, many other fac-
tors affecting trench design must supplement the • Is there a true likelihood of dig-ins from
national standards to truly accomplish an effec- other utilities (or others) in the location of
tive design. First of all, direct-buried systems the project?
3 0 0 – Se c t io n 8
8
• Will the installation of trench warning tape(s) in detail in Book II). However, the economic use
protect cables and effectively avoid dig-ins? of plowing needs to be determined on the basis
• Is additional protection—such as conduit, of the following, which may affect trench design:
added depth, concrete barrier, or concrete-
encased duct bank—needed? • Are cables to be installed at multiple depths
• Are animals (rodents) an issue? (e.g., primary at 42 to 48 inches/secondary at
• Are soil conditions (rock) an issue? 30 to 36 inches)?
• Is future cable maintenance an issue, consid- • Are flexible (HDPE) conduits to be plowed in,
ering landscaping or other surface treatments? with or without cables?
• Are sufficient amounts of cables required for
Second, what construction equipment is avail- installation to justify the cost of plowing
able for installation that may alter the design of equipment/operation?
the trench construction? The most common trench • Are terrain/accessibility/soil types at the job
installation is done with conventional chain-type site appropriate for the size of plow required?
trenchers that provide a trench six to eight inches • Are other utilities planning joint-use
wide. Knowing the answers to the following ques- participation?
tions is critical in specifying proper trench units: • Is the distance between transformers,
pedestals, and switching cabinets such that
• Is the available equipment appropriate to pro- productivity can be realized?
vide for effective tamping/soil • Will different cable configurations be used
compaction/installation of trench warning sequentially?
tape given local soil conditions? • Are there other existing utilities or other sub-
• What backfilling methods are available for surface features that must be crossed or
such a narrow excavation? paralleled?
If rocky soil is a consistent issue, the use of a Another alternative form of direct-buried trench-
backhoe (12 to 18 inches wide) might be more ing is the directional boring method, which again
appropriate to ensure good physical examination should be justified regarding the following:
of the trench floor for possible installation of clean
soil/sand bedding below and above the cable(s). • Additional cost of installation (for reasons of
Backhoe trenches allow better access for proper existing landscaping, pavement, etc.),
backfilling and compaction if soil conditions or • Soil conditions,
surface treatment requirements are a concern. • Warning tape that cannot be installed,
An alternative form of trenching is the plow, • Depth of burial,
which is a major labor-saving device. There are • Ampacity requirements of cables,
two types of commonly used plowing methods: • Multiple cables at varying depths, and
the static plow and the vibratory plow (discussed • Quantity of cables to be installed.
Trench Design In addition to the basic requirements called out by installed 12 inches below final grade during the
Components RUS specifications and the NESC, the cooperative’s backfilling/compaction process. If the top sur-
engineer needs to evaluate several other design face is paved (asphalt or concrete), it is recom-
considerations as a part of a successful installa- mended the tape depth be lowered to 18 inches
tion. The following is a list of both material and to avoid disruption by maintenance/replacement
labor factors that play into a successful design. of the paved surface treatment. Trench warning
tape is typically 6 inches wide, and can be sup-
TRENCH WARNING TAPE plied foil-backed for trench-locating purposes.
Many cooperatives install trench warning tape to Consistent with industry standards for utility lo-
assist in preventing dig-ins. Typically, tapes are cation services, warning tape for electric systems
8
Proctor density standards are based on the maxi-
mum compactibility of a given soil in laboratory
conditions. A standard of 90 percent to 95 per-
cent density is typically very difficult to achieve
and definitely requires mechanical tamping.
As a general rule, undisturbed soils naturally
occur at 80 percent to 85 percent Proctor den-
sity, to put all this into perspective. If the partic-
ular project requires a certain level of advanced
compaction, 90 percent to 95 percent Proctor
density should be specified, and reference should
be made to American Association of State High-
way and Transportation Officials Designation T-99
and ASTM Designation D-698. Compaction test-
ing is relatively simple to perform and many
local testing companies provide these services at
nominal cost.
CABLE COMPACTION BEDS

FIGURE 8.1: Typical Trench Warning Tape. Source: Electromark
In most trench backfill/compaction specifications,
Industries, 2004.
it is typical to call for a minimum bedding of clean
backfill four inches below and above the direct-
buried cables to prevent insulation or jacket
is usually red with “DANGER—ELECTRIC LINES puncture from rocks (the 2007 NESC specifies
BURIED BELOW” wording. Though not required four inches of tamped backfill in rocky soils, Sec-
by the NESC, trench warning tape can be an ef- tion 352A). The NESC further specifies no ma-
fective tool in preventing dig-ins. Some states re- chine compacting within six inches of the cable.
quire the use of warning tapes as a part of their If finding clean backfill (or screening rocky or
utility-locating programs. unsuitable backfill) is not cost-effective, many
utilities elect to import sand for this purpose. It
BACKFILL/COMPACTION should be remembered, however, that the ther-
The cooperative engineer should be knowledge- mal conductivity of sand is often much lower
able about local soil conditions and should un- than typical native soils. This lower thermal con-
derstand what is required for successful ductivity can de-rate cable ampacities and should
backfill/compaction of native soils. Sandy or be examined closely on substation circuit exits,
loamy coastal soils compact differently than do bulk feeder cables, or cables expected to be
stiff clays. Locations with rocky conditions re- loaded heavily.
quire additional care to ensure clean backfill
above and below cable systems to avoid jacket RISER POLE DESIGN
or insulation punctures or other cable damage. The riser pole is one part of the underground
The cooperative engineer should also be aware system that must be carefully considered during
of the site specifics regarding whether the cables the design process. Not only is the riser often
are to be trenched on consumers’ premises or on the limiting factor for cable circuit ampacity, but
roadway rights-of-way. Many state departments the physical arrangement of the cable circuit must
of transportation specify minimum compaction also be carefully considered. Cable U-guards must
standards, typically 90 to 95 percent Proctor be used with caution. Gaps between the pole
density levels. It is not merely a rating of restoring surface and the guard can pose an opportunity for
the disturbed earth to assume settling no more public access to unprotected cable surfaces. Con-
than 10 percent to five percent, respectively. duit risers generally provide a more satisfactory
3 0 2 – Se c t io n 8
8
avoid a dig-in, but it also must be recognized
that the barrier might have to be removed for
cable repairs.
Some utilities use flowable-fill, a light-duty
concrete mix that uses fly ash rather than gravel
as its aggregate and sets up at around 400 to 500
psi breaking strength. This 400 to 500 psi rating
appears equivalent to concrete when exposed,
but can be removed easily with a standard back-
hoe bucket. Most ready-mixed concrete plants
offer flowable-fill at 75 to 80 percent of the cost
of normal concrete mixes. Most state depart-
ments of transportation approve this mix on
rights-of-way.
Consideration should be given to requesting
that the ready-mixed concrete (or flowable-fill
mixes) be tinted with red dye for added recogni-
tion as an electric cable barrier. Trench warning
tape added above the dye-tinted concrete may
also reduce the probability of dig-ins.
FIGURE 8.2: Cable Route Marker. TRENCH MARKERS

Electro-Mark “DoMark” Style Mfg., 2005. On underground substation circuit exits, un-
derground bulk feeder lines, or underground
transmission lines, the engineer should consider
installation in most cases, even if vents have to the installation of cable route markers to denote
be installed to obtain adequate circuit ampacity. critical cable routes. The most effective route
Conduits (or U-guards) near traffic ways marker is a plastic pedestal-type marker that ex-
should be placed in a position with minimum tends 24 to 36 inches out of the trench and gen-
exposure to traffic. Adequate cable support must erally lists contact information, along with the
be provided at the top of the conduit and sup- color red and “DANGER—ELECTRIC LINES
ported bends should be installed at the bottom. BURIED BELOW” wording.
Conduit supports must be of a design that will Route markers typically are specified to be in-
prevent unaided climbing by the public. Many stalled every 100 to 200 feet, at road intersec-
other aspects of riser design are covered else- tions, other utility crossings, and angles or
where in this publication. Also see Section 36 of changes in direction, recognizing terrain and
the National Electrical Safety Code. likelihood of damage/vandalism in light of the
use of the land traversed. In rural areas, the
CONCRETE PROTECTION BARRIERS normal spacings of these markers over straight-
On certain critical bulk feeder installations, or for line trench routes can be lengthened to every
high-voltage cable installations, consideration 1/8 to 1/4 mile. Neither the 2007 NESC nor RUS
should be given to pouring a three- to four-inch require cable route markers, as the philosophy
thick (nonreinforced) layer of concrete 12 to 18 of the use of these devices is a combination of
inches below grade to act as a protective barrier the following:
from dig-ins. Typically, these barriers should be
used selectively and only for specific instances • Marking the route for cable protection/dig-in
in which circuit continuity is critical. Concrete avoidance, and
mix should not exceed 2,000 to 2,500 psi be- • Being a good “utility neighbor” by notifying
cause it should provide enough protection to other utilities of a critical system.
8
The consuming public tends to regard cable dards or regulations, cooperatives find mainte-
route markers as an eyesore, which can lead to nance of route markers ongoing.
vandalism. Without mandates by industry stan-
Trench Layout/ The successful layout/design of an underground of the railroad right-of-way. Cables may be
Routing electrical distribution system depends, to a large permitted parallel to tracks on their rights-of-
Considerations degree, on the effectiveness and workability of way, but pedestals, junction boxes, or man-
the routing selected for the site conditions. Rout- holes generally are not allowed.
ing should be selected from point to point in the 4. Direct-buried cables should be not closer to
straightest path to provide a logical geographical in-ground swimming pools (or auxiliary pool
layout, both for initial construction ease and for equipment) than five feet, as per NESC
future troubleshooting, repairs, and cable loca- 351.C.1. If this separation is not possible,
tion efforts. The 2007 NESC specifies this in conduit must be added.
351.A.2, and implies cables should be located so 5. Other utilities should be recognized when
they will be subjected to minimal future distur- routes are selected to avoid crossing con-
bance. Bends and turns should respect equip- flicts and to provide each utility with the
ment capabilities, and, more important, respect ability to maintain its lines in the future.
minimum cable bending radii. Typically, 12 inches is the established mini-
Cable routes should be selected to avoid nat- mum separation between electric lines and
ural detriments such as swamps, steep slopes, other utilities, including telephone, CATV,
streams, bad or corrosive soils, mud, or unstable water, sewer, gas, and steam lines. However,
soils that could shift, causing cable damage each utility can require additional separation
(2007 NESC 320.A.2). Following are considera- by mutual agreements. Many telephone and
tions about other physical entities along the CATV utilities require greater separation dis-
trench route. tances of five to 15 feet to provide for main-
tenance of lines. Steam lines require
1. Cable routes along roadways (longitudinally) additional separation to avoid problems with
should be in the shoulder area far enough heat dissipation, which reduces cable am-
away to avoid undermining the road surface pacities. Cables closer to steam lines than 18
and to avoid disturbance from road surface to 24 inches will require thermal insulation
maintenance. (Many state departments of material between the two systems. A utility
transportation provide minimum separations crossing or installation close by needs to re-
and added burial depths.) flect the need to not undermine either utility
2. Bridges require additional separation, both with the initial trench installation or in future
for cable protection and to ensure trenching maintenance excavations.
operations do not undermine bridge supports. 6. Cables should not extend under buildings
3. Railway systems require special attention, as but, if required, must have mechanical pro-
the 2007 NESC calls for 50-inch minimum tection (conduit) and should be done in a
burial depth below the top of the rails (36- manner that avoids foundation settlement
inch depth if the rail system is a trolley car and does not damage cable systems (NESC
line), as per NESC 320.A.5.a. Many railway 351.C.2.).
systems require additional burial depths for 7. Cables should be installed below the sea-
crossings and have many restrictions for lon- sonal frost line in an area, if possible, to
gitudinal routes. Most railway companies avoid mechanical shear on cables resulting
mandate steel conduit or casings for electric from freezing and thawing creating contrac-
circuit installations—rather than bare, direct- tion and expansion forces on cables.
buried cables—often over the entire expanse
3 0 4 – Se c t io n 8
8
Depth of Burial The NESC specifies the minimum earth cover re- Some existing soil conditions, such as solid or
quired over direct-buried power cables. This layered rock, prevent cable burial at the required
minimum cover is the distance from the top of depth. The 2007 NESC 352.D.2.b allows lesser
the cable to the earth surface. burial depths if supplemental
Table 8.1 shows the 2007 protection is provided. This
NESC requirements. supplemental protection must
To achieve the minimum Burial depths protect the cable from damage
cover, make the trench depth should exceed the resulting from normal activity
three to four inches greater. at the earth surface. Conduit,
The deeper trench depth al-
NESC minimums. or concrete-encased conduit,
lows for a three- to four-inch is the typical method of sup-
soil bedding under the cable plemental cable protection.
and for the cable diameter. Figure 8.3 illustrates
minimum allowable burial depths for various ca- CLEARANCE FROM OTHER UTILITIES
bles. Another requirement for direct-buried power ca-
The cooperative’s engineer should typically bles is separation from other buried utilities, in-
specify burial depths in excess of the NESC min- cluding the following:
imums. Typical trench depths are 30 to 36
inches for secondary cable and 36 to 42 inches • Sewers,
for primary systems. These depths allow some • Fuel lines,
margin for installation error and minor surface • Natural gas lines,
changes after completion. It must be recognized • Water lines,
that the cooperative should make special al- • Telephone lines, and
lowances for areas where the surface may be • CATV lines.
lowered later.
For example, in rural areas, particularly in The 2007 NESC requires a minimum radial
areas subject to cultivation, consideration should separation of 12 inches from other utilities. Oc-
be given to using burial depths of 42 to 48 casionally, terrain or available easements prevent
inches for primary cables, and 36 to 42 inches a 12-inch radial separation. For these instances,
for secondary cables, to accommodate all types the cooperative and a telephone or cable utility
of farm machinery. This added depth helps to may agree to use random separation. NESC Sec-
minimize dig-ins and future shallow cable issues tion 354 contains extensive special requirements
resulting from change in grade as a result of for both electric and communication utilities
farming practices. It also provides more room using random separation. However, separation
for future cable installations, particularly in areas from other utilities must not be less than 12
where rights-of-way are narrow or congested inches. (See NESC Sections 353 and 354.)
with multiple utilities. These minimum separations should provide
enough space for either utility to work on its un-
derground lines without damaging the other util-
TABLE 8.1: Minimum Cover Requirements. Adapted from the 2007
NESC, Table 352-1. ity’s lines. If this is not possible with a 12-inch
separation, then a greater separation is neces-
Operating Voltage Minimum Cover sary. The NESC also recommends 12 inches of
0–150 volts phase-to-ground (streetlight cable ONLY)* 18 in. vertical separation at crossings of different un-
derground facilities. The cooperative and the
0–600 volts phase-to-phase 24 in. other utility can agree to a lesser separation if
601–50,000 volts phase-to-phase 30 in. the following apply:
50,001 volts and over phase-to-phase 42 in. • There is no harmful interaction between
* Area or streetlight cables only if conflicts with other underground facilities exist systems, and
D
D
4”
4”
2” 2”
W W
UR2 (D × W) UR2–1 (D × W)
Trenching Unit Trenching Unit
One Cable or Multiple Power Cables
Cable Assembly Primary, Secondary, or Service
LEGEND
Sand or Clean Soil
Compacted Backfill Unless Otherwise Specified
Undisturbed Earth
NOTES:
1. Depth (D) and width (W) are specified in description of units. D
2. Depths specified are to finished grade.
3. Over-excavate trenches as necessary to allow for (a) sand bedding or (b)
loose sandy soils or (c) where more than one cable will be installed in trench
and laying first cable may cause trench damage and reduction in depth.
4. Sand bedding is not part of these units and will be specified as needed.
5. Backfilling is part of all trenching units, including joint-use trenches.
6. Optional warning tape is recommended to be placed above the installed cable. 12” 4”
P Minimum T
2”
W
UR2–2 (D × W)
Trenching Unit
Power and Telephone Cable
TRENCHES FOR DIRECT
BURIAL CABLES
UR2
2000 TO
UR2–2
FIGURE 8.3: Burial Depth Requirements. Adapted from RUS Bulletin 1728F-806.
3 0 6 – Se c t io n 8
8
• Each utility can access its facilities without natural hazards are areas subject to erosion.
damaging the other’s facilities. Preferably, the cooperative engineer avoids
these areas during the project layout phase.
Steam lines with only the required 12-inch However, if cable must be installed in these
separation can lead to thermal damage of the areas, then the burial depth must be increased.
underground power cable. Steam lines create If the area has moderate to severe erosion, the
high ambient earth temperatures that signifi- cooperative engineer may consider supplemen-
cantly decrease the ampacity rating of the cable. tal protection, such as installation in Schedule 40
To avoid these problems, the cooperative engi- PVC conduit or encasement in concrete.
neer must route power cable outside the effec- The potential forces of man are also a factor
tive thermal range of a steam line. If adequate to consider in the layout of the system. This is
separation is not feasible, a thermal barrier must particularly true if the cable circuit is being in-
be placed between the facilities. stalled in the proximity of existing or future
water, sewer, or gas lines. Other utilities have
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS the potential to not only cause substantial dis-
Another aspect to consider when choosing a ruption to electric service when they fail, but re-
burial depth is grade change. The 2007 NESC pair of the other utilities will often require
352.D.2.c requires the minimum cover require- excavation under emergency conditions. This in-
ment to be met at the time of installation and at creases the chances for accidental dig-ins where
all times afterward. The best way to meet this there is reduced separation.
requirement is to wait until final grade before in- Another consideration for placing cable
stalling any cable. The cooperative engineer deeper is protection from random dig-ins. If the
must also anticipate grade changes that occur af- area is congested with other underground utili-
ter final grade. For example, a ties, then the chances of cable
developer will state that the damage by these other utilities
subdivision is at final grade Dig-ins are the increase. These chances in-
before individual driveways crease even more when the
major cause of faults
are constructed. If the cable is power cable is installed before
placed along the front prop- on the underground other utilities. This is particu-
erty lines, then it needs to be secondary system. larly true with secondary ca-
buried deeper in anticipation bles, because their required
of an earth cut for driveway burial depth is only 30 to 36
and sidewalk construction. If inches. An industry survey re-
the cooperative accommodates the developer by ports that dig-ins are the major cause of faults
installing facilities before final grade is estab- on the underground secondary system. Increas-
lished, the cooperative incurs a substantial addi- ing the depth of burial, especially on secondary
tional burden during construction and becomes cable, can help reduce dig-ins.
dependent on the developer to make final ad- A final consideration is clearance from under-
justments to match plans. ground structures. According to the 2007 NESC
The forces of nature are also factors in deter- 351.C.2, underground power cable should not
mining proper burial depth. In some areas, the be installed directly under building or storage
frost level reaches the cable burial depth. The tank foundations. If a cable must be placed be-
earth movement caused by frost formation can neath a structure, the structure must have ade-
move the buried cable and nearby objects. In quate support to prevent a harmful load transfer
these areas, very close attention should be given to the cable.
to clean bedding material near the cable during All these requirements mean that the design
backfilling. This, along with firm tamping, will engineer must be thoroughly familiar with site
minimize the opportunity for the freeze-thaw conditions and intended uses before establishing
cycle to move the cable against stones. Other a cable route and choosing an appropriate burial
8
depth. Information on the route and depth must permanent project maps. Failure of the design-
be communicated clearly to construction person- construction team to follow a proper route at a
nel. Any route changes required by field condi- proper depth will likely increase the number of
tions must be clearly recorded by construction consumer outages and require future relocation
personnel so this information can be included in of the underground lines.
Joint-Occupancy The NESC recognizes two types of joint trench: interfere with access and be more susceptible to
Trenches deliberate separation and ran- accidental damage by other
dom separation. A deliberate- utility crews.
separation joint trench re- The NESC defines random
quires a minimum of 12 inches Deliberate-separation separation as any common
of separation between the dif- joint trenches require trench arrangement in which
ferent utilities. This separation the cables have fewer than 12
a minimum separation
can be horizontal or vertical inches of radial separation.
and is illustrated in Figure 8.4. of 12 inches. This type of joint trench is re-
Maintaining the 12-inch sepa- strictive; only certain utilities
ration allows electric utilities can place their facilities with
to share a trench with the fol- random separation. The NESC
lowing utilities: allows random separation of different electric
power cables. For example, the cooperative can
• Telephone, place primary and secondary
• CATV, voltage cables in the same
• Gas (not generally trench at the same depth with
recommended), Only certain utilities no horizontal separation. The
• Water, and can share random- NESC also allows the random
• Sewer (not generally separation of some power and
recommended). separation joint communication cables if cer-
trenches. tain requirements are met.
Trench sharing with storm Table 8.2 summarizes the
or sanitary sewers is generally types of power cables that can
not practical because of the be in random separation with
size disparity in the facilities. In addition, sewer telephone and cable television cables. The table
lines are often excavated for replacement or to also lists the requirements that the cooperative is
clear obstructions. In these cases, the cables will responsible for according to the 2007 NESC.
3 0 8 – Se c t io n 8
8
W
LEGEND
Bedding Sand or Clean Soil
Compacted Backfill Unless Otherwise Specified
Undisturbed Earth
D
4” W
12”
S Minimum T
2”
UR2–3 (D × W)
Service or Secondary
and
Telephone
D
12” 4”
W Minimum
P S T
2”
UR2–5 (D × W)
Primary, Secondary,
and
Telephone
D 12”
Minimum 4”
S T
NOTES:
1. Depth (D) and width (W) are specified in description of units.
2. Depths specified are to finished grade.
12”
3. Over-excavate trenches as necessary to allow for (a) sand bedding or
(b) loose and sandy soils or (c) where more than one cable will be installed
in trench and laying first cable may cause trench damage and reduction
P in depth.
2” 4. Sand bedding is not part of these units and will be specified as needed.
5. Backfilling is part of all trenching units, including joint-use trenches.
UR2–4 (D × W)
Primary
and
Secondary or Telephone
TRENCHES FOR DIRECT

BURIAL CABLES
UR2–3
2000 TO
UR2–5
FIGURE 8.4: Joint Trench Use. Adapted from RUS Bulletin 1728F-806.
8
TABLE 8.2: Requirements for Random-Lay Joint Trench. Adapted from 2007 NESC Section 354.
Type of Power Cable Operating Voltage Requirements

600-V 240/120 V, 1Ø None
Insulated Cable 240 V, 3Ø delta
208/120 V, 3Ø grounded-wye [NOTE: 480-V or 600-V, 3Ø, delta systems cannot be in random-lay
480/277 V, 3Ø grounded-wye with communication cables.]
15-, 25-, or 35- kV 4,160/2,400 V, 1Ø or 3Ø • Ground conductor must be in continuous contact with earth. Short
Bare Concentric Neutral Cable or 12,470/7,200 V, 1Ø or 3Ø sections of conduit for crossing under roads are allowed if neutral
Semiconducting Jacketed Cable 24,940/14,400 V, 1Ø or 3Ø is continuous in conduit. Long sections of conduit require installation
34,500/19,900 V, 1Ø or 3Ø of a separate ground conductor that is in contact with the earth and
close to the cable.
• Ground conductor must be adequate to withstand available
fault conditions.
• When faulted, the cable will be promptly de-energized.
• Ground conductor and communication cable shield or sheath must
be bonded at 1,000-foot intervals (maximum spacing).
• Concentric neutral must be corrosion-resistant material.
• Semiconducting jacket must have a radial resistivity of 100 ohm-m
or less.
15-, 25-, or 35- kV 4,160/2,400 V, 1Ø or 3Ø • Copper concentric conductor must be effectively grounded.
Jacketed Concentric Neutral Cable 12,470/7,200 V, 1Ø or 3Ø • Minimum conductance of concentric neutral must equal one-half
• Direct Buried or 24,940/14,400 V, 1Ø or 3Ø conductance of phase conductor.
• Installation in Nonmetallic Conduit 34,500/19,900 V, 1Ø or 3Ø • Ground conductor must be adequate to withstand available
fault conditions.
• Minimum of eight ground rods per mile, not including grounds at
individual services.
• Prompt de-energization of a faulted conductor.
• Ground conductor and communication cable shield or sheath must
be bonded at 1,000-foot intervals (maximum spacing).
Summary and 1. Typical trench depths are 30 to 36 inches for 4. Cable plowing does not open a trench and
Recommendations secondary cable and 42 to 48 inches for pri- eliminates the need to backfill. Pull plowing
mary cable (36 and 48 inches should be is suitable for installing flexible conduit or
strongly considered in many rural areas). cable in conduit. Chute plowing should be
2. The most common method for installing cable used to install cable without conduit.
is trenching in suburban areas and plowing 5. Some locations, such as existing subdivisions
in rural areas. Selecting the appropriate where cable replacement is considered, may
equipment depends on soil type, trenching require directional boring or horizontal di-
depth, terrain, and trenching distance. rectional drilling.
3. For trenches in rocky soils, cable should be 6. There are two types of joint trench. Deliber-
placed on a four-inch (minimum) bedding of ate-separation joint trench requires a mini-
select backfill, then covered with four inches mum separation of 12 inches. Random-
of select backfill. Covering should continue separation joint trench is very restrictive.
with native clean backfill and compaction. 7. Conduit should be used wherever additional
Compaction should be made to 95 percent cable protection is required or where the
Proctor density where settlement control is deferral of future excavation costs will justify
important. Avoid mechanical compaction the additional initial expense.
within six inches of a cable.
Conduit System De s i g n – 3 1 1
9 Conduit System Design
In This Section: Conduit System Design and Installation Summary and Recommendations
Cable Pulling
Conduit System In some situations, conduit systems may offer Direct-buried conduit is simply installed in a
Design many substantial advantages to electric utilities. trench and conventional backfill techniques are
Although conduit-enclosed cable installations used. This approach generally requires a
have a higher initial cost, the lifetime advantages stronger conduit (Schedule 40 or better), but it
may make them the preferable installation in a has the lowest initial cost of all conduit systems.
variety of circumstances. Major advantages of Typical direct-buried conduit installations are
conduit installation include the following: street crossings, single-circuit runs, and exits for
small substations. Direct-buried conduit is partic-
• Improved cable protection from dig-ins, ularly suitable where only minimal mechanical
• Ability to add cables along the route without protection is needed and low cost is important.
additional excavation, The next level in the hierarchy of conduit sys-
• Ability to replace cable without excavation, tems is a concrete-encased duct bank. This is
and generally used where multiple circuits are in-
• Better use of utility easement for multiple stalled, or will be installed, along a route. En-
circuits. cased conduit is also advisable where additional
mechanical protection from dig-ins is needed.
The disadvantages when compared with di- As with direct-buried conduits, the length of
rect burial are the following: runs is limited by cable-pulling criteria. How-
ever, in loose soils, the encased conduit will be
• Higher initial cost, and more stable under high cable-pulling tensions.
• Lower ampacity for a given cable size. In fact, encased conduit is advised for longer
runs, particularly if bends are involved.
CONDUIT SYSTEM TYPES Where conduit runs are longer than allowable
Distribution system conduit installations gener- cable-pulling lengths, or where access for laterals
ally fall into one of three categories: or taps is needed, manholes and/or splice boxes
must be installed for access and splicing. These
1. Direct buried, allow intermediate pull points that will lead to
2. Concrete encased, and lower cable-pulling tensions. Manholes and/or
3. Concrete encased with manholes (or splice boxes can also be strategically located to
splice boxes). eliminate bends or sharp angles in conduit runs.
3 1 2 – Se c t io n 9
9
Judicious location of manholes will also lower conductor in its own steel conduit, without a
pulling tensions and yield a more convenient in- neutral return) passing through a steel conduit
stallation. Longer duct runs may also need to be will produce heat as a result of eddy currents in
tapped for intermediate service locations. Where the conduit. When this condition is encountered,
such service points are either a present or a fu- nonmagnetic conduits must be used.
ture requirement, a manhole installation will Metallic conduit other than galvanized Sched-
simplify access to the cable circuits and produce ule 40 (or Schedule 80) should never be used on
a more flexible system. a utility system. Types not recommended include
Typically, manholes are full-size, below-grade electrical metallic tubing (EMT) and intermediate
enclosures that allow personnel to enter and metal conduit. Such conduits are lighter in
work within, standing erect, usually with six to weight, have less secure couplings, and are
eight feet of head room. Splice boxes are usu- often more susceptible to corrosion. The only
ally surface mounted, not intended for person- general exception is Schedule 40 aluminum con-
nel entrance, and usually only three to five feet duit, which might be used in some locations
deep. Much smaller in size, splice boxes are where atmospheric corrosion is a concern and
worked from the surface and earth contact can be avoided.
generally involve only one to Where corrosive conditions
two feeders. exist, Type 304L or Type 316
In summary, conduit sys- Metallic conduit stainless steel conduits might
tems are recommended wher- other than galvanized be considered.
ever additional cable Plastic conduits are now
Schedule 40 (or
protection is required or the available to utilities in a wide
deferral of future excavation Schedule 80) should variety of sizes and materials.
costs will justify the additional not generally be used The predominant material is
initial expense. Manhole/duct PVC and will be used in all
bank systems are particularly on a utility system. examples. Other nonmetallic
advantageous where long, materials include acrylonitrile-
continuous runs of multiple butadiene-styrene (ABS) plas-
circuit underground are expected over the life of tic, HDPE, and fiberglass-reinforced epoxy (FRE).
the project. ABS conduit is similar to PVC, but it has higher
wall thickness to compensate for a lower mater-
CONDUIT TYPES ial strength. In addition, the solvent cement
Over the years, the electric utility industry has welds on ABS and PVC are chemically different,
used a wide variety of conduit types. Today, the so neither will give satisfactory results on the
main conduits used on UD systems are steel and other conduit. Therefore, ABS and PVC should
plastic (predominantly PVC and HDPE). Each of never be mixed on a project. It is also advisable
these materials is offered in several configurations. that a cooperative not mix these conduit materi-
The steel conduit that utilities use almost ex- als on its system as different solvent cements are
clusively is galvanized Schedule 40. This type is required and defective joints will be produced if
mostly used where extra mechanical protection the products are accidentally interchanged.
is needed. Examples are riser poles or some di- HDPE conduit is much more flexible than PVC
rect-buried conduit applications. Although steel conduit and generally comes on reels, rather
conduit generally provides better protection than precut straight lengths. HDPE conduit is
than does a similar-size PVC conduit during a particularly useful in directional bored applica-
dig-in, steel does have its disadvantages. It is tions, where the flexible nature of the conduit is
harder to bend, susceptible to corrosion, and an advantage. The conduit comes in smooth
often more expensive. Furthermore, galvanized wall, ribbed wall, and corrugated wall, depend-
steel conduit is magnetic. This means that heavy ing on the application, and also comes in multi-
unbalanced currents (such as a single-phase ple colors and markings. Reels can be provided
Conduit System De s i gn – 3 1 3
9
with continuous lengths up to 4,000 feet, (e.g., required special skills and care during installa-
two-inch inside diameter [I.D.]. The one caution, tion. With the advent of economical PVC and
and possibly only drawback, to HDPE conduit is concerns about asbestos content, asbestos ce-
that it tends to have a coiled “memory” and can- ment conduit is no longer installed.
not be allowed to curve in the trench floor be- Plastic conduit is the most commonly used
fore compaction. Eliminating these curves can electrical duct material. Therefore, engineering
be very difficult when the coiled HDPE conduit and construction personnel need a working
is being installed in an open trench. If the con- knowledge of the plastic conduit types com-
duit is not installed in a controlled, straight line, monly used on electric systems.
the additional curved bends, while seemingly in- Table 9.1 gives the specific classifications of
significant during conduit installation, greatly plastic conduit.
amplify cable-pulling tensions. One important determination for a conduit
FRE conduit is a specialty item generally used application is whether it will be used strictly un-
in applications more typically associated with derground or if it may have above-ground instal-
steel conduit because FRE conduit can have lations. As solar radiation affects most plastics,
higher strength than even Schedule 80 PVC. It only those conduits classified for above-ground
can also be installed with longer unsupported use may be applied in sunlight. Classifications of
spans without excessive long-term sag. FRE con- direct burial (DB) and encased burial (EB) mean
duit, like PVC, has high corrosion resistance. that all above-ground exposure must be
These characteristics make FRE conduit particu- avoided. Conduit types classified “above ground”
larly attractive for duct lines suspended beneath may be used in either location.
bridges and for riser installations. Table 9.2 shows the dimensions of these vari-
Throughout the history of electric utilities, a ous conduit configurations. Table 9.3 compares
variety of other conduit mate- the relative strengths of these
rials have been used. These conduit types in the four-inch
range from early treated wood nominal size. Table 9.4 lists
conduits to terra cotta tile Never use DB or the impact strength of the vari-
ducts. Some of the other mate- EB conduit ous sizes of PVC conduit. For
rials most commonly used similar information on FRE
since the 1950s include fiber, above ground. conduit, refer to the specific
concrete, and asbestos ce- FRE manufacturer.
ment. Fiber duct, often known
by the trade name Orangeburg, was made of Direct-Buried Conduit Design and Installation
molded wood fiber impregnated with an as- The most common type of conduit application is
phaltic compound. Fiber duct was used mainly the direct-buried system. Here, the conduit con-
in concrete encasement but, even then, it would taining the electrical cable is placed into the
eventually absorb moisture and deteriorate. Con- ground without additional encasement. When
crete duct was generally installed as a direct- the installation is made by trenching, the conduit
buried conduit or multiple-tile duct. This is placed on a smooth trench bottom before
material was naturally very heavy and did not backfill is placed. When the trench is being pre-
gain wide acceptance with electric utilities. pared, the bottom must be leveled to provide
Asbestos cement duct, otherwise known as even support to the conduit. Rock outcroppings
Transite™, gained wide acceptance in concrete- must be cushioned with a layer of clean, com-
encased conduit duct banks. It also saw use as pacted fill to avoid high-pressure points on the
a direct-buried conduit. Major advantages in- conduit when backfill is placed.
cluded a smooth interior surface and very high The initial backfill layer should be tamped on
flame resistance. However, this material was ex- the sides of the conduit to develop sidewall sup-
tremely hard and brittle. It was also extremely port. This support is important to provide stabil-
inflexible. The combination of these characteristics ity during the pulling process and to resist
3 1 4 – Se c t io n 9
9
TABLE 9.1: Classifications of Plastic Conduit.
Specification
Conduit Designation Material NEMA Other Description and Application
EB-20 PVC TC-6 ASTM F512, Encased burial
UL651A
EB-35 PVC TC-8 ASTM F512 Encased burial, extra strength
DB-60 PVC TC-6 ASTM F512 Direct burial
DB-120 PVC TC-8 ASTM F512 Direct burial, extra strength
Schedule 40, Type II PE — — Normal duty, direct burial
Schedule 40, Type III PVC TC-2 UL 651 Normal duty, above ground
Schedule 80, Type IV PVC TC-2 UL 651 Heavy duty, above ground
HDPE, Smooth-Wall HDPE TC-7 ASTM D3035 Normal duty, direct burial
ASTM D2239
ASTM D2160
HDPE, Ribbed HDPE TC-7 ASTM D3035 Normal duty, direct burial
ASTM D2239
ASTM D2160
HDPE, Corrugated HDPE TC-7 ASTM D3035 Normal duty, direct burial
ASTM D2239
ASTM D2160
TABLE 9.2: PVC Duct Dimensions—Minimum Wall Thickness.
Conduit Size Minimum TC-6 TC-8

Inside Diameter EB-20 DB-60 EB-35 DB-120 Schedule 40 Schedule 80 HDPE-40
2” 0.060 0.060 0.060 0.077 0.154 0.218 0.154
3” 0.061 0.092 0.076 0.118 0.216 0.300 0.216
4” 0.082 0.121 0.100 0.154 0.237 0.337 0.237
5” 0.103 0.152 0.126 0.191 0.258 0.375 0.258
6” 0.125 0.182 0.152 0.227 0.280 0.432 0.280
TABLE 9.3: Comparison of Characteristics for Four-Inch Diameter PVC Duct.
TC-6 PVC TC-8 PVC

Characteristics EB-20 DB-60 EB-35 DB-120 Schedule 40 Schedule 80 HDPE-40
Collapse pressure, psi 6.7 17.0 9.2 36.6 108.7 326.5 96.0
Impact resistance, ft-lb. 25.0 60.0 40.0 80.0 220.0 310.0 N/A
Weight, lb./100 feet 92.0 127.0 109.0 158.0 234.0 310.0 136.2
Pipe stiffness, lb./in.* 20.0 60.0 35.0 120.0 461.2 117.8 N/A
* Specifically, pounds per inch deflection at five percent change in internal diameter
9
TABLE 9.4: PVC Duct—Impact Strength (Foot-Pounds).

