King Cheops' Royal Ship

The Boat Beneath

the Pyramid ,
Text by Nancy Jenkins Photographs by John Ross
 $17-95

M o r e than a quarter o f a century ago a

young Egyptian archaeologist, clearing a
site just south o f the Great Pyramid at Giza,
broke through a massive slab o f limestone
to reveal a vault beneath his feet. For the
first time in 4,500 years the sun's rays were
shining down on the timbers o f a great
papyriform ship, built for a king and then
dismantled and buried here at the height o f
the Egyptian Old K i n g d o m . Astonishingly
well preserved, it was b y far the most
ancient vessel ever to come to light.

Nancy Jenkins is the first to tell the full

story o f this R o y a l Ship — its discovery,
excavation and reconstruction. She tells also
w h o built it and w h y , h o w it has survived
intact for so long, and what connection it
may have had with the age-old Egyptian
myth o f the Sun-god, eternally journeying
across the heavens in his R e e d Float.

B u t this is also a story o f modern E g y p t

and o f one man in particular, Ahmed
Youssef Moustafa, Chief Restorer of the
Department o f Antiquities, w h o almost
single-handedly put back together the 1,223
pieces o f .the ship. Working with a giant
jigsaw puzzle—though a puzzle without

(Continued on back flap)

O980
The Boat Beneath the Pyramid
 \ i ; Nancy Jenkins

The Boat Beneath

the Pyramid
King Cheops' Royal Ship
Special Consultant:
Ahmed Youssef Moustafa

Photographs by John Ross

Holt, Rinehart and Winston

New York
For Sara and Nicholas, with thanks

Title-pages: The reconstructed Royal Ship of Cheops

(bow to the right), shown in section and plan views.

Copyright © 1980 Thames and Hudson Ltd,

London
All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce
this book or portions thereof in any form.
First published in the United States of America in
1980 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 383 Madison
Avenue, New York, New York 10017.

Library o f Congress Cataloging in Publication

Data
Jenkins, Nancy.
The boat beneath the pyramid.

Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Ships, Wooden. 2. Cheops, King of Egypt - Tomb.
3. Giza. Great Pyramid of Cheops. 4. Egypt - Civili­
zation - To 332 b.c. 5. Egypt - Religion. 6. Ships
(in religion, folk-lore, etc) - Egypt. I. Title.
DT62.S55J46 1980 932'.01 79-27466

isbn 0-03-057061-1
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Butler &
Tanner Limited, Frome and London. Colour plates
printed in Great Britain by Balding & Mansell
Limited, Wisbech, Cambs.
 Contents

Chronological table 6

1 Introduction 7

l
2 The pyramid-builders 9

3 Discovery 45

4 Excavation 59

5 Construction and reconstruction 83

6 Ships and ship-building in the Old Kingdom in

7 Death, religion and survival 139

8 Conclusion 157

Acknowledgments 174

1
Notes on the text 74

Select bibliography 175

List of illustrations 177

1 8 1
Index
 Chronological table

THIRD & FOURTH

BC THE THIRTY-ONE OLD
BC BC DYNASTIES
DYNASTIES KINGDOM
(principal rulers)

Prehistory
(Naqada 11 c. 3400)
3150 1 2700 2700

Archaic Period /
Zoser
Third (reigned 19 yrs.)
2700 Dynasty

Old Kingdom
2630
Dyn. 3-6
\
2250 \
1st Intermediate j Fourth \
Period 1 Dynasty \
2035
1 \
Middle K i n g d o m I
2520
\ Huni (24 yrs.)

Dyn. 1 1 - 1 3 2630
1668
\
Sneferu (24 yrs.)
2nd Intermediate
Period 1 Fifth \
1550 Dynasty \ Cheops (23 yrs.)
1

New Kingdom j
2400
\ Djedefre (8 yrs.)

Dyn. 18-20 : Chephren (?25 yrs.)

946
\
Mycerinus (28 yrs.)
Sixth \
Late Dynastic Dynasty \ Shepseskaf (5 yrs.)
Period
Dyn. 2 1 - 3 1 Khentkawes (?)

332 2250 2520

Note: There is still considerable disagreement a m o n g scholars as to the precise chronology for ancient
Egypt and dates are therefore only approximate. T h e system adopted here follows that proposed b y
the Oriental Institute, University o f Chicago. T h e tinted area indicates the period o f main relevance
for this book.
 CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

S h e m e l - N e s s i m is an ancient E g y p t i a n festival that goes back at least to

P t o l e m a i c times and p r o b a b l y e v e n earlier, the o n e feast in the c r o w d e d
E g y p t i a n h o l i d a y calendar that unites in celebration the stark and d i v i s i v e
elements o f the c o u n t r y - y o u n g and old, m a l e and female, rich and p o o r ,
M u s l i m , C o p t , G r e e k , and J e w . S h e m e l - N e s s i m means 'the sniffing o f
the breezes' and that is precisely w h a t e v e r y o n e does, the entire p o p u l a c e
rushing out o f doors on the First o f M a y for a last breath o f fresh air before
the h a m m e r o f s u m m e r ' s heat stuns the c o u n t r y into silent, submissive
lethargy.
T h e rich desert the city to celebrate the h o l i d a y on their c o u n t r y estates
and the b o u r g e o i s i e dance and feast in the poolside gardens o f foreign
hotels. B u t , for the i m p o v e r i s h e d mass o f C a i r o ' s p o p u l a t i o n - those w h o
can afford n o t h i n g m o r e than the f e w piastres it costs for a w h o l e f a m i l y
to c r o w d on the ramshackle city buses - a h o l i d a y o f this sort means an
o u t i n g along the n a r r o w , littered stretch o f r i v e r b a n k that lies b e t w e e n
the coffee-coloured surge o f the N i l e and the traffic streaming along the
riverside corniche behind.
A l o n g the bank, w o m e n are c o o k i n g h o l i d a y feasts, w h i l e A r a b m u s i c
drones f r o m transistor radios and y o u n g men beat an a c c o m p a n i m e n t on
finger drums. T h e pungent smell o f charcoal fires and roasting spiced meat
and g a r b a g e - d u n g - r o t t i n g fruit mingles w i t h s o m e t h i n g rich and dark
and l o a m y f r o m the r i v e r itself. T h e sun, d i p p i n g t o w a r d s the palms on
the distant G i z a shore, flushes the N i l e w i t h a sheen like p e a c h - c o l o u r e d
metal. Feluccas flick b a c k and forth in the stiff breeze, their lateen sails
d i p p i n g perilously in the relentless n o r t h w a r d fall o f the river. O v e r l a d e n
vaporetti, the little m o t o r launches that transport Cairenes f r o m one end
to another o f their great city, p l y the current, w h i l e r o w b o a t s , in unskilled
hands, spin like helpless w a t e r b u g s on the surface and occasionally capsize.
T h e t h r o n g i n g c r o w d s , the sounds, the smells, the sense o f a chaotic release
o f energies that h a v e been pent up b y the strictures o f p o v e r t y and religion
alike, are o v e r w h e l m i n g . S o often in E g y p t one has this sense o f the m a g i c

7
 of an event that is powerfully ancient and, despite its secular aspects, pro­
foundly religious, as charged with emotions as an ancient rite. This is a
country, one feels, that is riveted in the past, its strengths and weaknesses
both derived from a hypnotic fixation on three thousand years of history
that ended before the birth of Christ.
I was there in Cairo during Shem el-Nessim to see an ancient boat,
the oldest boat in the world, and one which, many historians and archaeo­
logists believe, may once have floated on this same Nile, perhaps in a fes­
tival as joyous and emotional as the one I was witnessing. Not just the
oldest boat in the world, it is also the largest and the best-preserved ancient
boat known to archaeology, a graceful and elegant construction, nearly
forty-five metres long from stem to stern, and solidly built of cedar from
the distant mountains of the Lebanon. It is an important source of infor­
mation about the ancient origins of ship-building and a work of art as
austerely impressive as the pyramid it was built to complement.
The boat's discovery dates to 1954, when two massive sealed pits were
found beneath a pile of rubble just south of the Great Pyramid of Giza.
Carved into the limestone bedrock of the Giza plateau, the two pits, it
seemed obvious, formed part of the funerary complex of the Great Pyra­
mid, the pyramid of King Cheops, second ruler of the Fourth Dynasty
of the Egyptian Old Kingdom, king of Upper and Lower Egypt around
the middle of the third millennium B C .
When one of the pits was opened, inside it were found the remains
1 of this ancient boat, its timbers dismantled, and its 651 separate parts care­
fully arranged in thirteen layers, one over the other, exactly as they had
been placed some four and a half millennia earlier, presumably at the same
time that King Cheops himself was buried in his tomb in the heart of
the adjacent pyramid. Incredibly, when they were removed from the pit,
the dismantled timbers were found to be almost perfectly preserved. Years

8
 i A composite photograph of the dismantled ship, taken shortly after the forty-one blocks covering the
pit had been removed. The papyriform prow can be seen at the left-hand or western end. Fragments of
white plaster that had fallen into the pit in ancient times are distributed over the surface.

of patient, diligent and meticulous work followed before the great ship
was returned to its original splendour. The work was largely that of one
man, Ahmed Youssef Moustafa, Chief Restorer of the Egyptian Depart­
ment of Antiquities and a man who is almost legendary for his skill and
perspicacity in the demanding field of the restoration of antiquities.
Today Hag Ahmed Youssef, as he has been known since his hajj-pilgri-
mage to Mecca in 1935, is the zealous and watchful custodian of the boat.
A short, robust man in his late sixties, he is a devout and orthodox Muslim 8
whose spirited intelligence and humour are reflected in clear, dark brown
eyes. He divides most of his time between the museum that was built
next to the Great Pyramid in the 1960s to house the boat, and the bunga­
low provided for him by the Department of Antiquities, a small but com­
fortable mud-brick rest-house situated in a low desert wadi between the
pyramid plateau and the modern village of Kfar es-Samman below. On
that warm and windy May afternoon, when all Egypt was celebrating
Shem el-Nessim, I had driven out to the pyramids to meet the Hag and,
I hoped, finally to see the great ship. I had visited and talked with Hag
Ahmed often over the past months but always there was some reason
why I could not be admitted to the museum. Permission must come from
the Department of Antiquities; it is rarely given and all visitors must be
accompanied by Hag Ahmed who takes frank pleasure in these rare
opportunities to show off his treasure. That day, an archaeologically
minded Pakistani general on an official visit to Egypt had been given
permission to see the boat. Through an intermediary, the Hag had let
me know that I might slip in with the official party.

9
 2 The Nile in flood at Giza- a photograph taken in the late 1920s. Because the climate is almost totally rainless, before the completion
of the Aswan High Dam agriculture in Egypt depended on the regular, annual summer flood of the Nile. The dramatic-and romantic -
spectacle is, alas, a thing of the past and Egypt today relies on irrigation for her needs. The village of Kfar es-Samman, at the
foot of the Giza plateau, marks the edge of cultivation. Beneath the modern town lie the remains of Cheops' valley temple.

From certain parts of Cairo, the three Giza pyramids appear across the
flat reach of the Nile like three perfect and slightly incongruous alps,
hovering on the desert's edge beyond the dust and smoke of the city. The
approach to the pyramids is along a modern dual carriageway that runs
between depressing rows of cheap nightclubs and squat, ugly apartment
blocks right up to the very foot of the escarpment. Desert dust and traffic
fumes darken the air and choke the palms and gum trees that line the
roadside. It is hard to deny the majesty of the pyramid site, rising impres­
sively above the rather squalid surroundings, yet harder still to imagine
what it must have been like even as recently as fifty years ago when the
2 Nile in flood reached to the village of Kfar es-Samman just under the
pyramid plateau, and the imposing bulk of the monuments was mirrored
in the placid surface of the floodwaters. It must have been easier in those
days to picture what ancient Egypt was like. Today modern Egypt, noisy,
dirty, exuberant, bursting with vitality, intrudes on the romantic imagi­
nation.

10
3 The Old Kingdom pyramid fields
stretch along the Libyan escarpment,
an irregular formation on the Nile's
west bank that acts as an effective
natural barrier between the fertile
river valley and the barren wasteland
of the western desert.

A l l told, there are s o m e e i g h t y p y r a m i d s n o w k n o w n in E g y p t , 3

scattered in a l o n g irregular line along the w e s t bank o f the N i l e , w i t h
most o f them concentrated in the area b e t w e e n A b u R o a s h , just n o r t h
o f Giza, and the F a i y u m depression, near w h i c h the rulers o f the M i d d l e
K i n g d o m erected their m o n u m e n t s . Nonetheless, m e n t i o n o f 'the p y r a ­
mids' unfailingly calls to m i n d for most people this g r o u p on the Giza
plateau, w i t h o u t d o u b t the m o s t familiar g r o u p o f m o n u m e n t s in the II, 14
entire w o r l d . T h e G r e a t P y r a m i d o f K i n g C h e o p s (or K h u f u , as he is less /
p o p u l a r l y but m o r e p r o p e r l y k n o w n ) , is the largest and oldest o f these.
N e x t comes the m i d d l e p y r a m i d , that o f K i n g C h e p h r e n , or Khafre, one

11
INTRODUCTION

o f C h e o p s ' sons; it is in fact shorter than C h e o p s ' p y r a m i d b y about

seventy-five centimetres, t h o u g h because it lies on h i g h e r g r o u n d f r o m
s o m e aspects it appears to d o m i n a t e the earlier one. T h e p y r a m i d o f
M y c e r i n u s , or M e n k a u r e , p r o b a b l y a grandson o f C h e o p s , is the smallest
o f the three. T h e p y r a m i d s o f M y c e r i n u s and C h e o p s are each a c c o m ­
panied b y three smaller, subsidiary p y r a m i d s , said to h a v e been built for
the principal queens o f these t w o kings, so that the w h o l e Giza ' p y r a m i d
field', as E g y p t o l o g i s t s call it, in fact comprises nine p y r a m i d s .
F r o m H a g A h m e d ' s rest-house to the m u s e u m , it is a short w a l k , up
the c a u s e w a y w h o s e ancient p a v i n g stones still lead f r o m the v a l l e y to
the C h e p h r e n p y r a m i d , and behind a g r o u p o f O l d K i n g d o m mastabas,
the large, rectangular t o m b s that w e r e erected a r o u n d the p y r a m i d s for
nobles and court officials. T h e G r e a t P y r a m i d , H a g A h m e d explained,
as w e w a l k e d a l o n g the c a u s e w a y , w a s the first to be built on the Giza
plateau. Earlier k i n g s , such as C h e o p s ' father Sneferu ( w h o m a y h a v e had
as m a n y as three p y r a m i d s ) , had erected their m o n u m e n t s farther south,
near the O l d K i n g d o m capital o f M e m p h i s , n o w lost a m i d the canals and
marshes on the w e s t b a n k o f the r i v e r , across f r o m the m o d e r n industrial
site o f H e l w a n . Indeed, w i t h the n o r t h e r l y breeze clearing the desert air,
w e c o u l d see the great p y r a m i d fields e x t e n d i n g a w a y to the south: the
later Fifth D y n a s t y constructions at A b u s i r ; the Step P y r a m i d o f K i n g
Z o s e r , earliest o f all k n o w n p y r a m i d - b u i l d e r s , at S a q q a r a ; and, in the blue
distance, the R e d P y r a m i d and the unmistakable r h o m b o i d shape o f the
B e n t P y r a m i d , b o t h at D a h s h u r and b o t h apparently built b y Sneferu.
W h y C h e o p s decided to erect his p y r a m i d so m u c h farther n o r t h than the
others is one o f those questions that E g y p t o l o g i s t s m a y n e v e r answer, but
perhaps the splendid isolation o f the site lent itself to the k i n d o f i m p o s i n g
nature that C h e o p s w a n t e d for his b u r i a l . *
4 T h e glass-walled m u s e u m that houses C h e o p s ' great boat w a s erected
just south o f the G r e a t P y r a m i d and directly o v e r the n o w e m p t y pit in
w h i c h the boat w a s found - a l t h o u g h displayed is an inappropriate w o r d
to use, for it is a m u s e u m that n o tourist is permitted to visit and f e w
students h a v e e v e n been inside. T h e m u s e u m , I had been assured b y
experts in the field, is a disaster in its desert location, its glass walls and
r o o f p r o d u c i n g e x t r e m e s o f temperature and h u m i d i t y that subject the
ship's timbers to unbearable stresses and m a k e the future o f the boat u n ­
certain.

* That isolation was not to last long. Although Cheops' son and successor Djedefre built the
most northerly pyramid of all, a now ruined heap of stones at A b u Roash, about five miles
north of Giza, his successor, Chephren, returned to his father's site and only a few years later
erected the second pyramid there.

12
4 The southern side of the Great Pyramid of Cheops, showing the modern museum in the foreground that today houses
the Royal Ship.

As we went through the little museum, examining photographs, draw­

ings, models, exhibits of haphazardly coiled ropes and matting that had
once covered the dismantled timbers, Hag Ahmed explained the steps of
his excavation and reconstruction, a process that in the end took him about
sixteen years. In fact, it was not until 1970 that the ship was reassembled 93
in the museum - finally, after a number of false starts, erected on its present
site over the pit.
I had been impressed before, in reading and talking with Hag Ahmed,
by the age and size of the ship; but I was quite unprepared for its tremen­
dous aesthetic impact. The ancient cedar timbers are darkly glowing, their
warm, resinous perfume pervading the dusty air of the museum. The deep
sheer of the boat's profile is quite extraordinarily beautiful, with its high V
prow and steeply raked stern pieces derived from the ancient papyrus reed
rafts that must have been the first Egyptian method of transportation. T o
the pure lines and the majestic concept is united a fineness and delicacy
of detail that is so typical of this Fourth Dynasty civilization - a character

13
INTRODUCTION

revealed not o n l y in the exquisitely c a r v e d p a p y r u s - b u d and p a l m i f o r m

finials o f the c a n o p y ' s slender c o l u m n s , but also in a detail as prosaic as
5-7 a d o o r handle. T h e s e three characteristics - purity, majesty, delicacy -
return again and again, in stone sculpture, in architecture, e v e n in the
fragments o f painted and carved relief that w e k n o w f r o m the period.
T h e Fourth D y n a s t y set the stamp, as it w e r e , on E g y p t i a n civilization,
establishing the classical canons to w h i c h later generations w o u l d turn.
It is an important point to r e m e m b e r in o u r consideration o f the C h e o p s
boat, w h e t h e r w e think o f it as an aesthetic object, a religious or ritual
s y m b o l , o r indeed f r o m the point o f v i e w o f pure functionalism.
A i r conditioning to control the temperature and h u m i d i t y is not a v a i l ­
able in the m u s e u m ; the reasons g i v e n are various, but the one that makes
most sense is that there is s i m p l y insufficient electric p o w e r on the plateau
to run the h u g e refrigerating unit that sits rusting outside the m u s e u m
building. W h y the available p o w e r cannot be stepped u p is another ques­
tion, but questions like this are a source o f deep embarrassment to the
E g y p t i a n g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h seems singularly helpless and peculiarly u n ­
able to d o a n y t h i n g about it. T i m e and again, w h e n I asked foreign
archaeologists, E g y p t o l o g i s t s o r m u s e u m people about the ship, m y ques­
tions w o u l d b e g i n , ' W e l l , w h y d o n ' t they j u s t . . . ?' A n d the r e p l y a l w a y s
c a m e back, w i t h a r e m o t e smile, ' A h , y o u see, y o u d o n ' t k n o w E g y p t . '
H a g A h m e d m o n i t o r s the ship carefully, but w i t h o u t the p r o p e r
e q u i p m e n t there is little he can d o to protect it, d e v o t e d t h o u g h he is
to its w e l l - b e i n g . C h e o p s ' R o y a l S h i p has s u r v i v e d for m o r e than 4,500
years, but serious doubts h a v e been raised w h e t h e r it w i l l remain intact
e v e n for another decade unless drastic measures are taken to rescue it.
W h a t the h u g e vessel w a s , w h a t function or functions it w a s built to
serve, are questions that h a v e puzzled archaeologists and historians since
its d i s c o v e r y . S o m e E g y p t o l o g i s t s h a v e called the ship a S o l a r B a r q u e ,
a boat to carry the dead k i n g o f E g y p t , resurrected and floating w i t h the
S u n - g o d on his eternal r o u n d across the s k y ; others say it w a s a funerary
b a r g e , to carry the k i n g ' s e m b a l m e d b o d y d o w n - r i v e r f r o m M e m p h i s ,
the O l d K i n g d o m capital, to Giza for burial in the p y r a m i d he had spent
his life b u i l d i n g ; still others call it a p i l g r i m a g e boat, used in the k i n g ' s
o w n lifetime to visit the h o l y places o f E g y p t , or for his o t h e r - w o r l d l y
p i l g r i m a g e s in the hereafter. I prefer to f o l l o w B j o r n L a n d s t r o m , the
S w e d i s h e x p e r t on ancient boats, and call it the ' R o y a l S h i p ' o f C h e o p s ,
for r o y a l it most certainly w a s , and as for its other uses and functions,
these are not yet k n o w n for certain.
A p a r t f r o m official e x c a v a t i o n reports and a f e w scholarly articles o f
interest o n l y to E g y p t o l o g i s t s , n o t h i n g has been published p r e v i o u s l y
about the R o y a l S h i p o f C h e o p s . L a n d s t r o m , in his exhaustive catalogue

14
 INTRODUCTION

5 - 7 Purity and restraint together with a superb technical finish were the hallmarks
of Fourth Dynasty craftsmanship, as is evident from these few details from the Royal
Ship- a palmiform column supporting the cabin roofbeam, a door latch perhaps carved
deliberately to evoke the scarab beetle sacred to the Egyptians, and a sliding lock that
is both elegant and economic. Note the copper brads, one on the column and several
on the lock, that are among the few instances of the use of metal in the Royal Ship.

of ancient Egyptian boats, Ships of the Pharaohs (1970), discussed the R o y a l

Ship, but his scope was too vast to include more than a brief mention,
and although his insights into the ship's construction are invaluable, it
seems important to understand the ship as something more than the pro­
duct of the ancient shipwright's craft. For it was also the product of a
civilization, one of the highest civilizations in man's long history, as well
as one of the most ancient. That rapid flowering of culture that was the
Pyramid A g e not only set the pattern for the millennia of Egyptian civil­
ization that were to follow; it also created, in art, in literature, in architec­
ture, and, as w e now see, in ship-building, works, monuments and objects
that would stun future generations with their technological proficiency

15
INTRODUCTION

as m u c h as their artistic perfection. A c h i e v e m e n t o f this order did not

spring forth fully b l o w n in the F o u r t h D y n a s t y . Centuries o f d e v e l o p m e n t
must lie behind the grace, the strength, the assurance o f the craft. N o less
than the p y r a m i d s , the R o y a l S h i p is a testimony to the a d v a n c e d civiliza­
tion that built it.