Inside Diameter EB-20 DB-60 EB-35 DB-120 Schedule 40 Schedule 80
2” 20 20 20 25 190 300
3” 20 40 30 50 220 525
4” 25 60 40 80 220 525
5” 30 85 55 110 220 525
6” 40 120 75 150 220 525
crushing when full vertical backfill pressure is be accomplished successfully in moderate tem-
applied later. Crushing forces can also be re- peratures with proper equipment. With conduit
duced by not tamping above sizes larger than two inches or
the conduit until an adequate during cool weather, make
thickness of backfill has been sure the conduit installation is
placed. The thickness of back- Curves in coilable straight and does not have
fill required will depend on conduit can greatly bends caused by conduit
the force applied by the tamp, “memory” as it is removed
the surface area of the tamp, increase cable-pulling from the reel. Curves caused
and the soil characteristics. tensions. by this phenomenon can dras-
Type DB conduit is more sus- tically increase cable-pulling
ceptible to crushing than tensions. This condition should
Schedule 40 (or 80) conduit also be avoided if a coilable
because its wall is thinner. If rocky soils are usu- conduit, with or without a cable, is being in-
ally present or clean backfill cannot be ensured, stalled by conventional trenching.
Schedule 40 conduit should be used instead of In some cases, short runs of straight, jointed
Type DB for direct-buried installations. Failure conduit sections may be installed by the pull-in
to follow these guidelines will lead to conduit plow method. In these cases, it is extremely im-
with blockages or reduced inside dimensions. In portant that all joints are properly made and
these cases, the conduit will be unusable or may cured before pulling begins; otherwise, the
damage cable during installation. joints can separate.
If multiple conduits for electric circuits are
being installed in the same trench, a minimum Concrete-Encased Duct Design and Installation
of three inches of clearance must be provided Concrete-encased duct banks are generally used
between the conduits. This clearance not only where multiple circuits are required along con-
will allow for proper backfill placement and gested routes or where extra physical protection
tamping but also will improve heat dissipation. for cables is warranted. Installations of this type
If the decision is made to use close spacing of require careful site investigation and advance
conduits for individual enclosure of large, high- planning, particularly because of the size of the
capacity cables (this is not recommended), these duct line and the need to keep it straight and
should be Class DB-120 or Schedule 40 to with- properly graded. Unexpected conflicts with un-
stand the point pressures created by conduit-to- derground obstructions can cause major problems
conduit contact. as a large multiple-conduit, concrete-encased
Where conduit is installed by plowing, a coil- duct line is being installed.
able polyethylene product will usually be used. This type of installation begins with an open
Plowing of coilable polyethylene conduit may trench. The trench must be wide enough to
3 1 6 – Se c t io n 9
9
Establishing a well-drained conduit system will
3" facilitate cable installation and removal as well
Min.
as improving the cable operating environment.
The trench bottom should be adequately com-
pacted where conduit support spacers will be in-
Min.
3-Way
2"
Direct-Buried stalled. Loose material in the trench bottom
should be removed or compacted so the duct
3-Way bank will have proper support at all points.
Concrete-Encased For electrical distribution duct lines, three
inches of concrete cover should be provided
at both the top and bottom extremities of the
bank. A minimum of two inches of horizontal
concrete cover should be provided between the
outside ducts and the trench wall. For proper
heat dissipation, three inches of clearance
6-Way
Concrete-Encased should be provided between conduits (see
Figure 9.1). A simple way to maintain these
dimensions both vertically and horizontally is
by using conduit spacers.
Concrete installed around duct banks must
be properly placed to fill all voids, provide
9-Way optimum heat transfer, and properly protect
Concrete-Encased
cables. Concrete that has small aggregate, gen-
erally one-half-inch or less, which will readily
flow between ducts must be used. A concrete
slump of seven to eight inches must also be
* Designates Circuit Location
Undesirable for Loaded Circuit specified to allow reasonable flow. The slump
value is a measure of how much fluid is in
the concrete. A higher slump value means the
12-Way concrete contains more fluid and is “wetter.”
Concrete-Encased
A slump value higher than eight inches is not
FIGURE 9.1: Typical Duct Configurations. recommended as the high fluid content will
make it more difficult to hold the conduits in
place during the pouring process.
provide proper duct spacing and side clear- Concrete strength should be specified in the
ances. However, the trench must not be made range of 1,500 to 2,500 psi. Although standard
too wide, as the trench wall will generally be ready-mix concretes are often delivered with
used as a form for the concrete encasement. strengths of 3,000 to 4,500 psi, there is no need
Extra trench width will lead to the need for un- for the stronger and more expensive mix in un-
necessary concrete. reinforced duct bank encasements. The concrete
Trench design should also recognize the de- supplier should be consulted beforehand in order
sirability of well-drained conduits. This requires to get the proper concrete mix at the job site. He
sloping of the conduit to a point, such as a man- can then design an economical mix that will meet
hole, where water can be removed from the sys- the special needs of duct bank construction. It is
tem. Each section of conduit can be sloped in a also vitally important that vibration be used dur-
single direction or it can be drained toward each ing the pouring process. Vibration will facilitate
end. While the overall slope of the trench is im- the flow of concrete and minimize voids.
portant, the conduit must be graded so there are During the actual pouring process, three im-
no local pockets that can accumulate water. portant requirements should always be verified:
9
• Hold-down of the duct and spacers,
• Control of the concrete flow, and 1. The aggregate will tend to segregate out of
• Prevention of duct collapse. the concrete mix, thereby producing porous
(honeycomb) sections in the encasements,
Precast concrete weights, often called “suit- and
cases,” should be applied to the top of the con- 2. An excessive free-fall distance may disrupt
duit before pouring. These weights will keep the the conduit configuration or break joints.
conduit from floating when it is surrounded with
wet concrete. As noted above, the slump value The use of a splash board will also help
should be fewer than eight inches to provide direct the concrete flow into the trench and
friction that will help keep conduits in place. should be used to prevent concrete flow against
The amount of weight required will depend unsupported trench walls. Otherwise, loose dirt
on the following factors: will be embedded in the wet concrete, causing
voids. All the above conditions must be avoided
• Number of conduits, for a satisfactory duct installation.
• Size of conduits, When large duct banks (above six-way) are
• Slump of concrete, being installed, the collapse pressure rating of
• Use of vibration, and the particular conduit should be computed with
• Other anchoring methods used. the expected compressive force on the bottom
conduit during pouring. To make this calculation,
The amount of weight needed to keep conduit the depth of the lowest conduit in feet is multi-
from floating is determined by the buoyancy of plied by 1.03 psi/ft of depth to find the com-
the empty conduits in wet concrete, given that pressive force (in psi) on the lowest conduit. For
the concrete has a unit weight of about 150 lb. instance, if a three-layer duct bank has a layer of
per cubic foot. To counteract the maximum pos- five-inch conduit with three inches of top cover
sible buoyancy of a six-way, five-inch duct bank, and three inches between layers, the lowest
a 150-lb.weight is needed on each foot of duct conduit is about 25 inches (2.1 feet) deep. This
line while the concrete is being poured. This ex- produces a compressive force of approximately
ample shows how important it is to keep concrete 2.2 psi. Table 9.5 shows that the compressive
slump as low as practicable and to use only as strength of five-inch type EB-20 conduit is 5.9
much vibration as needed to achieve good con- psi. Therefore, this application of EB-20 is satis-
crete flow. As an alternative to the precast concrete factory. If the compressive force had approached
suitcases, some manufacturers of duct spacers the conduit rating of 5.9 psi, a higher grade of
have provisions for driving hold-down rods conduit such as EB-35 would be required. Crews
through the spacers to avoid conduit floating. This must be instructed that conduits, particularly the
method, coupled with nonmetallic bands or straps, thinner-wall Type EB varieties, should not be
can also be used to prevent conduit floating. walked on to avoid cracking, collapse, or defor-
Caution should be used with hold-down rods in mation of the conduit.
soft soil and larger duct bank configurations.
Softer soils offer lower pullout resistance, thus GENERAL CONDUIT SYSTEM LAYOUT
requiring longer hold-down rods driven deeper. The first problem in engineering an under-
When pouring concrete encasement, the dis- ground conduit system is determining the loads
tance that the wet concrete falls into the trench to be served by the system, both now and in the
should be minimized. If the ready-mix delivery future. Present and future requirements must
truck chute cannot be placed near the top of the also be determined for circuits traversing the
ducts, a hopper (funnel) and hose arrangement design area to serve loads in other areas. These
can be attached to minimize the free-fall dis- requirements, coupled with the characteristics
tance. If the fall distance is too great, there will of the design area, will determine the type of
be two adverse results: underground system to be installed.
3 1 8 – Se c t io n 9
9
TABLE 9.5: PVC Duct Collapse Pressure (PSI).

Inside Diameter EB-20 DB-60 EB-35 DB-120 Schedule 40 Schedule 80
2" 11.2 11.2 11.2 26.6 117.1 595.8
3" 6.6 15.2 8.2 34.0 181.3 487.3
4" 6.7 17.0 9.2 36.6 108.7 326.5
5" 5.9 18.9 10.3 38.2 75.5 235.6
6" 6.1 19.6 11.2 38.0 57.0 212.5
For example, if the problem is substation exit accommodate the circuits in each location. Stan-
circuits in an open rural area with a wide area dard conduit configurations as shown in Figure
for circuit exits and good soil conditions, the ob- 9.1 should be used to simplify construction.
vious answer may be direct-buried circuits. These Duct bank configurations of greater than three
have lower initial cost and better thermal perfor- conduits are generally installed using concrete
mance than either direct-buried conduit or con- encasement. Encased duct will also be needed
crete-encased conduit systems. However, if only where cable-pulling tensions are high or bends
a limited space is available for installing electric are in the conduit. Inner conduits should not be
circuits, construction conditions are difficult, or used for heavily loaded cable circuits as heat
several circuit additions are expected over the dissipation is much better for peripheral loca-
life of the facility, a conduit system is probably tions. Section 4 discusses further the thermal
the proper answer for lowest long-term costs. performance of cables in a conduit system.
Of course, cable installation forces and damage If both primary and secondary circuits are lo-
probability must also be considered when cated in the same duct run, it is generally prefer-
choosing the final conduit configuration. able to plan on secondary circuits being located
Regardless of whether direct-buried conduit in the upper ducts, particularly if the secondaries
or encased conduit is chosen, the total system are serving a load at an intermediate point in
must be designed in light of present and future the duct run. Turning of the upper ducts is sim-
loads and the circuits required to serve these pler and allows the lower conduits to continue
loads. Therefore, the first step is to define loads straight with the main conduit run. Other con-
within the design area and determine the trans- siderations are the greater mechanical protection
former locations required to provide service. Then afforded lower conduits and the simplified man-
distribution circuits will be designed to provide hole internal arrangement. See Figure 9.2.
primary voltage to all transformers, generally Small features of duct bank design that are
with an open-loop configuration. If a transformer often overlooked are provision for area lighting
location will provide service through radial sec- circuits and future electric utility communication
ondary circuits, these secondary circuits must be circuits. Both of these uses generally require
designed. This situation is often encountered in small conduits (two-inch minimum diameter is
congested areas such as shopping centers. After recommended) and are easy to initially install.
all circuits are designed for local service, any Street and area lighting conduits should be lo-
underground circuits that will pass through the cated in the upper corners of the duct bank (see
design area should be considered. In the case of Figure 9.3). Lighting conduits should be looped
sites near substations, the through-circuits may to facilitate multiple light locations to be served
be the only factor considered. by a single circuit.
After the circuit design is complete, the con- Communication conduits are for the installa-
duit system configuration should be designed to tion of circuits owned and maintained by the
9
cooperative only. Such circuits might be used for
To Area Lighting To Area Lighting
alarm, control, or metering associated with elec-
tric distribution. Section 32 of the NESC has in-
F F F F
formation on the allowable location of
Manhole Manhole
A B C communication ducts and circuits. If other condi-
Primary & Secondary Ducts Primary Duct tions allow, the preferred location of communi-
A B C cation circuits is the top center conduit. Making
provisions for these circuits is recommended, es-
E E
Secondary Duct
pecially in areas where concrete-encased ducts
D D
Transformer
are installed or high load density exists.
Location
Secondary Duct
DETERMINATION OF CONDUIT SIZES

D D
FOR CABLE INSTALLATION
To Remote Loads
An important step in analyzing the duct bank
system is to examine the size and number of ca-
To Local Loads
bles required and to select the appropriate con-
duit size. For the analysis of conduit fill, the
FIGURE 9.2: Typical Duct Line and Manhole Arrangement. National Electrical Code (NEC) is an excellent
source that has been tried and tested countless
times. Although the NEC does not legally bind
cooperatives, it is still an excellent standard and
application guide on conduit fill.
7 8 9
Tables 9.12 through 9.15 list the minimum size
4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6
of conduit necessary to accommodate certain
numbers and sizes of underground power and
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 secondary cables. The tables are based on the
maximum fill requirements of the NEC, which
Section A-A Section B-B Section C-C are 53 percent maximum fill for one cable in a
Duct Size Use Duct Size Use Duct Size Use
1 5" Primary Loop 1 5" Primary Loop 1 5" Primary Loop
conduit, 31 percent maximum fill for two cables
2 5" Spare 2 5" Spare 2 5" Spare in a conduit, and 40 percent maximum fill for
3 5" Primary Loop 3 5" Primary Loop 3 5" Primary Loop
4 2" Area Lighting 4 5" Secondary 4 2" Area Lighting
three or more cables in a conduit. The trade
5 5" Spare 5 5" Secondary 5 2" Utility Communications sizes, inside diameters, and maximum areas of
6 2" Utility Communications 6 5" Secondary 6 2" Area Lighting
7 2" Area Lighting
fill for various sizes of conduit are shown in
8 2" Utility Communications Table 9.6.
9 2" Area Lighting
The cables shown in Tables 9.7 through 9.11
all have ICEA Class B concentric stranded con-
ductors, unless an “S” indicating solid conductor
4 5 6
appears beside the conductor AWG size. The
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 listed cables have standard thickness of conduc-
tor shield, insulation, insulation shield, and
Section D-D Section E-E Section F-F jacket, and standard numbers and size of con-
Duct Size Use Duct Size Use Duct Size Use centric neutral wires in accordance with ICEA
1 5" Secondary 1 5" Primary Loop 1 2" Area Lighting
2 5" Secondary 2 5" Spare 2 2" Area Lighting specifications. If other than standard specifica-
3 5" Secondary 3 5" Primary Loop tions are used for cable, or if other than stranded
4 5" Secondary
5 5" Secondary or solid conductor is used, the overall cross-sec-
6 5" Secondary tional area of 15-, 25-, or 34.5-kV power cable
can be calculated with Equation 9.1. For 600-volt
FIGURE 9.3: Typical Arrangements for System in Figure 9.2. secondary cable, the overall cross-sectional area
can be calculated with Equation 9.2.
3 2 0 – Se c t io n 9
9
TABLE 9.6: Conduit Fill.
Inside 1 Cable Area 2 Cables Area 3 Cables Area

Trade Size (in.) Diameter (in.) Area (sq. in.) x 53% (sq. in.) x 31% (sq. in.) x 40% (sq. in.)
2 2.067 3.36 1.78 1.04 1.34
2 1/2 2.469 4.79 2.54 1.48 1.92
3 3.068 7.39 3.92 2.29 2.96
3 1/2 3.548 9.89 5.24 3.06 3.95
4 4.026 12.73 6.75 3.95 5.09
5 5.047 20.01 10.60 6.20 8.00
6 6.065 28.89 15.31 8.96 11.56
Equation 9.1: Shielded Concentric Neutral Cable Diameters. TABLE 9.7: Conductor Shield Thickness.
Diameter = C + 2CS + A + 2I + 0.030 + 2IS + 2N + 2J Conductor Size (AWG or MCM) Conductor Shield (in.)
#8–#4/0 0.012
where: C = Diameter of the conductor 25–550 0.016
CS = Thickness of the conductor shield (see Table 9.7) 551–1,000 0.020
A = Addition Factor:
• 0.010 inches for 25-kV and 34.5-kV cables with 1,001 and larger 0.024
conductor larger than #4/0
• 0.000 inches for all other cable constructions
TABLE 9.8: Insulation Shield Thickness.
I = Insulation wall thickness
IS = Insulation shield thickness (See Table 9.8) Diameter Over Insulation* Insulation Shield (in.)
N = Thickness of concentric neutral wires 0–1.000 0.060
J = Thickness of outer jacket: 1.001–1.500 0.075
• 0.080 inches for conductors through 1.50 inches
over the concentric neutral 1.501–2.000 0.090
• 0.120 inches for conductors larger than
2.001 and greater 0.105
1.50 inches over the concentric neutral
* Diameter over insulation = C + 2CS + A + 2I
TABLE 9.9: Concentric Neutral Thickness—Aluminum Cables.
Full Neutral 1/3 Neutral

ALUMINUM Conductor (AWG or MCM) Neutral Wire Size (AWG) Thickness (in.)
Through #1/0 Through 350 #14 0.0641
#2/0, #3/0 500–750 #12 0.0808
#4/0, 250 1,000 #10 0.1019
350 1,250–1,500 #9 0.1144
N/A Over 1,500 #8 0.1285
N/A = not applicable
9
TABLE 9.10: Concentric Neutral Thickness-Copper Cables.
Full Neutral 1/3 Neutral

COPPER Conductor (AWG or MCM) Neutral Wire Size (AWG) Thickness (in.)
Through #2/0 Through 250 #14 0.0641
#1–1/0 350 #12 0.0808
2/0–3/0 500–650 #10 0.1019
4/0 750 #9 0.1144
N/A 1,000–2,000 #8 0.1285
Equation 9.2: Unshielded Cable Diameter.
Diameter = C + 2I
where: C = Diameter of the conductor

I = Insulation wall thickness
TABLE 9.11: Secondary Cable Insulation Thickness.
Insulation Thickness (in.)

Conductor Size (AWG or MCM) Regular* Ruggedized*
#4–#2 0.060 0.075
#1–#4/0 0.080 0.100
225–500 0.095 0.130
600–1,000 0.110 0.145
* Regular insulation consists of one layer of low-density polyethylene. Ruggedized design
consists of two layers of equal thickness bonded together: an inner layer of low-density
polyethylene and an outer layer of high-density polyethylene. Various manufacturers use
different combinations of layers and layer thickness to achieve ruggedized designs. Verify
actual diameters with actual cables being used.
CONDUIT/CABLE TABLES Selection of the appropriate conduit size must

Tables 9.12 through 9.15 have been developed also consider the following factors:
on the basis of the aforementioned requirements
of the current 2002 NEC and Equations 9.1 and • Future cable capacity increases,
9.2 for determining the diameters of required • Pulling tension considerations,
conduits for typical primary and secondary con- • Heating and ventilation (see Section 4),
ductors. The sizes of conduit recommended are • Cost considerations, and
suggested based on an average of many manu- • Standardization of conduit sizes.
facturers of cables, reflecting the fact that actual
diameters of cables vary greatly.
3 2 2 – Se c t io n 9
9
TABLE 9.12: 220-Mil Primary Cable.
Minimum Size of Conduit Necessary to Accommodate Primary Underground Power Cable:

15-kV Cable – 220-Mil Insulation Wall, Concentric Neutral Construction
Minimum Conduit Size (Inches) for Numbers of Primary Cables, Based on Neutral Construction
Conductor 1 Cable per Conduit 2 Cables per Conduit 3 Cables per Conduit
AWG or MCM Full 1/3 Full 1/3 Full 1/3
2S* 2 2 3 3 3 1/2 3 1/2
2 2 2 3 3 3 1/2 3 1/2
1S* 2 2 3 3 3 1/2 3 1/2
1 2 2 3 1/2 3 3 1/2 3 1/2
1/0S* 2 2 3 1/2 3 3 1/2 3 1/2
1/0 2 2 3 1/2 3 1/2 3 1/2 3 1/2
2/0 2 2 3 1/2 3 1/2 4 4
3/0 2 2 4 3 1/2 4 4
4/0 2 1/2 2 4 4 5 4
250 2 1/2 2 1/2 5 4 5 5
350 2 1/2 2 1/2 5 5 5 5
500 3 5 6
750 3 6 6
1,000 3 1/2 6 6
* S = Solid Conductor
Note. Table 9.12 is based on NEC requirements. Maximum conduit fill is 53 percent for one cable, 31 percent for two cables,
and 40 percent for three cables in a conduit. Unless noted, conductors are concentric stranded. If different conductors,
such as compressed or compacted, are used, see Equation 9.1 for method of calculating. Outside diameters are based
on ICEA Publication ANSI/ICEA S-94-649-2000.
9

25-kV Cable—260-Mil Insulation Wall, Concentric Neutral Construction
1S* 2 2 3 3 3 1/2 3 1/2
1 2 2 3 1/2 3 1/2 3 1/2 3 1/2
1/0S* 2 2 3 1/2 3 1/2 3 1/2 3 1/2
1/0 2 2 3 1/2 3 1/2 3 1/2 3 1/2
2/0 2 2 3 1/2 3 1/2 4 3 1/2
3/0 2 2 4 3 1/2 4 4
4/0 2 1/2 2 4 4 5 4
250 2 1/2 2 4 4 5 5
350 2 1/2 2 1/2 5 5 5 5
500 3 5 5
750 3 6 6
1,000 3 1/2 6 #
# Indicates that a 6-inch conduit is not of sufficient size to accommodate three cables of this size without exceeding the
maximum fill requirement.
Note. Table 9.13 is based on NEC requirements. Maximum conduit fill is 53 percent for one cable, 31 percent for two cables,
3 2 4 – Se c t io n 9
9

34.5-kV Cable—345-Mil Insulation Wall
1S* 2 2 4 4 4 4
1 2 2 4 4 4 4
1/0S* 2 1/2 2 1/2 4 4 5 5
1/0 2 1/2 2 1/2 4 4 5 4
2/0 2 1/2 2 1/2 5 5 5 5
3/0 2 1/2 2 1/2 5 5 5 5
4/0 2 1/2 2 1/2 5 5 5 5
250 3 2 1/2 5 5 6 5
350 3 3 6 5 6 6
500 3 6 6
750 3 1/2 6 #
1,000 3 1/2 # #
# Indicates that a 6-inch conduit is not of sufficient size to accommodate two (or three) cables of this size without exceeding
the maximum fill requirement.
Note: Table 9.14 is based on NEC requirements. Maximum conduit fill is 53 percent for one cable, 31 percent for two cables,
MANHOLE TYPES safety of manhole location is also a major con-

In the design or selection of manholes to use with sideration. If possible, manhole entrances should
a conduit system, there are many factors to con- be located outside the paved roadway to mini-
sider. The enclosure must be structurally adequate mize the hazard to workers and inconvenience
to withstand the loads in the selected location. to the public while the manhole is open. The
The manhole must also provide reasonable ac- roadway within street intersections should be
cess to the conduit system with room to pull particularly avoided, if possible. However, if a
and splice cables. It should also provide space duct line is installed in a roadway and there is
and facilities to properly mount cables and still an intersection with another duct line, doing so
allow access and working room. may be impossible. The location of existing
The location of manholes is one of the first water, sewer, storm drain, and communication
things to carefully consider when designing the lines will strongly influence the location of elec-
duct system. Previous statements have emphasized tric facilities and may force location within the
the location of manholes relative to load centers roadway. See Figure 9.4 for examples of pre-
or based on cable-pulling limits. Accessibility and ferred manhole and duct line locations.
9
TABLE 9.15: Conduit Fill—Secondary Cable.
Minimum Size of Conduit Necessary to Accommodate 600-Volt Secondary Underground Power Cablel
Minimum Conduit Size (Inches) for Numbers of Secondary Cables, Based on Insulation Construction
Conductor 1 Cable per Conduit 2 Cables per Conduit 3 Cables per Conduit 4 Cables per Conduit
AWG or MCM Regular Ruggedized Regular Ruggedized Regular Ruggedized Regular Ruggedized
4S* 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2S* 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1S* 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1/0S* 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1/0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2/0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3/0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1/2
4/0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1/2 2 1/2
250 2 2 2 2 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 3
350 2 2 2 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 3 3 3
500 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 1/2 3 1/2
Regular = Normal insulation
Ruggedized = Ruggedized, two-layer insulation. See Table 9.11 for more information.
Note. Table 9.15 is based on NEC requirements. Maximum conduit fill is 53 percent for one cable, 31 percent for two cables, and 40 percent for
three cables in a conduit. Unless noted, conductors are concentric stranded. If different conductors, e.g., compressed or compacted, are
used, see Equation 9.2 for method of calculating. Outside diameters are based on ICEA Publication ANSI/ICEA S-94-649-2000.
Access to the manhole is provided through a the chimney between the top of the manhole and
ring and cover assembly. Covers are usually round. the cover should have walls without protrusions
Noncircular covers should not be used without due that could injure personnel or damage cable.
consideration of the fact that such covers can fall Manholes may be divided into three general
into the manhole. The minimum clear dimension categories. The first type is used for locations in
for a cover is 26 inches. However, on electric man- straight conduit runs where access is desired mainly
holes, the clear opening should be a minimum of for cable pulling. The second type is for locations
30 inches to not only ease access but also provide where duct lines may intersect at an angle near
more room to maneuver cables during the pulling 45° or where a more narrow intersection man-
process. Covers of 36-inch diameter (or more) hole is needed. The third type is designed to ac-
allow even more room; however, crews often find commodate the intersection of two major duct
that the added weight of these units is a con- banks. These patterns are illustrated in Figure 9.5.
cern. In addition to having adequate cover size, Each has advantages in the location of cables.
3 2 6 – Se c t io n 9
9
Tap Ducts
to Load or
Transformer
Main Location Main
Ducts Ducts
Sidewalk
Sidewalk
Street
Preferred Duct and

Manhole Location
Main Main
Undesirable Duct and Ducts Ducts
Manhole Location
Street
Street (a) Tap Manhole (b) Straight-Line Manhole
Main
Ducts
Main Main
Ducts Ducts
Street
Sidewalk
Sidewalk
Main
Ducts
(c) Intersection Manhole
FIGURE 9.4: Preferred Location of Duct Lines in Roadways. FIGURE 9.5: Typical Manhole Configurations.
In the past, some electric utilities, particularly should be given to the location of the structure
those in urban areas, located special switching and loads that may be encountered. In roadway
and/or fusing equipment in manholes. However, areas, heavy trucks may subject the structure to
this practice should be avoided because of the extreme live loads and forceful impacts. In in-
congestion and safety problems it causes. In ad- dustrial areas, large cranes may travel over or
dition, all switches used in manholes must be near the manhole and create extreme point
suitable for remote operation from outside the loads when their outriggers are extended. Live
manhole. All these factors make installation of load requirements should be increased by 30
pad-mounted switchgear much more practical. percent to account for impact forces. The fol-
Here, equipment is more accessible for mainte- lowing publications should be referenced when
nance and operation. Moreover, personnel are load requirements are analyzed:
working at ground level with less restricted exit
paths in case of equipment problems. • Federal Specification RR-F-621D;
• AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway
MANHOLE/PULL BOX CONSTRUCTION Bridges, 1983;
Manholes and pull boxes must be designed to • National Electrical Safety Code, Section 32;
sustain all expected loads that may be imposed on and
the structure. The manhole or pull box must be • RUS Bulletin 1753F-151.
capable of withstanding vertical and horizontal
live loads, dead loads, equipment loads, impact Another facet of manhole/vault design is al-
loads, loads caused by water table or frost, shear, lowance for uplift on the structure when the sur-
and bending moments. Careful consideration rounding soil is saturated. If the manhole is well
FIGURE 9.6: Rectangular Manhole Construction Details.

3 2 8 – Se c t io n 9
FIGURE 9.7: Rectangular Manhole Installation Details.
drained, the net buoyancy should be calculated. Wall Thickness/Concrete Strength/

This force will have to be balanced by the effective Reinforcing Steel
weight of the overburden and soil shear acting on When precast manholes and pull boxes are
the walls by saturated soil. Failure to take this into used, the manufacturer will select the proper
account could result in a manhole floating out concrete strength, rebar type/spacing, and wall
of the ground when the soil becomes saturated. thickness based on the loading requirements
This is not only extremely detrimental to system supplied by the purchaser. Most manufacturers
reliability it is also quite disturbing to the public. use Grade 60 reinforcing steel and 4,500 psi
Figures 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, and 9.9 represent two concrete and design to current ASTM and ACI
styles of manhole—rectangular and octagonal— standards. The purchaser should require the
with details indicating depth of install, personnel manufacturer to furnish load certifications sealed
entrance duct interface, and other construction by a licensed professional engineer. Design
details. Typically, precast manhole manufacturers guidelines for site-built manholes can be found
can supply these type of manholes and acces- in Specifications and Drawings for Conduit and
sories that comply with industry standards. Manhole Construction, RUS Bulletin 1753F-151.
FIGURE 9.8: Octagonal Manhole Construction Details.

3 3 0 – Se c t io n 9
FIGURE 9.9: Octagonal Manhole Installation Details.
The purchaser should require the precast Personnel/Equipment Entrances

manhole manufacturer to provide grounding Access openings in manholes should be large
provisions so the reinforcing steel within the enough for workers to enter the manhole on a
structure walls can be connected to the system ladder and to lower equipment needed for cable
neutral and grounding electrodes. pulling, splicing, and testing. Manhole openings
should be free of obstructions that would pre-
Conduit Entrances/Knockouts vent the worker from safely and quickly exiting
Many precast manhole manufacturers provide the manhole. Large manholes may have more
knockout panels in each wall to accommodate a than one entrance for convenience. Personnel
wide variety of conduit and duct bank sizes. access openings should not be located directly
Knockout panels are typically three inches thick, over cables or equipment.
void of rebar, and allow for quick tie-in of duct Manhole covers should be at least 30 inches in
banks and conduits. diameter and designed so they cannot fall into the
9
manhole and harm personnel or equipment. Per- Joint Sealants
sonnel access openings should be located where Joints in precast manholes are typically designed
safe access can be provided and outside of pedes- to be self-aligning during the assembly process.
trian traffic areas when possible. Manhole covers Some precast manholes also have cast-in-con-
should have markings to identify the type of utility crete weld plates that, when welded together,
and ownership. Sufficient means through weight, prevent shifting of manhole sections and create
design, or location should be employed to prevent a rigid assembly. Asphaltic butyl compounds are
access by the public and unqualified persons. usually used in the joints to provide a water seal
that is resistant to temperature changes, shock,
Sump Pit/Drain Lines shrinkage, and mild chemicals. Sealant should
Manholes should have adequate drainage to keep comply with Federal Specification SS-S-210A and
them dry and free of standing water. In some loca- AASHTO M-198B.
tions, a sump pit is designed in the manhole floor.
The sump pit should be excavated two feet Ring and Cover Assemblies—Specifications
below the manhole floor and filled with small Ring and cover assemblies should comply with
stones to allow water to seep out of the man- the loading requirements of Federal Specification
hole. In high water table areas, the sump pit in RR-F-621D. When specifying ring and covers,
the floor would be ineffective. Of course, if the the interchangeability of new manhole lids with
natural water table is higher than the manhole existing manhole lids should be considered. If
floor, there will be a flow of groundwater into possible, a standard for lid diameter, thickness,
the manhole with the potential for undermining lettering, and so on should be enforced.
of the structure. When future pavement overlays are expected,
In some cases, a drain in the manhole floor the vertical seat thickness of the manhole cover
may be connected to a local storm sewer if and available cast iron riser ring sizes must be
there is no chance of the storm sewer backing considered. Bolted covers can eliminate man-
into the manhole during periods of high flow. hole cover blow-off caused by rising waters in
However, the manhole drain must never be con- low lying areas. Manhole covers with watertight
nected to a sanitary sewer since there is a dan- gaskets will keep surface water from flowing
ger of sewer gas entering the electric manhole. into the manhole. The utility name and the type
When a manhole drain is provided, the man- of utility occupying the manhole should be
hole floor should be sloped to direct all accu- specified on the manhole cover. See NESC 323J.
mulated water to the drain. Also, the exterior
walls of the manhole or pull box may need to Manhole Racks/Cable Supports
be waterproofed in areas with a high water table Cable racks and supports must be installed in
to minimize seepage through the walls. In ex- manholes to support cables at joints and keep
treme cases, manholes in an area routinely sub- cables from lying on the manhole floor. The
ject to flooding may have automatic sump NESC requires all cables to be at least three
pumps to remove water. inches off the manhole floor. Usually cable racks
are placed six inches from the ends of cable
Pulling Irons and Pulling Eyes joints and every three feet around the manhole
Where pulling appurtenances are furnished, for general cable support. Cable racks are usually
they should be installed with a safety factor of fastened to the manhole walls with expansion
two (2.0), based on the expected load. Pulling bolts, power-installed studs, or threaded inserts.
irons can be supplied in galvanized steel or Metal cable rack/hook assemblies are available
plastic coated steel. Pulling irons are used for with plastic coatings to reduce corrosion and come
lifting the roof and floor panels. Pulling eyes in a variety of sizes. Metal cable racks should be
and inserts are available for lifting wall panels. bonded to the system neutral for safety. Cable
The precast manufacturer can size the pulling racks are also available in fiberglass or other
eyes and pulling irons on the basis of the load nonconductive materials that avoid corrosion and
specifications supplied by the purchaser. grounding concerns. Cable racks should be in-
3 3 2 – Se c t io n 9
9
stalled with provisions to allow for cable expan- Waterproofing
sion and contraction in long duct runs during Electrical manholes may be “painted” on exterior
load cycles. The use of sliding cradle insulators walls with an asphalt-base, waterproof sealer to
and generous radii on exit bends will prevent prevent water from seeping into the manhole. In
damage from abrasion during load cycles. addition, sealed covers, mentioned above, can
be used to reduce runoff from the road surface.
Cable Pulling Many utilities are encountering situations in which • Allowable cable tension.
the best installation is cable installed in conduit.
This type of installation may be a single, direct- Each of these will be discussed separately to
buried conduit or a major, concrete-encased, develop a comprehensive analysis of the cable-
multiple duct bank. Regardless of configuration, pulling problem.
the cable must be installed in the conduit with-
out incurring mechanical damage that will im- CABLE-CONDUIT FRICTION
pair electrical performance or cable longevity. The most important factor in cable pulling is the
Therefore, analysis of the cable-pulling problem friction that exists between the outer surface of
must be performed during the design process. the cable and the inner surface of the conduit.
The main limiting factors in cable pulling are This friction force for a horizontal pull is classi-
tension and sidewall bearing pressure (SWBP). cally expressed as shown in Equation 9.3.
Tension must be limited to avoid overstressing
the metallic central conductor of the cable. It is
assumed that the central conductor carries all Equation 9.3.
tensile forces and these forces must be kept well
T = W × WC × f × l
below the conductor yield point. The origin of
cable tension is friction between the outer sur-
face of a cable and the inner surface of the con- where: T = Tension, in lb.
duit. The force the cable exerts on the conduit W = Weight of cable, per unit of length,
wall and the coefficient of friction between the in lb. per ft
two surfaces governs the amount of friction. WC = Weight correction factor
Sidewall bearing pressure is the force applied (where required)
perpendicularly to the outer surface of the cable f = Coefficient of friction
when it is being pulled through a bend or
l = Length of cable, in feet
sheave. Excessive sidewall pressure will distort
cable components, particularly the outer jacket
and the insulation shield. In some cases, con- This relationship is illustrated in Figure 9.10.
centric neutral wires or the tape shield may be Equation 9.3 shows that, if there is no friction
pushed into the semiconducting insulation between the cable and the conduit (f = 0), there
shield. More extreme cases may damage the in- is no tension in the cable as it is being pulled.
sulating layer or its semiconducting shield. All Friction between the cable and conduit is a
these conditions involve severe damage to the very complex phenomenon. Contributing factors
cable structure and decreased cable life. include the following:
The overall cable-pulling problem may be
considered as a combination of factors: • Surface roughness of both cable jacket and
conduit,
• Cable-conduit friction, • Deformation characteristics of jacket and con-
• Cable weight, duit materials as shear develops at interface, and
• Conduit bends, • Other materials, either dirt or lubrication, pre-
• Sidewall bearing pressure, and sent at interface.
9
calculate the force required to keep a cable
moving in the conduit. Most pulling calculations
Inner Conduit Wall Direction of Pull
emphasize the dynamic coefficient because the
Cable Weight (w)
cable should be continually in motion during the
T1 Tension T2
pulling process. This condition is the one most
Friction (f) Friction (f) Friction (f) commonly encountered. However, tensions re-
sulting from the static coefficient should always
T2 = T1 + (f × w) be considered because unforeseen circumstances
may stop a pull at any point and the cable must
FIGURE 9.10: Cable/Conduit Friction and Pulling Tension. be restarted.
The static coefficient of friction is used to cal-
culate the tension required to initially move a
In light of the complex nature of cable-conduit cable that is in a conduit. Static friction coefficients
friction, empirical tests are the only reasonable are always higher than the dynamic coefficients
way to predict friction factors. The variability of for similar materials. The ratio of these values
these same factors also means that the apparent with conventional lubricants has been observed
coefficient of friction experienced during pulling between 1.25 and 1.85. Tensions resulting from
may also differ from values measured with the the static coefficient should always be considered
same materials under similar circumstances. How- because unforeseen circumstances may stop a
ever, the materials comprising the cable jacket pull at any point and the cable must be restarted.
and the conduit constitute the best factors for The presence or absence of other materials
beginning characterization of the friction coeffi- at the cable-conduit interface is also a major
cient. Typical values of this coefficient are found contributing factor to the tensions actually expe-
in Table 9.16. rienced during the pulling process. This factor
Table 9.16 gives dynamic friction coefficients. can be either positive or negative. Most dirt is
The dynamic coefficient of friction is used to a strong negative factor because granules can
TABLE 9.16: Recommended Dynamic Friction Coefficients for Straight Pulls and Bends Using
Soap/Water or Polymer Lubricants.
Soap/Water Lubricants Polymer Lubricant
Straight Pulls (SWBP = 200 lb./ft)
One Cable Three Cables Bends (SWBP Static Dynamic
Duct Material Cable Jacket @75°C @75°C > 150 lb./ft) Friction Friction
PVC XLPE 0.40 0.60 0.15 0.14 0.11
PE 0.40 0.45 0.15 0.14 0.11
PVC 0.50 0.60 0.30 0.17 0.12
Concentric Neutral 0.40 N/A Not Recommended N/A N/A
Steel XLPE 0.60 0.65 0.25 0.15 0.14
PE 0.50 0.55 0.25 0.11 0.11
PVC 0.65 0.70 0.30 0.15 0.15
Concentric Neutral 0.50 N/A Not Recommended N/A N/A
Note. Use straight-pull values for bends with sidewall bearing pressure (SWBP)<150 lb./foot.
For other conduit or cable jackets, see AEIC G5-90; EPRI EL-3333, Vol. 2; or lubricant manufacturer test data.
Polymer lubricant is American Polywater J. Others may vary.
N/A = Not Applicable
3 3 4 – Se c t io n 9
9
partially embed themselves in lubricant works will depend
either the cable jacket or the Use the static not only on a low internal
conduit wall, or both. When shear value but also on how
this happens, simple sliding coefficient of friction well the film is maintained,
friction is changed to a process in cable-pulling especially under the pressure
that scores the jacket and con- of bends.
calculations.
duit surfaces. This process not The technology of cable lu-
only damages the surfaces but bricants is continually advanc-
also produces much higher ing. Product types include
friction forces. Therefore, one petroleum jelly, soap-and-
basic requirement is to have No amount of water mixtures, and polymer
all conduit clean before lubricant can mixtures. Selection of a cable
pulling begins. lubricant should consider the
A beneficial effect can be
compensate for even expected coefficient of fric-
achieved by introducing and small amounts of dirt tion, long-term compatibility
maintaining a lubricant be- with the cable jacket, flamma-
in a conduit.
tween the surfaces of the cable bility, and adhesion of cable
and conduit. Lubricants pro- to conduit after the lubricant
duce a film of slippery material dries. The best combination of
between the surfaces. The film will have very properties currently offered seems to be by poly-
low internal shear values compared with the mer-based lubricants. However, this is subject to
bare friction of the surfaces and, therefore, the change as lubricant technology advances.
cable-pulling tension will be less. How well the
CABLE WEIGHT
Equation 9.3 shows that pulling tension is di-
Equation 9.4.A Equation 9.4.B rectly proportional to cable weight. For simple
cases of straight runs with a single cable, this is
3 Cables Cradled 3 Cables Triangular
generally true. Weight is a consideration be-
4 d 2 d 2 –0.5
cause, in simple cases, it is the major contribut-
WC = 1 + WC = 1–
3 (D – d) (D – d) ing element to the force exerted on the conduit
by the cable.
where: Wc = Weight correction factor However, in the practical case of multiple
D = Conduit inside diameter, in inches conductor runs, other considerations warrant the
d = Cable outside diameter, in inches use of a weight correction factor, WC. This factor
depends on the configuration of cables in con-
duit. For a single cable in conduit, WC = 1.0.
However, if multiple cables are present in a con-
duit, the values will be shown by the following
Clearance = C two equations. Equation 9.4 shows the values
for a cradled configuration as well as the values
for a triangular configuration.
Figure 9.11 illustrates the cradled and triangu-
lar cable configurations.
For pulling calculations, the total weight of all
cables in the conduit must be considered. For
example, if three cables are being pulled in one
Three Cables—Triangular Three Cables—Cradled
conduit and each weighs 1.5 pounds per foot,
the resulting cable weight (W) will be 4.5 lb./ft.
FIGURE 9.11: Cable Configurations in Conduit.
Cable weight is given in general data sheets.
9
However, for critical cable-pulling calculations, CONDUIT BENDS
the specific cable manufacturer should be con- Cable pulling would be much simpler if all con-
sulted for confirmation or more exact information. duit runs were straight. However, bends are nec-
essary and, in many cases, cause very large
SLOPED PULLS increases in cable-pulling tensions. Bends also
Equation 9.5 applies only to straight horizontal cause compressive stresses on the cable as it is
cable pulls. For sloped conduit installations, dif- pulled through the bend. This force is referred
ferent tension equations apply. Equation 9.5.A to as sidewall bearing pressure (SWBP) and can
applies for upward slopes, and Equation 9.5.B damage the cable insulation and shielding systems.
for downward slopes. These equations reflect Regardless of the length of a cable run or type
the additional tension needed to pull the weight of cable, the sum of all bends in a run should
of the cable upward and the reduced tension re- never exceed 270°. For example, that could be
sulting from the assistance of gravity when the two 90° vertical bends and one 90° horizontal
cable is pulled downward. The path of the cable bend. Gradual changes in conduit direction that
is assumed to be a straight line. do not have a sweep bend fitting or an elbow
In the case of a vertical pull, the value of θ in should also be included in observing this limit.
Equations 9.5.A and 9.5.B is 90°. The expressions In most cases, the calculated pulling tension for
in parentheses in the equations then become +1 power cables will be exceeded before the 270°
for upward vertical pulls and -1 for downward limit is reached.
vertical pulls. The effect of conduit bends not only is a func-
tion of the angle turned but also strongly de-
pends on the inside radius of the conduit bend.
Equation 9.5.A Equation 9.5.B Table 9.17 gives the inside radius for typical
bends available for PVC and steel conduit.
When planning conduit installations, the engi-
T = l × W × (f × WC × cosθ + sinθ) T = l × W × (f × WC × cosθ – sinθ) neer must consider the minimum bending radius
of cables. This minimum cable bending radius is
where: T = Tension determined by the cable construction and is gen-
erally given as a multiple of the cable outside di-
l = Length of cable
ameter. If the minimum cable bending radius
W = Weight of cable, per unit of length requirement is not met, the shielding and insula-
f = Coefficient of friction tion systems of the cable may be damaged even
WC = Weight correction factor (where required) if pulling tension and SWBP are low. Conduit
θ = The angle of the slope measured from the bends must never be installed with an inside ra-
horizontal, in degrees dius less than the minimum bending radius of
the largest cable anticipated for installation in
that location.
The minimum bending radius for most com-
monly encountered shielded distribution cables
TABLE 9.17: Inside Bend Radius for 90° Schedule 40 Conduits. is 12 times the outside diameter. For example, a
350-kcmil shielded power cable with an outside
Duct I.D. Bend Centerline Radius diameter of 1.6 inches should always have a
Duct Size (Inches) 18" 24" 30" 36" 48" bending radius of more than 12 times its outside
2 2.067 1.41' 1.91' 2.41' 2.91' 3.91' diameter, or a minimum bending radius of 19.2
inches. Information in Table 9.17 shows that this
4 4.026 — 1.82' 2.33' 2.83' 3.83'
cable should not be installed in a two-inch con-
5 5.047 — — 2.29' 2.79' 3.79' duit bend with a radius of 18 inches. It would also
be close to limits if it was installed in either a two-
6 6.065 — — — 2.75' 3.75'
or four-inch conduit with a 24-inch sweep radius.
3 3 6 – Se c t io n 9
9
As underground conduits generally do not
Equation 9.5.C
have the space limitations encountered by in-
building wiring, the largest practical radius
T2 = T1×ef × WC × θ should be used on all bends. Most utilities stan-
dardize on 36-inch radius bends for duct banks.
If more than one conduit size is being used in a
where: T2 = Tension at exit from bend duct bank, all sizes must have the same radius.
T1 = Tension at entrance to bend The amount of increase in pulling tension that
e = 2.71828 results from pulling around conduit bends can
f = Coefficient of friction be calculated from Equation 9.5.C.
WC = Weight correction factor Equation 9.5.C is a simplified equation that
θ =
should be adequate for most practical cases. The
Angle of bend, in radians (1 radian = 57.296 degrees)
amount of error is not likely to exceed approxi-
mately 15 lb. of tension for each bend.
Tension
Before SIDEWALL BEARING PRESSURE
Bend T1
SWBP is a measure of the compressive force ap-
plied perpendicular to a cable surface by the
inner wall of a conduit bend (see Figure 9.12).
The SWBP depends on the tension in the cable
at that point and the radius of the bend. Equa-
d tion 9.6 defines SWBP for the simple case of a
B en
uit single cable in a conduit bend. Equation 9.7 de-
nd
Co fines the SWBP for three cables in a cradled
of
( R)
s configuration. If the cables assume a triangular
diu
Ra configuration, Equation 9.8 applies.
ide
Ins In equations 9.6 through 9.8, T2 is the cable
Direction of Pull Inner tension at the exit of the bend, R is the inside
Conduit radius of the bend in feet, and WC is the appli-
Wall
cable weight correction factor for the particular
T2 (lb.)
cable configuration. See Equations 9.4 and 9.5.
SWBP = SWBP will distort the cable cross-section. If
Inside Radius of Conduit Bend
SWBP is excessive, it will permanently damage
the cable structure. This damage may be a crushed
Tension After metallic shield, indentation of the semiconducting
Bend T2
shield, or mechanical failure of the insulation.
SWBP results from cable tension in bends and creates additional pulling tension. All these conditions will lead to shortened cable
FIGURE 9.12: Sidewall Bearing Pressure. life, if not immediate failure. The allowable lim-
its of SWBP for various cable types are given in
Table 9.18. This information was developed un-
Equation 9.6 der Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Pro-
ject EL-3333 in 1984. These values are higher than
T2 previously recommended by cable manufacturers
SWBP = (single cable)
R
(3WC – 2)T2 WCT2

SWBP = (three cables cradled) SWBP = (three cables triangular)
3R 2R
9
but represent the result of an dependent on the bend con-
extensive cable installation If SWBP is excessive, figuration, the soil characteris-
testing program. tics, and the degree of
One cautionary note is that permanent damage compaction. High-tension
the SWBP values in Table 9.18 to the cable structure cable pulls should never be
are for concrete-encased duct attempted through bends in
or rigid steel conduit that is
will occur. direct-buried conduit.
well supported in bends. It Another concern with un-
may be necessary to provide supported bends in direct-
concrete encasement in the buried conduit runs is the
immediate area of a bend in possibility of burn- through by
order to achieve adequate High-tension cable pulling cables or ropes. Burn-
support. If cable pulls ap- pulls should never through results from frictional
proaching the limits of Table heat build up at the inner sur-
be attempted through
9.18 are attempted through di- face of the conduit bend. This
rect-buried conduit, the bends bends in direct-buried condition is much less likely
may collapse or move with conduit. when steel pulling lines are
disastrous results. Not only used instead of ropes. Burn-
will the duct rupture, but the through will always result in
cable will be cut and jammed. extensive cable damage or a
Limiting SWBP values cannot be given for di- jammed conduit. Burn-through is not a problem
rect-buried conduit because they are highly where rigid steel bends are used and it is signifi-
cantly reduced by the use of fiberglass reinforced
epoxy (FRE) bends.
TABLE 9.18: Recommended Maximum Sidewall Bearing Pressures.
Source: EPRI EL-3333 (1984). JAM RATIO
Cable Construction Type Maximum SWBP (lb./ft) When three single cables are pulled in parallel
in a conduit, wedging action may develop in
XLPE Insulation - 600V Cable 1,200 bends. This is caused by cables changing from a
• PE and XLPE insulation, concentric wire shield: triangular configuration to a cradled configura-
• Without jacket, single conductor 1,200 tion as they are pulled through the bend. This
• Without jacket, three conductors 750 change in configuration will force the two outer
• With encapsulating jacket 2,000 cables further apart. If the conduit diameter is
PE and XLPE insulation, LC shield, LDPE jacket 1,500 too small to accommodate this wider configura-
tion, the cables will become jammed in the bend.
PE, XLPE, EPR insulation, concentric wire or tape 2,000 The jam ratio (J) must be checked to predict
shield, LDPE and PVC sleeved jackets this phenomenon. The jam ratio is simply the
Note. LDPE = low-density polyethylene; MDPE = medium-density polyethylene. ratio of the cable diameter to the conduit inside
diameter given in Equation 9.9.
Either measure or refer to the manufacturer’s
Equation 9.9 literature for the cable outside diameter. The in-
side diameter of typical conduit sizes may be
D found in Table 9.17.
J=
d When the jam ratio is calculated, the probable
cable configuration in the conduit can be deter-
where J = Jam ratio mined. A listing of probable configurations is
D = Conduit inside diameter given in Table 9.19. (See Figure 9.11.)
d = Outside diameter of single cable Experience has shown that cable jamming is
most likely between J = 2.5 and J = 3.0. This is
3 3 8 – Se c t io n 9
9
particularly true if the SWBP in a bend exceeds CLEARANCE FACTOR
1,000 lb./ft. Therefore, this combination of con- The clearance between the upper cable and the
ditions must be avoided. The most obvious top of the conduit should always be checked to
method to prevent jamming is to always use a determine the size conduit required for a given
conduit with an inside diameter at least three cable configuration. This clearance (C) is illus-
times the outside diameter of the cable being trated in Figure 9.11. For a single cable in a con-
pulled. Doing so is often not practical, especially duit, the clearance is obviously the difference
with high-ampacity distribution class cables. between the inside diameter of the conduit and
Therefore, the jam ratio must be calculated, and the outside diameter of the cable. If the allow-
the range of J = 2.5 to J = 3.0 should be avoided. able variation in cable diameter of five percent is
As mentioned earlier, cable jamming does taken into account, the expected clearance is ex-
occur in bends. It is generally pressed by Equation 9.10.
not a problem in straight pulls. When three cables are
The cable will assume the con- pulled into a conduit, they as-
figuration indicated by Table Clearance must be sume either a triangular or a
9.19 and remain in that config- maintained or the cradled configuration. How-
uration throughout the pull. In ever, because clearance is a
cable will jam in
addition, cables that are problem only as the cable
triplexed (twisted) before en- the conduit. approaches the maximum
tering the conduit will tend to conduit capacity and the ca-
maintain the triangular config- bles are always triangular
uration through the bends. Be- when the conduit fill is high,
cause they will not change to the cradled clearance needs to be calculated only for the
configuration, jamming will be avoided. triangular configuration. Equation 9.11 gives
clearance under this condition.
After calculating the expected clearance, make
TABLE 9.19: Cable Configuration for Various sure that it is at least 0.5 inches or greater. This
Jam Ratios. much clearance is needed to allow for possible
Jam Ratio Range Cable Configuration conduit variations. If the upper cable contacts
the top of the conduit, the cable will jam.
J<2.4 Triangular
2.4–2.6 More likely triangular CABLE-PULLING EYE TENSION LIMITS
The preceding discussions have covered many
2.6–2.8 Either triangular or cradled of the factors affecting the expected tension. The
2.8–3.0 More likely cradled objective of the calculations has been to avoid
overstressing cable during the pulling operation.
J>3.0 Cradled
The practical limit for cable tension is based not
only on cable tensile stress but also on stresses
in the connection point of the pulling wire (or
Equation 9.10
rope) and the cable. Table 9.20 shows the allow-
able tension based on various pulling eye types
C = D – 1.05d and the conductor in the cable being pulled. From
Table 9.20, it is determined that a 350-kcmil
aluminum cable with an aluminum compression
pulling eye can accommodate a tension of up to
Equation 9.11 2,800 lb. (350,000 cm × 0.008 lb./cm).
D 1.05d 2 0.5 If three cables are pulled in a single conduit,
C= – 1.434d + 0.5(D – 1.05d) 1– allowances must be made for unequal sharing of
2 D – 1.05d
the total tension. It is generally assumed that, on
9
three-conductor pulls, only two of the cables ac- imposed on the cable insulation, shield, and
tually develop tension. Therefore, the total ten- jacket by the grips. Table 9.21 gives the limits for
sion of the three cables must be divided by two pulling single and multiple cables with various
to establish the expected tension in each cable. grip arrangements.
This assumption must be applied to pulling eye Cable-pulling grips must be used carefully and
load calculations. in strict accordance with the grip and cable man-
If cable is pulled with basket-type grips in- ufacturers’ instructions. Grips must be attached
stead of pulling eyes, lower tension limits apply with provisions to maintain grip compression
because of the mechanical stresses that are even if the tension drops to zero. Cable under
grips and for a distance of at least two feet be-
yond the end of the grip must be cut off and
TABLE 9.20: Recommended Maximum Pulling Tension Stress for
discarded. In addition, basket-type grips must be
Pulling Eyes on Copper and Aluminum Conductors. Source: EPRI
of a type specifically designed for pulling insu-
EL-3333 (1984).
lated cable because of the characteristics of the
Aluminum insulated cable and its behavior under the com-
Compression Solder Filled Epoxy Filled pressive forces developed by the basket grips.
Conductor (lb./cmil) (lb./cmil) (lb./cmil) Grips generally used for cable support at riser
Copper (annealed) 0.011 0.013 — poles are not satisfactory for cable pulling.
Special split-basket cable grips are sometimes
Aluminum-solid 0.006 N/A 0.008 connected to cables in intermediate manholes to
(1/2 to full hard) pull slack in these locations. Because of the con-
Aluminum-stranded 0.008 N/A 0.011 struction of these devices and the fact that cable
(3/4 and full hard) under the grips cannot be cut out, tension on
these grips should be limited to 1,000 lb. If
N/A = not applicable
TABLE 9.21. Recommended Maximum Pulling Tension Limits for Basket-Type Pulling Grips.*
Source: EPRI EL-3333 (1984).
Three Cables in Three Cables (One
Cable Construction Type Single Cable (lb.) One Grip (lb.) Grip per Cable) (lb.)
XLPE insulation—600-V cable 2,000 2,000 4,000
EPR and Neoprene—600-V cable 2,000 2,000 4,000
PE and XLPE insulation, concentric wire 10,000 5,000 20,000
shield, with and without encapsulating
jacket—all voltages
PE and XLPE insulation, L.C. shield, LDPE 8,000 4,000 16,000
jacket—15-, 25-, and 35-kV cable
PE and XLPE insulation, concentric wire 10,000 5,000 20,000
or tape shield, LDPE and PVC sleeved
jackets—all voltages
EPR insulation, concentric wire or tape 10,000 10,000 20,000
shield, LDPE and PVC sleeved jackets—
all voltages
XLPE insulation, copper wire or ribbon 18,000 9,000 36,000
shield, MDPE sleeved jacket—all voltages
* Conductor tensions must not exceed values calculated from Table 9.20.
3 4 0 – Se c t io n 9
9
higher levels of tension are expected, the cable tension (T2 ) in each section as the
manufacturer should be contacted for recom- beginning tension (T1 ) in each succeed-
mendations before this work is attempted. ing section.
CABLE-PULLING CALCULATION SEQUENCE In most actual conduit runs, especially those

As described above, several factors determine with more than one bend, calculating pulling
cable tensions during the pulling process. In ad- tensions in each direction will be beneficial. Of-
dition, many of these factors influence not only ten it will be found that factors such as conduit
the pulling tension but also other factors in the slope or the combination of bend locations will
pulling process. For example, the friction en- give lower pulling tensions if a particular direc-
countered in the first straight section of conduit tion of pull is used. In simple cases, such as a
will mean higher entering tension in the first straight downhill pull or a pull with a single
bend. This tension on the cable entering the bend near one end, the best pulling direction
bend will contribute to higher SWBP in the may be obvious. However, as conditions grow
bend and a higher tension contribution from the more complex, examination of both pull direc-
bend. Therefore, tension calculations must be tions will be beneficial. In addition, field access
organized to follow the same sequence as the conditions may force installation crews to strong-
actual field pull. Prior organization of essential ly consider the alternative pulling direction, and
data will also enhance the calculation process. prior calculation of the expected tensions will
The following sequence of steps will yield the simplify their decision-making process.
greatest efficiency in the calculation process. Under any conditions, cable installation crews
must be instructed to always use the specific di-
STEP 1: Determine cable characteristics: rection of pull shown on project drawings unless
• Weight prior consideration of the alternative direction
• Diameter has shown it to be acceptable. See Appendix J
• Outer jacket material. for several example calculations for selected
STEP 2: Determine duct characteristics: cable pulls that outline the methodology to be
• Material used in evaluating the cable-pulling limitations.
• Diameter.
STEP 3: Determine friction factors for a given CABLE-PULLING SOFTWARE
combination of cable outer jacket mate- Although the methods described in this manual
rial and conduit composition. Consider and referenced documents will allow calculation
the lubrication to be used and the effect of expected pulling tensions, extensive pulling
of higher SWBP in bends. calculations can be simplified by using one of
STEP 4: Calculate the jam ratio, clearance factor, the calculation programs designed for use on a
and weight correction factor. If three personal computer. Spreadsheet calculation pro-
cables are being pulled in one conduit, grams might also be used, but the relatively low
determine whether the cable configura- cost of currently available cable-pulling pro-
tion will be triangular or cradled. grams makes them the preferred approach.
STEP 5: Determine cable limits including maxi- The engineer using a computer-based pulling-
mum allowable tension, maximum tension program must recognize that a compre-
allowable SWBP, and minimum bend- hensive program will require detailed knowledge
ing radius. of all cable and conduit parameters as well as
STEP 6: Calculate the tension in each conduit access limitations. A pulling-tension program is a
section progressing from reel end to tool to simplify the calculation process, not a
winch end. Determine if tensions and substitute for knowledge of expected field con-
SWBP limits are met in each section. ditions. Data must still be accumulated and the
Consider the limitations of the cable- pulling process organized in a logical fashion
pulling equipment. Use the ending before calculations begin.
9
The use of cable-pulling software is recom- other values critical to accurate pulling calcula-
mended on complex pulls or those that may tions. Default values provided in software pack-
closely approach allowable tension limits. One ages may not be completely applicable to your
such software program is Cable Pulling Assistant particular materials or pulling configuration.
(CPA) that was developed by General Electric Software allows the convenient examination
Company as part of its Distrib- of multiple actions and en-
ution Systems Testing, Appli- sures consistent calculation ac-
cations, and Research (DSTAR) A cable pulling- curacy if data are entered
program. This is available correctly. The better software
through Cooperative Research tension program is packages also use more exact
Network (CRN). Another pop- a tool to simplify the equations for pulling tensions,
ular program, “Pull Planner especially in more complex
2000 for Windows,” has been
calculation process, conduit arrangements. This ex-
developed by American Poly- not a substitute for actness should yield greater
water Corporation. accuracy with the same effort
knowledge of expected
Regardless of the source of on the user’s part. However,
the software, it is incumbent field conditions. even with the most advanced
on the user to confirm the val- software, the results are only
ues used for coefficient-of-fric- as accurate as the data that are
tion, allowable sidewall entered; good judgment must
bearing pressures, allowable cable tension, and still be used in applying the results.
Summary and 1. Conduit should be used wherever additional 6. Cable pulling should be planned as part
Recommendations cable protection is required or the deferral of the conduit system design process.
of future excavation costs will justify the 7. Limits on cable tension and SWBP should
additional initial expense. be observed to avoid cable damage.
2. The sum of all bends in a cable run should 8. The expected pulling direction and all
never exceed 270°. field conditions must be considered in
3. High-tension cable pulls should never be cable-pulling calculations. Detailed cable-
attempted through unsecured bends in pulling instructions must be provided to
direct-buried conduit. field crews.
4. The types of cable circuits to be installed 9. Cable under basket-type pulling grips
will determine the conduit system design. must always be discarded.
5. Manholes and/or splice boxes will provide
convenient access points to conduit systems
and are useful for cable pulling and splicing.
Joints, Elbows, and Termin a t i o n s – 3 4 3
10 Joints, Elbows, and

Terminations
In This Section: Application of Joints, Elbows, and Terminations

Joints, Elbows, and Terminations for 200-Ampere Primary Circuits
Joints, Elbows, and Terminations for 600-Ampere Primary Circuits
Joints and Terminations for Secondary Circuits
Application of On new and existing underground distribution and reconnected to the apparatus without dis-
Joints, Elbows, systems, it is routinely necessary to join cables turbing the cable structure. Typical elbows in
and Terminations to provide continuous lengths and reconnect ca- common use and their application are described
bles where a service failure has occurred. This in this section.
joining or reconnection is accomplished by Also within cable circuits, separable joints and
joints; typical designs are given in this section elbow connectors are sometimes used to join ca-
for primary and secondary cables. ANSI and bles, provide branch circuits, and make separable
IEEE standards use the word joint as standard connections at apparatus for additional circuits.
terminology in lieu of the word splice, but the The types and applications of separable connec-
two terms mean the same thing. This section is tors are discussed.
written using the ANSI/IEEE terminology. A typical primary UD circuit begins at a sub-
Every cable circuit must have at least two station or from an overhead line where there is
permanent terminations, one at each end of a transition to an underground cable. The pri-
the circuit. In secondary circuits, a termination mary cable extends down a structure and into
is required for mechanical support of the ca- the ground to the first piece of equipment or ap-
ble, connection to equipment, and physical pro- paratus, or it may have a joint to extend the
tection of the insulation and conductor, particu- cable run. A typical secondary circuit begins at
larly against entry of water into the conductor the distribution transformer (or pedestal), runs
interstices. In primary circuits, in addition, the underground, and emerges at the meter base lo-
termination must reduce the radial and longitu- cated on the consumer’s premises.
dinal electrical stress between the conductor and Under RUS standards, joints, elbows, and ter-
ground. This reduction is accomplished by means minations are designed to be installed on ap-
of stress cones or other stress-control devices. proved primary cables rated for 15-, 25-, or 35-kV
In primary circuits, elbows are used at trans- service. At present, industry standards provide
formers, junctions, and switches to terminate a for two classes of primary cable accessories.
section of the cable circuit. With this type of These general classes have continuous current
cable termination, the cable can be disconnected ratings of 200 and 600 amperes. The actual circuit
3 4 4 – Se c t io n 1 0
10
current, however, will be governed by the cir- may go above 200 amperes. Typically, 200-am-
cuit conductor size and circuit breaker rating. If pere components can be used on phase conduc-
the circuit has a small conductor size, such as tors up to 4/0 stranded AWG. Also, 600-ampere
No. 2 or 1/0 AWG, a 200-ampere component components can be used on cables 4/0 stranded
can be used. Normally, a 200-ampere compo- AWG and larger. Components rated for 600 am-
nent is used because it is more economical and peres should always be used when the circuit
is available with load-break capabilities. If the exceeds 200 amperes.
circuit will carry close to 200 amperes, it may be For secondary 600-volt circuits, joints and termi-
preferable to use a 600-ampere component be- nations are designed for the same current rating as
cause the larger component will run cooler, that of the cables to which they are attached.
which is desirable, and because future loads
Joints, Elbows, CABLE JOINTS Therefore, the path between the conductor and
and Terminations Design Features of Joints the insulation shields is increased by the re-
for 200-Ampere RUS-approved joints may be premolded, cold moval of the insulation shields and outer cover-
shrink, or heat shrink. Taped joints are not ap- ings for a specified distance. When this is done,
Primary Circuits
proved. When two cables are joined, the length the leakage path between the conductor and in-
of the insulation between the conductor and insulation shields is greater; however, the voltage
sulation shields must be made greater than the gradient increases abruptly along the insulation
radial thickness of the insulation because the in- surface at the edge of the insulation shield (see
sulation surface will not support voltage stress. Figure 10.1). Figure 10.2 represents a premolded
Connector
Conductor
Insulation Equipotential Lines

Equipotential Lines 0
10 Joint Housing
20 Shield
100
30
40
50
60
80 70
80
90
100
50
15
Insulation
30 Shield
Conductor
Cable Insulation Insulation Shield
Shown by equipotential lines at the end of the removed insulation Equipotential values are a percentage of total voltage.
shield. Values shown are a percentage of total voltage.
FIGURE 10.2: Voltage Stress Distribution in a Typical
FIGURE 10.1: Voltage Stress Concentration. Premolded Joint Housing.
10
joint housing cross-section showing the voltage replaced with new cable, and joints are used in
stress distribution along the body of the joint in- pulling vaults to join sequential runs of cable in
sulation. This reduces the voltage gradient duct. Sometimes a straight joint is used when the
across the insulating components and increases length of a direct buried cable run exceeds the
the resistance of the joint to failure. lengths of replacement cable available. However,
Before molded or heat-shrink joint designs, the use of joints for such purposes is not desirable.
joints consisted of hand-wrapped layers of insu- When a straight joint is used for repair, if there is
lating tapes to a predetermined contour which no slack in the cable, it is sometimes necessary to
was commonly referred to as a pencil. For elec- use a cable stub with a joint on each end. How-
trical integrity and watertightness, these joints ever, there are special premolded joints which
were highly dependent on the skill of the splicer. will allow the repair of localized faults that have
A shielding tape was wrapped over the conduc- limited conductor and insulation damage.
tor connector smoothly with no creases or sharp Premolded joints are preferred over other
projections. The cable insulation was tapered styles of joints because the critical voltage stress
(pencilled) to allow the insulating tapes to be control features are fabricated under controlled
wrapped to a smooth contour with minimum air factory conditions and less is left to the skill of
gaps. The tape for the insulation shielding was the splicer and a favorable splicing environment.
wrapped over the insulation with minimum With premolded joints, the joint body and all
creases. The concentric neutral was spliced with other joint components are closely sized for the
a copper jumper wire. It is easy to see how diffi- cable to be joined and a standard tubular com-
cult it was to fabricate a good, long-lived cable pressed conductor connector is used.
joint, particularly in a splicing pit in the rain! RUS Voltage stress control over the spliced conduc-
does not currently approve taped joints, either tor is achieved by a built-in layer of conducting
temporary or permanent. rubber that extends onto the cable insulation.
The cable insulation shields are bridged by the
Premolded Permanent Straight Joints molded outer shielding layer of the joint housing,
A straight joint is used when a direct-buried cable which thus places this shield at ground potential.
is repaired because of a fault or dig-in. For cable Moisture entry into the joint-cable interface is
installed in conduit, faulted cable usually is prevented by a joint housing with a tight inter-
ference fit between the cable insulation and the
insulation shield and the use of a special silicone
7
assembly lubricant. The elastic properties of the
4 joint housing materials are such that a constant
5 6
3
pressure is maintained against the cable, creating
a watertight seal. For this reason, it is mandatory
to select the joint kit that provides a tight fit.
There are even cable joints available that will ac-
commodate two slightly different sizes of cable.
Use of such kits might reduce the need to stock
an individual kit for each of the sizes of cable on
2 1
a cooperative system.
1. Molded Insulation 5. Extended Cable Entrance A typical premolded joint is shown in Figure
2. Insulation Shield 6. Grounding Eye 10.3. A one-piece housing is normally used.
3. Crimped Connector 7. Spliced Concentric Neutral However, in cases of large conductor sizes and
4. Conductor Shield
limited available space, it may be necessary to
Cable jacket and covering over the neutral not shown. use a joint in which the housing is made in two
sections. This is less desirable than a joint with a
FIGURE 10.3: Premolded Permanent Straight Joint for Primary Cables. one-piece housing because it provides an addi-
Source: Elastimold Corporation, a division of Thomas & Betts tional path for water entry where the housing
Company.
parts fit together.
3 4 6 – Se c t io n 1 0
10
STEP 1: Position Premolded Housing and Sleeves. STEP 2: Lock Premolded Housing. STEP 3: Roll Rubber Sleeves Over Cable Jacket.
FIGURE 10.4: Jacket Replacement Assembly (Method C). Source: Elastimold Corporation, a division of Thomas & Betts
Company.
Protective Covering Over Neutral installation is greater than for the premolded
Current RUS specifications require a covering (or joint, particularly for the application of the heat
jacket) over the cable neutral. The spliced neu- required to shrink the various components.
tral must also be protected from the environ-
ment by one of four methods: Premolded Permanent Wye Joints
Although somewhat outdated and infrequently
1. Method A—A wrap-around heat-shrink used, the premolded wye joint is used to con-
polymeric sleeve, nect a branch circuit. These type joints are very
2. Method B—A tubular heat-shrink much permanent and, as such, have limited use-
polymeric sleeve, fulness because of the lack of sectionalizing
3. Method C—A tubular cold-shrink flexibility and trouble-shooting opportunities
polymeric sleeve, and that a three-way connection provides. These
4. Method D—A prefabricated assembly. joints are constructed with an inner metallic bus
in the form of a wye. A typical molded wye joint
Heat-Shrink and Cold-Shrink Straight Joints is shown in Figure 10.5. The purpose of the
Heat-shrink and cold-shrink permanent joints grounding eye is to ground the joint housing to
consist of a crimped conductor connector over the neutral. The purpose of the test point is to
which is placed a succession of wrapped, stress- test if the circuit is energized.
control, and insulating layers. The heat-shrink
version is reduced over the cable with a torch; Separable Molded Joints
the cold-shrink version is applied by pulling out Separable molded straight, wye, and tee joints
an inner coiled expander barrier. After the con- are sometimes used for making temporary con-
centric neutral is spliced and taped, an overall nections. Typically, separable molded joints are
jacket repair sleeve is shrunk down over the made up of a series of two, three, or more “T-
joint and neutral to waterproof the joint. body” elbow terminations that use interconnect-
This type of joint is some- ing plugs to mate one T-body
times employed rather than a elbow to another with insulat-
premolded joint. Some users Do not use separable ing caps on the elbow ends,
prefer this type because a once assembled. These joints
molded joints in
given joint kit is applicable to typically must be assembled
a wide range of conductor direct-buried cable with a torque wrench or spe-
sizes. On the other hand, the applications. cial spanner wrench to tighten
skill and time required for the interconnection plugs.
10
2 8
3 5 4 6 7 1
1. Wye-Shaped Metallic Bus Bar 6. Conductor Connector Shield