T h e sun had set w h e n w e left the m u s e u m that day, and the h o l i d a y -

makers had l o n g since departed. T h e w i n d had d r o p p e d ; already a n i g h t ­
time chill had b e g u n to creep into the air. In the b r i e f desert t w i l i g h t the
p y r a m i d s stood out in all their ruined majesty, dark hulks that l o o m e d
against the last apricot-coloured g l o w in the western sky. A t night the
Giza plateau is a l o n e l y place, cold and forbidding, inhabited o n l y b y a
few guards, w r a p p e d like m u m m i e s against the night w i n d , and the y a p ­
ping, threatening p i - d o g s o f E g y p t .
F r o m a time l o n g before K i n g C h e o p s this plateau had been a sacred
b u r y i n g g r o u n d , and even today there is about it a sense o f holiness and
m y s t e r y , especially in the e m p t y silences o f the night. T h e ancient people
w h o built these m o n u m e n t s , and apparently buried their kings w i t h i n ,
are in a w a y as mysterious to us as the p y r a m i d s themselves. W h o built
them, w h o e q u i p p e d them w i t h great boats on the magnificent scale o f
C h e o p s ' R o y a l S h i p , and h o w and w h y this happened, are questions that
w e must find answers to, h o w e v e r tentative. B u t w e cannot b e g i n to
understand the R o y a l S h i p , its design, its function and the reasons w h y
it w a s buried so carefully in its pit n e x t to the G r e a t P y r a m i d , until w e
understand m o r e about the civilization that built it and w h a t that civiliza­
tion thought o f itself and its w o r l d .

16
8 Ahmed Youssef Moustafa, who restored and reconstructed the Royal Ship of Cheops.
9 This little ivory statuette, just five centimetres high, is the
only known portrait of King Cheops. It was found in the
Temple of Khentiamentiu, Lord of the Westerners as the dead
were called, at the holy city of Abydos.
 CHAPTER T W O

The pyramid-builders

T h e E g y p t i a n s w e r e a m o n g the first people in the w o r l d to d e v e l o p a

written l a n g u a g e . B y the y e a r 3000 B C , s o m e five h u n d r e d years before
the ascent o f K i n g C h e o p s to the throne, the h i e r o g l y p h i c script and the 9
l a n g u a g e it expressed had e v o l v e d the basic forms they w o u l d preserve
- t h o u g h subject to great changes in v o c a b u l a r y , g r a m m a r and o r t h o ­
g r a p h y - for m o r e than three thousand years. ( T h e latest h i e r o g l y p h s so
far discovered, f r o m the island o f Philae at A s w a n , are dated to the y e a r
A D 394, w e l l into the Christian era.) T h u s the E g y p t i a n s w e r e also a m o n g
the first people to preserve a record o f historical events. T h e farther back
in history o n e goes, o f course, the m o r e s h a d o w y b e c o m e s that r e c o r d ;
yet w e p r o b a b l y k n o w m o r e about the early E g y p t i a n s than w e d o about
a n y other ancient people.
T h e Sumerians o f L o w e r M e s o p o t a m i a had also d e v e l o p e d an early
w r i t i n g system at about the same time as the E g y p t i a n s , but they lacked
the other factor that contributes so m u c h to o u r k n o w l e d g e o f E g y p t -
the factor o f climate. T h e hot, d r y sands o f the desert preserve w h a t e v e r
is buried in t h e m and, p r o b a b l y for this v e r y reason, they w e r e selected
b y the E g y p t i a n s as the location o f their b u r y i n g g r o u n d s .
Nonetheless, for all the historical records and the preserved artefacts,
w e still k n o w little about ancient E g y p t i a n history and civilization. Part
o f this has to d o w i t h the reticence o f the ancient chroniclers on the v e r y
subjects that w e find fascinating. T h e i r ideas o f w h a t constituted an event
w o r t h y o f historical mention are seldom the same as o u r o w n . M u c h o f
the ancient record is g i v e n o v e r to prayers and offering formulas that v a r y
little f r o m one generation to another. F r o m the period o f the O l d
K i n g d o m , w h i c h lasted five h u n d r e d years, o u r k n o w l e d g e is further
limited b y the fact that w e h a v e n o t h i n g but burials to g o on. T h e r e are
n o remains o f cities, n o domestic architecture, n o settlement patterns, until
a m u c h later period. T h i s gives us a curiously one-sided perception o f
the ancient E g y p t i a n s as a peculiarly m o r b i d people, obsessed b y death.
W h i l e it is true, as w e shall see, that the fact o f death w a s a focus o f their

19
io The slate palette of Narmer is the most important of a series of these ritual objects used for the preparation of cosmetics and
body paint, and dating from late predynastic and early dynastic times. Crowned by heads of the cow-goddess Hathor, the palette
shows on the reverse King Narmer wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt in the characteristic pharaonic pose, subduing his
enemies. On the obverse the king, in the topmost register, wears the Red Crown of Lower Egypt while his decapitated enemies
lie before him. farmer has been identified with the legendary King Menes, who unified the Two Lands. Note on the obverse
the little papyriform boat in the upper right-hand corner.

civilization, there is also solid evidence that they were a gay and life-
loving people, not so very different from their present-day descendants
in the Nile Valley.
The date 3000 BC is significant. The art of writing cannot have sprung
forth fully developed in that year; it had a long evolution that can only
be traced in part, and it continued to evolve long after that date. Nonethe­
less, something very important happened in Egypt around the beginning
of the third millennium. Precisely what the events were and in what
sequence they took place is not at all clear. Writing developed as a tool
of communication for the small but powerful educated class at the same
time as a political event of the first order occurred: the unification of
Upper and Lower Egypt with a new capital at Memphis, the walls of
10 which were traced, according to a well-established tradition, by Menes,
first king of the First Dynasty. The unification of the Nile Valley under
one ruler, the establishment of the First Dynasty, and the 'invention' of
writing are all related and interdependent events. An important factor

20
 THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

in the strength and stability o f the n e w political order must h a v e been

the ability to c o m m u n i c a t e , b y means o f the w r i t t e n w o r d and often o v e r
long distances, so that an edict, transcribed in M e m p h i s and m a r k e d w i t h
the k i n g ' s authenticating seal, could be transported b y boat to U p p e r
E g y p t o r the Delta o r on foot to the eastern desert outposts and m i n i n g
camps, and there carried out.
B y the time o f the F o u r t h D y n a s t y , w h i c h seems to h a v e been estab­
lished s o m e time shortly before 2600 B C , the O l d K i n g d o m E g y p t i a n s
had e v o l v e d a h i g h l y a d v a n c e d society w i t h a t e c h n o l o g y that w a s sophis­
ticated in the sense that they w e r e able to achieve astounding feats o f
engineering w i t h e x t r e m e l y p r i m i t i v e equipment. A strong centralized
g o v e r n m e n t w a s focused on the k i n g , w h o w a s responsible in a v e r y direct
and i m m e d i a t e w a y for the fertility o f the soil, w h i c h depended on the
regular seasonal inundation w h e n the N i l e burst its banks and flooded
the valley, depositing a l a y e r o f rich m u d f r o m the African highlands
w h e r e the r i v e r has its source. O n the fertility o f the soil, o f course,
depended the s u r v i v a l o f all E g y p t , so that the k i n g w a s in a real sense
the guarantor o f that s u r v i v a l , the m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n the E g y p t i a n s and
their gods (it appears that all offerings to the gods w e r e m a d e in the king's
n a m e alone), indeed p r o b a b l y a g o d himself. It w a s to house this g o d ' s
i m m o r t a l spirit and to nourish it t h r o u g h prayers and offerings that the
p y r a m i d s w e r e built.

The pyramids
As architectural achievements, the p y r a m i d s are a w e s o m e constructions;
w h e n one considers the limitations under w h i c h the F o u r t h D y n a s t y
E g y p t i a n s operated, they are quite unbelievable. It w o u l d be another
thousand years before E g y p t i a n s w o u l d k n o w and use the w h e e l ; they
w o u l d not discover the b l o c k - a n d - t a c k l e , o r a n y lifting device m o r e
sophisticated than the simple lever, until the R o m a n p e r i o d ; their arith­
metical computations w e r e e x t r e m e l y a w k w a r d , based on a complicated
system o f d o u b l i n g pairs o f numbers and adding or subtracting the results,
and they hardly k n e w c o m p o u n d fractions at all. Y e t in just o v e r a
hundred years they built at least seven p y r a m i d s and perhaps c o m p l e t e d
an eighth. M o r e than t w o million stones w e r e used in the Great P y r a m i d
a l o n e ; their a v e r a g e w e i g h t w a s t w o - a n d - a - h a l f tons, and s o m e blocks
w e i g h e d fifteen tons. M u c h o f the stone w a s quarried locally, but s o m e
o f it w a s transported from as far a w a y as distant A s w a n , at the N i l e ' s first 94
cataract in U p p e r E g y p t .
A n d it w a s not just p y r a m i d s alone, for each o f the main p y r a m i d s w a s
the focus o f a vast c o m p l e x c o v e r i n g m a n y acres o f g r o u n d . O n the e d g e 11

21
THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

o f cultivation, at the h i g h point reached b y the N i l e during its annual

spate, stood the V a l l e y T e m p l e , w i t h a landing stage for funerary and
other boats, and a canal connecting it to the r i v e r to facilitate boat travel
even at times o f a l o w N i l e . A h i g h , w a l l e d C a u s e w a y led f r o m the V a l l e y
T e m p l e up to the p y r a m i d on the L i b y a n plateau, an escarpment that runs
a l o n g the west bank o f the N i l e for hundreds o f miles. A g a i n s t the east
side o f the p y r a m i d the M o r t u a r y T e m p l e w a s built to face the rising
sun. Inside the M o r t u a r y T e m p l e a 'false d o o r ' , a recessed stone stela that
was a characteristic part o f all burial equipment, r o y a l or otherwise, p e r ­
mitted the dead k i n g to enter the temple f r o m his t o m b in the p y r a m i d
and partake o f the daily offerings that w e r e made to h i m here. A high
temenos or b o u n d a r y w a l l surrounded the p y r a m i d area and restricted
access to all but the ritually clean priests and officials w h o p e r f o r m e d the
daily services.
W i t h i n the p y r a m i d c o m p l e x , but usually outside the temenos w a l l , w e r e
subsidiary p y r a m i d s ; the evidence is slender, but m a n y archaeologists
believe these to h a v e been the intended burial places o f the k i n g ' s principal
w i v e s , o r o f his daughters. It is also possible that they w e r e meant for
the ceremonial interment o f various r o y a l paraphernalia, c r o w n s , staves,
maces and so forth. M o s t o f the Fourth D y n a s t y p y r a m i d s also had b o a t -
pits carved into the limestone b e d r o c k o f the plateau - it m a y indeed be
discovered that all Fourth D y n a s t y p y r a m i d s had boat-pits, but w h e t h e r
they all originally contained boats, and w h e t h e r those boats w e r e o f the
magnificent size and scale o f the R o y a l S h i p , is not n o w k n o w n .
A s w e l l as engineering geniuses, the E g y p t i a n s had also to be superior
organizers in order to erect and furnish these m o n u m e n t s . D o w s D u n h a m

11 In the traditional arrangement of an Old

Kingdom pyramid complex, the pyramid itself (l)
was surrounded by a boundary or temenos wall (2)
to seal off the sacred precinct. On the east side of
the pyramid, the mortuary temple (•}) served as the
repository of daily offerings to maintain the dead
king's spirit. A causeway (4) led to the valley temple
(5) at the edge of cultivation and the height of the
Nile in flood.
 THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

o f the B o s t o n M u s e u m o f Fine Arts has estimated that n o m o r e than 2,500

people c o u l d h a v e w o r k e d on the p y r a m i d ' s face at a n y one time. B u t
there w o u l d also h a v e been thousands m o r e labourers in the q u a r r y and
transport c r e w s , as w e l l as the artists, sculptors, painters and skilled stone
carvers w h o w e r e responsible for the sumptuous decorations (coloured
stones, painted reliefs, inscriptions, statues o f the k i n g and gods) that
adorned these buildings - not to mention the supply c r e w s (butchers,
bakers, b r e w e r s , cooks) needed to k e e p the armies o f w o r k e r s p r o v i d e d
w i t h their daily rations.
T h e earliest E g y p t i a n burials that w e k n o w o f w e r e shallow excavations
in the desert sand w h e r e the b o d y , w r a p p e d in linen and a c c o m p a n i e d
b y the simplest o f g r a v e - g o o d s ( j e w e l r y , w e a p o n s , tools, offering j a r s ) ,
w a s laid. G r a d u a l l y these simple pit-graves b e c a m e m o r e elaborate, lined
w i t h m u d - b r i c k and roofed w i t h w o o d , and enlarged to contain several
chambers. B y the First D y n a s t y this simple t y p e o f p i t - g r a v e had e v o l v e d
into the mastaba t o m b , so-called because the l o w , rectangular super­
structure o v e r the burial is said to resemble the mastaba benches outside
m o d e r n U p p e r E g y p t i a n homes. T h e mastaba t o m b o f K i n g A h a at S a q -
qara, according to W a l t e r E m e r y w h o e x c a v a t e d a n u m b e r o f First and
S e c o n d D y n a s t y r o y a l t o m b s there in the late 1930s and after, had t w e n t y -
seven small chambers in the m u d - b r i c k superstructure, each containing
various kinds o f offerings for the k i n g ' s use in the other w o r l d . T h e s e
offerings m i g h t be real, such as j e w e l r y or j a r s o f grain and oil, or they
m i g h t be substitutes, m o d e l s in a m o r e durable, often m o r e precious
material to take the place o f perishable items. O r they m i g h t be miniatures
o f offering objects that w e r e too large o r otherwise unsuitable for placing
in the g r a v e .
N o r t h o f K i n g A h a ' s i m p o s i n g t o m b , and situated in such a w a y that
it seemed clearly to be part o f the burial e q u i p m e n t , E m e r y found a b o a t -
pit m o r e than nineteen metres l o n g w i t h a brick superstructure 'crude
e n o u g h to suggest that it w a s constructed after the boat had been put into
position'. F r a g m e n t s o f w o o d and r o p e fibre found in this and other early
boat-pits at Saqqara indicated to E m e r y that they had once actually c o n ­
tained real boats.
W i t h each succeeding generation, these r o y a l t o m b s b e c a m e larger and
m o r e i m p o s i n g , public declarations o f the p o w e r o f the g o d - k i n g , u n ­
diminished even in death, and surrounded b y the g r a v e s o f his nobles and
courtiers. T h e first great architectural a d v a n c e c a m e in the T h i r d D y n a s t y
w i t h the m o n u m e n t a l use o f stone as a building material. S t o n e had o c c a ­
sionally been used in the past for architectonic elements, such as lintels
and d o o r frames, but in the S t e p P y r a m i d built for K i n g Z o s e r at Saqqara, 12
quarried stone blocks instead o f m u d - b r i c k w e r e used structurally for the

23
THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

first time in the massive complex, a six-stepped pyramid with courts and
chapels surrounding it. The architectural advance indicates a change in
the way of expressing the king's power, and possibly, although we have
no way of knowing for sure, a change in the very nature of that power.
N o longer was the king's grave simply the largest among many similar
graves; now the structure, and perhaps the purpose, of the grave was en­
tirely different. The Step Pyramid dominated the necropolis; it was
clearly visible from miles away, and especially from Memphis, the white-
walled capital that lay in the green valley below the pyramid plateau.
Moreover, with its great courts and temples and subsidiary buildings, the
Step Pyramid represented an entirely different concept from King Aha's
mastaba with its twenty-seven offering chambers; the Step Pyramid was
both a residence for the divine spirit of the dead king, as grand as anything
he had had in real life, and a sanctuary for continued worship and propitia­
tion of the god, where offerings and rituals would be continued on a daily
basis.

12 The Third Dynasty King Zoser's Step Pyramid at Saqqara, shown here in a model reconstruction,
represents the first known example of the monumental use of stone in building. With its many temples
and courtyards (including the hebsed-court inside the eastern wall for rituals at the king's jubilee), it is
much more complicated than the pyramid complexes of the Fourth Dynasty.
13 The name of King Cheops (or Khufu, to give him his proper designation),
enclosed in the royal cartouche, has been found on limestone building blocks
used in the now ruined pyramid of Amenemhet I at Lisht, indicating that
the Twelfth Dynasty king had despoiled his predecessor's mortuary temple
in order to erect his own funerary monument-and indicating too in how little
regard the great Old Kingdom ruler was held by much later generations.