2. Stress Relief Adapter 7. Molded Shielding Insert
3. Premolded Housing 8. Grounding Eye
4. Crimped Conductor Connector 9. Test Point
5. Holding Collar
Spliced neutrals not shown.
FIGURE 10.5. Premolded Permanent Wye Joint for Primary Cables. Source: Elastimold
Corporation, a division of Thomas & Betts Company.
They sometimes are used to subdivide UD cir- Advantages of heat- and cold-shrink joints
cuits and are installed in boxes in handholes, in are as follows:
cabinets above ground, or in vaults. If separable
molded joints are to be used for permanent ser- • Wider range of cable diameters with
vice, they should be used only in non-direct- one kit, and
buried locations—that is, in manholes, vaults, • Smaller overall diameter.
junction boxes, switching cabinets, and so on—
where they can be mounted to take all tension Disadvantages of heat-shrink and cold-shrink
and mechanical stress off the components. joints are the following:
Advantages and Disadvantages of • Open flame hazards for heat-shrink units,

Straight Premolded and Heat- and • Greater skill required for installation, and
Cold-Shrink Primary Joints • Longer length on some designs.
Premolded and heat- and cold-shrink primary
joints have various advantages and disadvantages. The selection of joint types for general use on
Advantages of premolded joints are as follows: the cooperative system must weigh all factors in-
volved in the particular situations where the
• Built-in electrical stress control, insulation, joints will be used.
and shielding in a factory-made joint housing,
• Minimization of voids and contaminants in ELBOWS
the insulation, Application
• Factory pretesting of joint housing, Elbows are used to terminate primary cables at
• Fewer installation steps, transformers and switches. Elbows are also used
• Shorter installation time, at junction boxes where taps and line extensions
• Convenient circuit modifications, and are made to existing cable systems.
• Shorter total length. Two basic types of elbows are permitted by
RUS. One type is called dead-break (formerly
A disadvantage of premolded joints is that they non-load-break) because it must be engaged or
are sized to a particular cable diameter range. disengaged while the circuit is de-energized. The
3 4 8 – Se c t io n 1 0
10
second type, which can be engaged or disengaged
5 11 from an energized circuit, is called load-break by
virtue of built-in arc-quenching elements.
9
Dead-Break Elbows
1. Elbow Housing Dead-break elbows can be used for 200- and
2. Housing Shielding 600-ampere systems. RUS, however, does not ap-
10 3. Voltage Sress Relief
4. Inner Shield Insert
prove 200-ampere dead-break elbows, but does
5. Interference Fit Between approve 600-ampere dead-break elbows. As with
1
Cable Insulation Elbow a molded joint, the end of the cable must be
6. Grounding Eye
7. Cable Entrance
prepared for insertion into the elbow. The elbow
2 8. Test Point contains a conductor-shielding layer, insulation,
9. Hot-Stick Eye and an insulation-shielding layer. A special con-
8 10. Conductor Connector
4 nector is crimped onto the conductor; this con-
11. Male Conductor Contact
3 nector fits to a contact inside the elbow. A typical
5 dead-break elbow is shown in Figure 10.6.
Elbows with a test point are often used to en-
6 able the operator to determine if the circuit is
energized. The elbows also have a grounding
eye for grounding the housing. They contain a
7
built-in voltage relief stress cone that fits tightly
over the insulation, thus reducing the voltage
Neutral and jacket not shown. (Note: 200-ampere units are not RUS approved.) stress at the end of the cable insulation shield.
Manufacturers’ instructions must be followed
FIGURE 10.6: Dead-Break Elbow for Primary Cables. Source: Elastimold
carefully when preparing the cable for insertion
into the elbow.
Load-Break Elbows
Load-break elbows are used in 200-ampere circuits
1b 3 4 5 only. For 600-ampere circuits, it is necessary to
2
1a 1a. Arc Follower use dead-break elbows or some other means for
1b. Conductor Contact opening the circuit. The load-break elbow con-
2. Elbow Housing
3. Locking Ring nects the primary cable to apparatus such as
4. Conductor Connector transformers, switches, and junction boxes. A
6 5. Hot-Stick Eye typical load-break elbow is shown in Figure 10.7.
6. Indentification Band
12 7. Test Point The conductor contact area contains a locking
11 8. Voltage Sress Relief ring to prevent the elbow from being quickly
9. Cable Entrance dislodged when the load is interrupted. The
7 10. Grounding Eye
13 11. Inner Shield Insert housing of the elbow is constructed differently
12. Housing Shielding from the housing of the dead-break elbow so as
13. Interference Fits Between to extinguish an arc during removal, thus inter-
8 Cable Insulation Surface
and Insulation of Elbow rupting the primary circuit.
and Between Adapter
and Elbow Insulation Elbows at Junctions
10 9
Both 600-ampere dead-break and 200-ampere
load-break elbows are used at junctions that are
Concentric neutral and jacket not shown. used for sectionalizing, looping, tapping, and
jointing. Junctions are installed in handholes,
FIGURE 10.7: Load-Break Elbow for Primary Cables. Source: Elastimold
apparatus cabinets for transformers, switches,
and so on, or pedestals above ground.
10
Elbow Accessories
Junction Typical accessories used with 200-ampere load-
Feed-Through Insert
break elbows are shown in Figure 10.8.
A bushing insert, mounted on the apparatus, is
Bushing Well Insulating Cap used between the elbow and apparatus to connect
the elbow to a transformer, switchgear, and other
devices. A feed-through insert is used between
two elbows to feed a cable circuit past a piece of
Bushing Insert Parking Bushing
apparatus; the feed-through insert is attached to
the apparatus. A parking bushing is an insulated
Load-Break bushing that isolates and dead-ends a cable ter-
Type Grounding minated in an elbow. These accessories can be
Elbow Elbow used to convert a radial-feed transformer to loop
feed. Insulating caps are used for dead-ending or
Feed-Through
Bushing Insert sealing off a bushing insert, feed-throughs, and
junctions. They will also waterseal open bushings.
FIGURE 10.8: Typical 200-Ampere Elbow Accessories. Source: PREPARATION OF CABLES FOR
Elastimold Corporation, a division of Thomas & Betts Company. USE WITH ELBOWS
Preparation of Cable
The end of the cable to be inserted into the elbow
must be cut to a length that will allow conve-
nient operation of the elbow during switching.
As with all cable preparation, cleanliness is ex-
tremely important during the elbow installation
process. In addition to these general steps, fol-
low the elbow manufacturers’ recommendations
for cutback dimensions.
Sealing of Cable Jacket at Entrance to Elbow

It is recommended to seal the cable jacket to the
elbow to prevent moisture entry, especially in
areas of high humidity. If elbows are used un-
derground, such as in handholes or manholes, it
is mandatory to place a waterproof seal over the
cable jacket and elbow to prevent moisture from
Retaining Clip entering the elbow.
Two types of seals can be used: the cold-shrink
Sealing Tube seal and the heat-shrink seal. Figure 10.9 shows
Solderless Ground a typical heat-shrink seal in place. Follow manu-
Clamp Accessory facturers’ recommendations when a seal is used.
Sealant
Electrical Ratings of Elbows
Table 10.1 gives the electrical ratings of elbows
for primary cables. Production tests are performed
before shipment. Design tests are performed by
the manufacturer in order to qualify for the ANSI/
IEEE Standard 386 rating. The current ratings of
FIGURE 10.9: Heat-Shrink Jacket Seal at Elbow. Source: Raychem
200 and 600 amperes for elbows are indicated in
Corporation.
Table 10.1.
3 5 0 – Se c t io n 1 0
10
TABLE 10.1: Electrical Rating of Elbows. Source: ANSI/IEEE Standard 386.
200-Ampere Elbows 600-Ampere Elbows

Voltage Class 15 kV 25 kV 35 kV 15 kV 25 kV 35 kV
(A) Production Tests
(a) Minimum Corona Level, kV, rms 11 19 26 11 19 26
(b) AC Withstand, 1 min., kV 34 40 50 34 40 50
(c) Test Point Voltage * * * * * *
(B) Design Tests
(a) Continuous Current Operation 200** 200** 200** 600** 600** 600**
(b) Short Time Current, 0.17 sec., 10 10 10 25 25 25
Amperes x 1,000
(c) 8-Hour Overload Current, 300 300 300 900 900 900
Amperes
(d) Switching Current *** *** *** *** *** ***
(e) Fault Closure **** **** **** **** **** ****
(f) DC Withstand, 15 min., kV 53 78 103 53 78 103
* A test voltage is applied to the conductor system of the elbow. The response of a suitable sensing device on the elbow
test point shall indicate an energized condition.
** The ratings are for the following service conditions:
• In air, including exposure to direct sunlight,
• Buried in earth,
• Intermittently or continuously submerged in water at a depth not exceeding six feet,
• Environmental temperature of
I –40°F to +140°F (for dead-break elbows)
I –4°F to +149°F (for load-break elbows), and
• Altitude not exceeding 6,000 feet.

*** Applicable to 200-ampere load-break elbows only: The elbow will withstand 10 complete switching operations at
rated voltage and rated current without arcing to ground or impairment of its ability to meet other requirements of
the specification.
**** Applicable to 200-ampere load-break elbows only: The test is to verify that the elbow is capable of closing on the
short time currents of (B)(b) above after the switching current test.
Elbow Connectors electrical stress at the end of the primary cable

An elbow connector is an elbow in the form of and seals the cable end from water entry. Termi-
a tee for use on dead-break 200- and 600-am- nations are, thus, used to connect primary cables
pere circuits. Elbow connectors can be used for to overhead lines, switchgear, or other equipment
taps and joints to sectionalize, loop, tap, and that is air-insulated.
join cables. Modular arrangements are used Terminations for primary cables incorporate a
mainly in pedestals or in apparatus cabinets and stress cone to control the voltage stress at the
handholes. end of the cable insulation shield. They also are
designed to prevent water entry into the cable
CABLE TERMINATIONS and, on some types of terminations, to provide
Primary cable terminations are devices used to mechanical support for the cable.
make the transition from air-insulated conductor
systems, such as overhead lines, to solid-dielec- Types of Terminations
tric insulation systems, such as an underground RUS specifications permit the following types of
distribution system. The termination controls the cable terminations:
10
• Premolded, for outdoor use are sometimes employed in-
• Porcelain, doors where the environment is not clean. Out-
• Heat shrink, and door terminals also contain a seal at the end of
• Cold shrink. the conductor to prevent moisture entry.
Premolded Porcelain
The type of cable termination shown in Figure A typical porcelain terminal for outdoor use is
10.10 is a premolded slip-on stress cone for in- shown in Figure 10.13. These terminals incor-
door use. For outdoor use, because of airborne porate an inner molded rubber stress cone. The
contamination and wet conditions, the creepage outer surface of porcelain terminations are easier
path between the conductor and ground must be to clean and have higher tracking resistance. For
increased. This is accomplished with integral or locations with heavy airborne pollution and wet
separately stacked premolded skirts as shown in conditions, this type is preferred.
Figures 10.11 and 10.12. Terminations designed
1
2
1
2
3
3
3
4
5 4
4
6 6 5
7
5
7
6
8
1. Cable Insulation 1. Contact Connector 1. Contact Connector

2. Interference Fit 2. Molded Rubber Cap Water Seal 2. Molded Rubber Cap Water Seal
3. Stress Cone Insulation 3. Retainer Washer 3. Premolded Rubber Skirts
4. Stress Relief Shielding 4. Insulator 4. Cable Insulation
5. Internal Step for Correct Positioning 5. Cable Insulation 5. Ground Connection Clamp
6. Grounding Eye 6. Interference Fit Between Cable 6. Grounding Eye
Insulation and Insulator 7. Stress Cone
7. Stress Relief Shielding
8. Ground Connection
Concentric neutral and jacket not shown. Concentric neutral and jacket not shown. Concentric neutral and jacket not shown.
FIGURE 10.10: Premolded Indoor FIGURE 10.11: Premolded Integral FIGURE 10.12: Premolded Modular
Termination (Slip-on Stress Cone) for Indoor/Outdoor Termination for Indoor/Outdoor Termination with
Primary Cables. Source: Elastimold Primary Cables. Source: Elastimold Separate Skirts for Primary Cables.
Corporation, a division of Thomas Corporation, a division of Thomas Source: Elastimold Corporation, a
& Betts Company. & Betts Company. division of Thomas & Betts Company.
3 5 2 – Se c t io n 1 0
10
Corrosion-Resistant Brass Top Cap
and Threaded Stud Connector
Silicon Tape Seal
Silicon
+ Or Insulator
Hi-K Stress
Aerial Lug Flat Pad Lug Relief Tube
Or
Corrosion-
Resistant
Brass Top O-Ring Moisture Seal Silicon Grease
Cap with Semi-Con Tape
Eye Bolt
Ground Strap Assembly
Mastic Seal
Marker Tape
Spring-Loaded
Elastomer System
Arc-Resistant
Porcelain Insulator
Stress Cone
Corrosion-
Resistant
Aluminum Integral Cable Ground
& Moisture Seal
1. Install ground 2. Position termina- 3. Remove core 4. Seal top with

strap assembly tor over cable rubber tape
and seal with
mastic
FIGURE 10.13: Porcelain Indoor/Outdoor Terminal
for Primary Cables. Source: Joslyn Manufacturing FIGURE 10.14: Cold-Shrink Indoor/Outdoor Termination for
Company. Primary Cables. Source: 3M Electric Products Division.
Cold Shrink and Heat Shrink in the presence of an electrolyte. In sunlight,

Figure 10.14 shows a typical cold-shrink and dissolved in moisture, pollutants produced
terminal. A heat-shrink termination is similar by motor vehicles and coal-burning plants be-
in construction except that some components come corrosive acids. Airborne saltwater from
are wrapped on and others heat shrunk. the sea or from winter roads is also very corro-
For ease of installation, the premolded or sive. In these environments, terminal hardware
porcelain types are preferred. is best made of silicon bronze rather than plain
aluminum. Areas that are dry and have little air-
Outdoor Terminal Corrosion Protection borne pollution may have terminal hardware
An important consideration in the construction made of aluminum or aluminum plated with tin.
of outdoor terminals is the corrosion resistance Table 10.2 gives the relative corrosion resis-
of the exposed metallic parts. Galvanic corrosion tance of metal combinations for use in outdoor
results when two dissimilar metals are connected terminals.
10
TABLE 10.2: Relative Corrosion Resistance of Metal Combinations for Outdoor Terminations.
Corrosion Exposed
Resistance Rating Aerial Cable Conductor Termination Material Aerial Connector Material
Best Copper Copper or Bronze Bronze
Very Good Copper Copper or Bronze Tinned Bronze
Very Good Aluminum Tinned Aluminum Tinned Aluminum
Good Aluminum Copper or Bronze Tinned Aluminum
Poor Copper Tinned Aluminum Tinned Aluminum
Poor Aluminum Copper or Bronze Bronze
Joints, Elbows, CABLE JOINTS ELBOWS

and Terminations The designs, types, and construction of 600-am- Elbows for 600-ampere circuits are basically the
for 600-Ampere pere joints are similar to those of 200-ampere same as for 200-ampere circuits, except for physi-
joints except the former are larger in physical size cal size. Most manufacturers of 200-ampere elbows
Primary Circuits
because they accommodate larger conductors. cannot accept cables larger than 4/0 AWG, which
Some manufacturers provide cable adapters al- is typically the point at which 600-ampere elbows
lowing 600-ampere joints to be used on smaller are needed. Load-break elbows are not used on
cables of 200-ampere circuits with the advantage 600-ampere circuits because it is not practical to
that a smaller joint inventory can be maintained. interrupt a high-current arc. These type elbows
are not currently being manufactured.
Generally, 600-ampere elbows are used on
high-current apparatus bushings—such as large
pad-mounted transformers (particularly at voltages
of 4,160/2,400 volts)—and 600-ampere sectional-
izing switches. Currently, several manufacturers
of 600-ampere class pad-mounted and vault-
mounted sectionalizing switches offer 600-ampere
load-break, group-operated disconnect switches,
equipped with 600-ampere threaded-stud bush-
ings to accommodate dead-break 600-ampere
elbows. Protected positions out of these devices
are typically 200-ampere cables, using power
fuses, vacuum interrupters, or SF6 interrupters.
As these devices typically include load-break
switching on the 600-ampere positions, elbows
for these positions are dead-break and must be
installed (or removed) de-energized.
In recent years, several manufacturers have in-
troduced product lines of stick-operable, dead-
FIGURE 10.15: Stick-Operable, Non-Loadbreak
break 600-ampere elbows, as the use of these type
Elbow Applied to Pad-Mounted Switchgear.
switches and larger transformers has expanded.
Source: Elastimold Corporation, a division
of Thomas & Betts Company, 2008. Initially, and in the foreseeable near future, these
stick-operable, dead-break elbows and accessories
3 5 4 – Se c t io n 1 0
10
will be quite expensive, compared with the In addition, 600-ampere cables are typically
fixed dead-break counterparts. Some of the larger and, as a result, stiffer to handle with “op-
stick-operable, dead-break devices require spe- erating” sticks. Their larger size also requires ad-
cialized tools and, quite often, specialized train- ditional room to train cables and the need for
ing for safe operation. Figure 10.15 shows a extra space for slack cable.
style of stick-operable, dead-break elbows, with
the noted accessories available as options. Elbow Connectors
As an alternative to the high cost of some sec- Elbow, or T-Body, connectors for 600-ampere cir-
tionalizing switches, manufacturers now offer pad- cuits are used in applications similar to those for
mounted junction boxes that can be equipped 200-ampere circuits. A typical elbow connector is
with multipoint, insulated 600-ampere bushing shown in Figure 10.16. Special plugs (shown in
terminals where two-, three-, or four-way mod- Figure 10.16) are used to dead-end one side of
ules can be provided to the cables together in the connector, to connect to another connector
multiple directions. With the use of stick-opera- that terminates another circuit, and to allow the
ble, dead-break elbows, this “junction box” be- connector to be used on a 200-ampere circuit.
comes a 600-ampere sectionalizing switch, at a Several applications of the use of 600- and 200-
greatly reduced cost. However, the following ampere elbows deserve noting here, as follows:
limitations and cautions must be recognized
with this alternative: • When a 600-ampere elbow is terminated on a
600-ampere apparatus bushing, the use of a
• The additional cost of stick-operable, 600-ampere to 200-ampere load-break tap-
dead-break elbows, reducing plug provides a location to (1) extend
• The additional stocking requirements for a 200-ampere cable to serve additional load,
elbows and accessories, or (2) install an elbow-type, metal-oxide light-
• Specialized training for operating personnel, ning arrester. Using this tap-reducing plug and
and elbow arrestor also provides an excellent
• Limited dead-break switching operations. location to verify phasing (with the arresters
removed) with conventional phasing sticks.
• Multiple 600-ampere elbows can be “spliced”
together with a 600-ampere “connector plug”
8 7 6 5
that basically couples elbow-to-elbow to form
1. Cable Adapter a modular joint that can be separated later. As
2. Stress Relief noted previously, these separable (modular)
3. Crimped Connector
4. Grounding Eye joints should never be direct buried and should
4 5. Test Point be mounted in manholes, vaults, and so on to
6. Test Point Cap take all weight and mechanical stress off the
3 7. Inner Shield Insert
8. Standard Bushing Shape elbows and connector plugs.
9. Dead-End Plug • Elbow “dead-end plugs” provide a test point
2 10. Elbow Connecting Plug when used with certain voltage testers to
11. Reducing Tap Well Plug
1 12. 200-Ampere Reducing Plug determine if a cable is indeed energized.
• Elbows provide a temporary grounding point.
Accessories:
9 10 11 12
Note: Most 600-ampere elbows and elbow ac-
cessories use fairly large-diameter threaded studs,
conductive hex nut, and single-hole compression
Cable connects at bottom of elbow. terminals for current-carrying capability up to the
FIGURE 10.16: Dead-Break 600-Ampere Elbow Connector and full 600-ampere rating. This single point connec-
Accessories for Primary Cables. Source: Elastimold Corporation, tion’s integrity is critical to the safe and stable op-
a division of Thomas & Betts Company. eration of the circuit. Therefore, it is imperative
10
that all 600-ampere devices be tightened se- and accessories require the use of a torque
curely and supported securely to guarantee full wrench and many require special installation
current-carrying capacity. Many of these elbows tools and wrenches to assure proper connectivity.
Joints and CABLE JOINTS • Housing assembly,

Terminations for For new installations of sec- Insulate underground • Cold shrink,
Secondary Circuits ondary circuits, it is not gener- • Heat shrink, and
ally necessary to use joints. In secondary cable • Rubber sleeve.
some cases, however, joints terminations at
are used when a secondary The housing assembly joint
transformers.
circuit is damaged. Four basic is the simplest to use. It consists
types of joints are in use (see of a molded housing and rub-
Figures 10.17 to 10.19): ber end caps that are placed
on the cables before the conductor is spliced.
The molded housing does not contain a voltage
stress cone, as is the case for primary cables, be-
cause of the low voltage stress. The function of
the joint is to prevent water entry and corrosion
of aluminum conductors.
The cold-shrink joint contains an expanded
sleeve over a removable spiral core. The core is
removed, allowing the sleeve to shrink down
over the spliced conductor. No heat is required.
FIGURE 10.17: Housing Assembly Joint for Secondary Cables. Source:
Blackburn, Thomas & Betts Company. The heat-shrink joint has an adhesive-lined
sleeve that is shrunk down over the spliced con-
ductor using a source of heat such as a torch.
The rubber sleeve joint is not shrunk down
but relies on an interference fit when it is slid
over sealant strips that are wrapped over the
cables adjacent to the ends of the conductor.
TERMINATIONS AT TRANSFORMERS
RUS requires that terminations for underground
secondary cables at transformers be insulated in
FIGURE 10.18: Cold-Shrink Joint for Secondary Cables. Source: 3M their dead-front designs. However, stress relief at
Electric Products Division.
terminations is not required because the voltage
stress is low. The insulation is molded onto
some terminations when they are manufactured.
Cable terminations at transformers mounted in
enclosures, as well as underground transformers,
must be moisture-sealed and insulated. The cov-
ering of the terminations serves to prevent corro-
sion, especially of aluminum conductors, and is
a safety measure in case of accidental contact by
a worker. Hand-applied tapes to cover the bush-
FIGURE 10.19: Heat-Shrink Joint for Secondary Cables. Source: ings and busses of the transformer are not per-
Raychem Corporation. mitted by RUS.
3 5 6 – Se c t io n 1 0
10
There are numerous types of terminations for
Cap for Porcelain Bushings secondary cables. The most popular type of ter-
mination for a single line is the sealed stud ter-
mination in which a sealing cap covers the
bolted terminal to the transformer. An insulated
bus is used for multiple terminations; the insula-
tion is supplied by a rubber boot that covers the
bus and the cable terminations at the bus.
An alternative to this type is the housing and
Threaded Stud
Secondary Bushing sleeve assembly type. In this case, the housing
protects the cable termination from moisture and
prevents accidental personal contact. Typical ex-
amples of these terminations are shown in Figures
10.20, 10.21, and 10.22. All of these terminations,
Bushing O-Rings in Sealing Cap Seal Around when carefully selected for the cable size, con-
Neck Bushing Neck and Connector
ductor composition, and bushing configuration
are satisfactory in most environments.
FIGURE 10.20: Sealed Stud Termination for Secondary Cables. Source:
Blackburn, Thomas & Betts Company.
Transformer Bushing
Metallic Bus
“BOOT”
Transformer Bushing
FIGURE 10.22: Housing and Sleeve Assembly

FIGURE 10.21: Bus and Rubber Cover Termination for Secondary Termination for Secondary Cables. Source:
Cables. Source: Blackburn, Thomas & Betts Company. Blackburn, Thomas & Betts Company.
10
Summary and 1. Use factory-made joints, elbows, termina- to terminate short lengths of cables at trans-
Recommendations tions, and elbow connectors in 200- and formers within the circuit; other uses are to
600-ampere primary circuits. terminate cables at apparatuses such as
2. Use factory-made joints and terminations in switches and junctions.
secondary circuits. Taped joints and termina- 5. Use T-body elbow connectors, which are
tions are discouraged and are to be used only separable devices, at apparatuses such as
in an emergency, as a temporary device. switches, junction boxes, and transformers
3. Avoid joints for primary circuits in new in- to connect branch circuits and other equip-
stallations. When required for long lines, ment such as grounding cables. They are for
branch circuits, and so on, premolded dead-break 600-ampere circuits only.
joints are preferred; those with one molded 6. Permanently connect the ends of a primary
housing rather than a split housing are cable run or circuit to a cable termination,
most acceptable because of less likelihood which provides voltage stress relief between
of water entry. Permanent joints, in which the conductor and ground and prevents
the conductors are joined by a crimped con- entry of moisture into the cable conductor.
nector, are preferred over separable joints. Premolded terminations, consisting of poly-
The latter should not be buried directly in meric materials, are the most popular type.
the ground, but installed in handholes, They are subject to surface tracking, how-
boxes, and cabinets. Use them to connect ever, and, in areas where contamination
circuits that are likely to be changed at an from the environment is likely, porcelain
early date. terminations are preferred.
4. Use load-break elbows in 200-ampere cir- 7. Carefully select terminations to prevent cor-
cuits; use dead-break elbows in 600-ampere rosion at the cable termination and to pro-
circuits. The most popular use of elbows is vide good mechanical support for cables.
Cable Te s t in g – 3 5 9
11 Cable Testing
In This Section: Reasons For and Benefits of Cable Testing by the User
Primary Cable Tests by the User
Secondary Cable Tests by the User
Tests by the Cable Manufacturer
Reasons for and Although power cables are subjected to exten- tests on new cable installations. The most impor-
Benefits of Cable sive testing by the manufacturer to ensure high tant is improvement in service reliability. Experi-
Testing by the quality and suitability for the intended service, ence demonstrates that, in most cases, damage
accidental damage can occur during shipment, to new cable during handling and installation
User
storage, or installation. Most material tests are causes service failures within two to three years.
performed on a sampling basis that, in some Failures require expensive repairs and consumer
cases, allow imperfections in sections of the complaints and are costly to the cooperative. Re-
cable to go undetected. RUS cable specifications placement of cable often results in expensive
are stringent and require that manufacturers landscape restoration or loss of service. When
conduct the tests recommended in this section cable dimensions are outside the range of indus-
and many more to demonstrate cable quality. try specification requirements, premolded joints
Despite efforts to prevent damage during ship- and terminals will not fit properly. They may be
ment and installation, and despite extensive test- too tight or too loose to apply to the cable. The
ing by manufacturers, sometimes the installed latter may cause separation from the cable or
cables contain defects that result in premature water entry during service and shorten cable or
service failures. Many users, therefore, conduct accessory life, again requiring costly repairs and
their own quality and acceptance tests on new creating consumer dissatisfaction. Consequently,
cable installations. it is important that cable dimensions and con-
There are numerous benefits to the coopera- centricity be checked by the cooperative before
tive that checks new cable quality and conducts the cable is installed.
Primary Cable TESTING OF NEW PRIMARY CABLES likely that cables are of high quality. Therefore,
Tests by the User Because the manufacturer is required to conduct it is not necessary for the user to conduct a large
many production and final quality assurance number of tests. It is recommended that the user,
tests in accordance with RUS specifications, it is whether by himself or by a third-party testing
3 6 0 – Se c t io n 1 1
11
facility, make at least the following tests on MEASUREMENT OF PRIMARY CABLE
newly received cables: DIMENSIONS
The measurement of the diameters and concen-
• Dimensional conformance, including insula- tricity of cable and of selected cable components
tion thickness and concentricity and cable is an easy, straightforward way to check key pa-
diameters, before cable installation; rameters for compliance to RUS/ICEA specifica-
• Microscope examination for voids, contami- tions. This check also is important to ensure that
nants, and protrusions; the cable properly fits premolded commercial
• Insulation shield strip test; and joints and terminations that are generally made
• High-voltage proof test of critical cables before by a company other than the cable manufacturer.
placing in service (e.g., substation circuit exits). Cable diameters and tolerances for primary cables
are given in ICEA Specification S-94-649 and re-
Additional quality assurance is achieved if a ferred to in RUS Bulletin 1728F-U1 cable specifi-
cable engineer is sent to the factory to witness cation. Dimensions for the most popular cables
tests or if the cooperative contracts with a rec- are listed in Tables 11.1 (concentric stranding)
ognized consultant to perform this service. The and 11.2 (compressed stranding).
cooperative also is advised to conduct the hot The diameter over the conductor should be
silicone oil test on TR-XLPE cables to check for measured with a diameter tape or other suitable
protrusions from shields, skips in the shields, instrument readable to at least 0.001 inch (1.0 mil).
voids in the insulation, and other irregularities When the diameter of a stranded conductor is
on samples of newly received cables before determined by a micrometer or caliper, it should
installation. be measured around the circumference of the
This sample test also can be contracted with conductor perpendicular to the axis of the con-
an independent laboratory. Typically, short cable ductor and on the extension of a line through
samples (approximately two feet long) are sent the center of the conductor and through the cen-
to a testing laboratory for examination and test- ter of two wires in the outer layer that are 180°
ing conducted at low cost and with a quick apart. The average of three measurements is
turnaround. taken as the diameter.
As a general rule, it is recommended that co- The measurement of the insulation thickness
operatives require tests to be performed on sam- should be made with a caliper after the extruded
ples from the first and last reels of orders of conductor and semiconducting insulation shields
fewer than 50,000 feet, with one extra sample are removed from the cable core. If the conduc-
for each additional 50,000 feet of cable. tor shield is bonded to the insulation, the thick-
It is recommended that cooperatives notify ness of the insulation can best be measured with
their suppliers in advance that they will be sam- a microscope. The average thickness of insula-
ple testing. Further, they should establish re- tion must not be less than 220 mils for 15-kV ca-
sponsibilities and procedures in case of a failure, bles, 260 mils for 25-kV cables, or 345 mils for
such as the following: 34.5-kV cables made to current RUS specifications.
The measurement of the thickness of the insu-
“Any evidence of noncompliance with the en- lation shield should be measured with a microm-
closed specifications shall be justification for: eter, caliper, or other suitable instrument readable
to at least 0.001 inch (1.0 mil) after removing the
1. Further testing at manufacturer’s expense shield from the cable.
(each shipping reel), The diameter over the insulation shield should
2. Rejection of the tested reel and possibly the be measured with a diameter tape, micrometer,
reels preceding and following in the manu- or other suitable instrument readable to at least
facturing process, and 0.001 inch (1.0 mil). The measured values should
3. Rejection of the entire order, depending on the be within the minimum and maximum values
severity and frequency of noncompliance.” calculated in Tables 11.1 and 11.2.
11
TABLE 11.1: Dimensions for Primary Cables to ICEA Specification S-94-649-2000 with Concentric Neutral
(Concentric Stranding).
Conductor
(Aluminum 15-kV Cable (220 mils) 25-kV Cable (260 mils) 35-kV Cable (345 mils)
or Copper) Diameter (mils) Diameter (mils) Diameter (mils)
Nominal
AWG or Diameter Over Insulation Over Shielding Over Insulation Over Shielding Over Insulation Over Shielding
kcmil (in.) Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
2 Solid 0.258 700 790 760 890 — — — — — — — —
2 0.292 735 825 795 925 — — — — — — — —
1 Solid 0.289 735 820 795 920 805 895 865 995 — — — —
1 0.332 775 865 835 965 845 935 905 1,035 — — — —
1/0 Solid 0.325 770 855 830 955 840 930 900 1,030 1,010 1,110 1,090 1,230
1/0 0.373 815 905 875 1,005 885 980 945 1,080 1,055 1,155 1,135 1,275
2/0 0.418 865 950 925 1,050 935 1,025 995 1,125 1,105 1,200 1,185 1,320
3/0 0.470 915 1,000 975 1,100 985 1,075 1,045 1,175 1,155 1,255 1,235 1,375
4/0 0.528 970 1,060 1,030 1,160 1,040 1,135 1,120 1,255 1,210 1,310 1,290 1,430
250 0.575 1,025 1,115 1,105 1,235 1,095 1,190 1,175 1,310 1,265 1,370 1,345 1,490
350 0.681 1,135 1,220 1,215 1,340 1,205 1,295 1,285 1,415 1,375 1,475 1,455 1,595
500 0.813 1,265 1,355 1,345 1,475 1,335 1,430 1,415 1,550 1,505 1,605 1,615 1,755
600 0.893 1,355 1,445 1,435 1,565 1,425 1,520 1,505 1,640 1,595 1,695 1,705 1,845
700 0.964 1,425 1,515 1,505 1,635 1,495 1,590 1,575 1,710 1,665 1,765 1,775 1,915
750 0.998 1,460 1,550 1,540 1,670 1,530 1,625 1,640 1,775 1,700 1,800 1,810 1,950
800 1.031 1,490 1,580 1,570 1,700 1,560 1,655 1,670 1,805 1,730 1,835 1,840 1,985
900 1.094 1,555 1,645 1,665 1,795 1,625 1,720 1,735 1,870 1,795 1,895 1,905 2,045
1,000 1.152 1,610 1,705 1,720 1,855 1,680 1,775 1,790 1,925 1,850 1,955 1,960 2,105
3 6 2 – Se c t io n 1 1
11
TABLE 11.2: Dimensions for Primary Cables to ICEA Specification S-94-649-2000 with Concentric Neutral.
(Compressed Stranding).
Conductor
(Aluminum 15-kV Cable (220 mils) 25-kV Cable (260 mils) 35-kV Cable (345 mils)
or Copper) Diameter (mils) Diameter (mils) Diameter (mils)
Nominal
AWG or Diameter Over Insulation Over Shielding Over Insulation Over Shielding Over Insulation Over Shielding
kcmil (in.) Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
2 0.283 725 815 785 915 — — — — — — — —
1 0.322 765 855 825 955 835 925 895 1,025 — — — —
1/0 0.362 805 895 865 995 875 965 935 1,065 1,045 1,145 1,125 1,265
2/0 0.405 850 935 910 1,035 920 1,010 980 1,110 1,090 1,190 1,170 1,310
3/0 0.456 900 985 960 1,085 970 1,060 1,030 1,160 1,140 1,240 1,220 1,360
4/0 0.512 955 1,045 1,015 1,145 1,025 1,115 1,105 1,235 1,195 1,295 1,275 1,415
250 0.558 1,010 1,100 1,090 1,220 1,080 1,175 1,160 1,295 1,250 1,350 1,330 1,470
350 0.660 1,115 1,200 1,195 1,320 1,185 1,275 1,265 1,395 1,355 1,455 1,435 1,575
500 0.789 1,240 1,330 1,320 1,450 1,310 1,405 1,390 1,525 1,480 1,580 1,560 1,700
600 0.866 1,325 1,415 1,405 1,535 1,395 1,490 1,475 1,610 1,565 1,670 1,675 1,820
700 0.935 1,395 1,485 1,475 1,605 1,465 1,560 1,545 1,680 1,635 1,740 1,745 1,890
750 0.968 1,430 1,520 1,510 1,640 1,500 1,595 1,580 1,715 1,670 1,770 1,780 1,920
800 1.000 1,460 1,550 1,540 1,670 1,530 1,625 1,640 1,775 1,700 1,805 1,810 1,955
900 1.061 1,520 1,610 1,630 1,760 1,590 1,685 1,700 1,835 1,760 1,865 1,870 2,015
1,000 1.117 1,575 1,670 1,685 1,820 1,645 1,740 1,755 1,890 1,815 1,920 1,925 2,070
CALCULATION OF DIAMETERS shown in Table 11.4 to the nominal diameter

OF PRIMARY CABLES over the insulation. Calculated cable diameters
The allowable diameter and tolerances for 15-, 25-, for primary cables with conductor sizes from
and 34.5-kV RUS specification cables (Table 11.1) #2 AWG through 1,000 kcmil are given in
can be calculated as indicated in Table 11.3. The Tables 11.1 and 11.2. The diameter over the
nominal diameter over the cable insulation shield cable insulation or over the insulation shield
can be calculated by adding the appropriate may be measured with a diameter tape or it
nominal adder for extruded insulation shield may be calculated.
11
TABLE 11.3: Cable Diameter Tolerances. Equation 11.1
Conductor Size Diameters Over Insulation (mils)
(AWG or kcmil) Minimum Nominal Maximum Dmin = C + 80 + A + 2T
2–4/0 C + 30 + A + 2T Add 30 Add 60
250–500 C + 40 + A + 2T Add 30 Add 60 where: Dmin = Minimum diameter over insulation
600–1,000 C + 50 + A + 2T Add 30 Add 60

where: C = Conductor diameter Table 11.4. Adders for Extruded Insulation Shield
The second term (30, 40, or 50) is twice the extruded (Mils) to Obtain Nominal Diameter Over Insulation
conductor shield thickness. Shield of Cable.
A = Adder (10 mils) for 25-kV cable; do not Calculated Minimum Extruded Insulation Shield
use for 15-kV cable. Diameter Over Insulation Adders (mils)
T = Minimum average insulation thickness (inches) Minimum Nominal Maximum
(RUS Bulletin 1728F-U1).
0–1.000 50 100 150
1 mil = 0.001 in.
1.001–1.500 70 120 170
Note. If a conductive tape and a subsequent extruded shield have
been applied over the conductor, the minimum diameter over 1.501–2.000 110 160 210
the insulation must be calculated by Equation 11.1. 1 mil = 0.001 in.
EXAMPLE 11.1: Diameter Calculation.
Calculate minimum, nominal, and maximum diameter over cable insulation for 1/0 AWG concentric (Class B) stranded
conductor with extruded conductor and insulation shields, 220 mils insulation thickness, with jacket, 15 kV.
C = Conductor diameter = 373 mils
For the conductor shield extruded over the conductor (see Table 11.3) = 30 mils
A = 0 mils
2T = Insulation Thickness (2 × 220) = 440 mils
Calculated diameter over the cable insulation = 843 mils
Round up = 845 mils
Nominal diameter over insulation (add 30 mils per Table 11.3) = 875 mils
Maximum diameter over insulation (add 60 mils per Table 11.3) = 905 mils
Calculate minimum, nominal, and maximum diameter over cable insulation shield.
Nominal diameter over cable insulation = 875 mils
Minimum adder of insulation shield (Table 11.4) = 50 mils
Minimum total diameter over insulation shield = 925 mils
Nominal adder of insulation shield (Table 11.4) = 100 mils
Nominal total diameter over insulation shield = 975 mils
Maximum adder of insulation shield (Table 11.4) = 150 mils
Maximum total diameter over insulation shield = 1,025 mils
3 6 4 – Se c t io n 1 1
11
HOT SILICONE OIL TEST FOR XLPE the cable. Contact the cable manufacturer or a
AND TR-XLPE PRIMARY CABLES cable consultant for further advice. The determi-
This test is a quick and easy way to check for nation of the actual size of any observed protru-
the cleanliness of the insulation, presence of sion must be done by cutting the insulation into
voids in the insulation, the smoothness of the in- wafers and examining them with a microscope
terface between the insulation and the conduc- or an optical comparator. The description of im-
tor shield, and presence of skips in the extruded perfections and their limitations as to size allow-
shields. It is possible to perform this test be- able in RUS cable specifications are discussed
cause the polyethylene insulation becomes fully in ICEA Specification S-94-649.
transparent when raised to high temperature.
The test is not useful for EPR cables because INSULATION SHIELD STRIPPING
that insulation does not become transparent. TEST FOR PRIMARY CABLES
Suspend a sample of cable, approximately 10 This test is performed to demonstrate that the in-
inches long, with the jacket, neutral, and insula- sulation shield can be removed from the insula-
tion shield removed, in a clear glass container tion by normal workmanship and to demonstrate
filled with clean silicone oil that has been that no conducting material is left on the surface
heated to about 180°C (356°F). A typical test of the insulation upon removal of the shield.
setup is shown in Figure 11.1. Look for contami-
nants. Also look for protrusions of the conductor STEP 1. Use a cable sample approximately 15
shield into the insulation and for skips in the inches long.
conductor shield. If any are found, do not install
STEP 2. Cut the semiconducting shield longi-
tudinally and vertically down to the
insulation.
STEP 3. Make a second, similar cut at 1/2-inch

separation from the first cut.
STEP 4. Construct a suitable measuring device

and use it to measure the tension re-
quired to pull away the 1/2-inch-wide
strip of insulation shield from the cable.
See the arrangement in Figure 11.2.
STEP 5. Attach the measuring device by remov-

ing approximately two inches of the
1/2-inch strip of each end of the cable
by pulling it away at a 90° angle from
the cable.
STEP 6. Measure the pulling tension in pounds

by increasing the force on the strip until
the strip separates from the insulation at
a pulling speed of approximately 1/2
FIGURE 11.1: Setup for Hot Silicone Oil Test. inch per second.
Two cable samples in a hot silicone oil bath
show the transparency of polyethylene insulation. Make the test at ambient temperature, one test
The oil temperature is approximately 180°C at each end of the cable in opposite directions
(356°F). and 180° apart. The minimum allowable tension
11
is six pounds and the maxi-
mum allowable tension is 18
lb. for TR-XLPE, and three
pounds minimum and 18 lb.
maximum for EPR insulation.
No conducting material that is
not readily removable may be
left on the insulation and the
insulation must not be dam-
aged. A local job shop should
be able to fabricate the mea-
suring device, or an outside
consultant can advise on
where to obtain a device or
how to construct it. The strip-
ping test is an ICEA specifica-
tion and, therefore, an RUS
specification test requirement;
consequently, cable manufac-
turers possess this measuring
device. Further details of this
test, plus additional informa- FIGURE 11.2: Setup for Insulation Shield Stripping Test.
tion related to this test, are Tension is measured as a 1/2-inch-wide strip of insulation
given in ICEA specifications. shield is removed from an XLPE cable.
HIGH-VOLTAGE PROOF TEST

FOR PRIMARY CABLES
The high-voltage (dc) test is an important accep- Preparation for High-Voltage Proof Test
tance test made on primary cable before the The following preparations for the high-voltage
cable is placed in regular service. This test is proof test for primary cables are recommended:
conducted with the cable joints and either tem-
porary or regular terminations connected to the • Read the test equipment manufacturers’ test-
cable. All other devices (e.g., lighting arresters, ing recommendations, when available, before
transformers) are disconnected from the cable performing this test.
except the regular grounding devices, which re- • Read IEEE Standard 400 covering safety
main connected to the cable as used in service. procedures and dc testing techniques. See
The proof test has the advantage of indicating the references for the sources of these
the condition of the insulation under high-volt- publications.
age stress conditions. A high-voltage proof test • Operate the test equipment to become famil-
is recommended for large installations, for im- iar with the instruments and how to interpret
portant feeder cables, or where continuity of the their readings.
power is of paramount importance (e.g., substa- • Decide what level of test voltage to use and
tion circuit exits). The proof test may not be the time of voltage application. The recom-
necessary for small installations of less impor- mended values are given in Table 11.5. It also
tance when testing of every piece of cable be- is desirable to obtain the cable manufacturer’s
comes quite time consuming. Test equipment recommendation for these test voltages.
manufacturers provide lightweight portable dc • Keep personnel out of the area in which the
test equipment along with complete instructions test is to be performed and the areas at both
on how to perform proof tests on cable systems. ends of the cables being tested.
3 6 6 – Se c t io n 1 1
11
• Erect barriers between the test area and its STEP 1. Connect the high-voltage test set to the
surroundings and display signs warning of conductor of the cable under test.
high-voltage testing. Commercial signs are STEP 2. Switch on the test set. Raise the voltage
available for this purpose. from zero to the test voltage selected
• Determine test values for cable terminations, from the applicable AEIC specification
joints, etc., which may have limits on testing value indicated in Table 11.5. Raise the
voltages. voltage slowly, so as to reach the de-
• Always have at least two people present dur- sired level in one to one-and-one-half
ing the test. minutes.
STEP 3. Maintain the voltage for the preselected
Setup for Proof Test of Primary Cables time. For acceptance of new cable not
The following test setup is recommended when yet placed in service, the AEIC specifica-
conducting the proof test: tion recommended time is five minutes
during installation or 15 minutes after
• When testing the cable make sure all other installation. Use the time indicated in
equipment—such as surge protective devices, Table 11.5 or the time recommended by
transformers, etc.—is disconnected. the cable manufacturer. The five-minute
• Make sure the cable terminals are clean, dry, time of application of voltage is speci-
and free of sharp points. Sharp points cause fied during cable installation because
corona and flashovers that can be eliminated temporary terminations are often used
by covering with commercial electrical putty during the test. These terminations may
such as 3M Scotchfil™ or clear plastic bags. have corona discharge or high leakage
Elbow terminations need to be packed in currents that can cause damage to the
insulated packing stands, or covered with cable ends. Most cable damage caused
clear plastic bags. It is desirable to conduct during shipment or installation can be
the test with the cable terminals installed. If detected during the shorter five-minute
the test is performed before connecting the test. In addition, less space charge will
terminals, remove the insulation shield for build up in the cable during the shorter
about 18 inches and clean the exposed insu- time test.
lation. Although it is usually not necessary, a STEP 4. Reduce voltage and switch off the test
commercial prefabricated terminal having a set. If a flashover occurs during the test,
voltage rating at least as high as that of the turn the test set off immediately. A flash-
cable also can be applied in accordance with over tells you that an insulation break-
the manufacturer’s instructions. down has occurred, a termination has
• Check the circuit with a 500- or 1,000-volt flashed over, or the test set has failed.
megohmmeter to make sure that there are no If external flashover occurred during
obvious problems before starting the proof test. the testing, check to see if the correct
Allow a clearance between cable ends and sur- voltage was applied. Clean the cable
rounding objects of at least one inch per 10 kV. terminations and reposition the test
• Check the high-voltage test set by suspending leads if they were too close or became
its high-voltage lead off the ground with a dry separated from the line.
plastic cord. Turn the voltage up to the high- If flashover occurred inside the test
est value to be used during the test. The set, check to be sure you supplied the
micro-ammeter should read close to zero. correct voltage for the correct time. In-
ternal flashovers may indicate problems
Conducting the Proof Test with the equipment.
After making the proper preparations for the STEP 5. With the test set voltmeter indicating
high-voltage dc proof test described above, fol- zero, discharge the test set to ground.
low these steps: Use an approved discharge stick with
11
proper resistance followed with a leakage current continued to gradually increase
grounding stick to drain the charge from in any step of the test, lengthen the time of that
the tested cable. When the voltage step until it can be determined the leakage cur-
drops below about 1 kV, connect the rent will stabilize.
grounding stick to the cable terminal It may be necessary to remove the cable ter-
and keep the cable grounded for a pe- minations and repeat the high-voltage proof test
riod of time equal to four times the to determine if the cable under test, rather than
length of the dc test. Draining the the terminations, has failed. If it is desired to re-
charge to ground on tested cables is a pair the cable and if the exact location of the fail-
vital safety procedure. ure is not known, use fault location equipment
to locate the fault. Most high-dc-voltage proof
If the cable withstood the voltage for the testers contain a fault-locating device (thumper)
recommended time period, and if the leakage that may be used to pinpoint the exact location
current reached a steady-state condition, the in- of a cable fault. When this thumping equipment
sulation on the cable system—including the is used, the fault is found by listening for a
joints and terminations—is suitable for service. If thumping sound, at the cable failure, while
the test voltage caused flashover before the end walking along the ground above the cable. A
of the time period or if the test set overcurrent pick-up coil and earphones can be employed to
circuit tripped, the insulation of the system is facilitate hearing the thumping. Manufacturers of
not satisfactory to place in regular service. If the proof test equipment and thumping equipment
provide detailed instructions on the operation of
their equipment and its use to locate cable faults.
TABLE 11.5: DC Proof-Test Voltages (Conductor to Ground) for Obtain these instructions and follow them when
Primary Cables. locating cable faults.
Cable Rated Time of
Voltage φ – φ Application HIGH-VOLTAGE STEP TEST FOR
(kV) Period of Test DC Voltage (kV) (minutes) PRIMARY CABLES
Insulation Thickness — 220 mils The step-voltage test is a variation of the proof
test, and the same preparations and procedures
15 During installation 60 5 as with the proof test are used. The step-voltage
15 After installation, before service 64 15 test is particularly applicable to cable circuits be-
cause if the cable, joint, or termination has an in-
15 During first 5 service years 52 5 cipient fault, a flashover will occur at a voltage
15 After 5 service years 32 5 below the failure point. This will reduce the like-
lihood of damaging good cable.
Insulation Thickness — 260 mils
When the step voltage is used, it is desirable
25 During installation 75 5 to use voltage steps of the same magnitude, di-
vided in equal times between zero and the maxi-
25 After installation, before service 80 15
mum test voltage level. For example, a 15-minute
25 During first 5 service years 65 5 test involves five three-minute steps increased in
equal amounts at each step. As the cable cur-
25 After 5 service years 40 5
rent at each higher voltage increases, and then
Insulation Thickness — 345 mils decreases to a steady value in less than one
35 During installation 93 5 minute, this will allow time to read the current
(or to show unreadably low values). The test set
35 After installation, before service 100 15 microammeter should be readable to 0.1 mi-
35 During first 5 service years 81 5 croampere. At each step, the current for satisfac-
tory cable should be steady and should be
35 After 5 service years 50 5 recorded. If, at any step, the current begins to
3 6 8 – Se c t io n 1 1
11
increase rapidly, this indicates impending failure to four times the length of the dc test to ground
on the cable system. The test set should be the system.
turned off and left off for a period of time equal A high and/or unstable leakage current is
most likely due to contamination on the termina-
tions, too small a clearance between energized
and grounded components, or a defect in the
test equipment. Check and reclean the termina-
tions, recheck all clearances, and perform a leak-
age current test on the dc equipment by raising
the voltage with the output open circuited. After
performing these steps, repeat the step test on
the cable system. If high or unstable leakage
current is still observed, the problem is probably
with the cable system and the proof test voltage
must be applied for the required time to deter-
mine the location of the defect.
TYPICAL EQUIPMENT FOR

HIGH-VOLTAGE DC TESTS
The portable, high-voltage dc test set for con-
ducting the proof and step-voltage tests should
have the maximum test voltage (usually negative
polarity), a means of increasing the voltage con-
tinuously or in small steps, satisfactory output
voltage stability, the output voltage filtered to
provide pure dc voltage, and 0.1 microampere
resolution. Commercial test equipment usually
complies with these requirements. A typical
commercial test set is shown in Figure 11.3.
A discharge resistor used to discharge the
cable after test should have a resistance of not
less than 10,000 ohms per kV of test voltage.
Commercial discharge resistors are designed to
withstand the full test voltage without flashovers
and to withstand the discharge energy without
overheating. They have an insulating hook stick
and a flexible conductor to connect the resistor
across the cable terminal and ground. A typical
commercial discharge and grounding stick is
shown in Figure 11.3.
PROOF TEST PRECAUTIONS WHEN SPLICING

TO SERVICE AGED CABLES
When new primary cable is spliced to existing
service-aged PE, TR-XLPE, or EPR cables, special
precautions must be observed when conducting
FIGURE 11.3: Typical High-Voltage DC Test Set with Cable Grounding a high-voltage dc proof test. The existing in-ser-
Probe.
11
vice cables most likely contain water trees in the Table 11.5 note that the recommended dc test
insulation as a result of moisture penetration from voltages are reduced during the first five years of
the environment. The jacket slows, but does not service. They are further reduced when the cable
eliminate, this penetration. Water trees lower the has been in service for more than five years. It is
breakdown voltage of the cable. In severe cases highly recommended that the reduced values be
of water treeing, the dc test voltage may be high used if the dc tests are performed.
enough to further damage adjacent cable and The above precautions apply to all mainte-
cause it to fail in service prematurely. This pre- nance testing of PE, TR-XLPE, and EPR cable,
caution need not be taken when splicing to both jacketed and unjacketed. It should be noted
paper-oil insulated cable as this type of cable is that RUS-specification cables have thicker insula-
not damaged by dc testing. tion than do ICEA-specification cables. The thicker
This characteristic of PE, TR-XLPE, and EPR is insulation retards but does not eliminate water
recognized by the ICEA specifications and is re- tree formation. Therefore, the lower test levels
flected in the recommended dc test voltages. In given in Table 11.5 should be used.
Secondary Cable TESTING OF NEW SECONDARY CABLES MEASUREMENT OF SECONDARY

Tests by the User As for primary cables, the manufacturer is re- CABLE DIMENSIONS
quired to conduct many production and quality The most important test for secondary cables be-
assurance tests on secondary cables. Because fore installation is the measurement of the insu-
600-volt cables operate at a low voltage stress, lation thickness. The insulation thickness should
they are much less likely to fail (from electrical be in accordance with RUS Specification for 600-
stress) in service than are primary cables. Conse- Volt Underground Power Cable (RUS Bulletin
quently, the cooperative is advised to make only 1728F-U2) and is given in Table 11.6 for the
the following tests on newly received cables be- applicable conductor size.
fore installation: The thickness of the insulation (or composite
insulation) should be measured with a caliper,
• Insulation thickness, and
steel ruler, or micrometer. The average thickness
• Concentricity of insulation.
must be taken as one-half of the difference be-
tween the mean of the maximum and minimum
Some users conduct a high-voltage proof test
diameters over the insulation (or composite insu-
of installed secondary cable before placing the
lation) at one point and the average diameter
cable in service. This practice is not recom-
over the conductor or any separator measured at
mended unless it is believed that the cable was
the same point. The minimum of the insulation
damaged during installation.
(or composite insulation) must be taken as the
difference between (1) a measurement made
TABLE 11.6: Insulation Thickness of Secondary Cables. over the conductor or any separator plus the
thinnest insulation (or composite insulation)
Standard XLPE Ruggedized XLPE
wall, and (2) the diameter over the conductor or
Conductor Size 1 Layer Average (mils)* 2 Layer Average (mils)*
any separator. The first measurement must be
4–2 AWG 60 60 made after slicing off the opposite side of the in-
1–4/0 AWG 80 80
sulation (or composite insulation). The thickness
of any separator between the conductor and the
225–500 kcmil 95 95 covering must not be included in the thickness
*The minimum thickness will not be less than 90% of the average. of the insulation.
3 7 0 – Se c t io n 1 1
11
PROOF TEST OF SECONDARY CABLES primary cables. ICEA and Underwriters Labora-
It is not customary or generally necessary for a tories specifications do not suggest voltage tests
cooperative to proof-test underground secondary after installation for secondary cables.
power cable that complies with RUS specifica- The proof-test equipment used for this test is
tions, including those that also are marked as generally a portable insulation tester (Hipot) test
complying with the Underwriters Laboratories set. A 1,000-volt megohmmeter also may be
Type USE cable, before placing it in service. If used for this test. In this case, satisfactory cable
there is reason to believe that the cable has been should have an insulation resistance not less
damaged during installation, an insulation tester than one megohm. Equipment manufacturers’
can be used to check the cable. It is best to con- instructions also should be followed when mak-
duct the test when the ground or conduit is wet ing a proof test or an insulation resistance test.
because there is no integral ground plane as
with a primary cable. If the cable complies with INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST
the requirements of Table 11.6, it is not likely OF SECONDARY CABLES
that a failure will occur when the proof test is Some users routinely measure the insulation re-
performed unless substantial damage occurs sistance of new cable before placing it in ser-
during handling or installation. vice. This test is not advised for primary cables
In a proof test, the cable should be removed because many factors influence the IR reading
from the circuit. It is not necessary to disconnect and results are meaningful in only a few cases.
joints and terminals from the cable. The voltage For secondary cables, the measurement of insu-
should be about 3,000 volts ac applied for one lation resistance is useful, as indicated previ-
minute after being increased from zero over a ously, as a means of determining whether cable
period of 60 seconds. AEIC specifications do not has been severely damaged during installation.
cover 600-volt power cable as is the case with
Tests by the Cable Various types of tests are performed by the man- copy of the qualification test data of the cable
Manufacturer ufacturer when it is making primary cables to being purchased.
comply with RUS specifications. The manufac- If a manufacturer changes the insulation or the
turer is required to continually conduct many semiconducting conductor or insulation shields,
electrical and physical tests on TR-XLPE and that cable with the new components must also
EPR insulated cables. The testing may be sepa- be qualified to RUS specification. Each combina-
rated into two categories: qualification tests and tion of overall jacket material, jacket application
production tests on samples and on a full reel method, concentric neutral design, insulation
of cable. shield type, insulation type, and conductor size
range must be subjected to selected qualification
MANUFACTURER QUALIFICATION TESTS tests to prove adequate performance before ac-
ON PRIMARY CABLES ceptance by RUS. The qualification tests ensure
These tests are intended to demonstrate the capa- that the cable design represents a high-quality,
bility of the manufacturer to furnish high-quality state-of-the-art product.
cable with the performance characteristics suit-
able for RUS member systems. Before the manu- MANUFACTURER PRODUCTION TESTS
facturer and the cable design is accepted by ON PRIMARY CABLES
RUS, certified test data on a particular design These tests are conducted on a sampling basis
must be submitted to RUS showing compliance during production to ensure that cable perfor-
with the RUS specifications, which include ap- mance is equivalent to that of the cable that re-
plicable requirements of ICEA Specifications S- ceived qualification approval, to ensure compli-
94-649. If requested by the purchaser, the ance with the applicable ICEA specification, and
manufacturer is required to furnish a certified to detect any manufacturing defects. Numerous
11
tests on the insulation, the semiconducting shields, 1. RUS acceptance and listing of cable tests,
and mechanical properties of the cables are con- 2. Routine production tests, and
ducted during cable fabrication to ensure quality. 3. Completed cable tests.
Partial discharge and voltage withstand tests are
conducted on full reel lengths of completed ca- As part of the RUS acceptance and listing of
bles. The requirements for the voltage withstand cable, the manufacturer must include certified
tests are given in Table 11.7. The dc voltage test test data demonstrating compliance with RUS
values are higher than those recommended in Specification for 600-Volt Underground Power
Table 11.5 for testing installed new cables. Cable (RUS Bulletin 1728F-U2). The manufac-
turer must conduct routine production tests re-
MANUFACTURER PRODUCTION TESTS quired by NEMA Standard WC-7/ICEA 5-66-524
ON SECONDARY CABLES or ICEA P-81-570. Manufacturers’ voltage tests
The cable manufacturer is required by RUS to on cable rated 600 volts are given in Table 11.8.
continually conduct tests on 600-volt XLPE and
ruggedized composite XLPE-insulated cables. MANUFACTURER’S CERTIFIED
These tests are fewer and less stringent than TEST REPORTS
those required by RUS for primary cables. The The cable user is urged to specify copies of cer-
testing may be separated into three categories: tified test reports (CTRs) for primary cables at
the time of ordering. The manufacturer will fur-
nish certified copies of the qualification test re-
TABLE 11.7: Manufacturers’ Voltage Withstand Tests on Completed sults representative of the cable being purchased
Cable. and of the actual production test values. These
Cable Rated Minimum Nominal should be compared with the cable specifications.
Voltage φ – φ Insulation 5-Minute AC Test 15-Minute DC Test When cable is not shipped directly from the
(kV) Thickness (mils) Voltage (kV)* Voltage (kV)* manufacturer but through a local distributor,
the latter may provide typical performance test
15 220 44 80
data for the type of cable being used. These
25 260 52* 95* reports provide useful information in the
following circumstances:
35 345 69 125
35 420 84 155 • When changes or additions are made on
*Withstand voltages are based on insulation thickness. the cable system so that similar cable can
be ordered,
• When problems arise with the performance
TABLE 11.8: Manufacturers’ Voltage Tests on Cables Rated Zer0 to of the cable, and
600 Volts. • When selecting joints and terminals for the
system.
Conductor Size AC Test DC Test AC Spark Test DC Spark Test
(AWG or kcmil) Voltage (kV) Voltage (kV) Voltage (kV) Voltage (kV)
As with primary cables, the manufacturer must
4–2 5.5 16.5 15.0 21.0 submit certified test data demonstrating compli-
ance with the applicable secondary cable specifi-
1–4/0 7.0 21.0 17.5 28.0
cations. For secondary cables, these specifications
225–500 8.0 24.0 20.0 33.5 are RUS Specification for 600-Volt Underground
Note: The manufacturer is required to conduct at least one of the above voltage tests in Power Cable (Bulletin 1728F-U2) and ANSI/ICEA
accordance with NEMA WC-7/ICEA S-66-524 (XLPE) or ICEA P-81-570 (Ruggedized S-66-524 for TR-XLPE cables and ICEA P-81-570.
Extruded Insulation).
3 7 2 – Se c t io n 1 1
11
Summary and Cable testing should be performed to ensure 4. Use commercial high-voltage dc test
Recommendations conformance to specifications before installation equipment.
and to ensure that the cable was not damaged
during installation. Manufacturers’ tests ensure a high-quality
product at the time of cable shipment. They
1. Conduct dimensional conformance, hot sili- also show that the cable design and materials
cone oil, and insulation stripping tests behave the capability of operating satisfactorily in
fore installation to identify defects that cause service. Cable specifications ensure that the
early failures. manufacturer fabricates the cable to be suitable
2. Conduct a high-voltage dc acceptance test for use with standard joints and terminations
when installing a large quantity of the same and complies with the cooperative’s order for
type of cable at a given site or important the cable.
feeder cables, or when continuity of the Cable specifications provide a means to docu-
power supply is of paramount importance. ment test results in the form of a written and
Contract with an outside laboratory or use certified test report.
in-house equipment to conduct the hot sili-
cone oil and the insulation shield stripping • Cooperatives that do not have the capability
tests. Apparatus for the latter test may be or equipment to conduct cable tests should
purchased on the outside. make arrangements for an outside testing
3. Use a diameter tape, caliper, or micrometer facility.
or equivalent device that can measure to • In all cases, the manufacturer’s certified test
0.001 inch (1.0 mil) to measure dimensional reports (CTRs) must be obtained.
conformance.
Calculations for Reliability St u d i e s – 3 7 3
A Calculations for
Reliability Studies
In This Appendix: Reliability Index Calculation of Reliability

Acceptability Criteria Importance of Sectionalizing
Reliability Index The reliability index that is probably quoted For a sample application of Equation A.1, as-
most often in the literature is the average service sume a feeder has experienced outage times
availability index (ASAI). This index is defined amounting to 3.5 consumer-hours per consumer
as the ratio of total consumer-hours of available per year (SAIDI). The corresponding ASAI figure
service to total consumer-hours demanded. From is as follows:
a particular consumer’s point of view, this index
could be viewed as the ratio of total hours of
8,760 – 3.5
available service per year to the number 8,760, ASAI = = 0.9996
which is the total number of hours in a year. 8,760
Simple mathematical formulas relate the ASAI
index to the total hours interrupted per year. The ASAI number is interpreted to mean that
The total-hours index is also called the System a typical consumer served from the feeder can
Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI). expect electric service to be present 99.96 per-
The formulas relating ASAI and SAIDI are cent of the time. The second part of Equation
shown in Equation A.1. A.1 can be used to calculate the SAIDI from the
ASAI:
Equation A.1
8,760 – SAIDI SAIDI = 8,760 × (1 – 0.9996) = 3.5

ASAI =
8,760
The total-hours index (SAIDI) will be used in this
SAIDI = 8,760 × (1 – ASAI) analysis because it is less abstract than the ASAI.
3 7 4 – Ap p e n d i x A
A
Acceptability Acceptable reliability criteria are defined in RUS Although cooperatives are traditionally associ-
Criteria Bulletin 161-1. Table A.1 summarizes the guide- ated with rural areas, UD systems installed by
lines of that bulletin. cooperatives are likely to be in or near urban
areas. It is thus reasonable to design UD systems
to meet the acceptable outage time criterion of
TABLE A.1: Acceptable Outage Hours Per Year Per Consumer.
one hour per year. Furthermore, the RUS guide-
Type of Area Maximum Acceptable Outage Hours Per Year lines represent the total outage time to an indi-
vidual consumer and include the outage time of
Urban 1.0 the overhead system supplying the UD system.
Rural, Near Urban Areas 2.0 Therefore, the design outage time of the UD sys-
tem itself should be much less than one hour
Remote Rural 5.0 per year.
Calculation of Although loop-feed UD designs are recommend- design is in reducing the duration of cable-fail-
Reliability ed and normally used, these designs are certainly ure outages; this is reviewed in Section 1.
not equivalent to automatically transferred dual- Reliability analysis of a UD system is performed
feed designs. Transfer to the alternate feed in a in the same way as for any radial distribution
typical loop-feed UD design requires human inter- system. The critical system components deliver-
vention after an outage. Consequently, the looping the power are considered to be in series
feed design does nothing to reduce the frequen- from a reliability point of view, which means
cy of outages. The advantage of the loop-feed that failure of any such component causes an
Overhead Line
Surge
Arrester
Cable Termination
Pad-Mounted
Elbow Terminator Transformer
Secondary
Connections
Secondary/Service Cable
Elbow
Surge Primary Cable
Arrester
Primary Cable
FIGURE A.1: Components Affecting Outage Rate to the Consumer.

Calculations for Reliability St u d i e s – 3 7 5
A
outage at the point under study. Therefore, the transformer, the secondary connections,
outage rates associated with the individual com- and the secondary cables.
ponents may be added arithmetically to deter- STEP 2. Determine the outage rates and restora-
mine the outage rate expected for the consumer. tion times for each component. It will
This direct addition rule also applies to the total normally be necessary to pool the expe-
hours of outage per year for the consumer as rience of many utilities to get the large
calculated from component total outage hours. statistical base needed to achieve accu-
Calculation of the expected reliability of ser- racy for these parameters.
vice to a single-phase consumer on a UD system STEP 3. Determine total outage hours per year
proceeds as follows: for each component by multiplying the
component outage rate by the compo-
STEP 1. Identify the critical components. For UD nent detection and restoration time.
systems, these are the supply to the STEP 4. Sum the component outage rates to
riser structure, the terminator at the get the expected outage rate at the
riser, the total cable length energized consumer.
from the riser, the elbow terminators, STEP 5. Sum the component outage hours to get
any lightning arresters connected to the the expected total outage hours for the
primary system section, the pad-mounted consumer.
Importance of An outage at an individual point on a UD system The concept of dividing the area to be served
Sectionalizing occurs when an overcurrent device operates. into many overcurrent-device sections to im-
Therefore, the calculation of reliability must en- prove reliability is known as sectionalizing. Sec-
compass all the UD cable length and other vulner- tionalizing is often the most cost-effective way
able components that will make any overcurrent to improve reliability. However, if there are seri-
device operate and interrupt service to the point ous reliability problems with critical system com-
under study. This collection of components that ponents, sectionalizing alone may not achieve
might fail is referred to as the total “exposure” to acceptable reliability.
outages that is associated with a particular study As an example of the effectiveness of section-
point. This situation implies that reducing the to- alizing, consider a single-phase UD area consist-
tal exposure will reduce the outage rate and ing of four cable runs in the configuration
hours of outage at a point on the system. illustrated in Figure A.2. The area is supplied
Limiting the cable length and other compo- from the west over a 3,000-foot cable run end-
nents protected by each overcurrent device re- ing in a junction enclosure from which three ad-
duces exposure. Reducing exposure can be ditional 3,000-foot cable runs feed north, east,
accomplished in two ways: and south. Each cable run, including the supply
run, serves 20 pad-mounted transformers by
1. By increasing the number of circuits used to feed-through bushings. This configuration re-
serve an area from a supply point, and quires 41 elbow terminations per cable run, in-
2. By installing coordinated overcurrent devices cluding the elbows in the junction enclosure
at several selected points on a large circuit. and on the arrester at the last transformer.
The following outage rates might be typical
The first method is more effective, but also for the primary UD components:
more costly. The second method yields mixed
effectiveness, because consumers located far
from the supply point do not benefit from expo- Cable = 0.0020 failures/kft/year
sure reductions as much as do consumers near Elbow = 0.0001 failures/year
the supply point.
3 7 6 – Ap p e n d i x A
A
If no sectionalizing is installed on the UD sys- This outage rate represents the primary UD
tem, the outage rate expected for each con- system only. Each consumer will also be ex-
sumer on the system is calculated as shown in posed to outages on transformers, secondaries,
Equation A.2. and the overhead primary system that supplies
the UD area.
The consumer outage rate caused by UD pri-
Equation A.2 mary facilities can be reduced by using a sec-
tionalizing enclosure instead of a junction enclo-
Cable Outage Rate = 12 kft × 0.0020 failures/kft/year = 0.0240 outages/year sure at the center of the UD system. The section-
alizing enclosure will provide fuse protection for
the cable runs to the north, east, and south.
Elbow Outage Rate = 164 elbows × 0.0001 failures/year = 0.0164 outages/year With the sectionalizing devices in service, the
primary UD outage rate to consumers on the
west cable run will become one-quarter of the
Outage Rate for Each Consumer = 0.0240 + 0.0164 = 0.0404 outages/year
previous cable because three-quarters of the fail-
ures will be cleared by sectionalizing fuses in
the central enclosure. For consumers on the
north, east, and south cable runs, the outage rate
Open 20 Transformers
Point will be one-half the previous value. These con-
N sumers will be without service whenever a fail-
ure occurs in their own sectionalized area or in
the supplying run from the west.
The resulting consumer outage rates from pri-
mary UD failures with the sectionalizing devices
in service are as follows:
Riser 20 Transformers West Cable Area 0.0101 outages/year

20 Transformers Open
Point
Sectionalizing
Enclosure North, East, or 0.0202 outages/year
South Cable Area
The outage rate is 0.0404 per year for all con-

sumers without the sectionalizing cabinet.
Open
Point 20 Transformers
FIGURE A.2: Sectionalized UD Area.