The second great architectural advance came later in the Third Dynasty
or early in the Fourth Dynasty, with the transition from a step pyramid
to a true pyramid at Meidum. The now ruined Meidum pyramid is the
southernmost of the Old Kingdom pyramids that comprise the royal
necropolis of Memphis. Nearly thirty miles up-river from the ancient
capital, the pyramid stands alone, a gaunt and isolated tower rising starkly
in two massive courses from the surrounding hill of rubble, left over from
the collapse of the pyramid's surface layer. It may be, as one writer has
suggested, that the Meidum pyramid collapsed only shortly after it was
1
built. Nonetheless, the attempt in itself was a gesture of assurance and
daring in the technology of stone construction that was in keeping with
the Fourth Dynasty's characteristic spirit of confidence and vitality. The
culmination of that spirit would come in the following generation with
the building of the magnificent Great Pyramid at Giza.
Merely to list the dimensions of King Cheops' Great Pyramid, as is 14
so often done, can convey little of the awesome nature of the structure.
Yet it seems worthwhile remembering that this massive man-made
mountain of stone occupies a land area large enough to contain St Paul's
in London and St Peter's in R o m e - at the same time. It was built of
locally quarried limestone from the Giza plateau, and then faced with fine

25
 x / p > t
u R """^ ' > \ ^ , ^
o '-' I—-i n | | ,>-% Royal Ship Funerary Temple

aLL _ 1
ML) a
r
// VK /

n . „ D n 0 O Q O O D D g > fQg ! \ c h e o P s J № / / .0*0%?-.

1
Mastabas of Dyns. IV and V D
U
D 0 DDDDDDttn D LL ' U
X / E^^F'." h JI I

u
N i ¡1 [ " a s m parF QDnD 0 it
j i
^ = /' fx : 71 llr U
linn
||j ij i \ Pyramid of / East-face boat-pits Q UMi -
= i| \Chephren/ \\ , I E
= ,1 ^\ Funerary Temple 0 ( [J "
M ¡1 BZrAf r ^ ^ ^ ^ - ^ pi 'WHIIK"**'

/
Workmen's Quarter |p // / /^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^I^^^^^J

I , — \ RJO D 1
— 1

) Valley

i II • ' 1 Temple
1 1
Pyramid of Mycerinus 1
rc- yi Funerary
\ / - J
ll! P m | e
_Crni
i—; u
=««™==£^««™n!ioj
£ Valley Temple

P1 P2 P3 \ | | | *

14 The Giza necropolis, showing the boat-pits in relation to the Great Pyramid of Cheops. The secondary
burial of Cheops' mother, Queen Hetep-heres, is indicated just behind the boat-pit adjacent to the causeway.
Nearby are the three so-called 'queens' pyramids' (K1-3) and beyond them the mastaba graves of members
of the royal family.

white Tura limestone from the Muqattam hills behind modern Cairo.
These facing stones were so precisely joined, the archaeologist Flinders
Petrie pointed out, that not even a postcard could be inserted between
them. The Mortuary Temple was dressed with pillars of red granite from
Aswan in Upper Egypt; the black basalt paving stones of the temple
courtyard can still be seen in place on the east side of the pyramid. When
Herodotus described the roofed Causeway in the fifth century B C , it was
still covered with relief carvings. Though these have long since dis-
appeared, we can guess at their superb quality from the blocks and

26
 THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

fragments of the Mortuary Temple that were re-used by a Twelfth

Dynasty king in his pyramid at Lisht. Cheops' Valley Temple, at the foot 13
of the Causeway, has not yet been excavated, its ruins lying beneath the
village of Kfar es-Samman below the pyramid plateau.
Long before the discovery of the two sealed boat-pits on the south side
of the pyramid, archaeologists had known of other open and empty pits 14
that had been excavated in the plateau close by the pyramid and situated
in such a w a y that they were obviously part of the funerary complex.
T w o of these lie along the east face of the pyramid, just north and south
of the Mortuary Temple. A third is aligned with the Causeway that leads 15
from the pyramid down to the valley. There is also apparently a boat-
pit related to each of the three so-called 'queens' pyramids'. Unlike the
more recently discovered sealed pits along the south face, which are both
rectangular, these earlier known pits are all boat-shaped, narrowing and
coming to a point at either end of the excavation in the rock. In addition
to the pairs of boat-pits along the southern and eastern faces of the pyra­
mid, there may well be similar pairs on the western and northern sides,

1$ A view from the top of the Great Pyramid, looking down on the east-face boat-pits and mastaba tombs. The ruins of two of
the three 'queens' pyramids' can be seen on either side of the smallest boat-pit. The dark ribbon of the modern road passes right
over the foundations of the mortuary temple.
THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

a w a i t i n g d i s c o v e r y b y future archaeologists. S u c h a s y m m e t r i c a l a r r a n g e ­
ment w o u l d be in k e e p i n g w i t h the p y r a m i d ' s architecture. S o far, h o w ­
ever, n o t h i n g has been found.
W h e t h e r the boat-pits o n the east face once contained real boats is not
k n o w n for certain, t h o u g h the A m e r i c a n archaeologist G e o r g e R e i s n e r ,
w h o cleaned out one o f these pits in the 1920s, certainly t h o u g h t so. A t
the b o t t o m o f the pit he found bits o f gilded w o o d and rope fibre, similar
to w h a t E m e r y subsequently found in the Saqqara boat-pits. L i k e E m e r y ,
R e i s n e r b e l i e v e d this w a s solid e v i d e n c e for a boat h a v i n g once been
buried in the pit.

O n e o f the puzzles about the F o u r t h D y n a s t y is that there are m o r e

16 p y r a m i d s than there are kings to b u r y in them. T h e seven k n o w n p y r a m i d s
are: the collapsed p y r a m i d at M e i d u m ; the B e n t P y r a m i d and the R e d
or N o r t h e r n P y r a m i d , b o t h at D a h s h u r ; the three Giza p y r a m i d s ; and
the ruined, possibly unfinished, p y r a m i d at A b u R o a s h ( A b u R a w w a s h ) .
T h e six kings a r e : S n e f e r u ; his son C h e o p s ( G i z a ) ; C h e o p s ' sons Djedefre
( A b u R o a s h ) and C h e p h r e n ( G i z a ) ; M y c e r i n u s ( G i z a ) ; and Shepseskaf,
apparently the last k i n g o f the Fourth D y n a s t y , w h o chose not to build
a p y r a m i d at all but w e n t b a c k to the simpler mastaba t o m b .
It was once t h o u g h t that the M e i d u m p y r a m i d had quite clearly been
built b y K i n g Sneferu, C h e o p s ' father and the first k i n g o f the dynasty,
a m o n a r c h m u c h venerated in later generations for his l e g e n d a r y g o o d ­
ness. S o m e thousand years o r m o r e after the M e i d u m c o m p l e x w a s built,
an Eighteenth D y n a s t y scribe w r o t e on the walls o f a temple there that
he had c o m e on a p i l g r i m a g e 'to see the beautiful temple o f K i n g Sneferu.
H e found it as t h o u g h heaven w e r e in it and the sun rising in it. T h e n
he said: " M a y heaven rain w i t h fresh m y r r h , m a y it drip w i t h incense
2
u p o n the r o o f o f the temple o f K i n g S n e f e r u . ' "
B u t the late A h m e d F a k h r y ' s investigations here at M e i d u m as w e l l
as a r o u n d the D a h s h u r p y r a m i d s h a v e p r o d u c e d evidence that Sneferu
m a y not actually h a v e built his o w n p y r a m i d at M e i d u m , but completed
one w h i c h his father-in-law and predecessor K i n g H u n i had b e g u n . Later
tradition mistakenly associated it w i t h Sneferu alone. K u r t Mendelssohn
has suggested in his b o o k The Riddle of the Pyramids (1974) that, w h i l e
Sneferu w a s in the process o f erecting his B e n t P y r a m i d at D a h s h u r , the
M e i d u m p y r a m i d suddenly and dramatically collapsed. S u c h a disaster
m i g h t w e l l account for the change in the angle o f incline that gives the
B e n t P y r a m i d its characteristic and rather elegant r h o m b o i d profile.
Sneferu w o u l d h a v e w a n t e d to a v o i d , at all costs, the risk o f his o w n p y r a ­
m i d collapsing as w e l l .

28
¡6 The most important Old Kingdom pyramids shown in section with their entrances and burial chambers, A , the Step Pyramid
of Zoser at Saqqara; B, the now-ruined pyramid of Meidum; c, the western, and D , the northern entrances to Sneferu's Bent
Pyramid at Dahshur; E , the Red or Northern Pyramid of Sneferu at Dahshur; F, the Great Pyramid of Cheops at Giza; c,
Chephren's pyramid at Giza; H, the pyramid of Mycerinus at Giza.
 17 King Sneferu is shown clad in garments for the hebsed-cere-
mony and wearing the Double Crown of Upper and Lower
Egypt on this five-metre-high stela. Set up outside the eastern
face of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur, the stela is taken to con­
firm that Sneferu did in fact build this pyramid himself.

Egyptologists are certain that Sneferu had at least two pyramids. A legal
document, dated some 350 years after Sneferu's reign, exempting 'the two
pyramids of Sneferu' from taxes and the forced labour corvée, was found
carved on a stone tablet near the R e d Pyramid at Dahshur, evidence that
this pyramid at least must have belonged to Sneferu. Fakhry's investiga­
tions at the Bent Pyramid, just south of the R e d Pyramid, have shown
that this monument too is without question Sneferu's. Among other evi­
17 dence, a large stela found near the pyramid depicts King Sneferu clad in
his robes for the hebsed rite, a magical rejuvenation ceremony that was
celebrated periodically to re-invigorate the king's powers. Sneferu is
shown wearing the two crowns, the bulbous white crown of Upper Egypt
superimposed over the red crown of Lower Egypt.
It is not at all clear w h y Sneferu built two or more pyramids. Earlier
kings seem often to have had at least two tombs, one at Abydos, the south-
em city that was sacred to Osiris, chthonic god of the underworld, and
the other at Saqqara, within sight of the white-walled capital. Emery felt
that the Saqqara tombs were the actual graves of the early kings, while
the tombs at Abydos were cenotaphs, empty memorials for the King of

30
 THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

U p p e r E g y p t . T h e r e w o u l d then h a v e been another cenotaph for the K i n g

o f L o w e r E g y p t at B u t o , another sacred city, in the Delta. Since most
ancient structures in the D e l t a h a v e l o n g since disappeared in the silt o f
the annual N i l e inundations, it is impossible to test E m e r y ' s hypothesis.
O t h e r kings besides Sneferu m a y h a v e had t w o o r m o r e p y r a m i d s as w e l l ,
o r perhaps a p y r a m i d and another, different sort o f funerary m o n u m e n t ,
but i f so w e h a v e yet to d i s c o v e r these other m o n u m e n t s - o r to recognize
t h e m for w h a t they are.
If the collapsed p y r a m i d at M e i d u m is in fact attributable to Sneferu
alone, together w i t h the t w o D a h s h u r p y r a m i d s , then w e are left w i t h
w h a t one E g y p t o l o g i s t called 'the unpalatable conclusion' that Sneferu
built three p y r a m i d s in the t w e n t y - f o u r years o f his reign, an incredible
expenditure o f l a b o u r in so short a time. H e r o d o t u s w a s told that the
C a u s e w a y alone o f C h e o p s ' G r e a t P y r a m i d at G i z a t o o k ten years to c o m ­
plete, and the p y r a m i d itself m o r e like t w e n t y . H o w then c o u l d Sneferu
h a v e m a n a g e d so m u c h in the relatively brief span o f t w e n t y - f o u r years ?
H e r o d o t u s , w h o w a s after all w r i t i n g m o r e than t w o thousand years after
the event, m a y h a v e been mistaken. M o r e recently E g y p t o l o g i s t s such
as I. E . S. E d w a r d s h a v e suggested, on the basis o f blocks discovered at
the R e d P y r a m i d bearing q u a r r y dates, that it m a y h a v e taken consider­
ably less than t w e n t y years to construct these m o n u m e n t s . Nonetheless,
a n y o n e w h o has seen the vast structures, e v e n in their present state, and
can i m a g i n e the w a y they must once h a v e l o o k e d , w i l l w o n d e r at the
e n o r m o u s expenditure o f t i m e and e n e r g y and l a b o u r and, a b o v e all,
organization, they entailed.
T h e purpose and function o f the p y r a m i d s has been a subject o f debate,
one imagines, almost f r o m the t i m e they w e r e first erected. S o m e h o w
a m e r e g r a v e , e v e n for a personage as magnificent as the g o d - k i n g o f
E g y p t , seems an u n i m a g i n a t i v e use for such i m p o s i n g structures. In the end,
h o w e v e r , the evidence f r o m nearly e i g h t y p y r a m i d s (not all o f them, b y
a n y means, f r o m the t i m e o f the O l d K i n g d o m ) is o v e r w h e l m i n g . T h e
p y r a m i d served t w o functions: as the repository o f the dead king's
remains it w a s a lofty m o n u m e n t to his m e m o r y ; and, as the centre o f
the cult that w a s focused on the dead k i n g , it w a s intended to secure his
w e l l - b e i n g in the afterlife for eternity - and thereby the eternal w e l l -
b e i n g o f E g y p t as w e l l .

Funerary ritual
In his admirable b o o k , The Pyramids of Egypt, I. E . S. E d w a r d s has d e ­
scribed the elaborate funerary ritual that t o o k place w h e n a k i n g died.
E d w a r d s ' description o f this ritual is based on the P y r a m i d T e x t s , a c o m -

3i

(Opposite)
J The Great Pyramid at
Giza seen in the evening
light. The modern museum
which houses the Royal
Ship lies to the right in the
photograph.
II The Giza pyramids at
sunrise. The Great
Pyramid is on the right,
with the boat museum on its
southern side. Cf. ill. 14.
32
¡8 A masterpiece of Old Kingdom sculpture, this diorite seated
statue of Cheops' son Chephren probablyformed part of a group
of twenty-three similar statues in the Valley Temple to
Chephren's pyramid. It was found in a deep pit in an ante-
chamber to the temple where it had evidently been placed in
ancient times in order to preserve it from destruction. Cf. ill.
122.
plicated series of spells, charms and prayers found inscribed in hiero-
glyphs on the internal walls of the pyramids of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasty
rulers, but dating originally from a much earlier period.* The king's body
would be brought to the Valley Temple from Memphis by boat, most
likely in a papyriform funerary boat looking very much like the R o y a l
Ship of King Cheops. The dead king's body was ritually bathed at the
Valley Temple in an act of purification and regeneration of his spirit that
recalled the Sun-god emerging regenerated each morning from the waters
of the Lily Lake. It was the first step in a complicated yet precise ritual
that guaranteed the revivification of the king and his survival in the here-
after. The most important ceremony was the 'Opening of the Mouth',
a rite that was performed not on the king's body but on life-size statues
* T h e earliest were found in the pyramid of King Unas, or Wenis, who was most probably the
last king of the Fifth Dynasty, but in the main they are a Sixth Dynasty phenomenon. Internal
epigraphic evidence, however, style, the use of language, the spelling of words, etc., suggest that
they are often much older, and in some cases go far back into the predynastic period. Perhaps
in earlier times they were written on more perishable material; certainly nothing has so far been
found that predates King Unas.
 THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

o f h i m that lined the niches o f the V a l l e y T e m p l e ' s central hall. (There

w e r e t w e n t y - t h r e e statues, o f diorite, schist and alabaster, in the central 18
hall o f C h e p h r e n ' s V a l l e y T e m p l e , the o n l y F o u r t h D y n a s t y building o f
this type that remains relatively intact.) T h e k i n g ' s son and successor
w o u l d sprinkle w a t e r o v e r each statue, cense it w i t h aromatic fragrances,
offer sacrifices before it, touch various sacred objects, including an adze
and a chisel, to its m o u t h , then rub its m o u t h w i t h m i l k and deck the
statue in r o y a l regalia. B y this process each statue in the V a l l e y T e m p l e
b e c a m e animated w i t h the k i n g ' s d i v i n e ka, that part o f his spirit for w h i c h
'soul' is a less than adequate translation.
O n c e these ceremonies in the V a l l e y T e m p l e w e r e c o m p l e t e d , the
e m b a l m e d b o d y , together w i t h various c r o w n s and the internal organs
(which had been r e m o v e d f r o m the b o d y to be e m b a l m e d and buried
in a separate container) w o u l d be b o r n e in a solemn procession in w h i c h
o n l y the ritually pure m i g h t participate, up the C a u s e w a y , the walls o f
w h i c h w e r e sufficiently h i g h to screen the sacred cortege f r o m profane
observation, to the M o r t u a r y T e m p l e w h e r e further ' O p e n i n g o f the
M o u t h ' rites w e r e p e r f o r m e d on statues o f the dead k i n g before his b o d y
was r e m o v e d for its final interment w i t h i n the p y r a m i d . W h e t h e r the
k i n g ' s passing o v e r to the eternal life w a s a j o y o u s occasion o r a time o f
deep m o u r n i n g , w e d o not k n o w , but it must h a v e been a solemn event,
charged w i t h e m o t i o n and crackling w i t h the p o t e n c y o f the m a g i c that
was being p e r f o r m e d . N o mistakes must be m a d e , n o t h i n g o m i t t e d f r o m
the elaborate c e r e m o n y , for on the k i n g ' s survival and w e l l - b e i n g in the
afterlife depended the s u r v i v a l and w e l l - b e i n g o f E g y p t .
D u r i n g the Fourth D y n a s t y , the k i n g alone w a s entitled to this elaborate
ritual, just as kings alone w e r e buried in these great p y r a m i d c o m p l e x e s .
E v e n the k i n g ' s first-born son, if he predeceased his father, w a s buried
in a simple mastaba, as w a s the C r o w n Prince K a w a b w h o died before
his father K i n g C h e o p s and w a s buried in a large mastaba j u s t to the east (Opposite)
/// One of the empty boat-
o f the G r e a t P y r a m i d c o m p l e x . W e must assume that Prince K a w a b ' s
pits on the eastern side of the
burial ceremonies, like those o f other m e m b e r s o f the noble classes, w e r e Great Pyramid, looking
equally simple. southwest, with the py­
ramids of Chephren and
S o m e E g y p t o l o g i s t s h a v e a r g u e d that the k i n g w a s t h o u g h t o f as the Mycerinus in the distance.
mediator w i t h the gods but not as a g o d himself. B u t during the F o u r t h IV The Royal Ship is
today housed in a modern
D y n a s t y at least, the k i n g does seem to h a v e been considered divine.
museum on the southern
It w a s because he w a s t h o u g h t o f as the ' G r e a t G o d ' that the k i n g alone side of the Great Pyramid,
p a r t o o k o f these funerary rituals and privileges. W e shall g o into the c o m ­ built over the pitfrom which
the ship was excavated.
plicated subject o f E g y p t i a n religious beliefs later on, but it is w o r t h stress­ The limestone blocks cover­
ing here h o w central this belief in the k i n g ' s d i v i n e role w a s to the entire ing the second - and as yet
unexcavated - south-face
E g y p t i a n system, w h e t h e r theological, political o r administrative, at least boat-pit are just visible in
during the O l d K i n g d o m . the foreground.

35
THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

A r o u n d the r o y a l burials w e r e organized the graves o f officials, nobles,

princes and princesses, to assist the k i n g in death as they had d o n e in his
earthly existence. Outside the Great P y r a m i d c o m p l e x , C h e o p s had erected
a g r o u p o f stone mastabas for his court. S i x t y - f o u r o f these w e r e laid out
14 in a regular pattern to f o r m a little funerary v i l l a g e to the w e s t o f the
p y r a m i d . T o the east w e r e eight e n o r m o u s t w i n mastabas for the k i n g ' s
favourite children, including that o f the C r o w n Prince m e n t i o n e d a b o v e .
T h e y w e r e there both to serve the k i n g in the afterlife and because their
o w n s u r v i v a l in the afterlife depended on their p r o x i m i t y to the r o y a l
burial and the o p p o r t u n i t y to share in its i m m o r t a l i t y .
N o m o r e c o n v i n c i n g i m a g e can be g i v e n o f the centralized absolutism
o f the F o u r t h D y n a s t y religious state than this association o f the k i n g and
his servants for eternity. T h e state had been d e v e l o p e d entirely to serve
the g o d - k i n g ; he w a s the focus o f all e c o n o m i c life as w e l l as o f all religion.
Y e t it makes little sense to speak o f a personal authoritarianism, either
o f the k i n g o r o f the priesthood, for the k i n g himself, as m u c h as a n y o n e
else, w a s prisoner and v i c t i m o f the religious state.

Life in the Pyramid A g e

T h e walls o f the offering chapels in the mastaba tombs o f the r o y a l n e c r o ­

polis w e r e decorated w i t h c a r v e d and painted scenes f r o m e v e r y d a y life
as w e l l as inscriptions recounting the titles and achievements o f the t o m b
o w n e r . T h e s e offering chapels are one o f o u r main sources o f information
about daily life in the O l d K i n g d o m . U n f o r t u n a t e l y little has s u r v i v e d
f r o m the F o u r t h D y n a s t y itself, but life during that century w a s p r o b a b l y
not so v e r y different f r o m w h a t w e n t before or c a m e after.
F o r the n o b l e classes, it w a s a pleasurable existence. A g r i c u l t u r e w a s
the main e c o n o m i c pursuit, t h o u g h w e hear o f expeditions to the mines
o f Sinai and the eastern desert for c o p p e r and turquoise, to the mysterious
land o f P u n t ( S o m a l i a ? Y e m e n ? ) for e x o t i c perfumes and spices, to
L e b a n o n and Cilicia for cedar and other kinds o f b i g timber that did not
g r o w in E g y p t . B u t it is the teeming life o f the N i l e V a l l e y that is d w e l t
on most l o v i n g l y and in precise detail - p l o u g h i n g and harvest, hunting
19 scenes in the desert and fishing in the great reed marshes that still lined
the N i l e banks, boating on the river in a v a r i e t y o f craft f r o m simple reed
rafts to great vessels oared and r i g g e d for an ocean v o y a g e , boat-building
(here the detail has been invaluable, as w e shall see, in understanding the
construction o f the R o y a l S h i p ) , domestic pursuits such as w e a v i n g , m a k ­
ing bread and beer. T h e flowering plants and the animals that populated
marshland and desert, as w e l l as the river fish, are noted w i t h a closely

36
lg The hunting scene in the marshes, for thousands of years a favourite wall decoration in Egyptian tombs, is here represented
by a relief carving from the mastaba of the Sixth Dynasty nobleman Mereruka, who was buried at Saqqara near the pyramid
of his father-in-law, King Teti. Kingfishers, herons, flamingoes, ibis, ducks and other marsh fowl flutter in the reeds and perch
on flower stalks. Four men punt a papyrus raft through the marshes while a fifth grasps the tail of a mongoose. In the water crocodiles
and hippopotami battle with each other as fish swim calmly by.

observed naturalism and precision, and we can identify antelopes and hip­
popotamuses, papyrus, lotuses, ducks and other waterfowl.
These scenes of the rich life of the Nile Valley were favourites of artist
and patron alike, for the patron had the security of knowing he would
be surrounded, in the hereafter as in the present, by the same things that
made life on the Nile banks such a deep source of pleasure, while the artist's
talent rose to the challenge of depicting this life in all its variety. The charm
and vigour of the chapel scenes is a tribute both to the artists' skill and
to the deep love the ancient Egyptians felt for their cherished land. Alto­
gether one has the impression, even if inevitably idealized, of a people
leading active, energetic and productive lives, a self-confident people who
lived in close harmony with their environment.
O f biographical detail there is very little from this period. Some cen­
turies later, with the break-up of highly centralized royal authority, the
nobles began to take sufficient pride in individual accomplishment to wish
to record it for posterity, but from the Fourth Dynasty we have only

37
20 (Above) This seated stone sculputure, almost certainly from the early Third
Dynasty, is identified only as Bezmes, the ship-builder. He holds his boat-
builder's adze in much the same way that the king holds the flail in royal
sculpture.

21 (Right) Cheops' vizier Hemiunu or Hemon held, among other titles, that
of Overseer of the King's Works and was therefore almost certainly responsible
for the building of the Great Pyramid complex, as well as the construction, dis­
mantling and burial of the Royal Ship. His unpainted limestone statue reveals
a strong forthright personality, in keeping with his important responsibilities.

titles. Sometimes these titles are tantalizingly descriptive, like that of

20 Bezmes, whose small statue is in the British Museum and of whom we
know nothing more than that he was a boat-builder. Usually the titles
are unenlightening honorifics, such as 'Great King's Companion' or
'Keeper of the Seal of Upper and Lower Egypt', that tell us nothing about
the person or the office. Sometimes we can glean bits of information about
relationships among members of the royal family. We know, for instance,
that the Vizier Hemiunu, the 'Overseer of All the King's Works', was
most likely the supervisor of the construction of Cheops' Great Pyramid,
and probably of his boats as well. We can guess that he was a royal prince,
a younger brother or half-brother of Cheops himself, because viziers, like
other important ministers in the Old Kingdom, were usually close rela­
tives of the king they served; and we gain an impression, from the life-
21 size seated statue of Hemiunu in the Pelizaeus Museum in Hildeshcim,
of a responsible leader and forceful administrator. There is something
direct and honest about this man's large, handsome features, and it is
pleasant to think that he may have been responsible for the intricate con­
struction details of the R o y a l Ship.

38
 THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

If we know little of the biographical background or the personalities

of the time, we know virtually nothing of the larger political and military
events. One of the most important historical documents from the earlier
dynasties is the Palermo Stone, a large diorite stela, so-called because the 22
biggest fragment lies in a museum in the Sicilian capital city (there are
other fragments in the Cairo Museum). Precisely engraved in long, regu­
lar columns on the black stone are lists of all the kings of Egypt, beginning
with the near-mythical predynastic leaders about whom almost nothing
is known, and continuing up to the kings of the Fifth Dynasty. Each year
the height of the Nile flood was recorded, as well as any significant events
that had occurred. Most of these events are records of temples built and
offerings made, religious ceremonies and mining expeditions, but occa­
sionally more dramatic episodes were noted down. Thus we learn that

22 The Palermo Stone lists the kings of Egypt from the

mythical predynastic period up to the Fifth Dynasty. For
each year the height of the annual Nile flood was recorded,
as well as significant events, such as the building of a temple
or the arrival of a shipment of precious wood jrom the
Lebanon.
THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

K i n g Sneferu led a c a m p a i g n against the N u b i a n s in the south that netted

7,000 prisoners and 200,000 head o f cattle, and another against the L i b y a n s
w i t h almost equally significant results. B u t w h e t h e r these w e r e raids to
protect trading parties, or expeditions for the express purpose o f gathering
slaves and cattle, o r military campaigns o f conquest, is not clear.
M o r e directly relevant to the story o f the R o y a l Ship is the information
that Sneferu had sent an expedition most p r o b a b l y to B y b l o s , the i m p o r ­
tant trading centre on the Lebanese coast north o f B e i r u t . F o r t y ships
returned to E g y p t filled w i t h cedar and other coniferous logs, and in the
f o l l o w i n g years, it w a s noted, three ships, each s o m e fifty metres l o n g ,
as w e l l as a n u m b e r o f barges, w e r e built o f w o o d f r o m this shipment.
C e d a r w a s also used to m a k e the doors o f the r o y a l palace, and it m a y
have been part o f this same shipment that w a s used for the beams in the
burial c h a m b e r o f Sneferu's B e n t P y r a m i d at D a h s h u r - beams that can
still be seen in situ b y a n y o n e agile e n o u g h to c r a w l t h r o u g h the n a r r o w
entrance passage.

Hetep-heres, Sneferu and Cheops

B y fortuitous accident, and the meticulous attention o f a skilled archaeo­
logist, w e k n o w m o r e about Q u e e n Hetep-heres, Sneferu's w i f e and the
m o t h e r o f C h e o p s , than w e d o about a n y other Fourth D y n a s t y figure.
In 1 9 2 5 , a p h o t o g r a p h e r w o r k i n g in the Giza necropolis for the H a r v a r d -
B o s t o n E x p e d i t i o n , literally stumbled o v e r the secret secondary burial o f
this great queen. T h e e x c a v a t i o n o f the t o m b , supervised b y G e o r g e
R e i s n e r , director o f the E x p e d i t i o n , remains to this d a y a l a n d m a r k , set­
ting n e w standards for a r c h a e o l o g y - careful, t h o r o u g h - g o i n g , painstak­
ing, a b o v e all patient - for, although the burial c h a m b e r measured o n l y
fifteen metres square, it t o o k t w o years to sift its contents, so meticulous
was Reisner's method.
23, 24 T h e contents o f the g r a v e w e r e e x t r a o r d i n a r y - gilded furniture, chairs,
a bed and c a n o p y , a curtain b o x and coffers that contained the queen's
delicate necklaces and bracelets. Elegant g o l d h i e r o g l y p h s p r o c l a i m e d the
o w n e r o f this fabulous e q u i p m e n t : ' M o t h e r o f the K i n g o f U p p e r and
L o w e r E g y p t , F o l l o w e r o f H o r u s , G u i d e o f the R u l e r , F a v o u r i t e O n e ,
she w h o s e e v e r y w o r d is d o n e for her, the D a u g h t e r o f the G o d ' s B o d y ,
Hetep-heres.'
T h e g r a v e w a s situated j u s t south o f the C a u s e w a y leading f r o m the
14 G r e a t P y r a m i d to C h e o p s ' V a l l e y T e m p l e , and j u s t north o f the three
'queens' p y r a m i d s ' . It w a s the earliest intact r o y a l burial yet found, but
it w a s not complete. W h e n the e x c a v a t o r s lifted the lid o f the alabaster
sarcophagus, it w a s e m p t y . T h e subsequent d i s c o v e r y in a w a l l niche o f

40
2jj, 24 The burial hoard of Queen Hetep-heres, the mother of Cheops, included this magnificent group
of wooden furniture (above), sheathed in gold and decorated with the names and titles of the queen's husband,
King Sneferu (right). The finials of the columns supporting the canopy have the same papyrus-bud shape
as the columns of the cabin canopy on the Royal Ship (cf. ills. 34, 35), while the papyrus symbol is continued
on the wonderfully simple openwork designs of the chair sides.

a smaller alabaster coffer, a canopic chest with the royal viscera still in
their embalming fluid, could not compensate for the disappointment at
the lack of a royal body as well.
In the normal course of things, Queen Hetep-heres should have been
buried somewhere close by one of Sneferu's pyramids at Dahshur. Ahmed
Fakhry believed that the Bent Pyramid, the southernmost of the two,
was most probably Sneferu's actual burial place. It would seem that
Hetep-heres' grave should be found nearby, perhaps in a small pyramid
of her own. What then was the empty sarcophagus, accompanied by rich
funerary equipment, doing in a secret burial at Giza?
Because she was called 'Mother of the King', we know that Hetep-
heres must have died after her son Cheops came to the throne. Reisner's
theory was that she had indeed been buried at Dahshur, but that thieves
had broken into her tomb only shortly after she had been interred there,
had prised open the sarcophagus and grabbed as many of the royal jewels
as they could get away with, dragging her body out into the moonlit
desert where, in their haste, they left it for jackals to consume. This rather
THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

lurid speculation perhaps says something m o r e about R e i s n e r the n o v e l ­

ist than it does about R e i s n e r the archaeologist, but if true it w o u l d h a v e
been considered an appalling crime. T h e desecration o f a g r a v e w a s a ter­
rible sacrilege, and especially the desecration o f a r o y a l g r a v e . Indeed, the
disappearance o f the queen's m u m m y , R e i s n e r theorized, w o u l d h a v e
been so h o r r i f y i n g that n o one, not e v e n the V i z i e r H e m i u n u , w o u l d h a v e
had the c o u r a g e to i n f o r m the k i n g o f the c r i m e . Instead K i n g C h e o p s
w o u l d h a v e been presented w i t h the o p p o r t u n i t y for a pious act, r e - b u r y ­
ing his mother's b o d y n e x t to his o w n final resting-place, still under c o n ­
struction on the Giza plateau, w h e r e she c o u l d share in all the prayers
and offerings that w o u l d be m a d e to h i m . H e w o u l d n e v e r h a v e been
told that w h a t he w a s r e - b u r y i n g w a s in fact an e m p t y sarcophagus.
Hetep-heres w a s p r o b a b l y the d a u g h t e r o f H u n i (or H u ) , the obscure
last k i n g o f the T h i r d D y n a s t y , about w h o m almost n o t h i n g is k n o w n
b e y o n d his n a m e . T h e title ' D a u g h t e r o f the G o d ' s B o d y ' w a s conferred
on the eldest daughters o f reigning k i n g s , and signified the important role
these w o m e n p l a y e d in the succession. A s far as the r o y a l succession w a s
concerned, ancient E g y p t i a n society w a s to a great degree matrilineal.
W o m e n m a y n o t h a v e been v e r y important in society as a w h o l e
(although one w r i t e r , M a r g a r e t M u r r a y , has suggested that all p r o p e r t y
descended in the female line f r o m m o t h e r to daughter), but queens most
certainly w e r e . T h e succession w a s guaranteed b y the D a u g h t e r o f the
G o d , the k i n g ' s eldest s u r v i v i n g d a u g h t e r and, p r o p e r l y , the daughter h e r ­
self o f a G o d ' s D a u g h t e r . T h i s w a s the reason for the brother-sister m a r ­
riages o f E g y p t i a n r o y a l t y that are so t r o u b l e s o m e to o u r m i n d s : the o n l y
w a y for a r o y a l prince to secure his inheritance w a s to m a r r y his full sister,
the D a u g h t e r o f the G o d ' s B o d y . W e can see the matrilineal roots o f k i n g ­
ship also in the P a l e r m o S t o n e , w h e r e each k i n g ' s n a m e is a c c o m p a n i e d
b y that o f his m o t h e r , as a stamp o f l e g i t i m a c y and an accreditation o f
his right to rule. A n archaic h o l d - o v e r f r o m a m o r e p r i m i t i v e era w h e n
the father's role in conception w a s not clearly understood, r o y a l matrilin-
eality continued to be important t h r o u g h o u t E g y p t i a n history.
Because o f the dynastic change b e t w e e n K i n g H u n i , last k i n g o f the
T h i r d D y n a s t y , and K i n g Sneferu, first k i n g o f the F o u r t h D y n a s t y , it
seems p r o b a b l e that Sneferu w a s not H u n i ' s son, o r at least not his legiti­
mate son b y his principal w i f e . Sneferu must h a v e gained the throne not
b y inheritance but b y m a r r i a g e w i t h the R o y a l Princess Hetep-heres, the
D a u g h t e r o f the G o d ' s B o d y . T h e y m a y h a v e had m a n y children. W e
k n o w o f o n l y o n e - C h e o p s - and h i m n o t v e r y w e l l .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , that part o f the P a l e r m o S t o n e dealing w i t h C h e o p s '
t w e n t y - t h r e e - y e a r reign is c o m p l e t e l y missing, and there are n o other c o n ­
t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t s that can contribute to o u r k n o w l e d g e o f his time.

42
 THE PYRAMID-BUILDERS

T h e most ancient source w e h a v e is H e r o d o t u s , w h o visited the G i z a p y r a ­

mids s o m e t w o thousands years later and claimed that the E g y p t i a n s o f
his d a y r e m e m b e r e d C h e o p s , together w i t h his son C h e p h r e n , as an
i m p i o u s and oppressive tyrant. C h e o p s , the priests at Heliopolis told
H e r o d o t u s , closed all the temples in the country. ' T h e n , not content w i t h
e x c l u d i n g his subjects f r o m the practice o f their religion, he c o m p e l l e d
them w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n to l a b o u r as slaves for his o w n a d v a n t a g e No
c r i m e w a s too great for C h e o p s . '
In fact, there is n o historical justification for H e r o d o t u s ' v i e w s ; n o r is
there a n y evidence to support an opposite opinion. A l l that remains o f
the great k i n g is the majestic p y r a m i d c o m p l e x at G i z a and the m a g n i f i ­
cent R o y a l S h i p that, together w i t h an e m p t y sarcophagus in the burial
c h a m b e r o f the Great P y r a m i d , is the o n l y funerary e q u i p m e n t o f his that
w e k n o w . A little seated i v o r y figure, five centimetres tall, in the C a i r o
M u s e u m is the sole portrait w e h a v e o f the k i n g . F o u n d at A b y d o s in
the temple o f K h e n t i a m e n t i u , the j a c k a l - h e a d e d L o r d o f the Westerners,
the figure is too small to g i v e m o r e than the most a p p r o x i m a t e impression
o f w h a t the k i n g really l o o k e d like. T h e expression on his face is o f a
rather wilful determination, but this m a y stem less f r o m the portrait o f
the m a n than f r o m H e r o d o t u s ' description o f h i m .

T h e p y r a m i d - b u i l d e r s o f the F o u r t h D y n a s t y represent the a p o g e e o f

E g y p t i a n civilization, the culmination o f an e x t r a o r d i n a r y burst o f crea­
tive e n e r g y that had taken place s o m e five hundred years earlier w h e n
M e n e s united the T w o Lands and traced the w h i t e walls o f M e m p h i s w i t h
his p l o u g h . F r o m the m a r s h y riverine b e g i n n i n g s in the reed shrines and
simple pit-graves, f r o m the first important stone structure, the Step P y r a ­
m i d at Saqqara, f r o m M e i d u m and D a h s h u r w i t h their hesitant and tenta­
tive experimentation, to the Giza p y r a m i d s , and especially the Great P y r a ­
m i d o f C h e o p s , a sense o f confidence g r o w s , confidence in the material
and the f o r m , and in the p o w e r o f the civilization to put t h e m to use.
T h e y w e r e a people o f e n o r m o u s artistic skill and e n e r g y , intelligent
and practical, o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d the principle that the state b e l o n g e d to
the d i v i n e k i n g , that it existed to serve h i m and preserve h i m . B e c a u s e
o f this assurance, they c o u l d tackle the p r o b l e m s o f b u i l d i n g a p y r a m i d
for a g o d ' s t o m b in the same efficient spirit w i t h w h i c h they a p p r o a c h e d
the organization o f irrigation and the securing o f f o o d supplies. Safe f r o m
invasion, either m i l i t a r y o r cultural, behind the natural boundaries o f the
Sinai and L i b y a n deserts, t h e y w e r e free to e x p e r i m e n t w i t h f o r m s ; y e t
d e e p l y c o n s e r v a t i v e and suspicious o f a n y t h i n g that deviated f r o m the
fixed canons, they q u i c k l y settled o n the pattern that w a s to i n f o r m E g y p ­
tian civilization for thousands o f years to c o m e .