Transformer and Secondary Voltage Dro p – 3 7 7
B Transformer and
Secondary Voltage Drop
In This Appendix: Voltage Flicker
Secondary voltage drop consists of two compo- to ensure that voltage level at the point of deliv-
nents: ery to the consumer are consistent with levels
outlined in RUS Bulletin 169-4 and/or ANSI
1. The transformer voltage drop, and Standard C84.1.
2. The secondary and service voltage drop to Several different types of service configura-
the point of delivery. tions may be present at the utilization voltage
level. The following are the most common:
The total drop allowed in RUS Bulletin 169-4
is four volts on a 120-volt base, or 3.33 percent • Three-phase, four-wire, wye;
(see Table B.1). Closer to the substation, a maxi- • Three-phase, four-wire, delta;
mum of six volts (five percent) of combined • Three-phase, three-wire, wye or delta;
drop is allowed. This threshold recognizes that • Two phases and neutral from three-phase,
the full eight-volt drop allowed on the primary four-wire, wye system;
system probably will not occur at locations close • Single-phase, three-wire; and
to the substation. However, the engineer needs • Single-phase, two-wire.
To further complicate the situation, all but the

TABLE B.1: Allowable Voltage Drop on a 120-Volt Base. last listed above may be subject to unbalanced
Maximum Percentage load conditions. Each type of service, along with
Drop (Volts) Drop the extent of load unbalance for each, creates a
unique situation requiring customized techniques
Substation regulated bus (output) to last distribution 8 6.67 for calculating voltage drop.
transformer (primary)
In many cases, the engineer can overcome the
Distribution transformer (primary) to service delivery 4 3.33 complications involved with the many configura-
connection to consumer’s wiring (meter or entrance tions by identifying a worst-case single-phase
switch) situation that is embedded in a multiphase situa-
Utility service delivery point (meter or entrance tion. An engineer who is skilled in both single-
switch) to consumer’s utilization terminal (outlet): phase and balanced three-phase voltage drop
• Loads including lighting 4 3.33 calculations can, thus, usually find the worst-
• Loads without lighting 6 5.00 case voltage drop involved in a complicated,
unbalanced situation.
3 7 8 – Ap p e n d i x B
B
The simplest service voltage drop problem is conductor impedance on one leg. This proce-
also the most common: single-phase, 240-volt, dure will permit direct calculation of voltage
three-wire service, with the load balanced be- drop on a 120-volt base.
tween the two 120-volt legs. It is reasonable to The same calculating procedure used for one
assume a balanced load on this type of service leg of a balanced single-phase 120/240-volt sys-
as the larger appliances are almost always con- tem can be used for one phase of a balanced
nected line to line. The balanced 120-volt load 208/120-volt, three-phase, four-wire, wye system.
cancels out the neutral current, so the only im- As 208/120-volt services are also very common,
pedances that need to be considered are the skill in performing the basic single-phase voltage
transformer impedance and the ungrounded drop calculation is a valuable tool for an engineer.
Voltage drop on a purely resistive circuit serv-
ing a 100 percent power factor load is very sim-
Equation B.1 ple to calculate from Ohm’s law, as shown in
Equation B.1.
In actual cases, however, the supply circuit is
For resistive circuit with 100% power factor load:
not purely resistive and the load is somewhat
VDROP = IR
less than 100 percent power factor. This combi-
nation of both the circuit and the load current
where: VDROP = Voltage drop, in volts having an inductive component produces a vec-
I = Current flowing in circuit, in amperes tor load current interacting with a supply circuit
R = Supply circuit resistance, in ohms impedance, itself a vector quantity. Their prod-
uct, IZ, is also a vector quantity that will be
somewhat out of phase with the source voltage.
Equation B.2 The voltage drop under these circumstances is
the in-phase component of IZ.
Fortunately, it is not necessary to perform an
VDROP = IDR + IQX exact calculation using complex arithmetic to get
a sufficiently accurate voltage drop for UD trans-
where: VDROP = Voltage drop, in volts former and secondary configurations. Equation
B.2 produces a very close approximation to the
ID = Real component of current, in amperes
voltage drop for virtually all situations.
R = Supply circuit resistance, in ohms
The components of current needed for Equa-
IQ = Reactive component of current, in amperes tion B.2 are determined from the load current
X = Supply circuit reactance, in ohms and load power factor by using Equation B.3.
The R and X components of the supply circuit
impedance, Z, are found separately for the trans-
former and the secondary/service cables. After
Equation B.3
these values are found for each part of the cir-
cuit, the separate R values are totaled and the
ID = Icosθ separate X values are totaled to get the R and X
IQ = Isinθ values to use in Equation B.2.
In the case of the transformer, the impedance
is given on data sheets and nameplates as “%IZ.”
where: ID = Real component of current, in amperes
Equation B.4 can be used to convert this imped-
I = Measured load current, in amperes ance to ohms as seen by the secondary circuit.
cosθ = Power factor in decimal form After the transformer impedance, Z, in ohms
IQ = Reactive component of current, in amperes is found from Equation B.4, the next step is to
θ = Power angle, the arc cosine of the power factor find the resistive component, R, of this imped-
ance. An estimate of the winding losses of the
B
transformer is usually available from data gath-
Equation B.4
ered when purchasing transformers, and the R
E2(%IZ/100) value can be directly calculated from winding
ZT = losses by using Equation B.5.
(kVA)(1,000)
It is important that only winding losses should
be used in Equation B.5. Transformers also ex-
where: ZT = Impedance per leg or phase of transformer, in ohms
perience core losses, but this loss component
E = Voltage of leg or phase, in volts (120 volts, in most cases) does not affect the transformer R used in voltage
%IZ = Transformer percentage impedance drop calculations.
kVA = Transformer kVA rating per leg or phase (one-half the rating After the transformer’s Z and R are deter-
of single-phase transformers or one-third the rating of mined, the transformer reactance, X, can be
three-phase wye transformers) calculated with Equation B.6.
Equation B.6
Equation B.5
XT = ZT2 – RT2
E2W
RT =
(kVA ×1,000)2
where: XT = Transformer reactance, in ohms
where: RT = Transformer resistance, in ohms ZT = Transformer impedance, in ohms
E = Voltage of leg or phase, in volts (120 volts, in most cases) RT = Transformer resistance, in ohms
W = Transformer winding losses per leg or phase, in
watts (one-half of the winding losses of single-phase
Example B.1 illustrates a voltage drop calculation
transformers or one-third of the winding losses of three-
phase transformers) for a consumer service immediately adjacent to a
transformer. Consideration of secondary and ser-
kVA = Transformer kVA rating per leg or phase
vice cable impedances begins after this example.
EXAMPLE B.1: Transformer Voltage Drop Calculation.
Determine the transformer voltage drop for a 93-ampere load at 85% power factor served immediately adjacent to a
25-kVA, 120/240-volt single-phase transformer. The transformer has 3% impedance and 280 watts of winding losses.
The current components are obtained from Equation B.3: The transformer’s X is obtained from Equation B.6:
ID = I cos θ = (93)(0.85) = 79 amperes
θ = arc cosine (0.85) = 31.8° XT = ZT2 – RT2 = (0.03456)2 – (0.01290)2 = 0.03206Ω
IQ = I sin θ = (93)(sin 31.8°) = 49 amperes
The values needed by Equation B.2 are now available, so that equation
The transformer’s Z is obtained from Equation B.4: can be used to calculate the voltage drop:
E2(%IZ/100) (120)2(0.03)
ZT = = = 0.03456Ω VDROP = IDRT + IQXT = (79)(0.01290) + (49)(0.03206) =
(kVA)(1,000) 12,000
2.59 volts
The transformer’s R is obtained from Equation B.5:
This drop of 2.59 volts is on a 120-volt base. Refer to Table B.1 to see
E2W (120)2(0.03) that the amount of drop is within guidelines.
RT = = = 0.01290Ω
(kVA × 1,000)2 (12,000)2
3 8 0 – Ap p e n d i x B
B
In most actual situations, the consumer’s ser- ohms that are respectively added to the trans-
vice entrance is not immediately adjacent to the former RT and XT before Equation B.2 is used.
transformer. Therefore, it is necessary to include The resistance of secondary cables can be
secondary and service cable impedance in the found from standard references. Table B.2, taken
voltage drop calculation. This cable impedance from the Aluminum Electrical Conductor Hand-
consists of resistive (R) ohms and reactive (X) book, is an excellent compilation. For voltage
TABLE B.2: Resistance of Class B Concentric-Strand Aluminum Cable with Thermosetting and Thermoplastic Insulation for
Secondary Distribution Voltages (to 1 kV) at Various Temperatures and Typical Conditions of Installation (Ohms per 1,000
feet). Adapted from the Aluminum Electrical Conductor Handbook (1989)
60 Hz ac at 60°C 60 Hz ac at 75°C 60 Hz ac at 90°C
Multiconductor Multiconductor Multiconductor
One Single Cable or 2 One Single Cable or 2 One Single Cable or 2
Conductor in or 3 Single Conductor in or 3 Single Conductor in or 3 Single
Class B Air, Buried, or Conductors in Air, Buried, or in Conductors in Air, Buried, or in Conductors in
(AWG or dc at in Nonmetallic One Metallic dc at Nonmetallic One Metallic dc at Nonmetallic One Metallic
kcmil) 60°C* Conduit Conduit 75°C* Conduit Conduit 90°C* Conduit Conduit
6 0.7650 0.7650 0.7650 0.8080 0.8080 0.8080 0.8480 0.8480 0.8480
4 0.4830 0.4830 0.4830 0.5070 0.5070 0.5070 0.5330 0.5330 0.5330
3 0.3820 0.3820 0.3820 0.4020 0.4020 0.4020 0.4220 0.4220 0.4220
2 0.3030 0.3030 0.3030 0.3190 0.3190 0.3190 0.3350 0.3350 0.3350
1 0.2400 0.2400 0.2400 0.2530 0.2530 0.2530 0.2660 0.2660 0.2660
1/0 0.1910 0.1910 0.1910 0.2010 0.2010 0.2010 0.2110 0.2110 0.2110
2/0 0.1510 0.1510 0.1510 0.1590 0.1590 0.1590 0.1670 0.1670 0.1670
3/0 0.1190 0.1190 0.1200 0.1260 0.1260 0.1270 0.1320 0.1320 0.1330
4/0 0.0953 0.0954 0.0963 0.1010 0.1010 0.1020 0.1050 0.1060 0.1070
250 0.0806 0.0808 0.0822 0.0847 0.0850 0.0865 0.0890 0.0892 0.0908
300 0.0672 0.0674 0.0686 0.0706 0.0708 0.0720 0.0741 0.0744 0.0756
350 0.0575 0.0578 0.0593 0.0605 0.0608 0.0623 0.0635 0.0638 0.0654
400 0.0504 0.0507 0.0525 0.0530 0.0533 0.0552 0.0556 0.0560 0.0580
500 0.0403 0.0406 0.0428 0.0424 0.0427 0.0450 0.0445 0.0448 0.0472
600 0.0336 0.0340 0.0370 0.0353 0.0357 0.0381 0.0370 0.0374 0.0400
700 0.0288 0.0292 0.0320 0.0303 0.0307 0.0337 0.0318 0.0322 0.0353
750 0.0269 0.0273 0.0302 0.0282 0.0288 0.0317 0.0296 0.0302 0.0333
1,000 0.0201 0.0207 0.0239 0.0212 0.0218 0.0253 0.0222 0.0228 0.0265
1,250 0.0162 0.0176 0.0215 0.0169 0.0177 0.0216 0.0178 0.0186 0.0228
1,500 0.0135 0.0143 0.0184 0.0141 0.0150 0.0193 0.0148 0.0158 0.0203
1,750 0.0115 0.0124 0.0168 0.0121 0.0131 0.0177 0.0127 0.0137 0.0186
2,000 0.0101 0.0111 0.0158 0.0106 0.0117 0.0166 0.0111 0.0122 0.0173
* Calculated from ICEA resistance tables for Class B stranding and corrected for temperature.
Note. The metallic conduit is assumed to be steel. If aluminum is used, the effective resistance is about the same as for single conductor in nonmetallic
conduit to 4/0 size and, for larger sizes, is in the range of 1/2% to 2% more than the resistance of the conductor in nonmetallic conduit and, hence,
of little significance except in critical cases.
Transformer and Secondary Voltag e Dro p – 3 8 1
B
Equation B.7
A
2πƒ s
X= 0.0153 + 0.1404log10
1,000 r
where: X = Inductive reactance to neutral of one conductor, in ohms per

1,000 feet
s = Spacing between centers of conductors, in inches
r = Radius of the metal portion of the conductor, in inches,
including strand shielding, if any
f = Frequency, in Hertz (it is convenient to use 377 for 2π × 60) Equilateral Triangle s=A
drop studies, the resistance at 60°C should be

used unless the conductors are being loaded to
very near their thermal limits, which is not usu-
ally the case. A
A
The reactance of secondary cable is composed
of inductance and capacitance. However, the ef-
fect of shunt capacitance can be ignored in sec-
ondary voltage calculations because of its negligi-
Right Angle Triangle s = 1.122A
ble effect on the results. The inductive reactance
can be calculated with the following equations
and tables.
Equation B.7 determines the inductive reac- A A
tance of one line conductor.
The distances (assumed average effective)
for various conductor arrangements are shown
in Figure B.1.
Table B.3 is a table of corrections for Equa-
Symmetrical Flat s = 1.26A
tion B.7. In Table B.3, the term sector refers to
a single conductor in which the strands are
arranged approximately as a 120° section of a
circle as opposed to a round conductor. This
conductor configuration is not usually encoun-
tered in contemporary UD systems. The desig- B
A
nation single conductor refers to one of several

single conductors of a single circuit that lie
loosely together in one conduit, not bound
together or closely adjacent on a support. The
increase for random lay in this instance is the
result of unequal spacing of the conductors in
the conduit. C
Table B.4 gives conductor diameters (r = D/2) 3
Unequal s = (A × B × C)
and outside diameters for XLPE insulation as
defined in the footnote.
FIGURE B.1: Distance for Various Conductor
Arrangements.
3 8 2 – Ap p e n d i x B
B
TABLE B.3: Corrections for Multiconductor Cables. Adapted from the Aluminum Electrical
Conductor Handbook (1989).
Nonmagnetic Binder Magnetic Binder
Conductor Size Round Sector Round Sector
(kcmil, up to) Multiplying Factor
250 1.000 0.975 1.149 1.230
300 1.000 0.970 1.146 1.225
350 1.000 0.965 1.140 1.220
400 1.000 0.960 1.134 1.216
500 1.000 0.950 1.122 1.203
600 1.000 0.940 1.111 1.199
700 1.000 0.930 1.100 1.191
750 1.000 0.925 1.095 1.186
Single Conductors in Conduit Multiple Conductor Cables in Conduit
Nonmagnetic: Increase 20% for random lay Nonmagnetic: No correction
Magnetic: Increase 50% for magnetic effect Magnetic: Use value for round conductors with
and random lay magnetic binder
TABLE B.4: Comparison of Conductor Diameter and Approximate Cable Outside Diameter of Typical Single, Class B
Concentric-Strand Aluminum Cables. Voltages are ac line-to-line with grounded neutral* except as stated. Adapted
from the Aluminum Electrical Conductor Handbook (1989).
Approximate Outside Diameter of Cable Thermosetting or Thermoplastic Insulation (Inches)
Size (AWG Conductor Nonshielded Fully Shielded
or kcmil) Diameter (in.) 600 V 1 kV 5 kV** 5 kV 15 kV 25 kV 35 kV 46 kV
6 0.184 0.32 0.34 0.62 0.74
4 0.232 0.37 0.39 0.67 0.79
2 0.292 0.43 0.45 0.73 0.88 1.16 1.16
1 0.332 0.51 0.53 0.77 0.92 1.20 1.68
1/0 0.373 0.55 0.57 0.85 0.96 1.24 1.72 1.45
2/0 0.418 0.60 0.62 0.89 1.00 1.29 1.77 1.50
3/0 0.470 0.65 0.67 0.95 1.06 1.34 1.83 1.55 1.82
4/0 0.528 0.71 0.73 1.01 1.11 1.40 1.92 1.61 1.87
250 0.575 0.79 0.81 1.08 1.20 1.44 1.96 1.65 1.92
350 0.681 0.90 0.92 1.18 1.31 1.56 2.06 1.80 2.03
500 0.813 1.03 1.05 1.32 1.44 1.75 2.17 1.97 2.24
750 0.998 1.25 1.27 1.50 1.63 1.93 2.38 2.14 2.34
1,000 1.152 1.40 1.42 1.73 1.85 2.09 2.56 2.30 2.50
1,250 1.289 1.58 1.60 1.91 2.02 2.26 2.73
1,500 1.412 1.70 1.72 2.04 2.13 2.38 2.96
1,750 1.526 1.82 1.84 2.15 2.22 2.49 3.07
2,000 1.632 1.92 1.94 2.29 2.36 2.61 3.13
* For voltages through 5 kV, the diameters also apply if the neutral is ungrounded. For cables above 5 kV with ungrounded neutral or cables at 133% insulation
level, consult manufacturer’s lists.
** The 5-kV nonshielded cable, as well as all shielded cables, has strand shielding.
The listed overall diameters of 600-volt cables are from Column 4 of Table 5 of the NEC (1981) and are fairly representative of Type THW and triple-rated
RHW/RHH/USE unjacketed cable with XLPE insulation; the values are increased by 0.02 in. for 1 kV. The values in the other columns correspond closely
with those listed in ICEA No. S-94-649-2000, when increased to allow for jackets. By omitting the jacket, sometimes a lead sheath may be included
without increase of diameter. These diameters do not apply to cable with metallic armor. Although the listed values are generally suitable for preliminary
studies, important calculations should be made by using the actual diameter of the selected cable.
B
EXAMPLE B.2: Secondary Cable Resistance and Reactance.
Find the resistance and reactance per 1,000 feet for each conductor of a 250-kcmil, three-conductor, 600-volt
cable, aluminum, concentric stranded, 0.79-inch diameter in nonmagnetic conduit. The conductors are bound with
tape or twisted to maintain the conductors as an equilateral triangle (triplexed). The spacing between conductors
is equal to the outside diameter of a single conductor.
Determine the resistance per 1,000 feet of each conductor. From Table B.2, the ac resistance at 60°C is as follows:
R= 0.0808Ω/1,000 feet
Calculate the reactance per 1,000 feet of each conductor. From Equation B.7:
377 s
X= 0.0153 + 0.1404log10
1,000 r
where: s = 0.79 inches

r = Diameter ÷ 2 = 0.575 ÷ 2 = 0.2875, from Table B.4
377 0.79
X= 0.0153 + 0.1404log10 = 0.029Ω/1,000 feet
1,000 0.2875
From Table B.3, Corrections for Multiconductor Cables, no random-lay correction is necessary. If this cable was in
a magnetic conduit, the correction factor would be 1.149 and the reactance would be as follows:
0.029 × 1.149 = 0.033Ω/1,000 feet
Example B.2 illustrates the methods for calcu- that accurately estimating the conductor reac-
lating secondary cable resistance and reactance. tance is not as important as accurately estimat-
The results of Example B.2 show that the ing the resistance for normal load power factors.
conductor resistance (0.0808 Ω/1,000 feet) is Therefore, for most studies, the engineer may
nearly three times larger than the reactance get the conductor reactance directly from a
(0.029 Ω/1,000 feet) for 250-kcmil aluminum con- table rather than spend time calculating the
ductors. For smaller conductors, the resistance reactance from Equation B.7. Table B.5, taken
increases by a larger factor than the reactance, from the Aluminum Electrical Conductor Hand-
so the disparity between the two is even greater. book (1989), may be used to quickly estimate
Examining Equation B.2, the basic voltage drop conductor reactance. This table assumes ran-
equation, reveals that the voltage drop depends dom lay of conductors, so the values tabulated
more on resistance than reactance for power need to be divided by 1.2 if tightly bound
factors above 71 percent. At 71 percent power cables are being used.
factor, ID (real component of current) begins to Example B.3 is a continuation of Example B.1
be greater than IQ (reactive component of cur- to illustrate the combined effect of transformer
rent). It can be concluded from these observations and cable impedances on voltage drop.
3 8 4 – Ap p e n d i x B
B
TABLE B.5: 60 Hz Reactance of Conductors in the Same Conduit (Ohms per 1,000 feet).
Source: Aluminum Electrical Conductor Handbook (1989).
Nonmagnetic Conduit (Aluminum) Magnetic Conduit (Steel)
Conductor Covering Thickness (Insulation + Cover) (mils) Conductor Covering Thickness (Insulation + Cover) (mils)
Wire Size
(AWG
or kcmil) 60 80 95 110 125 140 150 170 190 60 80 95 110 125 140 155 170 190
6 0.0404 0.0430 0.0455 0.0505 0.0537 0.0568
4 0.0386 0.0402 0.0424 0.0475 0.0503 0.0530
2 0.0359 0.0379 0.0398 0.0449 0.0473 0.0497
1 0.0367 0.0384 0.0400 0.0415 0.0430 0.0443 0.0458 0.0480 0.0500 0.0519 0.0538 0.0554
1/0 0.0357 0.0373 0.0387 0.0402 0.0416 0.0428 0.0446 0.0466 0.0484 0.0502 0.0520 0.0535
2/0 0.0348 0.0363 0.0376 0.0389 0.0402 0.0414 0.0435 0.0453 0.0470 0.0487 0.0503 0.0517
3/0 0.0339 0.0353 0.0366 0.0378 0.0390 0.0401 0.0424 0.0442 0.0459 0.0473 0.0488 0.0501
4/0 0.0332 0.0344 0.0356 0.0367 0.0378 0.0388 0.0415 0.0431 0.0445 0.0459 0.0473 0.0486
250 0.0338 0.0349 0.0360 0.0370 0.0380 0.0390 0.0399 0.0423 0.0436 0.0450 0.0453 0.0475 0.0487 0.0499
300 0.0333 0.0342 0.0353 0.0363 0.0372 0.0381 0.0390 0.0416 0.0428 0.0441 0.0453 0.0464 0.0475 0.0482
350 0.0328 0.0337 0.0347 0.0356 0.0364 0.0373 0.0382 0.0410 0.0421 0.0433 0.0445 0.0456 0.0467 0.0477
400 0.0324 0.0333 0.0342 0.0351 0.0359 0.0367 0.0375 0.0405 0.0416 0.0427 0.0439 0.0449 0.0459 0.0469
500 0.0318 0.0326 0.0334 0.0343 0.0350 0.0358 0.0365 0.0397 0.0407 0.0418 0.0428 0.0438 0.0447 0.0457
600 0.0321 0.0329 0.0336 0.0343 0.0350 0.0357 0.0401 0.0411 0.0420 0.0429 0.0438 0.0447
700 0.0317 0.0324 0.0331 0.0338 0.0345 0.0351 0.0397 0.0405 0.0414 0.0422 0.0431 0.0439
750 0.0315 0.0322 0.0329 0.0335 0.0342 0.0349 0.0394 0.0403 0.0411 0.0419 0.0428 0.0436
The above tabular values include a 20% adjustment for random lay of single conductors in a nonmagnetic conduit and a 50% adjustment for random-lay and
magnetic effect in steel conduit. If the conductors are part of a multiconductor cable with fixed spacing, multiply the tabular values in the left-hand section by
0.833. For the right-hand section in such a case, multiply the adjusted left-hand section values by the magnetic-binder adjustment factors shown in Table B.3.
Thus, for a triplexed 250-kcmil cable with minimum 155-mil insulation thickness of each conductor, the reactance when in nonmagnetic conduit is 0.0380 ×
0.0833 = 0.0316 ohms per 1,000 ft., and when in magnetic circuit is 0.0316 × 1.149 = 0.0363 ohms per 1,000 ft.
B
EXAMPLE B.3: Complete Secondary Voltage Drop Calculation.
Determine the total transformer and cable voltage drop that will occur if the consumer service of Example B.1 is
served over 130 feet of AWG No. 1/0 aluminum secondary triplexed UD cable with 80-mil insulation thickness.
The transformer and load current conditions are the same as given in Example B.1.
From Table B.2, the resistance of AWG No. 1/0 aluminum conductor is 0.191Ω/1,000 feet at 60°C. For the
actual length of 130 feet, the resistance is as follows:
130
R= (0.191) = 0.02483Ω
1,000
The reactance is obtained from Table B.5, divided by 1.2 to adjust for close spacing, and prorated for the
130-foot actual distance:
130 0.0357
X= = 0.00387Ω
1,000 1.2
Next, the total of transformer and cable resistances and reactances is calculated (see Example B.1 for
transformer values):
RTOT = RT + R = 0.01290 + 0.02483 = 0.03773Ω

XTOT = XT + X = 0.03206 + 0.00387 = 0.03593Ω
Equation B.2 can now be used to calculate the total secondary voltage drop (see Example B.1 for the
determination of the ID and IQ values):
VTOT-DROP = IDRTOT + IQ XTOT = (79)(0.03773) + (49)(0.03593) = 4.74 volts
Comparing this result with the guidelines of Table B.1 shows the 4.74-volt drop is excessive. However, if the
location is fairly close to the substation, the 4.74-volt drop is acceptable because it is less than the 6-volt limit
applicable under that circumstance.
Voltage Flicker Secondary flicker usually is caused by an inrush voltage flicker is calculated either on a 120-volt
of current into consumer equipment. This inrush base or as a percentage of nominal voltage. Al-
is usually associated with motor starting and can lowable levels of voltage dip or flicker are very
be five to six times the normal full-load-rated subjective. At low levels, some voltage dips go
amperes of the motor. Although motors are the unnoticed. At slightly higher levels, the con-
most common cause of inrush, other electrical sumer becomes aware of the voltage dips, but
equipment such as welders, arc furnaces, or the magnitude and frequency are tolerable.
large blocks of electric heat can also cause prob- However, as the magnitude or frequency of the
lems. The problem with the sudden current in- voltage dip increases, the dips become annoy-
crease is that the secondary system (transformer ing. The word frequency used in flicker evalua-
and conductors) must carry this momentary cur- tion is a reference to how often the voltage dips
rent with its accompanying voltage drop. The occur, such as three per hour or four per day.
3 8 6 – Ap p e n d i x B
B
Figure B.2 is a chart for evaluating the magni- greater amount of flicker is to be tolerated to
tude of permissible voltage flicker. This chart ap- control the costs of correction to a lower level.
pears in RUS Bulletin 160-1 and in ANSI standards. However, it is important to understand that areas
The limits are based on expected consumer an- exist where special problems preclude strict ad-
noyance levels, which is usually the concern. herence to this interpretation of how the flicker
However, if the voltage dip is allowed to be- guidelines are to be applied in actual cases.
come very severe, equipment operation may be The impedance of the primary system ahead
impaired or the motor that is causing the voltage of the transformer is sometimes a significant
dip may not maintain sufficient terminal voltage contributor to the total voltage dip during a
to start. large secondary current inrush. The value of this
For services to individual residential consumers impedance is available from primary fault cur-
in UD developments, the cooperative should try rent calculations performed in conjunction with
to limit voltage flicker to the level shown in Fig- sectionalizing studies. A complete analysis of
ure B.2 marked “Flicker Limits for Installations the issue is beyond the scope of this appendix.
Serving Many Consumers.” The higher flicker However, Example B.4 illustrates the method for
level, marked “Revised Flicker Limits for Installa- translating primary impedance values to the sec-
tions Serving Few Consumers,” should be ap- ondary. The general method for calculating the
plied only in cases in which the cooperative has magnitude of voltage flicker is the same as pre-
discussed the flicker problems with the involved viously demonstrated for voltage drops caused
consumers and both parties have agreed that a by load current.
10 10
Voltage Flicker Limits Revised
120V Basis
9 9
Revised Threshold of Objection
8 8
7 Flicker Limits for Installations 7

Serving Few Consumers
6 6
Volts Change
Volts Change
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
Flicker Limits for Installations
Serving Many Consumers
1 1
Revised Threshold of Perception
0 0
4 8 12 1 2 5 10 20 30 1 2 5 10 20 30 1 2 5 10 20 30
Per Day Per Hour Per Minute Per Second
FIGURE B.2: Permissible Voltage Flicker Limits.

B
EXAMPLE B.4. Voltage Flicker Calculation.
The transformer and service arrangement described in Example B.3 is located where the primary system line-to-
ground bolted fault current is 750 amperes. The primary line-to-neutral voltage is 7.2 kV, and the fault X/R ratio at the
sample location is 1.0. Estimate the voltage dip at the service when an 18-ampere, 230-volt, air-conditioning com-
pressor is starting.
The transformer and secondary cable impedances are the same as cal- The total supply resistance and reactance at the point of the service are
culated in Example B.3. The following procedure is used to estimate found by adding the reflected primary values to the previous totals
the additional impedance reflected from the primary system: from Example B.3.
Primary Voltage 7,200 volts RTOT = 0.03773 + 0.00378 = 0.04151Ω

ZP = = = 9.6Ω
Fault Current 750 amperes XTOT = 0.03593 + 0.00378 = 0.03971Ω
When reflected through the transformer to the secondary side, this Because of the great variety of air-conditioning equipment that exists,
impedance is reduced by the square of the transformer turns ratio: it is often difficult to obtain the starting amperes and starting power
factor for the equipment involved in a particular application. A conser-
ES 2 240 2 vative estimate is to use a starting current of seven times the full-load
ZS = ZP = 9.6 = 0.01067Ω
EP 7,200 running current. Starting power factors for single-phase motors also
vary widely. A reasonable estimate is 80 percent if no specific infor-
The impedances calculated in Example B.3 are for one leg only of the mation is known. In light of these guidelines, the following values are
120/240-volt single-phase service. The impedance, ZS, above includes estimated for ID and IQ for this example:
both legs and must be divided by two to put it on the 120-volt base
used in Example B.3. ID = (7)(18)(0.8) = 101 amperes
IQ = (7)(18)(0.6) = 76 amperes
ZS 0.01067Ω
= = 0.00534Ω
2 2 Equation B.2 can now be used to estimate the voltage dip.
A system X/R ratio of 1.0 means that the system R and X are equal,
VDIP = IDR + IQX = (101)(0.04151) + (76)(0.03971) =
and that each is equal to Z/√2. Therefore,
4.19 + 3.02 = 7.21 volts
RS X 0.00534Ω
= S= = 0.00378Ω The expected voltage dip of 7.21 volts on a 120-volt base is below the
2 2 2 threshold of objection for 10 starts per hour (see Figure B.2), and it is
within the stated guideline for two starts per hour for installations serv-
ing few consumers. However, it is substantially above the allowable
limits for residential consumers. It can be concluded that the arrange-
ment is marginally acceptable if consumer agreement is obtained.
Sample Specification UGC2 for 600-Volt Secondary Underground Power C a b l e – 3 8 9
C Sample Specification UGC2

for 600-Volt Secondary
Underground Power Cable
Table of Contents 1. Scope 6. Tests

2. General Specifications 7. Miscellaneous
3. Referenced Specifications 8. Markings
4. Conductor 9. Multiconductor Cable Assemblies
5. Insulation
Abbreviations ANSI American National Standards Institute

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AWG American Wire Gauge
HDPE High Density Polyethylene
ICEA Insulated Cable Engineers Association, Inc.
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
KCMIL Thousand Circular Mil
LDPE Low Density Polyethylene
MDPE Medium Density Polyethylene
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association
NESC National Electrical Safety Code
NRECA National Rural Electric Cooperative Association
PE Polyethylene
REA Rural Electrification Administration
RUS Rural Utility Services
USE Underground Service Entrance Cable (UL Approved)
XLPE Cross-Linked Polyethylene
1. Scope This document is to provide a sample specifi- The NRECA Transmission and Distribution
cation for 600-volt single-conductor and multi- Underground Subcommittee prepared this
conductor secondary underground power cable. Sample Specification UGC2.
3 9 0 – Ap p e n d i x C
C
2. General a. This specification covers the construction, d. Where provisions of Sample Specification
Specifications mechanical, and electrical requirements for UGC2 conflict with the presently approved
single- and multiconductor 600-volt cables REA Bulletin U-2 or its successor document,
with standard cross-linked polyethylene and RUS may require conditional approval.
ruggedized composite cross-linked polyethyl- e. Cable insulation shall be capable of
ene extruded insulations. The cables shall be operating continuously in both wet and dry
suitable for use in direct-burial installation in locations at a conductor temperature of 90°C
ducts, conduits, or air in wet or dry locations. under normal and 130°C under emergency
b. Cable insulation shall be cross-linked poly- operating conditions. The cable shall have
ethylene or ruggedized cross-linked polyeth- an allowable conductor temperature of
ylene as specified by purchaser. 250°C under short-circuit conditions.
c. Conductor sizes No. 6 AWG and larger for
copper and aluminum are included.
3. Referenced a. Cable shall be in compliance, as noted, with • ASTM B 787, “Specification for 19 Wire
Specifications the latest revisions of the following industry Combination Unilay-Stranded Copper
standards: Conductors for Subsequent Insulation”
• ASTM B 800, “Specification for 8000
• ICEA S-81-570, “Standard for 600 Volt Series Aluminum Alloy Wire for Electrical
Rated Cable of Ruggedized Design for Di- Purposes—Annealed and Intermediate
rect Burial Installations as Single Conduc- Tempers”
tors or Assemblies of Single Conductors” • ASTM B 801, “Specification for Concen-
• ICEA S-105-692, “Standard for 600-Volt tric-Lay-Stranded Conductors of 8000
Single Layer Thermoset Insulated Utility Series Aluminum Alloy for Subsequent
Underground Distribution Cable” Covering or Insulation”
• ASTM B 3, “Specification for Soft or • ASTM B 901, “Specifications for Compressed
Annealed Copper Wire” Round Stranded Aluminum Conductors
• ASTM B 8, “Specification for Concentric- Using Single Input Wire Construction”
Lay-Stranded Copper Conductors, Hard, • ASTM B 902, “Specifications for Com-
Medium-Hard, or Soft” pressed Round Stranded Copper Conduc-
• ASTM B 230, “Specification for Aluminum tors Using Single Input Wire Construction”
1350-H19 Wire for Electrical Purposes” • ASTM D 1248, “Specification for Poly-
• ASTM B 231, “Specification for Concentric- ethylene Plastics Molding and Extrusion
Lay-Stranded Aluminum 1350 Conductors” Materials”
• ASTM B 400, “Specification for Compact • ASTM D 1693, “Test Method for Environ-
Round Concentric-Lay-Stranded Aluminum mental Stress-Cracking of Ethylene Plastics”
1350 Conductors”
• ASTM B 496, “Specification for Compact b. Availability of Publications
Round Concentric-Lay-Stranded Copper
(1) Copies of the American National Stan-
Conductors”
dards Institute/Insulated Cable Engi-
• ASTM B 609, “Specification for Aluminum
neers Association, Inc. (ANSI/ICEA),
1350 Round Wire, Annealed and Interme-
publications can be obtained from
diate Tempers, for Electrical Purposes”
Global Engineering Documents for a fee
• ASTM B 784, “Specification for Modified
at the address indicated below:
Concentric Lay Stranded Copper Conduc-
tors for Use in Insulated Electrical Cables” IHS Global Engineering Documents
• ASTM B 786, “Specification for 19 Wire 15 Inverness Way East
Combination Unilay-Stranded Aluminum Englewood, CO 80112
1350 Conductors for Subsequent Insulation” Telephone: 877.413.5184
E Mail: global@ihs.com
Web Site: global.ihs.com
C
(2) Copies of American Society for Testing (3) Copies of the National Electrical Safety Code
and Materials (ASTM) publications refer- (NESC) can be obtained from IEEE for a fee
enced in this specification can be ob- at the address indicated below:
tained from ASTM for a fee at the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics
address indicated below:
Engineers, Inc. (IEEE)
ASTM IEEE Service Center
100 Barr Harbor Drive 445 Hoes Lane
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959 Piscataway, NJ 08855
Telephone: 610.832.9585 Telephone: 800.678.4333
Web Site: astm.org Web Site: shop.ieee.org/ieeestore
4. Conductor a. Conductors shall be copper or aluminum (3) Compact-round stranded in accordance