43
25 The Great Pyramid of King Cheops photographed from the southwest corner in the early 1930s, some twenty years before the
discovery of the two boat-pits on the south face.
 CHAPTER THREE

Discovery

Exploratory work
S h o r t l y after the S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , the E g y p t i a n Antiquities S e r v i c e ,
the official g o v e r n m e n t b o d y that oversees e v e r y t h i n g pertaining to the
c o u n t r y ' s past, had d r a w n up a plan to clear a w a y a century and m o r e
o f rubble that had accumulated in the area a r o u n d the G r e a t P y r a m i d .
It w a s a routine operation and there w a s n o reason to e x p e c t any major
d i s c o v e r y o r even any n e w information, for the p y r a m i d s o f G i z a h a v e
been g a p e d at in curiosity and a m a z e m e n t since w e l l before H e r o d o t u s
w r o t e the first tourist g u i d e s o m e t w e n t y - f i v e centuries a g o . K i n g
C h e o p s ' p y r a m i d particularly, w i t h its i m m e n s e scale and f o r m a l perfec­
tion, has a l w a y s been a source o f w o n d e r and speculation. A n d since
the N a p o l e o n i c invasion o f E g y p t in 1 7 9 8 , w h e n eighteenth-century
rationalism and systematic science w e r e applied to the ancient civilization
o f the N i l e , the Great P y r a m i d has been studied, measured, e x c a v a t e d ,
d r a w n , p h o t o g r a p h e d and generally e x p l o i t e d , inside and out, b y treasure-
seekers, savants, archaeologists, astrologists, historians, mountain-
climbers and hordes o f the just plain curious. E v e r y t h i n g that could be
k n o w n about the Great P y r a m i d w a s k n o w n , it seemed, except for the
still-puzzling question o f h o w a society w h o s e t e c h n o l o g y had not yet
arrived at the w h e e l , w a s able to erect such a massive structure in the first
place.
T h r o u g h o u t this century archaeologists e x c a v a t i n g in the t o m b s o f the
Giza necropolis had used the p y r a m i d area as a convenient d u m p i n g
g r o u n d for their debris. W i n d - b l o w n sand f r o m the desert had drifted 25
o v e r these d u m p s and f o r m e d great dunes piled so h i g h against the sides 26
o f the G r e a t P y r a m i d that f r o m close up it w a s impossible to see the
structure itself. A l l o f this w a s to be cleared a w a y , according to the plans
o f the Antiquities Service, but it could not be d o n e carelessly or w i t h b u l l ­
dozers, as one w o u l d clear a building site, for the piles o f sand and rubble
m i g h t w e l l conceal artefacts o r other information w h o s e importance
w o u l d not h a v e been apparent to earlier e x c a v a t o r s . In a sense, clearing

45
DISCOVERY

the debris w a s like clearing an archaeological site, for it w a s necessary

painstakingly to scrape a w a y the earth, level b y level, in o r d e r not to miss
anything. E v e n so, n o t h i n g o f any special interest had turned up w h e n ,
in the early spring o f 1 9 5 4 , the w o r k m e n b e g a n to finish the j o b . U n d e r
the direction o f a y o u n g architect-archaeologist n a m e d K a m a l e l - M a l -
lakh, they w e r e clearing the southern and final face o f the p y r a m i d w h e r e
sand and debris had accumulated in a great pile s o m e t w e n t y metres h i g h .
L i k e all the other F o u r t h D y n a s t y p y r a m i d s , the G r e a t P y r a m i d had
been erected on the limestone b e d r o c k o f the L i b y a n escarpment, the l o n g ,
l o w desert mountains that b o r d e r the N i l e V a l l e y to the w e s t , at a spot
w h e r e the ancient engineers had d e e m e d the subsurface sufficiently strong
to support the e n o r m o u s , concentrated mass o f the structure. In s o m e areas
a r o u n d the G r e a t P y r a m i d there w a s evidence o f a p a v e d c o u r t y a r d that
had been laid out on top o f the b e d r o c k and perhaps had surrounded the
p y r a m i d entirely. T h e m o d e r n w o r k m e n ' s instructions w e r e to clear a w a y
the rubble right d o w n to the b e d r o c k , o r to the paving-stones i f they
found them, w h i c h indeed they did - w i d e , well-dressed slabs o f limestone
m o r e than half a metre thick, e x a c t l y like those that had been found in
other places a r o u n d the p y r a m i d .
T h e d i s c o v e r y d u r i n g this routine clearance o f w h a t appeared to be part
o f the southern section o f the temenos o r b o u n d a r y w a l l that had once

26 Section through the Great Pyramid, showing the mound of debris that covered the two south-face boat-
pits before their discovery in 1954, and, in the inset, the pit that contained the Royal Ship, sealed by great
limestone blocks with shutters.
2j Plan of the southern side of the Great Pyramid, indicating how the boundary wall overlay the forty-
one stones that covered the eastern pit (with the Royal Ship) and the forty stones of the western pit.

surrounded the p y r a m i d c o m p l e x w a s an u n e x p e c t e d bonus, but hardly

surprising. Parts o f the northern and western b o u n d a r y walls w e r e already
k n o w n , and Herbert J u n k e r , w h o had e x c a v a t e d the S i x t h D y n a s t y tombs
south o f the G r e a t P y r a m i d before the First W o r l d W a r , had mentioned
the existence o f a southern w a l l in his e x c a v a t i o n reports - in fact, part 27
o f the debris that c o v e r e d the w a l l w a s rubble f r o m J u n k e r ' s excavations.
M a l l a k h , w h o had studied the Swiss archaeologist's reports, had been h o p ­
ing all a l o n g that J u n k e r ' s w a l l , undestroyed, m i g h t turn up again beneath
the m o u n d .
In its original state this w a l l seems to h a v e been nearly t w o metres h i g h
and to h a v e extended from one end o f the M o r t u a r y T e m p l e right a r o u n d
the p y r a m i d on all four sides, connecting up w i t h the temple again at
its opposite end, and effectively sealing off the sacred precinct from c o n ­
tamination b y a n y o n e w h o w a s not ritually clean. T h e fairly solid base
o f the w a l l w a s constructed o f limestone, granite and basalt chips, packed
together in a sort o f cement. These stone chips w e r e p r o b a b l y the debris
left o v e r from the construction o f the p y r a m i d , the c a u s e w a y w h i c h
in its original state had had black basalt paving-stones, m a n y o f t h e m still
in place, and the M o r t u a r y T e m p l e w i t h its columns o f red A s w a n
granite. T h e b o u n d a r y w a l l had then been s m o o t h e d o v e r w i t h m u d -
plaster and coated w i t h a w h i t e g y p s u m finish, so as to l o o k like the fine
 28 Kamal el-Mallakh, now a Cairo newspaper editor, was
in 1954 a young archaeologist, whose stubborn persistence
led to the discovery of the Royal Ship.

w h i t e limestone that had sheathed the p y r a m i d itself. In its rubble and

plaster construction, the southern w a l l w a s e x a c t l y like the northern and
western w a l l sections that w e r e already k n o w n , and like t h e m the outside
surface o f the w a l l had a slight batter or slope to it. W h a t w a s different,
and surprising, and a little disturbing to a n y o n e sensitive to the ancient
E g y p t i a n ' s hankering for precision, w a s the fact that, although the n o r t h ­
ern and western walls w e r e each precisely 2 3 . 6 metres f r o m the base o f
the p y r a m i d , the southern w a l l w a s a g o o d 5 metres closer. K a m a l el-
M a l l a k h thought he k n e w the reason w h y .

29 The forty-one limestone blocks that sealed the pit with the
Royal Ship. The dotted line represents the metre-wide shelf on
which the blocks rested.
 DISCOVERY

M a l l a k h is n o w D e p u t y E d i t o r o f al-Ahram, the respected, semi-official 28

C a i r o daily n e w s p a p e r . H e is a large m a n w i t h a sparse fringe o f i r o n -
g r e y hair and a curiously quiet, soft-spoken m a n n e r that belies his i m p o r ­
tance in the cultural and intellectual life o f the city - indeed o f the w h o l e
c o u n t r y . M a l l a k h ' s first university degree w a s in architecture, and as an
architect he had been assigned to the Antiquities Service in order to m a i n ­
tain the ratio b e t w e e n E g y p t i a n and foreign e m p l o y e e s in the department.
U n d e r the influence o f the A b b e D r i o t o n , the French priest w h o w a s then
head o f the Service, he had taken a second degree in E g y p t o l o g y and
b e c o m e an impassioned student o f his c o u n t r y ' s ancient history.
A s soon as he realized that the southern section o f the b o u n d a r y w a l l
w a s a g o o d deal closer to the Great P y r a m i d than w e r e either the northern
o r western sections, M a l l a k h b e c a m e c o n v i n c e d that the w a l l had been
built to conceal something. H e had l o n g been fascinated b y the existence
o f boat-pits in connection w i t h the Fourth D y n a s t y p y r a m i d s . T h e r e w e r e
five pits for boats (and possibly a sixth, unfinished one), c a r v e d in the
b e d r o c k outside the M o r t u a r y T e m p l e o f the p y r a m i d o f C h e p h r e n just
south o f the G r e a t P y r a m i d . T w o o f these pits are still partially c o v e r e d
w i t h stone blocks, t h o u g h n o trace o f a boat has e v e r been found. T h e r e
is also an e m p t y boat-pit j u s t south o f Djedefre's p y r a m i d at A b u R o a s h ,
and another on the southeast corner o f the curious Giza t o m b o f Q u e e n
K h e n t k a w e s , perhaps the last ruler o f the F o u r t h D y n a s t y and almost cer­
tainly the m o t h e r o f the first t w o kings o f the Fifth. A n d o f course there
w e r e the three e m p t y boat-pits l o n g k n o w n at the Great P y r a m i d , t w o
outside the M o r t u a r y T e m p l e , and one aligned w i t h the C a u s e w a y .
W h e t h e r it is the operation o f hindsight, o r w a s an inspired guess at the
time, M a l l a k h says n o w that he w a s c o n v i n c e d the south temenos w a l l
had been built closer to the p y r a m i d ' s base than w e r e the northern and
western walls precisely in order to conceal one or m o r e additional b o a t -
pits - solar boat-pits, as he continues to call them against the opposition
o f almost e v e r y other E g y p t o l o g i s t w h o has ventured an opinion on the
subject.
 DISCOVERY
30 The name of Cheops'
son Djedefre, enclosed in
the cartouche that signified
he was a king, was scrawled
on many of the blocks that
covered the pit-proof that
Djedefre succeeded his
father directly and not, as
was previously thought,
much later in the dynasty.
29
30
(Opposite)
V View aft along the port
side of the reconstructed ship
inside the museum.
50
After e x p o s i n g the southern w a l l b y cleaning it o f its surrounding
debris, M a l l a k h ' s w o r k m e n found beneath it a l a y e r o f beaten o r c o m ­
pressed earth, a m i x t u r e o f rubble and o r d i n a r y m u d , sun-dried to a hard
plaster-like surface. T h i s dakkah, as it is called in A r a b i c , stretched for s o m e
distance b e y o n d the w a l l in b o t h directions, n o r t h t o w a r d s the base o f
the p y r a m i d and south extending beneath the S i x t h D y n a s t y mastabas
that had been erected on that side o f the p y r a m i d , a p r o o f that the beaten-
earth l a y e r had been laid d o w n s o m e time before the S i x t h D y n a s t y tombs
had been built. M a l l a k h had already ordered the w o r k m e n to clear a w a y
the dakkah in order to find out w h a t l a y beneath it, w h e n , p r o b i n g t h r o u g h
the mud-plaster w i t h a sharp stick, he found traces o f the rosy pink m o r t a r
c o m p o s e d o f calcium sulphate and iron o x i d e that w a s the characteristic
hard cement used in the O l d K i n g d o m . C o m p l e t e l y b y chance, M a l l a k h ' s
d i g g i n g - s t i c k had struck the m o r t a r b e t w e e n t w o o f the monolithic l i m e ­
stone blocks that c o v e r e d the boat-pit.
T h e b o u n d a r y w a l l w a s parallel to the southern face o f the p y r a m i d ,
but the thin line o f mortar, M a l l a k h q u i c k l y determined, w a s n o t : it
e x t e n d e d right beneath the w a l l and came out on the other side. In his
excitement, he u r g e d the w o r k m e n on until that v e r y same d a y they had
cleared t w o o f the massive limestone blocks, revealing, M a l l a k h recalled
recently in his C a i r o office, 'the h u g e and confident w o r k o f the Fourth
D y n a s t y ' . ' T h e ancient E g y p t i a n s ' , he explained, 'had been w o r k i n g in
stone since the Step P y r a m i d o f K i n g Z o s e r in the T h i r d D y n a s t y . N o w ,
w i t h the F o u r t h D y n a s t y , they w e r e a hundred, m a y b e even a hundred
and fifty, years later. T h e y w e r e quite, quite sure o f themselves b y then
and it s h o w s in the magnificent w a y they handled stone.'
O n e after the other, as the w o r k m e n cleared a w a y the beaten-earth
l a y e r of dakkah, the i m m e n s e blocks o f limestone appeared, j u t t i n g out
o f the plateau like a set o f c r o o k e d teeth o r the b r o k e n keys o f a v e r y
old piano. T h e r e w e r e t w o sets o f stones, forty to the west, f o r t y - o n e
to the east, apparently c o v e r i n g t w o separate pits, w i t h a partition b e t w e e n
the t w o pits that fell precisely along the axis o f the south face o f the p y r a ­
m i d . O n one o f the blocks, protruding slightly a b o v e the others that
c o v e r e d the eastern pit, M a l l a k h c o u l d read upside d o w n part o f the car­
touche, the r o y a l n a m e enclosed in a sacred o v a l ring, o f K i n g Djedefre,
third in the line o f Fourth D y n a s t y kings, the son and heir o f C h e o p s .
It w a s difficult, M a l l a k h recalls, to get a n y o n e in the Antiquities S e r v i c e
to take his find seriously. E g y p t w a s then in the throes o f nationalist r e v o ­
lutionary change. K i n g F a r o u k , w h o for all his faults had been a dedi­
cated patron o f E g y p t o l o g y , had left and an obscure g r o u p o f colonels,
led b y G a m a l A b d u l - N a s s e r , w a s in charge. A b b e D r i o t o n had departed
w i t h the k i n g and n e w m e n , E g y p t i a n s , w e r e running the Antiquities S e r -
 DISCOVERY

vice. In this climate o f political f e r v o u r , n o b o d y had m u c h time for

ancient history. M a l l a k h w a s told that w h a t he had u n c o v e r e d w a s u n i m ­
portant, part o f the foundation o f the p y r a m i d , o r perhaps m o r e o f the
paving-stones o f the c o u r t y a r d . H e himself w a s certain n o w , if he had
not been before, that the blocks c o v e r e d t w o boat-pits. B u t w h e t h e r the
pits w e r e e m p t y o r actually contained boats, and, if they did contain boats,
w h a t condition the vessels w o u l d be in s o m e f o r t y - s i x centuries after their
burial, w e r e questions that c o u l d o n l y be answered b y o p e n i n g the pits.
A n d if they w e r e in fact boats, even supposing they w e r e in g o o d c o n d i ­
tion, they m i g h t still c r u m b l e on e x p o s u r e to the air, something that had
actually occurred in a p o s t - w a r Italian e x c a v a t i o n w h e n , in a matter o f
minutes after e x p o s u r e , wall-paintings in Etruscan t o m b s had quite liter­
ally disappeared f r o m the horrified e x c a v a t o r ' s v i e w . S o m e w h a t g r u d g ­
ingly, as M a l l a k h tells it, he w a s g i v e n permission b y the S e r v i c e to open
a hole in the t w e n t y - s e c o n d b l o c k o f the eastern g r o u p o f stones.

Opening the pit

It w a s t o w a r d s n o o n on 26 M a y 1 9 5 4 , near the end o f the archaeological
season, at a time o f the y e a r w h e n the w h i t e desert light glares on the
Giza plateau and the dense v o l u m e s o f the p y r a m i d s seem to s h i m m e r
in the nearly intolerable heat. F o r days M a l l a k h ' s w o r k m e n had been
chinking a w a y at the great stone, s l o w l y and w i t h infinite caution, for
there w a s n o w a y o f k n o w i n g precisely h o w deep the stone lay or w h a t
d a m a g e m i g h t be inflicted b y a falling fragment on w h a t e v e r w a s c o n ­
cealed beneath. W h e n they had g o n e d o w n t w o metres f r o m the surface
they arrived at a shelf o r l e d g e , c a r v e d , as w o u l d later be discovered, into
the t w o l o n g sides o f the boat-pit. O n this l e d g e the limestone megaliths
rested. It seemed clear that the e x c a v a t o r s w e r e o n l y centimetres a w a y
from their g o a l and at this point M a l l a k h t o o k o v e r the h a m m e r and chisel
himself. W h e n the last fragment had fallen a w a y there w a s n o t h i n g to
be seen but a dark hole in the stone, the darkness m a d e e v e n m o r e
impenetrable b y contrast w i t h the w h i t e glare o f the sun outside. ' L i k e
a cat', M a l l a k h recalls T closed m y eyes. A n d then w i t h m y eyes closed,
I smelt incense, a v e r y h o l y , h o l y , h o l y smell. I smelt time . . . I smelt
c e n t u r i e s . . . I smelt history. A n d then I w a s sure that the boat w a s there.'
Still unable to see a n y t h i n g inside the hole, he t o o k his shaving m i r r o r
and reflected a b e a m of sunlight ('the b e a m o f R e , the S u n - g o d , ' he says)
into the darkness o f the boat-pit. W i t h great g o o d fortune, since here w a s
p r o o f that there w a s indeed a boat, the light fell precisely on the tip o f (Opposite)
a blade - one o f a pair o f rudders o r steering oars that w e r e m o r e than V l T h e jj o r w a rj s e c U o n 0

six-and-a-half metres l o n g and c a r v e d , shaft and blade alike, f r o m a single the ship on the port side.

S3
 DISCOVERY
(Opposite)
31 An early photograph
taken before the pit was
completely uncovered,
looking east towards the
stern, reveals the remark­
able state of preservation of
the ancient ship's timbers.
54
piece o f Lebanese cedar - l y i n g w h e r e it had been placed four thousand
and six hundred years earlier b y the w o r k m e n o f the G i z a necropolis
w h o had buried the ship.
T h e boat's d i s c o v e r y w a s an event o f national significance. M a l l a k h w a s
understandably elated. F o r w e e k s he had been, i f not totally scoffed at,
at least put d o w n w i t h the gently patronizing tones that seniors use for
their p r o m i s i n g but o v e r l y enthusiastic j u n i o r s . His first sight o f the majes­
tic steering oar had c o n f i r m e d his hunch, and i f further confirmation w e r e
needed, it c a m e s o m e days later w h e n D a v i d D u n c a n , a p h o t o g r a p h e r
w o r k i n g for Life magazine, inserted a camera in the h o l e in the t w e n t y -
second block. T h e p h o t o g r a p h , published in a lead story in the magazine,
revealed at the far end o f the pit the unmistakable shape o f an ancient
p r o w , c a r v e d in h i g h relief to resemble a b u n d l e o f p a p y r u s stalks b o u n d
w i t h five strands o f rope a r o u n d the b o w s p r i t . T h e b o w s p r i t ' s f o r m was
familiar. It c o u l d be seen in hundreds o f t o m b reliefs and paintings as w e l l
as m o d e l boats, dating f r o m the earliest predynastic times right up to the
N e w K i n g d o m . It w a s a p a p y r i f o r m boat, a w o o d e n boat built to l o o k
like the p a p y r u s raft that w a s p r o b a b l y the most ancient N i l e boat o f all.
P a p y r u s rafts w e r e used t h r o u g h o u t E g y p t i a n history, for the most m u n ­
dane purposes and for as l o n g as p a p y r u s reeds g r e w along the N i l e , but
even as early as the First D y n a s t y the reed raft seems to h a v e assumed
a special, possibly a sacred, significance, and its elegant shape w a s trans­
f o r m e d and copied in the m o r e permanent material, w o o d . J u s t as w e can
trace in the decorative and architectonic elements o f E g y p t i a n temples
their origin in reed huts, so the ancestry o f the w o o d e n p a p y r i f o r m boat
goes b a c k to the i m p e r m a n e n t and fragile p a p y r u s raft.
1 9 5 4 w a s an especially fruitful y e a r for E g y p t i a n a r c h a e o l o g y . In that
same m o n t h o f M a y , Z a k a r i a G h o n e i m had announced his d i s c o v e r y o f
a hitherto u n k n o w n T h i r d D y n a s t y Step P y r a m i d at Saqqara, buried in
the sand dunes w e s t o f Z o s e r ' s p y r a m i d . A n d L a b i b H a b a c h i had found
in the K a r n a k temple the historically i m p o r t a n t Stela o f K i n g K a m o s e
f r o m the early N e w K i n g d o m . L a t e r that y e a r G h o n e i m and M a l l a k h
w e r e sent on a lecture tour o f the U n i t e d States, addressing learned acad­
e m i c audiences as w e l l as m a k i n g television and radio appearances. T h e
trip w a s planned to i n f o r m A m e r i c a n s , scholars as w e l l as the general
public, o f recent d e v e l o p m e n t s in E g y p t i a n a r c h a e o l o g y . It w a s also, M a l ­
lakh felt, a w a y o f getting rid o f K a m a l e l - M a l l a k h w h i l e plans w e r e m a d e
for the boat's disposition.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y an altogether u n s e e m l y quarrel had b r o k e n out almost
i m m e d i a t e l y after the boat's d i s c o v e r y , a quarrel that still to this d a y has
not been resolved e v e n t h o u g h m a n y o f the litigants died l o n g a g o .
T w e n t y - f i v e years later, the issues are as unclear as they w e r e initially,
DISCOVERY

but the substance o f the a r g u m e n t seems to be the question o f w h o should

get credit for the boat's d i s c o v e r y .
A s a general rule, archaeologists are publicity-shy, particularly at the
m o m e n t o f d i s c o v e r y . L o n g years o f the most patient sifting o f all the
evidence, c o m p a r i s o n w i t h similar discoveries, w e i g h i n g arguments and
hypotheses, thinking, w r i t i n g , reading, studying, conferring w i t h other
archaeologists and w i t h historians, are required before a n y conclusions
can be stated. T i m e and again, unwise archaeologists h a v e been rushed
b y their o w n enthusiasm and that o f the public into a sensational attribu­
tion that is later p r o v e n , if not totally mistaken, at least over-confident.
B u t discoveries o f the order o f T u t a n k h a m u n ' s t o m b o r C h e o p s ' R o y a l
Ship are g e n u i n e l y sensational and they generate their o w n publicity, in­
evitably distracting f r o m the sober, scholarly atmosphere in w h i c h they
should perhaps ideally be presented.
A n u n w a r r a n t e d a m o u n t o f publicity seemed to surround the d i s c o v e r y
o f the R o y a l Ship. T h e D u n c a n p h o t o g r a p h s appeared in magazines
t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e . Journalists c l a m o u r e d for stories and i n t e r v i e w s , and
for several w e e k s n e w s o f the boat o c c u p i e d the front p a g e o f the New
York Times. Interest w a s h i g h , b o t h in E g y p t , w h e r e Nasser himself set
aside time to visit the e x t r a o r d i n a r y find, as w e l l as in the w o r l d outside.
Nonetheless, it w a s felt then, and is still felt b y m a n y today, that M a l l a k h
had taken entirely too m u c h o f the credit for himself. Interestingly, the
official Antiquities D e p a r t m e n t publication, The Cheops Boats, although
it gives credit to others w h o w o r k e d on the boat at various stages, does
not once mention M a l l a k h ' s n a m e , and the w h o l e tale o f the d i s c o v e r y
is told w i t h an air o f accidental serendipity that M a l l a k h himself categoric­
ally denies.
Despite the c o n t r o v e r s y , h o w e v e r , action w a s taken. T h e Antiquities
Service h a d at last realized that the pit sheltered a unique and precious
s u r v i v a l f r o m the ancient w o r l d , and that in all likelihood the second pit
contained a sister ship. A c o m m i t t e e to oversee the e x c a v a t i o n and restora­
tion o f b o t h boats w a s q u i c k l y f o r m e d , d r a w i n g on all the expertise the
Service c o u l d c o m m a n d . ( A t that stage o f planning, it w a s assumed c o n ­
fidently that once the first boat h a d been rescued, the second c o u l d also
be e x c a v a t e d ; the western pit, h o w e v e r , remains u n o p e n e d to this day.)
39 Included on the c o m m i t t e e as a matter o f course w e r e D r Z a k i Iskander,
head o f the chemical laboratories o f the Antiquities Service, and H a g
8 A h m e d Y o u s s e f Moustafa, c h i e f o f the restoration section. B o t h m e n
w o u l d p l a y vital roles in the eventual conservation and reconstruction
o f the ship.
T h e e x c a v a t i o n o f the R o y a l S h i p w a s to be an entirely E g y p t i a n under­
taking, perhaps not the v e r y first in the history o f E g y p t i a n a r c h a e o l o g y ,

56
 DISCOVERY

but o n e o f the most delicate and certainly the most important. N o c o n ­

scious decision w a s e v e r taken to k e e p the project in E g y p t i a n hands, but
things being as they w e r e in 1 9 5 4 , it seemed natural and n o r m a l that it
should be so. T h e officers' r e v o l t led b y G a m a l A b d u l - N a s s e r w a s o n l y
t w o years old. In understanding the nationalistic f e r v o u r that s w e p t E g y p t
then and that still to a l a r g e extent pervades E g y p t i a n life t o d a y , one must
r e m e m b e r that N a s s e r w a s the first E g y p t i a n leader the c o u n t r y had had
since the pharaohs o f the Thirtieth D y n a s t y . L i b y a n s , N u b i a n s ,
G r e e k s , R o m a n s , A r a b s , T u r k s , and latterly the French and the British
- for m o r e than t w o thousand years the political life o f E g y p t had been
d o m i n a t e d b y foreigners, sometimes acting t h r o u g h native figureheads
and puppets, but a l w a y s in firm control.
E g y p t o l o g y w a s b o r n w i t h colonialism w h e n N a p o l e o n i n v a d e d E g y p t
in 1 7 9 8 , and until w e l l into this century, the study o f ancient E g y p t
remained an e x c l u s i v e preserve o f foreigners, especially E u r o p e a n s and
A m e r i c a n s . O n e has o n l y to read the roster o f great E g y p t o l o g i s t s -
Lepsius, M a s p e r o , Breasted, R e i s n e r , J u n k e r , G a r d i n e r , E m e r y - to realize
h o w t h o r o u g h l y the field w a s d o m i n a t e d b y westerners. T o d a y , h o w e v e r ,
times h a v e c h a n g e d : the Antiquities D e p a r t m e n t is firmly in E g y p t i a n
hands, and a w h o l e generation o f E g y p t i a n E g y p t o l o g i s t s , m e n like L a b i b
H a b a c h i , and the late S e l i m Hassan and A h m e d F a k h r y , to n a m e j u s t a
f e w , has taken o v e r . S u c h changes b e g a n it is true w e l l before 1 9 5 4 , but
the political events o f the early 1950s in E g y p t added an urgent impulse
to the feeling that the study o f ancient E g y p t w a s p r o p e r l y a concern o f
m o d e r n E g y p t i a n s . It seemed right then that the e x c a v a t i o n o f the R o y a l
Ship should be undertaken w i t h o u t recourse to foreign assistance, w h e t h e r
technological o r financial. In a sense it w o u l d be a tribute to the n e w E g y p ­
tian patriotism.

57
 C H A P T E R FOUR

Excavation

Ahmed Youssef Moustafa

W h e n he heard the n e w s o f the great d i s c o v e r y at the p y r a m i d s , A h m e d
Y o u s s e f Moustafa w a s hard at w o r k in the Eighteenth D y n a s t y t o m b s
o f the nobles at T h e b e s in U p p e r E g y p t . T h e T h e b a n necropolis stretches
along the dusty, desert foothills o f the L i b y a n escarpment on the west
bank o f the N i l e , across the river's b r o a d reach f r o m the temple o f K a r n a k
and the s o m n o l e n t m o d e r n tourist t o w n o f L u x o r , once the site o f
H u n d r e d - G a t e d T h e b e s , p r o u d and glittering capital o f the E g y p t i a n
E m p i r e . F o r generations the west bank w a s the m a i n b u r y i n g g r o u n d o f
T h e b e s , a city o f the dead to c o m p l e m e n t the city o f the l i v i n g on the
opposite shore, and the foothills o f the escarpment are h o n e y c o m b e d
w i t h graves.
H a g A h m e d had w o r k e d for t w e n t y years in the T h e b a n necropolis,
recording and restoring the brilliant series o f paintings that decorate the
walls o f these t o m b s . His colleagues in C a i r o assure m e that he k n o w s
e v e r y one o f hundreds o f graves there, b y n a m e as w e l l as n u m b e r . Often
during the course o f his w o r k he b e c a m e so i n v o l v e d that he w o u l d pass
the night in the t o m b , sleeping on the g r o u n d and d r e a m i n g that he w a s
the t o m b ' s o w n e r - d r e a m i n g , he says, the dreams o f the person w h o
had been buried there.
A s soon as he heard o f the R o y a l S h i p , H a g A h m e d d o w n e d his tools,
a curious assortment o f face creams and brushes that looks m o r e like the
contents o f an actress's m a k e - u p b o x than the i m p l e m e n t s o f a master re­
storer, crossed the r i v e r to L u x o r , and t o o k the o v e r n i g h t train to C a i r o . (Opposite)
It is difficult to i m a g i n e this patient and dignified old man in a h u r r y , 32 The topmost layer of the
dismantled ship, from the
but h u r r y is w h a t he says he did, out to the Giza p y r a m i d s to e x a m i n e eastern end of the pit, after
the j o b he k n e w he w o u l d be called u p o n to d o . H a d he any doubts or the enormous limestone
blocks had been removed.
m i s g i v i n g s w h e n he peered t h r o u g h the hole in the t w e n t y - s e c o n d b l o c k The oars can be clearly
and s a w in the d i m light the giant timbers, the stem and stern posts, o f seen, and in the centre and
background parts of what
the R o y a l S h i p ? D i d he realize the m a g n i t u d e o f the j o b that lay before was later found to be the
h i m ? ' A t first,' he says, 'I w a s anxious and afraid. I k n e w nothing at all cabin assembly.

59
EXCAVATION

about boat-building, and it seemed that this j o b perhaps needed a ship­

w r i g h t m o r e than it did a restorer.' B u t then he realized that n o one else
k n e w a n y t h i n g about b o a t - b u i l d i n g either. It had been m o r e than h a l f
a century since the last d i s c o v e r y o f this nature, the five or six small boats
100, 101 that had been found near a T w e l f t h D y n a s t y p y r a m i d at D a h s h u r (see
chapter six). T h e r e w a s n o one left in the Antiquities S e r v i c e w h o k n e w
a n y t h i n g about the D a h s h u r boats, and the e x c a v a t i o n reports w e r e u n ­
fortunately silent on e x a c t l y h o w they had been pieced together.
W i t h his characteristic self-assurance H a g A h m e d realized that i f the
j o b c o u l d be done, then he alone w o u l d be the one to d o it. A n d it had
to be d o n e . A s he recounts the story t w e n t y years later, there is a r e m a r k ­
able attitude o f certainty about the w h o l e thing, and it is difficult to re­
m e m b e r that it w o u l d be several years before he o r a n y o n e else k n e w
precisely w h a t w a s and w a s not in the pit.
In the late 1920s, w h e n A h m e d Y o u s s e f Moustafa, still a teenager but
w i t h a first-class degree f r o m C a i r o ' s Institute for A p p l i e d A r t s , had
a p p r o a c h e d the Antiquities S e r v i c e for a j o b , the art o f restoration, at least
as far as E g y p t o l o g y w a s concerned, consisted l a r g e l y in g l u i n g back pieces
o f arms, legs and noses that had b r o k e n off stone sculptures. A n y t h i n g
m a d e o f less durable material than stone w a s o f necessity i g n o r e d . N o t
o n l y w a s the restoration technique p r i m i t i v e , but, like so m u c h else in
those days, it w a s entirely in the hands o f Europeans. E g y p t i a n s , it w a s
felt, especially y o u n g E g y p t i a n s like A h m e d Youssef, lacked the skills to
w o r k w i t h such unique, often fragile, usually precious objects. F o r nearly
four years, the y o u n g m a n w o r k e d in u n h a p p y frustration, casting m o u l d s
and p r o d u c i n g replicas o f C a i r o M u s e u m pieces for other institutions
a r o u n d the w o r l d , and w a t c h i n g in anguish as the f e w attempts at restora­
tion too often ended in a b o t c h e d j o b that c o m p l e t e l y misinterpreted the
piece. O v e r and o v e r again, he asked for permission to try his hand at
restoration, but his requests w e r e i g n o r e d .
A s i n g l e - m i n d e d obsession had g o v e r n e d his life since he w a s a small
child, a belief in his unique gift, w h i c h is at heart a faith in his ability
to understand and to c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h the ancient E g y p t i a n craftsmen
and artists w h o first created these objects. T h e story is told o f h i m that
once, w h i l e w o r k i n g on a w o m a n ' s head in a t o m b in the T h e b a n n e c r o p ­
olis, he felt her flinch beneath the harsh scraper he w a s using. H e switched
to a w o o d e n tool, but still the lines in her face spoke her protest. O n l y
w h e n he b e g a n to use a soft camel's hair brush, did she relax and a l o o k
o f gratitude c o m e o v e r her features. T h i s story is told in E n g l i s h w h i l e
the old m a n , w h o speaks o n l y A r a b i c , sits b y w i t h his hands folded placidly
o v e r his paunch and a b e n i g n smile lighting his face. O n e w o n d e r s if he
believes the story. It is impossible to tell and is, in a n y case, not v e r y i m p o r -

60
 EXCAVATION

tant. W h a t is important here is w h a t the story illuminates about the nearly

mystical sense this puritanical, o r t h o d o x and deeply religious M u s l i m has
o f being in touch w i t h the p a g a n life o f the ancient past.
T m a d e trouble at the d e p a r t m e n t , ' H a g A h m e d recalls in his deep,
measured v o i c e . T w a s patriotic. I w a n t e d an E g y p t i a n to restore E g y p t i a n
things, and I w a n t e d to serve E g y p t . ' His perseverance and his unshakeable
self-assurance must h a v e impressed s o m e o n e in the Antiquities S e r v i c e in
the end, for instead o f being fired outright, as had been threatened, he
w a s finally g i v e n a task to p e r f o r m , an impossible task such as one reads
about in fairy tales. H e w a s g i v e n a shapeless c h u n k o f m u d - c a k e d rubble
w i t h barely descernible bits o f faience and plain and c o l o u r e d i v o r y chips
e m b e d d e d in it. It w a s impossible to tell w h a t sort o f object, if any, m i g h t
be concealed therein. T a k e as l o n g as y o u w a n t w i t h it, R . F . E n g e l b a c h ,
then the m u s e u m ' s curator, told h i m , but d o n ' t c o m e b a c k until y o u ' v e
finished - i m p l y i n g , H a g A h m e d says n o w , that he e x p e c t e d n e v e r to
see h i m again.
F o r w e e k s the y o u n g m a n w o r k e d at it. H e m a d e p r e l i m i n a r y d r a w i n g s .
H e cleaned the i v o r y chips and shifted t h e m about in patterns. H e m a d e
further d r a w i n g s . E v e n in those early days his w o r k w a s m a r k e d b y a
ruthless k i n d o f patience and the indefatigable c o n v i c t i o n that the a n s w e r
e v e n t u a l l y w o u l d c o m e . Finally, w h e n the m o n t h that he had p r o m i s e d
himself had passed, he returned to E n g e l b a c h w i t h w h a t is n o w displayed
in the C a i r o M u s e u m as the A k h e n a t e n b o x , an elegant small e b o n y coffer,
shaped like a miniature steamer trunk, inlaid w i t h faience and an elaborate
g e o m e t r y o f i v o r y panels.
In the desert rest-house w h e r e he lives, H a g A h m e d Y o u s s e f keeps a
replica o f the A k h e n a t e n b o x w h i c h he w i l l i n g l y brings out for visitors
w h o are curious about his w o r k . C e r t a i n elements that he points to in
the design w e r e o b v i o u s to h i m , but others w e r e utterly incomprehensible
at first. It w a s like a j i g s a w puzzle, he explains, using a m e t a p h o r that
he w i l l use again in describing his w o r k on the R o y a l S h i p , but a j i g s a w
puzzle w i t h o u t a picture on the b o x , indeed w i t h o u t a clue as to w h a t
the result w a s supposed to be.
T h e simple f o u r - r o o m e d b u n g a l o w w h e r e he entertains his visitors o v e r
glasses o f l e m o n a d e and s w e e t m i n t tea is furnished w i t h plain w o o d e n
divans and l o w tables, m a d e b y the H a g himself, and decorated w i t h
replicas and m o d e l s , p h o t o g r a p h s and d r a w i n g s o f the precious pieces he
has rescued, pieces for w h o s e v e r y existence he is often single-handedly
responsible - a o n e - t o - t w e n t y scale m o d e l o f the R o y a l S h i p , p h o t o g r a p h s
o f the great boat at all stages o f e x c a v a t i o n and restoration, pictures
o f a R a m e s s i d e g o l d funerary mask, before and after reconstruction, a
replica o f a s h o w y g o l d belt, studded w i t h faience, (fake lapis) and tur-

6l
 EXCAVATION

33 The curtain box of Queen Hetep-heres, meticulously restored by Ahmed Youssef Moustafa, formed part of the queen's burial
hoard excavated by George Reisner in 1923. Top and side views show the faience inlay and delicate gold hieroglyphs set into ebony
panels. Like those on the canopy whose curtains the box once contained, these hieroglyphs proclaim that the ensemble was a gift
of Hetep-heres' husband, and Cheops' father, King Sneferu.

quoise, that once encircled the imposing bulk of some pharaonic official.
Objects such as these are precious not only in terms of the monetary value,
which is often considerable, but perhaps more so as works of art and
carriers of information, witnesses from the remote and antique past.
Among the pictures on the walls of the rest-house are Hag Ahmed's
drawings of the furniture from the burial hoard of Queen Hetep-heres
that George Reisner had excavated in 1925 (see chapter two). Together
with other members of Reisner's team, the Hag worked on the restoration
of this extremely delicate and fragile material over a period of many years.
Fragments of sheet gold, bits of faience inlay, and a fine ashy powder
that had once been ebony and aromatic Lebanese cedarwood were all that
remained of the queen's elegant furnishings. The reconstructions in the
23, 24 Cairo Museum, and the reproductions in the Boston Museum of Fine
Arts, are a tribute to the skill and perspicacity of both the ancient craftsmen
and the modern restorers. Hag Ahmed's particular pride is the long,
33 slender box with its intricate inlays of gold faience and precious woods
that had contained the linen curtains of the queen's bed-canopy. The cur­
tain box, together with the canopy itself, had been presented to the queen
by her husband King Sneferu, according to inscriptions on the pieces.
Much of the constructional detail and many of the decorative refinements
in these pieces would be repeated in aspects of the R o y a l Ship. The joints

62
 EXCAVATION

of the bed-canopy were pegged and lashed together like those of the
canopy that covered the ship's cabin, and the columns of both canopy
and cabin had similar papyrus-bud and palmette finials, so that it is tempt­ 34. 35
ing to see them as products of the same skilled workshop connected with
the royal necropolis.
The severe grace of Hetep-heres' ensemble appealed to Ahmed Yous-
sef's own pleasure in restraint and modesty. A man of simple taste, he
has neither television, radio nor car and must rely on friends for transport
between Cairo and Giza or anywhere else he might want to go. But
what would be an agonizing frustration for a less patient person is yet
another example of the Hag's unique composure. If a ride is not available
immediately, ma'alesh, as the Egyptians say: never mind, there'll be a ride
tomorrow, or the next day, God willing. The key to the man is in this
sturdy conviction, perhaps grounded in his strictly orthodox religious
belief, that the pattern of life is comprehensible. With this he combines
the patience to wait for the pattern to reveal itself, and the intelligence
to push the elements of the pattern in the direction in which they ought
to go. 'He is a sheikh al-Azhar,' one of his Cairo acquaintances explained.
'It's difficult for non-Muslims to know what that means.' She was refer­
ring to the university that was founded in the tenth century in connection
with the great Cairo mosque of al-Azhar. It provides the epitome of a
Muslim religious education, something akin to the rigorous intellectual
training of the Jesuits, which manages to expand the instrument of the
mind at the same time as limiting the horizon of the mind's exploration.

34,35 The papyrus-bud motif is at its most elegant

in the finials of the gold-sheathed columns support­
ing Hetep-heres' bed canopy; but the same shape
finished the columns of the cabin canopy on the
Royal Ship-and it is quite possible that both
canopies were products of the same palace workshop.
Cf. colour ill. IX.