as specified by the purchaser. with ASTM Specification B-400. Combi-
b. Copper conductors shall be Class B nation unilay stranded aluminum phase
stranded annealed copper in accordance conductors shall conform to ASTM B 786.
with ASTM B-3 or ASTM B-8. Combination unilay stranded Series 8000
c. Aluminum conductors shall be one of aluminum alloy conductors shall comply
the following: with ASTM B 800.
(4) Single-input-wire (SIW) stranded and
(1) Solid EC grade aluminum; either soft,
compressed in accordance with ASTM B
half-hard, or three-quarter hard in accor-
901 and ANSI/ICEA S-105-692 and
dance with ASTM Specification B-230 or
ANSI/ICEA S-81-570. SIW stranded
ASTM Specification B-609.
Series 8000 aluminum alloy conductor
(2) Class B stranded EC grade aluminum;
shall comply with ASTM B 800.
either three-quarter hard or hard-drawn
in accordance with ASTM Specification d. The solid conductor and center strand of
B-230 or ASTM Specification B-231, or stranded conductors shall be indented with
Series 8000 aluminum alloy in accor- the manufacturer’s name and year of manu-
dance with ASTM B 800. facture at regular intervals with no more than
12 inches (0.3 m) between repetitions.
5. Insulation a. Insulation shall be one of the following as lication S-81-570, and the finished ca-
specified by the purchaser: ble shall meet the mechanical abuse
requirements specified in Section 6.3.
(1) Ruggedized Construction
The physical, electrical, and mechan-
I Ruggedized composite cross-linked ical abuse requirements shall be
polyethylene insulation composed tested in accordance with ICEA Pub-
of either: (a) an inner layer of black lication S-81-570.
low- or medium-density polyethyl- I The nominal composite insulation
ene and an outer layer of black wall thickness and each layer form-
high-density polyethylene firmly ing the composite insulation wall
bonded together, or (b) a single (LDPE or MDPE inner layer and
layer of black crosslinked high HDPE outer layer) shall have a nomi-
density polyethylene. nal thickness as shown in Table C.1.
I The composite insulation shall com- I The composite wall minimum thick-
ply with the physical and electrical ness shall not be less than 90 percent
properties as indicated in ICEA Pub- of these values.
3 9 2 – Ap p e n d i x C
C
TABLE C.1: Nominal Composite Insulation Layer Thickness (Ruggedized) TABLE C.2: Nominal Insulation Thickness
(Non-Ruggedized)
Composite
Nominal Thickness of Each Layer for
or Single-Layer Conductor Size Insulation Wall
Composite Insulation Construction
Conductor Size Insulation Wall (AWG or kcmil) Thickness (mils)
(AWG or kcmil) Thickness (mils) Inner Layer (mils) Outer Layer (mils)
6-2 60
6-2 60 30.0 30.0
1-500 80
1-4/0 80 40.0 40.0
*250-500 *95 *47.5 *47.5 The minimum thickness shall not be less
than 90 percent of these values.
501-1,000 110 55.0 55.0
b. If requested by the purchaser, the cable shall
* Or 80 mil (40/40 mil) thickness, as specified by user.
meet the requirements of and labeled as
complying with Underwriters Laboratories
(2) Alternative: Non-Ruggedized standards for Type USE 600-volt single-
Construction conductor cable.
c. Mechanical Abuse Requirements
I Standard cross-linked polyethylene
(Ruggedized Design Only)
insulation that meets the require-
ments of ICEA Publication S-105- (1) Tests are to be performed on
692. The nominal thickness of completed cable, with No. 1/0 AWG
insulation shall not be less than conductor, in accordance with ICEA
shown in Table C.2. Publication S-81-570.
6. Tests a. Qualification Tests. As part of a request for b. Production tests shall be performed in accor-
RUS consideration for acceptance and listing, dance with ICEA S-81-570 and ICEA 692. If
the manufacturer shall submit certified test requested by the purchaser, a certified copy
data results to RUS that detail full compli- of the results of all production tests performed
ance with ICEA S-81-570 for ruggedized in accordance to this section shall be furnished
cable design. on all orders. For all orders in excess of 10,000
feet, the manufacturer shall furnish results of
(1) Test results shall confirm compliance production tests unless the purchaser waives
with each of the material tests, produc- this requirement through written instructions.
tion sampling tests, tests on completed c. For Type USE cable, the manufacturer shall
cable, and qualification tests included perform all production tests required by
in ICEA S-81-570. Underwriters Laboratories.
d. Frequency of sample tests shall be in accor-
dance with ICEA T-26-465/NEMA WC53.
7. Miscellaneous a. Watertight seals shall be applied to all cable c. A durable label shall be securely attached to
ends to prevent the entrance of moisture dur- each reel of cable. The label shall indicate
ing transit or storage. Each end of the cable the purchaser’s name and address, purchase
shall be firmly and properly secured to the reel. order number, cable description, reel num-
b. Cable shall be placed on shipping reels suit- ber, feet of cable on the reel, tare and gross
able for protecting it from damage during weight of the reel, and beginning and end-
shipment and handling. Reels shall be pro- ing sequential footage numbers.
vided with a suitable covering to help iden-
tify shipping damage to the cable.
C
8. Markings All cable provided under this specification shall material, type and thickness of insulation, volt-
have suitable markings on the outer surface of age rating, and year of manufacture. There shall
the jacket at sequential intervals not exceeding be no more than six inches (0.15 m) of un-
two feet (0.61 m). The legend shall indicate the marked spacing between legend sequences.
name of the manufacturer, conductor size and
9. Multiconductor a. Cable shall be furnished in multiconductor d. A neutral conductor shall be clearly identified
Cable assemblies if specified by the purchaser. in each assembly. Neutral identification shall
Assemblies Such assemblies shall consist of two (du- be in the form of three extruded weather re-
plex), three (triplex), or four (quadraplex) sistant yellow stripes 120° apart. Each stripe
single-conductor cables which individually shall cover a minimum of 20 percent of the
meet all requirements of this specification. neutral outer circumference. Stripes shall
b. The cable assembly shall meet all require- also be durable under conditions typically
ments of ICEA S-105-692 or ICEA S-81-570 found in direct burial installations.
as applicable.
(1) A solid yellow neutral insulation
c. A reduced neutral conductor (if specified)
shall be supplied if specified by
shall be no more than two standard sizes
the purchaser.
smaller than the phase conductor and no
smaller than #2 AWG aluminum or #4 AWG e. Multiconductor assemblies shall be furnished
copper or, where the phase conductors are with a lay not exceeding sixty (60) times the
smaller than #2 AWG aluminum or #4 AWG diameter of an individual cable.
copper, the neutral conductor shall be the f. Only one cable within a multiconductor as-
same size as the phase conductor. sembly shall have sequential footage markings.
Checklist for Information Require m en t s – 3 9 5
D Checklist for Information

Requirements
Project Information Checklist
(1) Delivery is: 1φ 3φ
(2) Service voltage needed: 120/240 volts

208/120 volts, grounded wye
480/277 volts, grounded wye
240 volts, delta
480 volts, delta
Other ______________________________________________________
(3) Connected loads
Residential kW pf Diversity
Heating*
Cooling*
Water heater
Range/oven
Miscellaneous
*If available, record the locked rotor amps (LRA) of the largest compressor: LRA = __________ Amperes
Commercial kW or Hp pf Diversity
Heating
Cooling
Lighting
Base load (receptacles, small motors)
Water heater
Process machinery
Large motor loads
Size (horsepower) of largest motor started across line: _________________
Number of times started per day: _________________
3 9 6 – Ap p e n d i x D
D
(4) Project Schedule
Developer/Contractor Schedule Planned Date Actual Date

Temporary power service needed
Permanent power service needed
Roadways cut
Property pins (front and back) in place and lot numbers displayed
Final grade established
Roads paved
Sidewalks and curbing installed
Start Date Completion Date
Utility Schedule Planned Actual Planned Actual
Water/sewer
Telephone
Cable television
Gas
Power
(5) Copies of Pertinent Plans
Plans Date Received

a. Subdivision Plat
b. Grading Plan
c. Utility Installation Plans
Water/sewer/surface drainage
Telephone
Cable television
Traffic control
Streetlight circuits
(6) Consumer-Owned Underground Facilities:
Water line
Sewer line
Septic tank and drain lines
Satellite dish cable
Irrigation system
Electric lines
Other ___________________________________________________________________________
Specification UGC1 – 3 9 7
E Sample Specification for 15-, 25-,

and 35-KV Primary Underground
Medium Voltage Concentric Neutral
Cable (Specification UGC1)
Table of Contents 1. Purpose 7. Insulation Shielding

2. General Specifications 8. Concentric Neutral Conductor
3. Referenced Specifications 9. Overall Outer Jacket
4. Conductor 10. Dimensional Tolerances
5. Conductor Shield (Stress Control Layer) 11. Tests
6. Insulation 12. Miscellaneous
Abbreviations ac Alternating Current

ANSI American National Standards Institute
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AWG American Wire Gauge
EPR Ethylene Propylene Rubber
ICEA Insulated Cable Engineers Association, Inc.
LDPE Low Density Polyethylene
LLDPE Linear Low Density Polyethylene
RUS U.S. Department of Agriculture Rural Development, Electric Program
TR-XLPE Tree Retardant Cross-Linked Polyethylene
XLPE Cross-Linked Polyethylene
1. Purpose a. This document is to provide a sample speci- this Sample Specification UGC1. The require-
fication for the purchase of medium voltage ments of this specification are generally con-
15-, 25-, and 35-kV single-phase and multi- sistent with RUS’s proposed changes to REA
phase medium voltage underground power Bulletin 50-70 (U-1). When accepted, the new
cable. The NRECA Transmission and Distrib- RUS document will be Bulletin 1728F-U1.
ution Underground Subcommittee prepared
2. General a. This specification details recommended (35-kV rated) underground distribution systems
Specifications requirements for 15-, 25-, and 35-kV power with multigrounded neutral. Cable complying
cables for use on 12.5/7.2-kV (15-kV rated), with this specification shall consist of a single
24.9/14.4-kV (25-kV rated), and 34.5/19.9-kV solid or strand-filled conductor which is
3 9 8 – Ap p e n d i x E
E
insulated with tree-retardant cross-linked and 1/0 (53.5 mm2) through 1,000 kcmil (507
polyethylene (TR-XLPE) or ethylene propy- mm2) for 35-kV cable.
lene rubber (EPR), with concentrically wound d. Except where provisions therein conflict
copper neutral conductors covered by a with the requirements of this specification,
nonconducting or semiconducting jacket. the cable shall meet all applicable provisions
b. The cable may be used in singlephase and of ANSI/ICEA S-94-649.
multiphase circuits. e. Where provisions of this specification con-
c. Acceptable conductor sizes are: No. 2 AWG flict with the presently approved REA Bul-
(33.6 mm2) through 1,000 kcmil (507 mm2) letin 50-70 (U1) or its successor document
for 15-kV cable, No. 1 AWG (42.4 mm2) (1728F-U1), RUS may require conditional
through 1,000 kcmil (507 mm2) for 25-kV, approval.
3. Referenced a. The following specifications/standards • ASTM B 786, “Specification for 19 Wire

Specifications are considered pertinent to this sample Combination Unilay-Stranded Aluminum
specification: 1350 Conductors for Subsequent Insulation”
• ASTM B 787, “Specification for 19 Wire
• ANSI/ICEA S-94-649, “Standard for Combination Unilay-Stranded Copper
Concentric Neutral Cables Rated Conductors for Subsequent Insulation”
5,000–46,000 Volts” • ASTM B 835, “Specification for Compact
• ANSI/IEEE C2, “National Electrical Round Stranded Copper Conductors Using
Safety Code” Single Input Wire Construction”
• ICEA S-97-682, “Utility Shielded Power Ca- • ASTM B 836, “Specification for Compact
bles Rated 5 Through 46 kV” Round Stranded Aluminum Conductors
• ICEA T-31-610, “Guide for Conducting a Using Single Input Wire Construction”
Longitudinal Water Penetration Resistance • ASTM B 901, “Specifications for Com-
Test for Sealed Conductor” pressed Round Stranded Aluminum Conduc-
• ICEA T-32-645, “Guide for Establishing tors Using Single Input Wire Construction”
Compatibility of Sealed Conductor Filler • ASTM B 902, “Specifications for Com-
Compounds with Conductor Stress Con- pressed Round Stranded Copper Conduc-
trol Materials” tors Using Single Input Wire Construction”
• ASTM B 3, “Specification for Soft or • ASTM D 412, “Test Methods for Vulcan-
Annealed Copper Wire” ized Rubber and Thermoplastic Rubbers
• ASTM B 8, “Specification for Concentric- and Thermoplastic Elastomers-Tension”
Lay-Stranded Copper Conductors, Hard, • ASTM D 746, “Test Method for Brittleness
Medium-Hard, or Soft” Temperature of Plastics and Elastomers
• ASTM B 230, “Specification for Aluminum by Impact”
1350-H19 Wire for Electrical Purposes” • ASTM D 1248, “Specification for Poly-
• ASTM B 231, “Specification for Concentric- ethylene Plastics Molding and Extrusion
Lay-Stranded Aluminum 1350 Conductors” Materials”
• ASTM B 400, “Specification for Compact • ASTM D 1693, “Test Method for Environ-
Round Concentric-Lay-Stranded Aluminum mental Stress-Cracking of Ethylene Plastics”
1350 Conductors” • ASTM D 2275, “Test Method for Voltage
• ASTM B 496, “Specification for Compact Endurance of Solid Electrical Insulating
Round Concentric-Lay-Stranded Copper Materials Subjected to Partial Discharges
Conductors” (Corona) on the Surface”
• ASTM B 609, “Specification for Aluminum • ASTM D 2765, “Test Methods for Determi-
1350 Round Wire, Annealed and Interme- nation of Gel Content and Swell Ratio of
diate Tempers, for Electrical Purposes” Cross-Linked Ethylene Plastics”
E
• ASTM D 3349, “Test Method for Absorp- (2) Copies of American Society for Testing
tion Coefficient of Ethylene Polymer and Materials (ASTM) publications refer-
Material Pigmented with Carbon Black” enced in this specification can be ob-
• ASTM D 4496, “Test Method for DC tained from ASTM for a fee at the
Resistance or Conductance of Moderately address indicated below:
Conductive Materials”
ASTM
• ASTM E 96, “Test Methods for Water
100 Barr Harbor Drive
Vapor Transmission of Materials”
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
Telephone: 610.832.9585
b. Availability of Publications
Web Site: astm.org
(1) Copies of the American National Stan-
dards Institute/Insulated Cable Engi- (3) Copies of the National Electrical Safety
neers Association, Inc. (ANSI/ICEA) Code (NESC) can be obtained from IEEE
S-94-649 publication can be obtained for a fee at the address indicated below:
from IHS for a fee at the address indi-
Institute of Electrical and Electronics
cated below:
Engineers, Inc. (IEEE)
IHS IEEE Service Center
15 Inverness Way East 445 Hoes Lane
Englewood, CO 80112 Piscataway, NJ 08854
Telephone: 303.397.7956 or 877.413.5187 Telephone: 800.678.4333
Fax: 303.397.2740 Web Site: shop.ieee.org/ieeestore
E-Mail: global@ihs.com
Web Site: global.ihs.com
4. Conductor a. Central phase conductors shall be copper or stranding. Compact round concentric-lay-
aluminum as specified by the purchaser stranded phase conductors shall conform to
within the limits of section 2.c. ASTM B 400. Combination unilay stranded
b. Central copper phase conductors shall be aluminum phase conductors shall conform
annealed copper in accordance with ASTM B3. to ASTM B 786. If not specified otherwise by
Concentric-lay-stranded phase conductors shall the purchaser, stranded phase conductors
conform to ASTM B 8 for Class B stranding. shall be class B compressed strand.
Compact round concentric-lay-stranded phase
d. The interstices between the strands of
conductors shall conform to ASTM B 496.
stranded conductors shall be filled with a
Combination unilay stranded phase conductors
material designed to prevent the longitu-
shall conform to ASTM B 787. If not specified
dinal migration of water that might enter
otherwise by the purchaser, stranded phase
the conductor. This material shall be
conductors shall be Class B compressed strand.
compatible with the conductor and con-
c. Central aluminum phase conductors shall be
ductor shield materials. The outer sur-
one of the following:
faces of the strands that form the outer
(1) Solid: Aluminum 1350, H14 or H24, H16 layer of the stranded conductor shall be
or H26, in accordance with ASTM B 609. free of the strand fill material. Compatibil-
(2) Stranded: Aluminum 1350, H14 or H24, ity of the strand fill material with the con-
H16 or H26, in accordance with ASTM B ductor shield shall be tested and shall be
609. Concentric-lay-stranded (includes in compliance with ICEA T-32-645. Water
compressed) phase conductors shall penetration shall be tested and shall be in
conform to ASTM B 231 for Class B compliance with ICEA T-31-610.
4 0 0 – Ap p e n d i x E
E
e. The center strand of stranded conductors intervals with no more than 12 inches
shall be indented with the manufacturer’s (0.3 m) between repetitions.
name and year of manufacture at regular
5. Conductor a. A non-conducting (for discharge-resistant

TABLE E.1: Extruded Conductor Shield
Shield (Stress EPR) or semiconducting shield (stress con- Thickness.
Control Layer) trol layer) meeting the applicable require-
ments of ANSI/ICEA S-94-649 shall be Conductor Size Extruded Shield Thickness
extruded around the central conductor. AWG Minimum Point
b. The minimum thickness at any point shall be or kcmil mm2 Mils mm
in accordance with ANSI/ICEA S-94-649 ex- 8–4/0 8.37–107 12 0.30
cept minimum thickness requirements shall
212–550 107–279 16 0.41
also be met at all points. See Table E.1.
c. The conductor shield shall have a tempera- 551–1,000 279–507 20 0.51
ture rating equal to, or higher than, that of
the insulation.
d. The void and protrusion limits on the con-
ductor shield shall be in compliance with
the ANSI/ICEA S-94-649.
6. Insulation a. The insulation shall conform to the require- b. The thickness of insulation shall be as shown
ments of ANSI/ICEA publication S-94-649 and in Table E.2.
may either be tree retardant cross-linked poly- c. The contamination, void, and protrusion lim-
ethylene (TR-XLPE) or ethylene propylene its on the insulation shall be in compliance
rubber (EPR), as specified by the purchaser. with the ANSI/ICEA S-94-649.
TABLE E.2: Nominal, Minimum, and Maximum Insulation Thickness.
Cable Rated Voltage Nominal Thickness Minimum Thickness Maximum Thickness

15 kV 220 mils (5.59 mm) 210 mils (5.33 mm) 250 mils (6.35 mm)
7. Insulation a. A semiconducting thermosetting polymeric the requirements of ANSI/ICEA S-94-649 will

Shielding layer meeting the requirements of ANSI/ be allowable on discharge-resistant EPR cable.
ICEA S-94-649 shall be extruded tightly over b. The thickness of the extruded insulation
the insulation to serve as an electrostatic shield and the concentric neutral indent shall
shield and protective covering. The shield be in accordance with ANSI/ICEA S-94-649.
compound shall be compatible with, but not See Table E.3.
necessarily the same material composition c. The shield shall be applied such that all
as, that of the insulation (e.g., copolymer conducting material can be easily removed
shield may be used with EPR insulation). A without the need for externally applied heat.
semi-conducting thermoplastic layer meeting Stripping tension values shall be six through
E
18 pounds (2.72 through 8.16 kg) for EPR d. The void and protrusion limits on the insula-
discharge-free cable and for TR-XLPE. tion shield shall be in compliance with the
Discharge-resistant cables shall have strip ANSI/ICEA S-94-649.
tension value of zero through 18 pounds
(zero through 8.16 kg).
TABLE E.3: Insulation Shield Thickness for Cables with Wire Neutral.
Calculated Minimum Insulation Shield Thickness Maximum Concentric
Diameter Over the Insulation Minimum Point Maximum Point Neutral Indent
inches mm mils mm mils mm mils mm
0–1.000 0–25.40 30 0.76 60 1.52 15 0.38
1.001–1.500 25.43–38.10 40 1.02 75 1.91 15 0.38
1.501–2.000 38.13–50.80 55 1.40 90 2.29 20 0.51
2.001 and larger 50.83 and larger 55 1.40 105 2.67 20 0.51
8. Concentric a. A concentric neutral conductor shall consist b. When a flat strap neutral is specified by the
Neutral of annealed round, uncoated copper wires purchaser, the neutral shall consist of copper
Conductor in accordance with ASTM B 3 and shall be straps applied concentrically over the insula-
spirally wound over the insulation shield tion shield with uniform and equal spacing
with uniform and equal spacing between between straps and shall remain in intimate
wires. The concentric neutral wires shall re- contact with the underlying extruded insula-
main in continuous intimate contact with the tion shield. The straps shall not have sharp
extruded insulation shield. Full neutral is re- edges. The thickness of the flat straps shall
quired for single phase and 1/3 neutral for be not less than 20 mils (0.5 mm).
three phase applications unless otherwise
specified. The minimum wire size for the
concentric neutral is 16 AWG (1.32 mm2).
9. Overall a. An electrically nonconducting or semi-con- thermoplastic polyethylene (LDPE,

Outer Jacket ducting outer jacket shall be applied directly LLDPE) compound meeting the require-
over the concentric neutral conductors. ments of ANSI/ICEA S-94-649, and
ASTM D 1248 for Type I, Class C, Cate-
(1) The jacket material shall be an extruded- gory 4 or 5, Grade J3 or Type II before
to-fill jacket that fills the area between application to the cable. Polyvinyl chlo-
the concentric neutral wires and covers ride (PVC) or chlorinated polyethylene
the wires to the proper thickness. The (CPE) jackets are not acceptable.
jacket shall be free stripping. The jacket (3) Semi-conducting jackets shall have a
shall have three red stripes longitudi- radial resistivity not exceeding 100 ohm-
nally extruded into the jacket surface meters and a maximum water vapor
120° apart as per ANSI/ICEA S-94-649. transmission rate of 2 g/m2/24 hours
(2) Nonconducting jackets shall consist of at 38°C (100°F) and 96 percent relative
low density, linear low density, or black humidity in accordance with ASTM E 96.
4 0 2 – Ap p e n d i x E
E
b. The minimum thickness of the
TABLE E.4: Extruded-to-Fill Jacket Thickness.
jacket over metallic neutral wires or
Calculated Minimum Diameter Insulation Shield Thickness straps shall comply with the thick-
Over the Concentric Neutral Minimum Point Maximum Point ness specified in ANSI/ICEA
inches mm mils mm mils mm S-94-649. See Table E.4.
0–1.500 0–38.10 45 1.14 80 2.03
1.501 and larger 38.13 and larger 70 1.78 120 3.05
10. Dimensional Cables conforming to this specification shall

Tolerances have all dimensional tolerances meeting the
requirements of ANSI/ICEA S-94-649.
11. Tests a. Qualification Tests. As part of a request for (2) Manufacturers shall test production sam-
RUS consideration for acceptance and listing, ples and have available certified test
the manufacturer shall submit certified test data results indicating compliance with
data results to RUS that detail full compli- ASTM D 2275 for discharge resistance as
ance with ANSI/ICEA S-94-649 for each specified in the ANSI/ICEA S-94-649.
cable design. Samples of insulated cable shall be pre-
pared by either removing the overlying
(1) Test results shall confirm compliance
extruded insulation shield material, or
with each of the material tests, produc-
using insulated cable before the ex-
tion sampling tests, tests on completed
truded insulation shield material is ap-
cable, and qualification tests included in
plied. The sample shall be mounted as
ANSI/ICEA S-94-649.
described in ASTM D 2275 and shall be
(2) The testing procedure and frequency of
subjected to a voltage stress of 250 volts
each test shall be in accordance with
per mil of nominal insulation thickness.
ANSI/ICEA S-94-649.
The sample shall support this voltage
(3) Certified test data results shall be sub-
stress, and not show evidence of degra-
mitted to RUS for any test, which is des-
dation on the surface of the insulation
ignated by ANSI/ICEA S-94-649 as being
for a minimum test duration of 100 hours.
“For Engineering Information Only,” or
The test shall be performed at least once
any similar designation.
on each 50,000 feet (15,240 m) of cable
produced, or major fraction thereof, or
b. Partial Discharge Tests. Manufacturers
at least once per insulation extruder run.
shall demonstrate that their cable complies
with paragraph 11.b. (1) or 11.b. (2) of c. Jacket Tests. Tests described in this section
this specification. shall be performed on cable jackets from the
same production sample as in section 11.b
(1) Each shipping length of completed cable
of this specification.
shall be tested and have certified test
data results available indicating compli- (1) A Cold Bend Test shall be performed in
ance with the partial discharge test re- accordance with the applicable provi-
quirements in ANSI/ICEA S-94-649. sions of the ANSI/ICEA S-94-649. The
test temperature shall be -35°C (-31°F).
E
The sample shall show no cracks visible diameters <1.5 inches and 7.0 kV for
to the normal, unaided eye at the con- cable diameters >1.5 inches., and shall be
clusion of the test. The test shall be per- applied between an electrode at the outer
formed at least once on each 50,000 feet surface of the nonconducting jacket and
(15,240 m) of cable produced, or major the concentric neutral for not less than
fraction thereof, or at least once per 0.15 second.
jacket extruder run.
d. Frequency of sample tests shall be in accor-
(2) A Spark Test shall be performed on
dance with ANSI/ICEA S-94-649.
nonconducting jacketed cable in accor-
e. If requested by the purchaser, a certified
dance with ANSI/ICEA S-94-649 on 100
copy of the results of all tests performed in
percent of the completed cable prior to
accordance to this section shall be furnished
its being wound on shipping reels. The
on all orders.
test voltage shall be 4.5 kV ac for cable
12. Miscellaneous a. All cable provided under this specification b. Watertight seals shall be applied to all cable
shall have suitable markings on the outer ends to prevent the entrance of moisture dur-
surface of the jacket at sequential intervals ing transit or storage. Each end of the cable
not exceeding two feet (0.61 m). The label shall be firmly and properly secured to the reel.
shall indicate the name of the manufacturer, c. Cable shall be placed on shipping reels suit-
conductor size, type and thickness of insula- able for protecting it from damage during
tion, center conductor material, voltage rat- shipment and handling. After the cable is
ing, year of manufacture, and jacket type. wound on the reel, it shall be covered with
There shall be no more than six inches (0.15 a suitable covering to help provide physical
m) of unmarked spacing between text label protection to the cable.
sequences. The jacket shall be marked with d. A durable label shall be securely attached to
the symbol required by Rule 350G of the each reel of cable. The label shall indicate
National Electrical Safety Code and the pur- the purchaser’s name and address, purchase
chaser shall specify any markings required order number, cable description, reel num-
by local safety codes. This is in addition to ber, feet of cable on the reel, tare and gross
extruded red stripes required in paragraph weight of the reel, and beginning and end-
9.a. (1) of this specification. ing sequential footage numbers.
4 0 4 – Ap p e n d i x E
E
Underground Cable Specification
ATTACHMENT “A”
Cooperative Name: _________________________ Contact: __________________________________

Phone #: ____________ Fax #:______________ E-Mail: ___________________________________
Conductor Material: Aluminum Copper

Conductor Type: Solid Stranded
Conductor Size:__________________________________________________________________________
Voltage Rating: 15 kV 25 kV 35 kV
Conductor Shield Compound(s): ___________________________________________________________
Insulation Type: EPR TR-XLPE Either
Alternate Insulation Thickness: Min.________ Nominal _________ Max. _________
Alternate Insulation Compound(s): _________________________________________________________
Insulation Shield Compound(s): ____________________________________________________________
Neutral Design: Full 1/3 1/6 1/8 1/12
Outer Jacket Type: Semi-Conducting: Yes _______________ No________________
Reel Type: Returnable: Yes _______________ No________________
Wood Lagging Required: Yes _______________ No________________
Maximum Reel Size (inches): Width _____________ Diameter __________
Maximum Loaded Reel Weight (pounds): ____________________________________________________
Shipping Address:________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Shipping Method: Flanges parallel with trailer centerline

Flanges perpendicular to trailer centerline
Note: Axis of arbor holes must be horizontal
Additional Comments: ____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________
Signature: _______________________________________________________________________________
Allowable Short Circuit Currents for Solid Dielectric Insulated C a b l e s – 4 0 5
F Allowable Short Circuit

Currents for Solid Dielectric
Insulated Cables
Figures F.1 through F.8 show the allowable short Figure Time-Current Characteristic
circuit current duration for common configura- F.1 PE/HMWPE Insulation, Aluminum
tions of solid dielectric cable. Figures F.1, F.2, Conductor, 150°C Final
F.5, and F.6 assume the prefault conductor tem-
F.2 PE/HMWPE Insulation, Copper
perature is 75°C for cables with thermoplastic
Conductor, 150°C Final
insulation. Figures F.3, F.4, F.7, and F.8 assume a
prefault conductor temperature of 90°C for ca- F.3 TR-XLPE/EPR Insulation, Aluminum
bles with thermoset insulation. Conductor, 250°C Final
Figures F.1, F.2, F.3, and F.4 use an upper F.4 TR-XLPE/EPR Insulation, Copper
temperature limit that, if exceeded, would Conductor, 250°C Final
cause immediate permanent damage to the F.5 PE/HMWPE Insulation, Aluminum
cable insulation. Conductor, 90°C Final
Figures F.5, F.6, F.7, and F.8 use the upper
F.6 PE/HMWPE Insulation, Copper
temperature limit equal to the emergency rating
Conductor, 90°C Final
of the insulation that, if exceeded, adds incre-
mentally to a loss of useful life of the cable. F.7 TR-XLPE/EPR Insulation, Aluminum
It is recommended that Figures F.5 through F.8 Conductor, 130°C Final
be used in the selection of overcurrent protec- F.8 TR-XLPE/EPR Insulation, Copper
tion system for cables. Usually, this will not pose Conductor, 130°C Final
a problem in the overall coordination scheme.
4 0 6 – Ap p e n d i x F
F
60 3,600
50 3,000
40 2,400
30 1,800
250
350
500
750
#2
#1
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
20 1,200
10 600
9 540
8 480
7 420
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180
2 120

Time (Seconds)
1 60
.9 54
.8 48
.7 42
.6 36
.5 30
.4 24
.3 18
.2 12
.1 6.0
.09 5.4
.08 4.8
.07 4.2
.06 3.6
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8
.02 1.2
.01 .6
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
Current (Amperes)
FIGURE F.1: Aluminum Conductor/Thermoplastic Insulation (PE/HMWPE). Allowable Short Circuit Currents Based on 75°C
Initial Conductor Temperature and 150°C Final Temperature.
F
60 3,600
50 3,000
40 2,400
30 1,800
250
350
500
750
#2
#1
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
20 1,200
10 600
9 540
8 480
7 420
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180
2 120

Time (Seconds)
1 60
.9 54
.8 48
.7 42
.6 36
.5 30
.4 24
.3 18
.2 12
.1 6.0
.09 5.4
.08 4.8
.07 4.2
.06 3.6
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8
.02 1.2
.01 .6
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
Current (Amperes)
FIGURE F.2: Copper Conductor/Thermoplastic Insulation (PE/HMWPE). Allowable Short Circuit Currents Based on 75°C
Initial Conductor Temperature and 150°C Final Temperature.
4 0 8 – Ap p e n d i x F
F
60 3,600
50 3,000
40 2,400
30 1,800
250
350
500
750
#2
#1
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
20 1,200
10 600
9 540
8 480
7 420
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180
2 120

Time (Seconds)
1 60
.9 54
.8 48
.7 42
.6 36
.5 30
.4 24
.3 18
.2 12
.1 6.0
.09 5.4
.08 4.8
.07 4.2
.06 3.6
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8
.02 1.2
.01 .6
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
Current (Amperes)
FIGURE F.3: Aluminum Conductor/Thermoset Insulation (TR-XLPE/EPR). Allowable Short Circuit Currents Based on 90°C
Initial Conductor Temperature and 250°C Final Conductor Temperature.
F
60 3,600
50 3,000
40 2,400
30 1,800
250
350
500
750
#2
#1
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
20 1,200
10 600
9 540
8 480
7 420
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180
2 120

Time (Seconds)
1 60
.9 54
.8 48
.7 42
.6 36
.5 30
.4 24
.3 18
.2 12
.1 6.0
.09 5.4
.08 4.8
.07 4.2
.06 3.6
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8
.02 1.2
.01 .6
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
Current (Amperes)
FIGURE F.4: Copper Conductor/Thermoset Insulation (TR-XLPE/EPR). Allowable Short Circuit Currents for 90°C Rated
Insulation Based on 90°C Initial Conductor Temperature and 250°C Final Conductor Temperature.
4 1 0 – Ap p e n d i x F
F
60 3,600
50 3,000
40 2,400
30 1,800
250
350
500
750
#2
#1
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
20 1,200
10 600
9 540
8 480
7 420
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180
2 120

Time (Seconds)
1 60
.9 54
.8 48
.7 42
.6 36
.5 30
.4 24
.3 18
.2 12
.1 6.0
.09 5.4
.08 4.8
.07 4.2
.06 3.6
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8
.02 1.2
.01 .6
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
Current (Amperes)
FIGURE F.5: Aluminum Conductor/Thermoplastic Insulation (PE/HMWPE). Allowable Short Circuit Currents for Conductor
to Not Exceed Insulation Emergency Operating Temperature Rating Based on 75°C Initial Conductor Temperature and 90°C
Final Conductor Temperature.
F
60 3,600
50 3,000
40 2,400
30 1,800
250
350
500
750
#2
#1
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
20 1,200
10 600
9 540
8 480
7 420
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180
2 120

Time (Seconds)
1 60
.9 54
.8 48
.7 42
.6 36
.5 30
.4 24
.3 18
.2 12
.1 6.0
.09 5.4
.08 4.8
.07 4.2
.06 3.6
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8
.02 1.2
.01 .6
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
Current (Amperes)
FIGURE F.6. Copper Conductor/Thermoplastic Insulation (PE/HMWPE). Allowable Short Circuit Currents for Conductor to
Not Exceed Insulation Emergency Operating Temperature Rating Based on 75°C Initial Conductor Temperature and 90°C
4 1 2 – Ap p e n d i x F
F
60 3,600
50 3,000
40 2,400
30 1,800
250
350
500
750
#2
#1
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
20 1,200
10 600
9 540
8 480
7 420
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180
2 120

Time (Seconds)
1 60
.9 54
.8 48
.7 42
.6 36
.5 30
.4 24
.3 18
.2 12
.1 6.0
.09 5.4
.08 4.8
.07 4.2
.06 3.6
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8
.02 1.2
.01 .6
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
Current (Amperes)
FIGURE F.7: Aluminum Conductor/Thermoset Insulation (TR-XLPE/EPR). Allowable Short Circuit Currents for Conductor to
F
60 3,600
50 3,000
40 2,400
30 1,800
250
350
500
750
#2
#1
1/0
2/0
3/0
4/0
20 1,200
10 600
9 540
8 480
7 420
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180
2 120

Time (Seconds)
1 60
.9 54
.8 48
.7 42
.6 36
.5 30
.4 24
.3 18
.2 12
.1 6.0
.09 5.4
.08 4.8
.07 4.2
.06 3.6
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8
.02 1.2
.01 .6
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
Current (Amperes)
FIGURE F.8. Copper Conductor/Thermoset Insulation (TR-XLPE/EPR). Allowable Short Circuit Currents for Conductor to
Ampacity Ta b l e s – 4 1 5
G Ampacity Tables
Cable ampacity values shown in Appendix G comprehensive set of cable ampacity calcula-
are based on calculations provided by Okonite tions, the limiting ampacity for soil interface
Company for the 1992 edition of this manual. temperature criteria is not readily available from
They have been retained because values are this Standard. It is suggested that both refer-
included for cases where the soil interface tem- ences be used to determine the ampacity limits
perature between the cable and the soil, or be- for the circumstances under evaluation.
tween the conduit and the soil, govern. While A copy of Figure 4.10 is included at the end
IEEE Standard 835-1994 does provide a more of this appendix for reference.
TABLE G.1: Configuration No. 1—15-kV Copper.

Soil Interface Soil Interface
Conductor Size Amps Temp. Amps at 60ºC Amps Temp. Amps at 60ºC
4/0 (1/3 neutral) 390 69ºC 350 350 74ºC 308
350 (1/3 neutral) 506 72ºC 446 450 76ºC 385
500 (1/3 neutral) 603 74ºC 525 532 77ºC 445
750 (1/3 neutral) 689 75ºC 580 602 79ºC 495
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 804 76ºC 675 700 79ºC 575
TABLE G.2: Configuration No. 1—15-kV Aluminum.