63
The first stage
T h e Antiquities Service c o m m i t t e e had taken the m o m e n t o u s decision
to open the pit and to e x c a v a t e and reconstruct the ship, although, it must
be r e m e m b e r e d , n o one really k n e w for sure then w h e t h e r the boat could
be reconstructed, either w h o l l y o r in part. F r o m the photographs that
D u n c a n had taken, the w o o d appeared to be in a g o o d state o f preserva­
tion, but there w a s n o w a y to be certain o f its condition w i t h o u t r e m o v i n g
the limestone blocks that c o v e r e d the pit - and to r e m o v e the blocks w i t h ­
out the most stringent precautions w o u l d certainly hasten the deteriora­
tion o f the w o o d .
It w a s a d i l e m m a that w a s resolved b y the C h i e f C h e m i s t , D r Iskander.
Priority, Iskander k n e w , had to be g i v e n to the preservation o f the w o o d .
B e f o r e a n y t h o u g h t could be g i v e n to r e m o v i n g the limestone blocks and
o p e n i n g the pit, certainly before the boat's reconstruction, the actual c o n ­
dition o f the w o o d had to be determined, as w e l l as the question o f h o w
best to preserve it and to prevent a n y further deterioration.
S m a l l and w i r y , w i t h thick dark spectacles that m a g n i f y his large eyes,
D r Iskander has a totally E g y p t i a n sense o f h u m o u r . H e keeps a m u m m i ­
fied d u c k in the d r a w e r o f his desk at C a i r o A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y w h e r e ,
in his retirement, he teaches classes in the chemistry o f restoration. 'I did
it m y s e l f in 1 9 4 1 , ' he explains p r o u d l y , exhibiting the dark y e l l o w carcass
to visitors. ' Y o u see,' he says, w i t h an appreciative sniff, 'there's been a b s o ­
lutely n o disintegration w h a t s o e v e r . '
D r Iskander had been a student, and then a colleague, and finally a suc­
cessor o f the late A n t h o n y Lucas, w h o s e great w o r k Ancient Egyptian
Materials and Industries, first c o m p i l e d in the 1 9 3 0 s , is still the definitive
study in the field. A n exhaustive exploration o f all the materials and
methods o f ancient E g y p t i a n manufacturing, Lucas' b o o k has v e r y little
in it about w o o d , particularly w o o d f r o m the O l d K i n g d o m . T h e reason
is s i m p l e : w o o d is an o r g a n i c material, far m o r e fragile than ceramic or
metal o r stone, and e v e n in the d r y air o f this desert climate, it is likely
to deteriorate w i t h time. V e r y little w o o d has been preserved f r o m ancient
times. T h e r e are a f e w w o o d e n statues, such as the standing statue o f the
so-called ' S h e i k h e l - B e l e d ' , o r the w o o d e n panels f r o m the T h i r d
D y n a s t y t o m b o f H e s y - R e at Saqqara, b o t h pieces n o w in the C a i r o
M u s e u m . B u t most O l d K i n g d o m w o o d e n pieces, such as Hetep-heres'
furniture, s i m p l y disintegrated w i t h time and w h a t w e see t o d a y in
museums are m o d e r n reconstructions.
D r Iskander had carefully r e m o v e d a scrap o f w o o d f r o m the top o f
the pit and carried it h i m s e l f to the British M u s e u m ' s chemistry l a b o r a ­
tories, w h e r e it w a s identified as cedar and w a s found to contain 1 0 per
36 The delightfully rotund figure of Ka-Aper suggested to his
Egyptian excavators their own village headman, hence his fami­
liar title of the 'Sheikh el-Beled'. The wooden sculpture is one
of the few surviving examples of work in that medium from the
Old Kingdom.

cent moisture, just a little under the average percentage ( 1 1 - 1 2 per cent)
for ordinary seasoned timber in Egypt's exceptionally dry climate. A look
at the hygrothermograph that Iskander had placed in the boat-pit showed
the reason why. The pit had been sealed air-tight by a liquid gypsum
plaster, imported from the Faiyum oasis and poured between and around
the massive blocks of limestone, and it had remained that way for some
four and a half millennia. Initially the wood, as well as the reed mats that
had been laid on the surface, had given up a certain amount of moisture,
but eventually an equilibrium had been reached. When the atmosphere
within the pit had absorbed all the moisture that it could, it had become
stabilized at a humidity level of 88 per cent. The temperature, at the same
time, although susceptible to slight variations, hovered around a fairly
constant 2 2 ° C * This accounts for the extraordinary state of preservation
of the wood which, according to one witness, looked 'as fresh and new
as if it had been placed there last year instead of almost five thousand years
ago'.

* These figures have been questioned b y other laboratories in recent years. In particular, there
is felt to be a discrepancy between the 88 per cent humidity in the pit and the free-water content of the
w o o d ( 1 0 - 1 2 per cent). T h e suggestion has been made that the sample piece of cedar had dried
out before it arrived at the British M u s e u m laboratories. W h e n and if the second boat-pit is ever
opened, the figures that are obtained will provide a useful comparison with those from the first
pit.

65
EXCAVATION

The balanced and stable environment in which the R o y a l Ship had been
stored for all that time was about to be invaded. A shed had been erected
over the entire boat-pit to house the big cranes that would be necessary
to lift the limestone blocks. The largest of these enormous blocks was
calculated by Salah Osman, the engineer in charge of removing them,
to weigh just under sixteen tons. Dr Iskander counselled that each of the
stones, as it was removed, should be replaced by a wooden block or beam,
wrapped in fire- and water-proof cloth to protect the atmosphere in the
pit. 'If we had left the pit completely open,' he explained, 'the water that
had been sealed inside the wood for thousands and thousands of years
would try to escape, and the wood would have been badly deformed or
even destroyed. It was our job to keep that from happening.'
37 Using mechanical cranes and 'pickers', giant tweezers of steel that fitted
over the ends of the blocks, it took just two months to remove the great
stones. A crowd of journalists and dignitaries, diplomats, politicians and
archaeologists, had gathered for the ceremonial removal of the keystones
3S and the first great block on 23 November 1954, just six months after Mal-
lakh had peered through the hole in the twenty-second block. Once the
first block was removed, however, there was not much to see, for Dr
Iskander was insistent on his orders that each stone be immediately re­
placed with the wood block to preserve the atmosphere in the pit.

37 At the western end of the pit the keystones have been taken out and the great cranes manoeuvred into
place ready for the removal of the first of the forty-one limestone blocks covering the pit.
j8 Removal of the first block on 23 November 1934, while a crowd ofjournalists, workmen and dignitaries
looks on. Salah Osman, an engineer with the Department of Antiquities, supervised this phase of the
operations.

Wooden wedges had been inserted between the first and second blocks
to detach them from each other sufficiently for a lever to be manipulated
between them. Since there was not enough room to use the 'pickers' on
the first block, ropes were passed around it instead and the two cranes,
balanced to operate simultaneously and keep the huge stone level, slowly
lifted the first block clear. It was a tense moment. One slip, one mistake
in calculations of stress, could have sent the massive rock crashing, but
it rose slowly, ropes creaking from the great strain exerted on them,
cleared the top of the pit, and was gently set down atop a series of wooden
rollers. Workers then slid the great stone along the rollers to the outside
of the shed. The cranes were the only modern touch. The wedges, ropes,
levers and rollers were all devices that had been used by the ancient E g y p ­
tians, and had most probably been used by the workmen of Cheops and
Djedefre when they moved these same stones into place forty-five cen­
turies earlier.
At each end and along the bottom edge of every block were holes that
seem to have been used to manoeuvre the blocks into place. Because the
holes in the bottom were all along the western edges of the blocks, and
because the keystones were at the westernmost edge of the pit, it was clear

67
 39, 4° Dr Zaki Iskander, at the time Chief
Chemist in the restoration section of the
Antiquities Department, carefully applies a
resinous solution to the fragments of ancient
matting (seen in close-up opposite) that
covered the topmost timbers in the pit. This
solution conserved the fragile vegetable fibres
and made it possible to lift them without
further damage.

that the ancient labourers had worked from east to west placing the blocks.
A rather large rectangular hole, cut into the bedrock of the plateau west
of the boat-pit, probably had some function in positioning the blocks,
but what similar circular holes some metres to the east of the pit had to
do with the procedure is not clear to modern engineers.
But even if we could understand precisely how the stones were placed,
it would still be a wonderful piece of work. W e must remind ourselves
yet again that these people in the third millennium B C had no wheels,
no pulleys, no block-and-tackle mechanisms; yet they were able to
quarry, cut and transport these monolithic sixteen-ton blocks, and to posi­
tion them confidently over the pit's fragile contents, which would have
been smashed to fragments had the slightest miscalculation caused a stone
to slip.
Marks made by the ancient quarrymen are still visible on many of the
stones, hieroglyphs scrawled in red and yellow ochre and in lampblack.
They have the hasty and abbreviated look of foremen's instructions about
how the stones were to be quarried. The marks apparently include
references to measurements in cubits (the ancient Egyptian cubit was the
equivalent of 52.3 cm), as well as the royal cartouche of Djedefre, the
30 son of Cheops, the same cartouche that Mallakh had identified when he
first uncovered the stones. With the exception of Djedefre's cartouche,
which was already well known, the marks have not been identified.
Further study may reveal more about ancient quarrying techniques. One
thing the marks have established is the position of Djedefre in the Fourth
Dynasty king-list: it seems certain that if he were the one to bury Cheops,
he must logically have been Cheops' successor.
When the blocks were removed from the pit-head, the quarry-marks
were all sprayed with a 7 per cent polyvinyl-acetate solution to preserve

68
 EXCAVATION

them. Even so, time has affected them, and twenty-five years later the
marks are almost illegible. The inscriptions on the huge stones that sit
outside the boat museum are protected from sun, wind and dust by noth­
ing more than that original thin spray and some boards laid casually
against them to shade them from the worst of the sun.
The limestone blocks rested on the metre-wide ledge some two metres 29
down from the top of the pit. The blocks had been wedged into place
with shutters, smaller pieces of limestone inserted at either end of each
block to ensure a tight fit. It is impossible to think that the ancient builders
were casual in their concern for the preservation of the boat, for every
effort was made to seal the pit as tightly as possible. Were they aware
of and concerned about the depredations of time, weather, insects ? Or
was it the knowledge of how the tomb of Hetep-heres, Cheops' own
mother, had been so recently and ruthlessly desecrated that led them to
make such efforts to seal and conceal?

On 28 January 1955, the final stone was taken out from the pit-head
and it became possible, for the first time, to get an overall view of the
pit with its contents. A composite photograph taken at the time showed 1
the topmost layer, covered with plaster dust and small chunks of gypsum

69
 EXCAVATION
41 The ship's prow, carved
to represent the rope bind­
ings of a papyrus reed raft,
was found leaning against
the western end of the pit.
Expansion and contraction
of the timbers had caused
only slight damage,
although the capping disc
was split in two.
3i
70
that had fallen into the pit in ancient times. Beneath the dust was a layer
of material, most probably linen, although it was far too disintegrated
to identify it more precisely. The remains of cushion-like objects, layers
of cloth that had been impregnated with resin, were perhaps fenders to
protect the boat while docking. There were also ropes and mats that,
although often extremely friable, fragmenting at the slightest touch, could
be consolidated with resin and preserved. These mats and ropes were made
of exactly the same materials as are used in Egypt today - at least where
traditional materials have not been replaced by cheap plastics from China
and Japan. Laboratory analysis later confirmed the original identifications
that these were the commonest sorts of reeds and rushes, native to the
Nile marshes since man first appeared on the banks of the great river.*
Dr Iskander has suggested that the word to describe certain types of these
mats has remained almost unchanged from the ancient language of the
hieroglyphs to the Arabic dialect that is spoken in Egypt today.
At the far western end of the pit, the columnar stem post representing
a bound bundle of papyrus stalks had been easily and quickly identified
from Duncan's earlier photograph. N o w it could be seen more clearly,
its two halves slightly askew and the disc that capped it split in two. The
indentations were visible where rope lashings had once bound the sections
of this prow together. Next to the prow piece two long curved and
pointed timbers rose up from the bottom of the pit; they were matched
by a counterpart pair of curved pieces at the opposite (eastern or stern)
end of the pit next to the stern post, which itself again duplicated in
wooden relief the tightly bound bundle of papyrus reeds that had been
the first Egyptian means of water transport. It was already recognized
that these curved and pointed pieces came together at b o w and stern, and
that the stern and stem posts most probably fitted over them in some man­
ner. Towards the centre of the pit lay the long oar on which the sunlight
reflected from Kamal el-Mallakh's shaving mirror had fallen. Disposed
over the surface was what appeared to be a confusion of smaller parts,
including a series of joined wooden doors or decking, whose function
was not at first apparent. Even then, however, at the initial sight of the
whole ensemble, it was obvious that part of the solution to the puzzle
that Ahmed Youssef faced would be found in the rational w a y the ancients
had laid out their king's boat, not in a helter-skelter pile of timbers, but
in an orderly fashion, bow to the west, stern to the east, port beams on
the left-hand side of the pit, starboard beams on the right. Throughout
* T h c mats w e r e made of the culms o f phragmites communis ( c o m m o n reed) and juncus arabicus
(rush) and of the leaves o f typha australis; the ropes were of the twisted leaves and culms of
desmostachya bipinnata (Haifa grass).
 EXCAVATION

the centuries and around the w o r l d boat people h a v e been k n o w n for

their tidiness, a necessary function o f the c r a m p e d quarters in w h i c h most
o f them live. ' S h i p s h a p e ' does not seem an inadequate description o f the
state o f the pit's contents.

H a g A h m e d Y o u s s e f w a s not able to begin the exacting task o f r e m o v i n g

the w o o d e n parts o f the boat until D e c e m b e r 1 9 5 5 , a year and a h a l f after
the d i s c o v e r y . M u c h had been accomplished in that time. N o t o n l y had
the blocks been r e m o v e d and set aside, but a p r o p e r restoration shed had
also been constructed n e x t to the shelter o v e r the pit. Earlier in the y e a r
Iskander had supervised the consolidation and r e m o v a l o f the mats and 39, 40
c o r d a g e that w e r e placed on the topmost layer o f w o o d . Despite the fri­
able condition o f this material, Iskander w a s able to consolidate e n o u g h
o f it to include it in the m u s e u m display.

42, 43 (Left) For the first stages of removal from the pit Hag Ahmed devised a platform that could he suspended by pulleys over
the working area, thus enabling him to conduct operations without putting pressure on the elements of the boat itself. Here Hag
Ahmed, on the left, is preparing to lift the cabin door whose sliding lock was shown in ill. 7. (Right) Midway down in the
removal operation were revealed these long, slender, regularly notched timbers. It was immediately suggested that they were some
sort of keel and that the boat's ribs would be found to fit into the notches-a suggestion that gave rise to much frustration during
the course of reconstruction (see ill. 75).
44, 45 One of the lowest layers at the western end
of the pit. The broad flat timbers of the ship's bottom
clearly show the seam holes through which were
threaded the ropes (below) that bound the vessel
together. The papyriform prow (cf. ill. 41) can be seen
next to the two curved blades on to which the prow
would be socketed (cf. ill. 78).
 46 At the eastern end of the pit the stern section of
the bottom of the hull was discovered bound to the gar-
board strake on either side. Again, as in the bow, the
two curved blades were intended to support the papyri-
form stern piece that raked back across the after deck.

D u r i n g this time A h m e d Y o u s s e f had not been idle. A l t h o u g h he had

been an important m e m b e r o f the boat c o m m i t t e e since it w a s first estab­
lished, his p r i m a r y responsibility w o u l d o n l y b e g i n w h e n the pit had been
opened and the uppermost surface o f matting and c o r d a g e had been
cleared, w h e n , that is, the w o o d e n parts o f the great ship lay fully exposed.
H e had been w o r k i n g in restoration n o w for a quarter o f a century, but,
as w e h a v e seen, he had had n o experience in restoring ancient boats, nor,
in fact, a n y k n o w l e d g e o f the techniques o f b o a t - b u i l d i n g , w h e t h e r
ancient o r m o d e r n . In this he w a s not alone. T w e n t y - f i v e years a g o ,
marine a r c h a e o l o g y w a s something practised almost e x c l u s i v e l y b y
treasure-seekers hunting for the g o l d o f the A m e r i c a s in Spanish w r e c k s .
O f boat-building in p r e - R o m a n times almost nothing w a s k n o w n .
T o d a y m u c h o f that has changed, l a r g e l y through the w o r k o f marine

73
47, 4$ (Left) The notched timbers shown in place in ill. 43 were in a fragile condition and difficult to remove owing to their length.
A series of rope slings suspended from an iron bar, together with felt padding, solved the problem - although in this case still further
reinforcement was needed from wooden boards. (Right) The same technique was used in the removal of the heavy beams that made
up the bottom of the hull. On the pit wall, to the right in the picture, is one of the triangular reference marks shown in full in
ill. 54-

archaeologists such as G e o r g e Bass and Peter T h r o c k m o r t o n , w h o estab­

lished a successful m e t h o d o f u n d e r w a t e r e x c a v a t i o n w i t h the C a p e
G e l i d o n y a w r e c k , o f historians such as Lionel Casson and B j ö r n L a n d ­
ström, w h o h a v e consolidated information f r o m m a n y different cultures
and historical periods, and o f restorers such as A h m e d Y o u s s e f
Moustafa himself, w h o , t h r o u g h a patient system o f trial and error,
b e c a m e an expert on ancient E g y p t i a n boats and the shipwright's craft.
In the b e g i n n i n g , h o w e v e r , H a g A h m e d k n e w nothing, and so, o v e r
the eighteen months after he had first e x a m i n e d the contents o f the pit,
he read and studied and prepared himself. T h e r e w a s not m u c h to read,
especially not in A r a b i c , the one l a n g u a g e w i t h w h i c h he w a s familiar,
but there w a s a great deal to observe, in reliefs and paintings on the walls
o f tombs and in the hundreds o f little w o o d e n models o f boats that b e c a m e
a requisite part o f E g y p t i a n t o m b paraphernalia in s o m e w h a t later times.
T h e biggest p r o b l e m w i t h all this material w a s that, although it w a s
r e m a r k a b l y accurate as to finished detail, there w a s almost nothing about
the process o f construction. O n l y a f e w reliefs, such as T i ' s Fifth D y n a s t y

74
 EXCAVATION

t o m b relief at Saqqara (see chapter six), s h o w e d boat-building in a n y 102

detail, and these details w e r e easily open to misinterpretation. It is o n l y
n o w , w i t h the k n o w l e d g e gained f r o m H a g A h m e d ' s reconstruction o f
the R o y a l S h i p , that w e are able to interpret accurately the constructional
details in T i ' s boat-building relief.
H a g A h m e d p o n d e r e d all o f this material in his deliberate and m e t h o d i ­
cal fashion. B u t , despite his learning, the H a g is a craftsman rather than
a scholar, and like most fine craftsmen he is an intensely practical m a n .
M u c h o f his k n o w l e d g e seems to c o m e to h i m t h r o u g h his hands w h i c h ,
t h o u g h large and square, almost crude l o o k i n g , h a v e a grace and fluency
o f expression, a gentle certainty o f touch, that c o m e s across in an act as
simple as that o f p o u r i n g a glass o f mint tea for a visitor. In the end, he
realized, the ancient boat timbers themselves w o u l d be his most valuable
source material. T h e solution to the puzzle o f the boat c o u l d o n l y c o m e
about w h e n he had confronted it himself, handled its parts in his o w n
hands. O n l y then w o u l d he begin to understand their relationships.
In the m e a n t i m e , he learned as m u c h as he could about the construction
o f w o o d e n ships. In the N i l e s i d e boatyards at M a ' a d i , south o f C a i r o , and
at A l e x a n d r i a , E g y p t ' s great port on the Mediterranean, he w a t c h e d
b o a t m e n constructing e v e r y t h i n g f r o m simple r o w b o a t s to the sleek N i l e
w o r k b o a t s that are such an elegant sight w h e n their lateen sails swell
before the n o r t h w i n d - o r the b i g , b u l k y , square-ended dahabiyehs that
carry travellers up and d o w n the river. H e w a t c h e d , and he occasionally
turned his o w n hand to the task, and as he gained confidence and u n d e r ­
standing, he constructed b y h i m s e l f several b i g ten-to-one scale models,
n o w in the m u s e u m , o f the typical N i l e boats. T h e r e w a s o n e e n o r m o u s
difference b e t w e e n the boats he w a s learning about and the boat that lay
in the pit, but it w o u l d be s o m e time before a n y o n e realized this.