1/0 (full neutral) 207 67ºC 192 187 71ºC 168
4/0 (1/3 neutral) 308 69ºC 278 276 73ºC 241
350 (1/3 neutral) 406 71ºC 364 362 75ºC 313
500 (1/3 neutral) 488 73ºC 426 432 77ºC 367
750 (1/3 neutral) 593 74ºC 512 521 78ºC 436
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 698 75ºC 596 609 78ºC 504
4 1 6 – Ap p e n d i x G
G

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 384 65ºC 361 346 70ºC 310
350 (1/3 neutral) 499 68ºC 454 445 73ºC 391
500 (1/3 neutral) 591 70ºC 528 522 74ºC 446
750 (1/3 neutral) 688 72ºC 602 602 76ºC 511
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 806 73ºC 698 703 77ºC 584

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 302 65ºC 287 272 70ºC 247
350 (1/3 neutral) 399 67ºC 373 357 72ºC 318
500 (1/3 neutral) 481 69ºC 435 427 73ºC 375
750 (1/3 neutral) 587 70ºC 526 517 75ºC 442
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 692 71ºC 619 606 75ºC 517

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 413 68ºC 376 364 73ºC 314
350 (1/3 neutral) 505 72ºC 442 438 77ºC 368
500 (1/3 neutral) 570 76ºC 483 489 79ºC 401
750 (1/3 neutral) 654 78ºC 535 557 81ºC 444
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 714 78ºC 558 606 82ºC 482

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 340 66ºC 317 301 71ºC 267
350 (1/3 neutral) 430 70ºC 385 376 75ºC 324
500 (1/3 neutral) 499 73ºC 433 431 77ºC 363
750 (1/3 neutral) 578 76ºC 485 494 80ºC 401
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 666 76ºC 565 570 79ºC 468
G

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 404 64ºC 388 358 70ºC 323
350 (1/3 neutral) 500 69ºC 454 437 74ºC 379
500 (1/3 neutral) 562 71ºC 496 487 76ºC 413
750 (1/3 neutral) 648 74ºC 554 556 78ºC 455
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 719 76ºC 606 613 80ºC 494

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 328 62ºC 320 293 68ºC 269
350 (1/3 neutral) 421 66ºC 393 371 71ºC 329
500 (1/3 neutral) 486 68ºC 445 425 73ºC 370
750 (1/3 neutral) 569 72ºC 498 491 76ºC 413
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 666 73ºC 577 572 77ºC 480
EXAMPLE G.1: Ampacity Reduction for Direct-Buried Versus Conduit Encasement for Flat-Spaced
Installation.
TABLE G.9: Configuration No. 2, 3" Type DB Conduit—15-kV Aluminum.

Soil Interface Amps Soil Interface Amps
Conductor Size Amps Temp. at 60ºC Amps Temp. at 60ºC
750 (1/3 neutral) 467 55ºC 467 420 62ºC 408
TABLE G.10: Configuration No. 2, 3.5" Type DB Conduit—25-kV Aluminum.

750 (1/3 neutral) 479 55ºC 479 430 61ºC 424
Tables G.9 and G.10 show the effect of encasing the single cables of Configuration No. 2 in Type DB conduit instead
of direct burying the cables. Using conduit decreases ampacity by 19.2% for 15-kV cable and 15.82% for 25-kV cable.
4 1 8 – Ap p e n d i x G
G

Conductor Size Amps Soil Interface Temp. Amps Soil Interface Temp.
4/0 (1/3 neutral) 307 46ºC 290 51ºC
350 (1/3 neutral) 407 47ºC 376 53ºC
500 (1/3 neutral) 474 49ºC 436 55ºC
750 (1/3 neutral) 557 49ºC 508 56ºC
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 649 50ºC 590 57ºC

1/0 (full neutral) 162 45ºC 152 50ºC
4/0 (1/3 neutral) 242 46ºC 226 52ºC
350 (1/3 neutral) 326 47ºC 302 53ºC
500 (1/3 neutral) 392 48ºC 361 55ºC
750 (1/3 neutral) 484 49ºC 441 56ºC
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 568 50ºC 516 57ºC

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 315 45ºC 293 51ºC
350 (1/3 neutral) 408 47ºC 377 54ºC
500 (1/3 neutral) 488 48ºC 447 55ºC
750 (1/3 neutral) 563 50ºC 513 57ºC
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 658 51ºC 597 57ºC

1/0 (full neutral) 169 44ºC 158 50ºC
4/0 (1/3 neutral) 249 45ºC 231 51ºC
350 (1/3 neutral) 327 47ºC 302 53ºC
500 (1/3 neutral) 401 47ºC 368 54ºC
750 (1/3 neutral) 485 49ºC 443 56ºC
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 570 50ºC 519 57ºC
G

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 357 73ºC 312 313 77ºC 266
350 (1/3 neutral) 463 75ºC 400 402 79ºC 337
500 (1/3 neutral) 537 77ºC 454 463 80ºC 379
750 (1/3 neutral) 616 78ºC 512 526 81ºC 423
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 717 79ºC 582 610 82ºC 484

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 281 73ºC 246 247 77ºC 210
350 (1/3 neutral) 369 74ºC 320 321 78ºC 270
500 (1/3 neutral) 441 76ºC 378 381 80ºC 314
750 (1/3 neutral) 532 77ºC 446 456 80ºC 374
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 624 78ºC 516 532 81ºC 431

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 352 69ºC 318 309 74ºC 270
350 (1/3 neutral) 454 72ºC 396 395 76ºC 335
500 (1/3 neutral) 534 74ºC 460 461 78ºC 385
750 (1/3 neutral) 618 76ºC 518 527 80ºC 434
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 719 76ºC 604 613 80ºC 498

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 277 69ºC 250 244 74ºC 213
350 (1/3 neutral) 364 71ºC 324 318 76ºC 273
500 (1/3 neutral) 436 73ºC 381 378 77ºC 317
750 (1/3 neutral) 528 74ºC 456 454 78ºC 380
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 620 75ºC 534 531 79ºC 439
4 2 0 – Ap p e n d i x G
G

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 290 51ºC 290 264 57ºC 264
350 (1/3 neutral) 382 52ºC 382 345 59ºC 345
500 (1/3 neutral) 443 54ºC 443 398 61ºC 395
750 (1/3 neutral) 516 55ºC 516 459 62ºC 447
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 583 54ºC 583 532 63ºC 509

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 229 51ºC 229 209 57ºC 209
350 (1/3 neutral) 306 52ºC 306 277 58ºC 277
500 (1/3 neutral) 367 53ºC 367 330 60ºC 330
750 (1/3 neutral) 449 55ºC 449 400 62ºC 392
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 525 56ºC 525 466 63ºC 451

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 297 50ºC 297 270 57ºC 270
350 (1/3 neutral) 383 53ºC 383 345 59ºC 345
500 (1/3 neutral) 454 54ºC 454 406 61ºC 403
750 (1/3 neutral) 521 56ºC 521 463 63ºC 451
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 607 56ºC 607 538 64ºC 515

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 234 50ºC 234 213 57ºC 213
350 (1/3 neutral) 307 52ºC 307 277 59ºC 277
500 (1/3 neutral) 374 53ºC 374 335 60ºC 335
750 (1/3 neutral) 450 55ºC 450 401 62ºC 393
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 527 56ºC 527 468 63ºC 453
G

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 240 63ºC 233 209 70ºC 189
350 (1/3 neutral) 312 65ºC 296 268 71ºC 238
500 (1/3 neutral) 358 66ºC 333 306 73ºC 268
750 (1/3 neutral) 410 68ºC 375 348 74ºC 298
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 474 69ºC 429 400 75ºC 342

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 191 63ºC 186 166 69ºC 151
350 (1/3 neutral) 251 64ºC 238 216 71ºC 194
500 (1/3 neutral) 298 66ºC 278 255 72ºC 224
750 (1/3 neutral) 358 68ºC 328 304 74ºC 264
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 416 68ºC 381 352 75ºC 303

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 246 63ºC 235 213 70ºC 192
350 (1/3 neutral) 312 65ºC 296 268 72ºC 238
500 (1/3 neutral) 364 66ºC 339 310 73ºC 272
750 (1/3 neutral) 414 68ºC 378 350 74ºC 300
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 479 69ºC 430 405 75ºC 346

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 194 63ºC 187 167 70ºC 152
350 (1/3 neutral) 251 65ºC 238 216 71ºC 192
500 (1/3 neutral) 302 66ºC 283 257 72ºC 226
750 (1/3 neutral) 359 68ºC 329 304 74ºC 262
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 418 68ºC 380 354 75ºC 304
4 2 2 – Ap p e n d i x G
G
EXAMPLE G.2: Increase in Ampacity for Duct Bank Installation When Type EB Conduit is Used
Versus Schedule 40.
TABLE G.27: Configuration No. 6, 6" Type EB Conduit—15-kV Aluminum.

750 (1/3 neutral) 364 69ºC 331 307 75ºC 262
TABLE G.28: Configuration No. 6, 6" Type EB Conduit—25-kV Aluminum.

750 (1/3 neutral) 365 69ºC 332 308 75ºC 263
Tables G.27 and G.28 show the effect of using Type EB conduit instead of Schedule 40 for the concrete duct bank
installation shown in Configuration No. 6. Using the thinner walled conduit gives an increase in ampacity of
approximately 1.67% (see Configuration No. 6 of the ampacity tables and Figure 4.10).

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 228 66ºC 215 196 72ºC 173
350 (1/3 neutral) 294 68ºC 270 250 74ºC 216
500 (1/3 neutral) 337 69ºC 303 285 75ºC 242
750 (1/3 neutral) 384 71ºC 342 322 76ºC 270
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 443 72ºC 390 371 77ºC 310

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 180 66ºC 170 155 72ºC 138
350 (1/3 neutral) 236 67ºC 219 201 74ºC 176
500 (1/3 neutral) 280 69ºC 255 237 75ºC 205
750 (1/3 neutral) 335 70ºC 299 282 76ºC 238
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 389 71ºC 345 326 77ºC 275
G

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 232 66ºC 218 198 72ºC 175
350 (1/3 neutral) 294 68ºC 270 250 74ºC 215
500 (1/3 neutral) 342 69ºC 307 288 75ºC 245
750 (1/3 neutral) 387 71ºC 341 324 77ºC 272
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 448 72ºC 390 374 77ºC 310

4/0 (1/3 neutral) 183 66ºC 172 156 72ºC 138
350 (1/3 neutral) 236 67ºC 219 201 74ºC 175
500 (1/3 neutral) 283 69ºC 258 239 75ºC 206
750 (1/3 neutral) 336 70ºC 300 282 76ºC 238
1,000 (1/6 neutral) 391 71ºC 346 327 77ºC 276
Configuration 1 Configuration 2 Configuration 3 Configuration 4

36"
36"
36"
36"
A B C
7.5" 7.5" 18"
Configuration 5 Configuration 6 Configuration 7

30"
30"
36"
5" 5"
18"
7.5"
19"
19"
7.5” 7.5" 7.5"
19" 26.5"
19" × 19" Duct Bank 19" × 26.5" Duct Bank
FIGURE 4.10: Three-Phase Cable Installation Configurations.

Industry Specifica t i o n s – 4 2 5
H Industry Specifications
1. RUS Bulletin 1728C-100 10. ANSI/ICEA S-94-649

List of Materials Acceptable for Use on Concentric Neutral Cables Rated 5
Systems of RUS Electrification Borrowers through 46 kV
2. IEEE Standard 404 11. ANSI/ICEA S-97-682
Standard for Extruded and Laminated Utility Shielded Power Cables Rated 5
Dielectric Shielded Cable Joints Rated through 46 kV
2,500 V to 500,000 V 12. IEEE Standard 495
3. IEEE Standard 592 Guide for Testing Faulted Circuit Indicators
Exposed Semiconducting Shields on 13. ANSI/IEEE C57.91
High-Voltage Cable Joints and Separable IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-
Insulated Connectors Immersed Overhead and Pad-Mounted
4. IEEE Standard 48 Distribution Transformers Rated 500 kVA
Standard Test Procedures and Requirements and Less with 65°C or 55°C Average
for Alternating-Current Cable Terminations Winding Rise
2.5 kV through 765 kV 14. BSR/IEEE C57.12.00
5. NEMA/ANSI C 119.0 Standard General Requirements for Liquid-
Sealed Insulated Underground Connector Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulat-
Systems Rated 600 Volts ing Transformers
6. RUS Bulletin 1728F-U1 15. IEEE Standard C12.26
RUS Specification for 15-kV, 25-kV, and Pad-Mounted Compartmental-Type,
35-kV Primary Underground Power Cable Self-Cooled, Three-Phase Distribution
7. RUS Bulletin 50-6 (D-806) Transformers for Use with Separable
Specifications and Drawings for Insulated High-Voltage Connectors
Underground Electric Distribution (34,500 Grd Y/19,920 Volts and Below,
8. ICEA S-81-570 2,500 kVA and Smaller)
Standard for 600-Volt-Rated Cables of 16. IEEE Standard 835
Ruggedized Design for Direct Burial Standard Power Cable Ampacity Tables
Installation as Single Conductors or 17. NEMA MG 1-12.35
Assemblies of Single Conductors Locked-Rotor Current of 3-Phase 60-Hz
9. ICEA S-105-692 Small and Medium Squirrel-Cage
600-Volt Single Layer Thermoset Insulated Induction Motors Rated at 230 Volts
Utility Underground Distribution Cables 18. IEEE Standard C62.11
Standard for Metal-Oxide Surge
Arresters for AC Power Circuits (>1 kV)
4 2 6 – Ap p e n d i x H
H
19. IEEE Standard C62.1 Voltage Levels on Rural Distribution Systems
Standard for Gapped Silicon-Carbide 23. IEEE Standard 386
Surge Arresters for AC Power Circuits Standard for Separable Insulated Connector
20. IEEE Standard 81 Systems for Power Distribution Systems
Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Above 600 V
Ground Impedance, and Earth Surface 24. REA Bulletin U2
Potentials of a Ground System February 1975. Out of print but may be
21. IEEE Standard 80 available by special request to RUS Electric
Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding staff, Washington, D.C.
22. RUS Bulletin 169-4
Component Manufac t u re r s – 4 2 7
I Component Manufacturers
TABLE I.1: Cable Installation Equipment Manufacturers.
Track-
Guided Piercing Hydraulic Mounted Trench Auger-Type
Manufacturer Trenchers Backhoes Cable Plow Boring Tools Tools Pipe Pusher Cable Plows Compactors Boring Tools
Am. Augers X
Ditch Witch X X X X X
Cleveland Trencher Co. X
Holladay Constr. Co. X
Pow-r-Devices X
StraightLine Mfg. Co. X
UtilX Corp. X
Vermeer Mfg. Co. X X X X X X
American Augers, Inc. Holladay Construction Co., Inc. UtilX Corp.
135 US Route 42 5419 Hickory Ridge Road P.O. Box 97009
P.O. Box 814 Spotsylvania, VA 22553 Kent, WA 98064-9709
West Salem, OH 44287 540.582.2700 800.252.0556
800.324.4930 www.holladayconstco.com www.utilx.com
www.american-augers.com
The Charles Machine Works, Inc. Pow-r-Devices, Inc. Vermeer Manufacturing Co.
(Manufacturer of Ditch Witch Equipment) 5940 Goodrich Road 1210 Vermeer Road East
P.O. Box 66 Clarence Center, NY 14032-0245 P.O. Box 200
Perry, OK 73077-0066 800.344.6653 Pella, IA 50219
800.654.6481 www.powrdevices.com 641.628.3141
www.ditchwitch.com www.vermeer.com
Cleveland Trencher Co. StraightLine Manufacturing, Inc.
1755 West Market Street (Finco Inc.)
Akron, OH 44313 1816 East Wasp Road
330.869.2800 Hutchinson, KS 67501
www.cleveland-trencher.com 800.654.3484
www.straightlinehdd.com
4 2 8 – Ap p e n d i x I
I
TABLE I.2: Cable Installation Equipment Manufacturers.
Joints— Terminations—
Joints— Elbows— Secondary Secondary
Primary Circuits Primary Circuits Terminations—Primary Circuits Circuits Circuits
Heat Elbow Heat Cold Above All Above All
Manufacturer Premolded Shrink Premolded Connectors Premolded Porcelain Shrink Shrink Ground Locations Ground Locations
3M Elec. Prod. X X X X X
Amp Inc. X X X X
Burndy Corp. X X X X
Cooper Power X X X X
Systems - RPE
Elastimold, X X X X X X X X X
Thomas & Betts
Fargo Mfg. Co. X X X X
G&W Electric Co. X
Homac Mfg. Co. X X X X
Kearney X X
Raychem Corp. X X X X X X X
Reliable Elec. X X X X
Prod.
3M Electric Products Division Cooper Power Systems G&W Electric Co., Inc. Raychem Corp.
6801 River Place Road Components & Protective Equipment 3500 West 127th Street Tyco Electronics Corp.
Austin, TX 78726 1045 Hickory Street Blue Island, IL 60406 300 Constitution Drive
800.245.3573 Pewaukee, WI 53072 708.388.5010 Menlo Park, CA 94025-1164
www.mmm.com www.cooperpower.com www.gwelec.com 650.361.3333
www.raychem.com
AMP Inc. (Tyco) Elastimold, Thomas & Betts Homac Mfg. Co. Reliable Electrical Products
P.O. Box 3608 8155 T&B Blvd. 12 Southland Road MacLean Power Systems
Harrisburg, PA 17105 Memphis, TN 38125 Ormond Beach, FL 32174 1000 Allanson Road
www.amp.com 888.862.3289 386.673.5025 Mundelein, IL 60060
www.tnb.com www.homac.com 847.566.0010
www.maclean-fogg.com
Burndy Corporation Fargo Mfg. Co. (Hubbell) Kearney (Cooper Power Systems)
825 Old Trail Road 210 N. Allen Street 1319 Lincoln Avenue
Etters, PA 17319 Centralia, MO 65240 Waukesha, WI 53186
800.346.4175 www.hubbellpowersystems.com 262.524.3300
www.fciconnect.com www.cooperpower.com
Component Manufac t u re r s – 4 2 9
I
TABLE I.3: Manufacturers of Joint, Elbow, and Termination Accessories and Kits.
Elbow Accessories Elbow

Cable Jacket & Termination
Manufacturer Plugs Adapters Inserts Restoration Kits Sealing Kits Grounding Kits
3M Electric Products X X X X X X
Cooper Power Systems X X X
Elastimold, Thomas & Betts X X X X X X
Homac Mfg. X X X
Raychem X X X
TABLE I.4. Partial Listing of Cable Testing Equipment Suppliers.
Sources of DC Proof Test Equipment

Associated Research, Inc. Biddle Instruments Hipotronics, Inc. The Von Corporation
13860 W. Laurel Drive 510 Township Line Road 1620 Route 22 1038 Lomb Avenue, S.W.
Lake Forest, IL 60045 Blue Bell, PA 19422 P.O. Box 414 P.O. Box 110096
800.858.8378 866.586.3872 Brewster, NY 10509 Birmingham, AL 35211
www.asresearch.com www.avobiddle.com 845.279.8091 205.788.2437
www.hipotronics.com www.voncorp.com
Cable-Pulling Exa m pl e s – 4 3 1
J Cable-Pulling Examples
EXAMPLE J.1: Cable-Pulling Example 1: Maximum Straight-Pull Distance for Three 25-kV Cables Installed in
Five-Inch PVC Conduit.
Determine the maximum straight-pull distance for three 25-kV cables installed in five-inch PVC conduit. The following specific data
apply in this situation:
Cable Type: Aluminum, EPR, 25 kV, with 1/3 neutral Cable Outside Diameter: 1.83 in.
Cable Jacket: Polyethylene Conduit Inside Diameter: 5.047 in.
Cable Size: 350 kcmil Pulling Lubricant: Soap and water
Cable Weight (Each): 1.64 lb./ft Type of Attachment: Aluminum compression
The solution sequence follows the procedure given in the main text under Cable-Pulling Calculation Sequence.
STEPS 1 and 2. Determine the cable and conduit data. These are Table 9.19 shows that either configuration is likely when the jam ratio
readily determined from the data above. For a three-cable pull, cable is 2.76. Therefore, a cradled configuration should be assumed because
weight is three times 1.64 lb./ft, yielding 4.92 lb./ft. it leads to more conservative results. The weight correction factor can
now be calculated from Equation 9.4:
STEP 3. Determine the friction factors. Table 9.16 gives a friction
factor of 0.45 for three polyethylene jacketed cables installed in PVC 4 1.83 2
conduit in a straight-pull situation. Wc = 1 + × = 1.43

3 5.047 – 1.83
STEP 4(a). Calculate the jam ratio. The jam ratio is calculated from STEP 5(a). Determine the maximum allowable cable tension.
Equation 9.9. Table 9.20 gives a value of 0.008 lb./cmil maximum pulling tension
D 5.047 inches when an aluminum compression eye is used on stranded aluminum
J= = = 2.76 cable. The maximum tension for one 350-kcmil cable is:
d 1.83 inches
This jam ratio value would be risky if bends were present in the con- 350,000 cmil × 0.008 lb./cmil = 2,800 lb.
duit. However, the value of 2.76 is acceptable for straight pulls.
When three cables are being pulled, the maximum allowable tension
STEP 4(b). Calculate the clearance factor. According to Equation is determined by doubling the tension maximum of one cable, as it is
9.11, the clearance factor is 1.13 inches. This value is well above the assumed that the total load will be shared by two of the three cables.
0.5-inch minimum acceptable value. Therefore, the maximum allowable tension for the sample situation is
as follows:
STEP 4(c). Calculate the weight correction factor. Before cal-
culating the weight correction factor, determine if the three cables will
2 × 2,800 lb. = 5,600 lb.
take on a triangular or a cradled configuration.
Continued
4 3 2 – Ap p e n d i x J
J
EXAMPLE J.1: Cable-Pulling Example 1: Maximum Straight-Pull Distance for Three 25-kV Cables Installed in
Five-Inch PVC Conduit. (cont.)
STEP 5(b). Determine the maximum allowable sidewall bear- STEP 6(b). Determine the maximum straight-pull distance. As-
ing pressure (SWBP). Consult Table 9.18 for this purpose. The max- sume 50 lb. of tension exists from the cable reel to the conduit en-
imum allowable SWBP is 2,000 lb./ft for jacketed EPR cable. However, trance. Since the maximum allowable tension is 5,600 lb., a tension of
SWBP is not a concern for straight pulls. 5,600 lb. less 50 lb. (5,550 lb.) is allowed for pulling tension. Therefore,
the maximum pulling distance is calculated as follows:
STEP 6(a). Calculate the pulling tension per foot. Pulling tension
for straight pulls is calculated from Equation 9.3: 5,550 lb.
IMAX = = 1,753 ft
3.166 lb./ft
T = W × WC × f ×l
T(1 foot) = 4.92 lb./ft × 1.43 × 0.45 × 1 ft
T(1 foot) = 3.166 lb.
EXAMPLE J.2: Cable-Pulling Example 2: Feasibility of Pulling Three 25-kV Cables into a Six-Inch PVC Conduit.
Determine the feasibility of pulling three cables of the same type described in Example J.1 into an installation of six-inch PVC con-
duit consisting of the following sections:
A. 100-foot horizontal straight pull beginning at a manhole location D. 90° bend at base of riser pole
B. 22-1/2° bend and beginning of upward slope E. 30-foot vertical section at riser pole
C. 500-foot upward 1:20 slope
The cable-reel end is to be at the manhole and the pulling end at the riser.
STEPS 1 and 2. Determine the cable and conduit data. Cable STEP 4(c). Calculate the weight correction factor. Table 9.19 re-
data, lubricant, and type of grip are the same as given in Example J.1. veals that the cables will take on a cradled configuration for the jam
For Example J.2, six-inch conduit of 6.065 inches inside diameter is to ratio of 3.31 calculated above. Therefore, Equation 9.4 is used to cal-
be used. culate the weight correction factor:
STEP 3. Determine the friction factors. For three polyethylene- 4 1.83 2
jacketed cables installed in PVC conduit, Table 9.16 gives a friction fac- Wc = 1 + × = 1.25
3 6.065 – 1.83
tor of 0.45 for straight pulls and 0.15 for pulls through bends where
SWBP exceeds 150 lb./ft. STEP 5(a). Determine the maximum allowable cable tension.
This tension limit calculation is identical to that found in Example J.1.
STEP 4(a). Calculate the jam ratio. The jam ratio is calculated from The maximum allowable pulling tension is 5,600 lb.
Equation 9.9:
STEP 5(b). Determine the maximum allowable SWBP. Table 9.18
D 6.065 inches is consulted for this purpose, and the maximum allowable SWBP is
J= = = 3.31
d 1.83 inches found to be 2,000 lb./ft for jacketed EPR cable.
This jam ratio value is acceptable. STEP 6(a). Calculate the tension for the 100-foot horizontal
straight pull beginning at the manhole location. The tension cal-
STEP 4(b). Calculate the clearance factor. The clearance factor is
culated by Equation 9.3 is added to the entering tension from the reel,
calculated from Equation 9.11 and is found to be 2.2 inches. This
which is assumed to be 50 lb.
greatly exceeds the 0.5-inch required minimum.
T2 = T1 + W × WC × f ×l
T2 = 50 + (4.92)(1.25)(0.45)(100) = 327 lb.
Continued
Cable-Pulling Exa m pl e s – 4 3 3
J
EXAMPLE J.2: Cable-Pulling Example 2: Feasibility of Pulling Three 25-kV Cables into a Six-Inch PVC Conduit. (cont.)
STEP 6(b). Calculate the tension for the 22-1/2° bend. Equation STEP 6(d). Calculate the tension for the 90° bend at the base
9.3.C applies for calculating the tension increase resulting from pulling of the riser pole. At this location, cable tension has increased to the
around conduit bends. SWBP is not expected to exceed 150 lb./ft for point that SWBP is expected to exceed 150 lb./ft. Therefore, the fric-
this bend, so the friction factor of 0.45 is used. The angle of the bend tion factor of 0.15 for bends may be used (see Table 9.16). The 90°
must be stated in radians, and 22-1/2° is 22.2 × 0.01745 radians/degree angle of bend converts to 1.5708 radians. Equation 9.3.C is used.
= 0.3927 radians. T1 is the tension result from the previous steps.
T2 = (1,913)e(0.15)(1.25)(1.5708) = 2,568 lb.
T2 = T1ef × WC × φ
The calculation of SWBP is also required. The radius of the bend is as-
T2 = (327)e(0.45)(1.25)(0.3927) = 406 lb.
sumed to be 2.75 feet, and Equation 9.7 applies.
When a bend is involved, SWBP must also be calculated. Equation 9.7
applies in the present case. The typical value for R, the inside radius (3WC – 2)T2 (3.75 – 2)2,568
SWBP = = = 545 lb./ft
of a bend, for six-inch conduit is 2.75 feet. 3R (3)(2.75)
(3WC – 2)T2 (3.75 – 2)(408) The result is well within the 2,000 lb./ft allowed maximum. It is also
SWBP = = = 87 lb./ft above the 150 lb./ft value necessary to allow use of 0.15 as the fric-
3R (3)(2.75)
tion factor.
This result is far less than the 2,000 lb./ft limit and is fully acceptable.
STEP 6(e). Calculate the tension for the 30-foot vertical sec-
As expected, the value is also less than 150 lb./ft, confirming the use
tion at the riser pole. A vertical rise is equivalent to an upward slope
of 0.45 as the correct friction factor.
of 90°, so Equation 9.5.A applies. The evaluations cos 90° = 0 and sin
STEP 6(c). Calculate the tension for the 500-foot upward 1:20 90° = 1 yield the following simplified form of the tension equation:
slope. Equation 9.5.A applies in this case. As a preliminary step, the
slope angle, θ, is calculated from the 1:20 slope ratio: T2 = T1 + lW = 2,568 + (30)(4.92)
T2 = 2,568 + 148 = 2,716 lb.
θ = Tan–1
1
= 2.86º This result for final tension is less than half the 5,600-lb. maximum
20
allowed, so the proposed cable-pulling operation is feasible.
Equation 9.5.A is then applied as an increment to the tension T1
of 408 lb. from the previous step.
T2 = T2 + lW(fWC cosθ + sinθ)

T2 = 408 + (500)(4.92)[(0.45)(1.25)(0.99875) + 0 .05]
T2 = 408 + (2,460)(0.6118) = 408 + 1,505 = 1,913 lb.
Abbrevi a t i o n s – 4 3 5
abbrevia t i on s
Ω-m Ohm-meters (Ohm-m), a unit of mea- HDPE High-Density Polyethylene

sure for volume resistivity HMWPE High-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene
µH Microhenry, one-millionth of a Henry Hp Horsepower
µm Micrometer, one-millionth of a meter HV High Voltage
µs Microsecond, one-millionth of HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air
a second Conditioning
%Z Percentage Impedance Hz Hertz
ABS Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Plastic IACS International Annealed Copper

ac Alternating Current (sometimes AC) Standard
AEIC Association of Edison Illuminating ICEA Insulated Cable Engineers
Companies Association, Inc.
ANSI American National Standards Institute I.D. Inside Diameter
ASAI Average Service Availability Index IEEE Institute of Electrical and
ASTM American Society for Testing Electronics Engineers
and Materials in2 Square Inches
AWG American Wire Gauge IR Any Product of Current (I) Times
Resistance (R)
BCN Bare Concentric Neutral IZSURGE Current Times Surge Impedance
BIL Basic Impulse Insulation Level
JCN Jacketed Concentric Neutral
CATV Cable Access Television
cm Centimeter kA Kiloamperes
cmil Circular Mil kcmil Thousand Circular Mil, wire size
Cont. Continuous commonly used for multiple stranded
CPE Chlorinated Polyethylene conductors over 4/0 AWG in size
CRN NRECA’s Cooperative Research (formerly MCM)
Network kft Kilofoot (1,000 feet)
CTR Certified Test Results ksi Kips Per Square Inch (Thousands of
Cu Chemical symbol for Copper Pounds Per Square Inch)
CV Continuous Vulcanizing kV Kilovolt (1,000 Volts)
CWW Chopped Wave Withstand kVA Kilovolt Amperes
kV/ft Kilovolts Per Foot
DB Direct Burial (conduit classification) kW Kilowatt
dc Direct Current (sometimes DC)
di/dt Change in Current with Time (usually L Inductance
expressed as kA/µs) lb. Pound(s)
L.C. Longitudinally Corrugated
EB Encased Burial (conduit classification) LDPE Low-Density Polyethylene
EC Electrical Conductor (grade of LLDPE Linear Low-Density Polyethylene
aluminum)
EMT Electrical Metallic Tubing mA Milliampere, One-Thousandth
EPR Ethylene Propylene Rubber of an Ampere
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute MCM See Kcmil
EVA Ethyl Vinyl Acetate MCOV Maximum Continuous Operating
Voltage
FCI Faulted-Circuit Indicator MDPE Medium-Density Polyethylene
FOW Front-of-Wave MGN Multigrounded Neutral
FRE Fiberglass-Reinforced Epoxy MOV Metal Oxide Varistor, a type of
surge arrester
H Henry, a unit of inductance mm2 Square Millimeters
4 3 6 – Ab b re v i a t i o ns
a b b re v i ations
mm3 Cubic Millimeters SAIDI System Average Interruption

MVA Megavolt Amperes Duration Index
SF6 Sulfur Hexafluoride, a synthetic gas
NEC National Electrical Code used to insulate high-voltage equip-
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers ment and serve as an interrupting
Association medium in switchgear, one of six
NESC National Electrical Safety Code types of greenhouse gases to be
nF NanoFarad (Billionth of a Farad) curbed under the Kyoto Protocol
Nom. Nominal SiC Silicon Carbide, used in valve arresters
NRECA National Rural Electric Cooperative SIW Single Input Wire
Association SLG Single Line-to-Ground (Fault)
SR State Road
O.D. Outside Diameter SWBP Sidewall Bearing Pressure
Ohm-m Ohm-meters, a unit of measure for Sym. Symmetrical
volume resistivity
TNA Transient Network Analyzer
PE Polyethylene TOV Temporary Overvoltages
ppm Parts Per Million TR-XLPE Tree Retardant Cross-Linked
psi Pounds Per Square Inch Polyethylene
psia Pounds Per Square Inch Absolute
psig Pounds Per Square Inch Gauge UD Underground Distribution
pu Per Unit
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride V Volt
REA Rural Electrification Administration W Watt

rms Root Mean Square
ROW Right of Way XLPE Cross-Linked Polyethylene
RTU Remote Terminal Unit X/R Reactance/Resistance (Ratio)
RUS Rural Utility Services, U.S. Department
of Agriculture Rural Development— ZnO Zinc Oxide
Electric Program (formerly REA) ZSURGE Surge Impedance
www.crn.coop
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november 2008 project 03-08

Cooperative Research Network

© Underground Distribution System Design Guide

Edward S. Thomas, PE Bill Dorsett

Section 1 Design of an Underground Distribution System 1

Section 2 Cable Selection 51

Section 3 Underground System Sectionalizing 79

Section 4 Equipment Loading 121

Section 5 Grounding and Surge Protection 165

Section 6 Ferroresonance 239

Section 7 Cathodic Protection Requirements 281

Section 8 Direct-Buried System Design 299

Section 9 Conduit System Design 311

Section 10 Joints, Elbows, and Terminations 343

Section 11 Cable Testing 359

Appendix A Calculations for Reliability Studies 373

Appendix B Transformer and Secondary Voltage Drop 377

Appendix C Sample Specification UGC2 for 600-Volt

Appendix D Checklist for Information Requirements 395

Appendix G Ampacity Tables 415

Appendix H Industry Specifications 425

Appendix I Component Manufacturers 427

Appendix J Cable-Pulling Examples 431

1.1 UD System Components 2

2.1 Jacketed Concentric Neutral Cable 52

3.1 Symmetrical Current 82

4.1 Ratio of Shield Loss to Conductor DC Loss at 90°C as a Function

5.1 Typical Distribution Transformer Core Form Design and Neutral

5.39 Dead-Front Arrester Elbow Configuration 211

6.1 Transformer Connections for Four-Wire Wye and Four-Wire

6.12 Open-Phase Voltage Waveforms with Five-Legged Core

7.1 Dissimilar Metal Effects Between Buried Metals Connected to the

8.1 Typical Trench Warning Tape 301

9.1 Typical Duct Configurations 316

9.6 Rectangular Manhole Construction Details 327

10.1 Voltage Stress Concentration 344

A.1 Components Affecting Outage Rate to the Consumer 374

B.1 Distance for Various Conductor Arrangements 381

F.1 Aluminum Conductor/Thermoplastic Insulation (PE/HMWPE)—

1.1 Lamp and Ballast Characteristics—240 Volts 14

2.1 Dimensional Characteristics of Common Conductors

3.1 Multiplying Factors to Determine Asymmetrical Fault Currents

4.1 Ampacities for Single-Phase Primary Underground Distribution Cable—

5.1 Surge Withstand Strengths of Polyethylene Insulating Jackets for

5.7 Ground Resistance in Varying Soil Resistivities 204

6.1 Values for Equivalent Capacitances of an Overhead Line with

7.1 Typical DC Potentials in Soil 283

8.1 Minimum Cover Requirements 304

9.1 Classifications of Plastic Conduit 314

10.1 Electrical Rating of Elbows 350

11.1 Dimensions for Primary Cables to ICEA Specification S-94-649-2000

A.1 Acceptable Outage Hours Per Year Per Consumer 374

B.1 Allowable Voltage Drop on a 120-Volt Base 377

C.1 Nominal Composite Insulation Layer Thickness (Ruggedized) 392

E.1 Extruded Conductor Shield Thickness 400

G.1 Configuration No. 1—15-kV Copper 415

I.1 Cable Installation Equipment Manufacturers (Trenchers, Backhoes,

1.1 Cable Loss Calculations 35

3.1 Device Rated in Maximum Asymmetrical Current Capacity 83

4.1 Comparing the Ampacity of Trefoil and Flat-Spaced Configurations 131

5.1 No Counterpoise Added (Switches S1, S2, and S3 Open) 191

5.18 MOV Riser Pole Arrester and Dead-Front Cable-End Arrester

6.1 Maximum Lengths of Cable Circuit Possible 264