4g Dozens of metres of rope lay in coiled confusion at the

bottom of the pit. by this stage it was clear that all this cordage
was not, as had been originally surmised, rigging, but in fact
the rope that had been used to hold the ship's timbers together.

75
 Removal from the pit
B y late J u n e 1 9 5 5 D r Iskander had finished his w o r k , consolidating and
r e m o v i n g the u p p e r m o s t l a y e r o f reed matting, but it w a s then too late
in the season to continue. T h e intense heat o f the E g y p t i a n s u m m e r seared
the desert plateau. Inside the pit the h u m i d i t y w a s higher than that o f
the d r y desert air outside and the temperature w a s m u c h l o w e r . It seemed
w i s e therefore to keep the ship sealed in its pit t h r o u g h o u t the long hot
season that lasts w e l l into w h a t is called a u t u m n in m i l d e r climates. Finally
in D e c e m b e r the w o o d e n blocks w e r e once m o r e r e m o v e d and the scaf-
folding devised b y H a g A h m e d w a s set up to lift the pieces from the
pit. This scaffolding w a s a simple affair, consisting o f a w o o d e n platform
4-' suspended just a b o v e the i m m e d i a t e w o r k area in rope slings that could
be raised and l o w e r e d , permitting w o r k to proceed at close range w i t h o u t
putting any w e i g h t on the timbers o f the boat.
T h e responsibility faced b y the H a g w a s o v e r w h e l m i n g . Each piece had
been laid in the pit w i t h great care b y the same people w h o had built

¡0-52 (Below) At the very bottom of the pit each neatly tied bundle represented a separate assemblage of parts. Although it was
not apparent exactly how the parts went together, it was obvious that they did somehow relate. (Above right) The broken sleeve
of the prow, which after restoration would slide over the curved blades (ill. 78), cradled the most seriously damaged piece in the
boat-one of the oars, reduced to tubular fragments by the weight of the timbers above. (Below right) After the main hull timbers
had been removed, four of the limestone blocks that had supported them were revealed (near the centre of the picture).
EXCAVATION

the ship and w h o thus understood the relation o f its parts. N o w those
parts w e r e to be r e m o v e d b y a m a n w h o had o n l y a v a g u e idea o f w h a t
that relationship m i g h t be, and w h o m o r e o v e r understood that a mistake
at this stage m i g h t mean crucial information irretrievably lost.
A lesser person m i g h t w e l l h a v e been i m m o b i l i z e d b y the e n o r m o u s
responsibility o f choosing the first piece for r e m o v a l f r o m the pit. T h e
H a g ' s deliberate and practical approach seems to h a v e concealed a certain
hesitation e v e n on his o w n part at the e n o r m i t y o f the task. Oars w e r e
easily recognizable, but w h a t function the other parts m i g h t serve, w h a t
relationships their arrangement itself m i g h t hide, w e r e at that stage
i m p o n d e r a b l e . Indeed, the first piece to be r e m o v e d and recorded in the
registry b o o k w o u l d g i v e h i m quite s o m e trouble later on. (That first
58-60 piece, as it turned out, w a s part o f the little foredeck c a n o p y . ) B u t after
this it w a s easier. P r o b l e m s presented themselves - h o w to lift w e a k or
47, 48 cracked pieces, or the l o n g beams that f o r m e d the great ship's side timbers,
for instance - but they w e r e p r o b l e m s that could be solved b y that same
deliberate practical approach.
T h e r e w e r e thirteen layers in the pit. E a c h l a y e r w a s p h o t o g r a p h e d and
the photos w e r e squared metre b y metre, so as to identify each segment
w i t h its contents in relation to the others. T h e n the individual pieces w e r e
p h o t o g r a p h e d , d r a w n and g i v e n identifying n u m b e r s before being re­
m o v e d f r o m the pit. In the restoration shed n e x t to the pit each piece
w a s described and recorded in the most meticulous detail, in both English
and A r a b i c , then cleaned g e n t l y w i t h an air-brush and treated w i t h the
solution o f p o l y v i n y l acetate for preservation. U n d e r D r Iskander's super­
vision the pieces w e r e also treated w h e n necessary w i t h M a r k o n resin in
an acetate solution for conservation and consolidation, and w i t h a 2 per
cent D D T solution to lessen the danger o f insect attack. H a g A h m e d had
already recognized that the sections o f the great ship w e r e arranged in
a logical sequence that w o u l d be part o f the solution to the puzzle. T h a t
61 sequence w a s maintained in the restoration shed. A s each piece w a s r e ­
m o v e d , described and treated, it w a s placed in the shed in an order that
f o l l o w e d , as m u c h as possible, the order established in the pit.
Pieces that seemed similar in construction, o r that appeared to h a v e an
analogous function, w e r e d r a w n as they w e r e found in the pit and the
d r a w i n g s w e r e collated. T h i s m e t h o d w a s to p r o v e especially useful w i t h
32 the pieces o f j o i n e d planking in the t o p m o s t layer. In the end, s o m e o f
this w a s found to be d e c k i n g , and s o m e f o r m e d the sides and bulkheads
o f the deck cabin. W i t h o u t the sketch o f all these pieces together, m o n t h s
c o u l d h a v e been w a s t e d t r y i n g to fit together parts that did not b e l o n g .
It w a s w i t h o u t a n y doubt the most important e x c a v a t i o n to h a v e taken
place in the Giza p y r a m i d area since R e i s n e r had u n c o v e r e d Hetep-heres'

78
 EXCAVATION

secondary burial thirty years earlier, and in a sense it w a s R e i s n e r ' s stan­

dards that g o v e r n e d the w o r k . D o w s D u n h a m , a m e m b e r o f R e i s n e r ' s
expedition and later C u r a t o r o f E g y p t i a n A r t at the M u s e u m o f Fine Arts
in B o s t o n , described R e i s n e r ' s m e t h o d as essentially a process o f dis­
section, taking apart and separating into its c o m p o n e n t s a building or a
g r o u p o f remains or an object. In the v e r y process o f d o i n g so, the evidence
is o f course l a r g e l y destroyed. O n l y the most carefully detailed records,
such, according to R e i s n e r himself, as w o u l d enable future archaeologists
and scholars to reconstruct the evidence precisely as it w a s found, could
justify this destruction. In the Hetep-heres find, as in other less spectacular
excavations, R e i s n e r had set a m o d e l for future archaeologists to f o l l o w :
square foot b y square foot, each separate artefact, w h e t h e r a r e c o g n i z ­
able object or an unidentifiable fragment, w a s p h o t o g r a p h e d , d r a w n ,
measured and described, and its position in relation to other items noted.
T h e same standards prevailed in the e x c a v a t i o n o f the R o y a l S h i p : the
precise recording in m i n u t e detail, both on site and later in the restoration
shed, the care in handling and c o n s e r v i n g these fragile pieces, but a b o v e
all the s l o w and thoughtful pace o f the w o r k that a l l o w e d time for

53 The empty boat-pit, looking west. The wide shelf on either side of the pit supported the limestone
blocks that had covered it.
¡4 These ten symbols,
painted on the south wall of
the boat-pit, have never
been deciphered, but because
of the crudeness with which
they were drawn-evidence
of hasty execution-it
assumed that they were
workmen's instructions,
either to the quarrymen or to
those who were responsible
for the ship's interment.
53
5, 7
49
80
mistakes to be corrected before they w e r e irrevocable, w e r e all part o f
R e i s n e r ' s m e t h o d o l o g y . A l t h o u g h H a g A h m e d Y o u s s e f had n e v e r
w o r k e d w i t h R e i s n e r on an e x c a v a t i o n , he had, in a sense, absorbed
R e i s n e r ' s meticulous approach t h r o u g h his o w n w o r k on the Hetep-heres
is furniture.
H a g A h m e d w o r k e d alone in the pit. Iskander and Z a k i N o u r , then
C u r a t o r o f the P y r a m i d s R e g i o n , supervised the i m m e d i a t e tasks o f
identification, conservation and preservation in the restoration shed, but
the j o b o f r e m o v i n g the great ship from her g r a v e w a s one that A h m e d
Y o u s s e f chose to confront b y himself. A n o v e r r i d i n g sense o f his s o m e -
w h a t mystical connection w i t h the past, particularly w i t h the artisans and
craftsmen o f the past, w h e t h e r stone-carvers, goldsmiths, potters or
b o a t w r i g h t s , led h i m to his solitary occupation. A l o n e , w i t h o u t distrac-
tions, he felt closer to an understanding o f w h a t w a s contained in the pit.
H o l d i n g each o f the pieces in his o w n hands, hefting its w e i g h t , running
his blunt, sensitive fingers o v e r its contours, he felt he could find m a n y
answers.
In late J u n e 1 9 5 7 , after t w o l o n g seasons o f e x c a v a t i o n , the great l i m e -
stone pit on the south side o f the p y r a m i d finally stood e m p t y . T h i r t y -
t w o - a n d - a - h a l f metres l o n g and five metres w i d e , the pit had contained
6 5 1 elements o f the boat, such as cabin doors, walls, hatch covers and
decking, w h i c h , w h e n b r o k e n d o w n into their c o m p o n e n t parts,
a m o u n t e d to 1 , 2 2 4 individual pieces (including all the major timbers).
T h e s e w e r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y o f cedar, although there w e r e small details
o f acacia, sidder (ziziphus spina-christi), and other types o f w o o d that g r e w
natively in E g y p t in ancient times as w e l l as m o d e r n . T h e cedar had been
identified at the British M u s e u m as c o m i n g from that part o f Syria that
w e k n o w t o d a y as L e b a n o n , w h e r e the l o n g and r u g g e d l y graceful m o u n -
tain ridges that separate the coastal strip from the interior w e r e once car-
peted w i t h these massive e v e r g r e e n trees.
W i t h the exception o f a f e w brads or staples o f almost pure copper,
there w a s no metal a n y w h e r e in the pit. T h e stones that had served to
support the c u r v i n g f o r m o f the hull pieces (and had perhaps been in-
tended for ballast in the actual ship?) w e r e r e m o v e d during the course
o f the e x c a v a t i o n , as w e l l as metres and metres o f rope, far m o r e than
w o u l d h a v e been t h o u g h t necessary, interspersed b e t w e e n the layers and
littering the floor o f the pit. T h e r e w a s n o treasure in the ship's g r a v e
besides the precious boat itself, not even a simple burial offering that m i g h t
h a v e revealed something m o r e about w h o had buried it and w h y . T h e r e
w e r e n o inscriptions except for the q u a r r y m e n ' s m a r k s scrawled on the
blocks and some strange, r o u g h l y d r a w n s y m b o l s enclosed in triangles
(or inverted p y r a m i d s ?) painted on the south w a l l o f the pit itself. 54
A m o n g the last pieces to be r e m o v e d w e r e a chunk o f u n w o r k e d black
basalt that m i g h t have been used as a h a m m e r i n g tool, and a n a r r o w 55
flint i m p l e m e n t , s o m e fifteen centimetres l o n g , precisely flaked in the
shape o f a d o u b l e - e d g e d knife or chisel. These tools, together w i t h a sherd
from a cheap, p o o r l y baked, p o r o u s j u g o f the kind still used to keep w a t e r
cool t h r o u g h evaporation, w e r e the o n l y extraneous or, in archaeological
terms, foreign objects found on the site, carelessly d r o p p e d o r k n o c k e d
into the pit b y the ancient w o r k m e n . O n e can i m a g i n e the curses o f the
knife's o w n e r as he perhaps w a t c h e d his precious flint fall irretrievably
d o w n t h r o u g h the layers to the b o t t o m o f the pit - silent curses, n o doubt,
for he w a s in a sacred place and the g r a v e o f the g o d - k i n g w a s o n l y a
f e w cubits a w a y .

53 Three 'foreign' objects

were found in the pit —a
flint blade, presumably a
workman's knife; an un­
worked chunk of black
basalt, perhaps a hammer­
ing tool; and a sherd of
cheap, common pottery,
possibly a fragment from a
broken water jug.

8i
56 Ahmed Youssef Moustafa with a small model of the hull of the Royal Ship. The forward part of
the hull is in the foreground and it becomes clear how the curved blades join together to form a prow over
which the papyriform sleeve fitted (cf. ill. 78).
 C H A P T E R FIVE

Construction and reconstruction

'It is the duty of the restorer, before touching his patient,

to make himself absolutely sure of the success of his
operation so that no further loss of material or damage
may happen to the valuable treasure in his charge. After
long study and painful trials I came to the conclusion
that the only w a y to assure success was to retrace the
steps of the ancient maker and do again what he did long
ago in moulding his masterpiece '

Ahmed Youssef Moustafa, 1947

Piecing together the puzzle

Inside the b r i c k - w a l l e d restoration shed n e x t to the e m p t y boat-pit, the
w a r m and dusty air w a s fragrant w i t h the resinous perfume o f ancient
cedar. Peace and tranquillity had returned to the desert g r a v e y a r d h i g h
on the Giza plateau. T h e lifting cranes w e r e silent, the w o r k m e n had
m o s t l y g o n e , tourists w e r e f e w and m o r e interested in the massive hulks
o f the p y r a m i d s than in the w o r k g o i n g on in the shed, the journalists
had l o n g since departed, their e x c i t e m e n t o v e r the initial d i s c o v e r y r e ­
placed w i t h the b o r e d o m that sets in w h e n a task is l o n g , tedious, c o m p l e x
and uncertain o f result.
H e had personally selected the f e w assistants w h o w o u l d help h i m w i t h
t h e j o b , but H a g A h m e d w a s alone w i t h the responsibility. In the solitude
and stillness, the e n o r m i t y o f the task revealed itself. A t last he could a p p r e ­
ciate the p r o d i g i o u s size o f the ship, as w e l l as the effort that w o u l d be
required o f h i m s e l f to put it all back together. T h e 1 , 2 2 4 pieces o f the
puzzle ranged in size f r o m pegs a f e w centimetres l o n g to the t w o h u g e
t w e n t y - t h r e e - m e t r e timbers that w o u l d eventually f o r m the central sec­
tions o f the sheer o r top strakes on either side o f the ship.
B u t his confidence, H a g A h m e d says n o w , n e v e r once faltered. R e m a r k ­
ably, his h i g h l y justified faith in himself w a s n e v e r shaken. H e w a s cer­
tain that the puzzle could be solved, and equally sure that its solution l a y
there in the restoration shed, in the timbers o f the ship itself. T h i s w a s

83
 CONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION

not mysticism, he assured m e in talking o f this time later on, but a deeply
p r a g m a t i c a p p r o a c h : there w o u l d be o n l y one w a y ultimately to put the
ancient ship together, and eventually he w o u l d find that w a y , t h o u g h
it m i g h t , in fact did, take h i m years to d o so. T h e visitor w h o is fortunate
e n o u g h to see the boat in its m u s e u m t o d a y is struck b y the e x t r a o r d i n a r y
Tightness o f the reconstruction. T h i s feeling o f inevitability, this i m p r e s ­
sion o f a rational and w e l l - p l a n n e d system in the boat's construction, is
a tribute b o t h to the ancient shipwrights and to H a g A h m e d ' s perspicacity,
but it conceals the effort, the m o n t h s and years o f trial-and-error before
the H a g w a s certain that he had the reconstruction right.
H a g A h m e d ' s w o r k on the R o y a l S h i p has revealed so m u c h about
the construction o f ancient boats that one tends to forget that w h e n he
began almost nothing w a s k n o w n for certain. Despite the hundreds o f
different boats depicted in reliefs, paintings and models, v e r y little w a s
understood about the all-important internal construction o f ancient ships.
A l m o s t the o n l y evidence c a m e from the boats that had been found at
100, 101 D a h s h u r b y the French archaeologist J a c q u e s de M o r g a n in 1 8 9 3 , w h i c h
w e r e believed b y their e x c a v a t o r to h a v e been part o f the burial e q u i p m e n t
o f the T w e l f t h D y n a s t y k i n g Sesostris III, near w h o s e p y r a m i d they w e r e
discovered. A l t h o u g h they w e r e ill c o n c e i v e d and appear to h a v e been
hastily executed, nonetheless they g a v e s o m e valuable clues about boat
construction. A n o t h e r clue c a m e f r o m H e r o d o t u s ' statement that 'the

57 A view from the south face of the pyramid in 1963, looking down on the restoration shed and, immediately beyond it,
the empty boat-pit. To the right of the pit, the remains of the temenos wall can be seen with the blocks covering the second boat-
pit jutting out beneath it. Today the restoration shed has been dismantled and the glass-walled museum covers the empty pit. (Cf.
colour ill. IV).
}8-6o The little baldachin on the foredeck
of the Royal Ship was one of the first pieces
to be reconstructed (below, left and right).
A valuable clue came from the baldachin on
the foredeck of Sahure's Ship of State
depicted in a Fifth Dynasty relief fragment
(right). The relief clearly shows the bow of
a papyriform boat very similar to the Royal
Ship. III. 39 shows the individual parts, the
two curved struts that held the roof pieces in
place and the columns with papyrus-bud
finials like those on Queen Hetep-heres' bed
canopy (ills. 34, 35).

[ E g y p t i a n ] boats h a v e n o ribs', although this w a s usually dismissed as yet

another piece o f misinformation p r o v i d e d b y the 'father o f history', also
k n o w n as the 'father o f lies'.
H a g A h m e d ' s w o r k m e t h o d , t h o u g h it m i g h t appear aimless and h a p ­
hazard to a n y o n e unfamiliar w i t h the p r o b l e m , w a s in fact the o n l y w a y
to proceed. T h e r e w e r e n e v e r f e w e r than four o r five projects g o i n g on in
the reconstruction w o r k s h o p at a n y one time. S o m e o f these w e r e a b a n ­
doned w h e n they p r o v e d to lead n o w h e r e ; s o m e o b v i o u s l y b r o u g h t i m ­
mediate results; most w e r e projects that w o u l d be taken up and d r o p p e d ,
tinkered w i t h and then put aside for a w h i l e , set to s i m m e r as it w e r e
on the back o f the stove. Painstaking notes and records, c o m p l e t e w i t h

85
 CONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION

diagrams and photographs, had to be kept o f e v e r y aspect o f the r e c o n ­

struction, w h e t h e r it eventually p r o v e d successful or not. T h e r e w e r e parts
o f the puzzle that suggested a p r o m p t solution, such as the little baldachin
on the foredeck, so similar to the one pictured on the b o w o f Sahure's
58-60 Ship o f State (p. 1 3 4 ) , or the c a n o p y o v e r the cabin, so like the c a n o p y
23, 93 o v e r Q u e e n Hetep-heres' bed furnishings that H a g A h m e d had helped
to restore t w e n t y - f i v e years earlier. O t h e r pieces presented p r o b l e m s so
c o m p l e x and unfamiliar that it is a w o n d e r the H a g did not g i v e in to
feelings o f despair.
T w o sets o f clues had revealed themselves early on. A s w e h a v e seen,
it had been clear even w h i l e e x c a v a t i n g the pit that the ship's parts had
not been arranged casually o r haphazardly. Precisely w h a t the meaning
o f the arrangement m i g h t be w a s not something that could be i m m e ­
diately understood, but H a g A h m e d had wisely decided not just to record
the arrangement o f the pieces in the pit, but to preserve it as m u c h as

61 In the restoration shed the parts of the Royal Ship were laid out as much as possible in the order followed by the ancient workmen
when they buried the ship. Here, two sections of the floor beams have been temporarily pegged together, with the bow section in
the foreground; the starboard timbers are stacked on the left and the port timbers on the right in the picture.
 CONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION

possible in the restoration shed. It w a s as t h o u g h the pit had e x p a n d e d 61

in all directions w i t h o u t disturbing a n y o f its layers, m e r e l y spreading
them out o v e r a greater surface. L o n g before the pit had been emptied
c o m p l e t e l y , the l o g i c o f the a r r a n g e m e n t had b e c o m e o b v i o u s : as w e h a v e
seen p r e v i o u s l y , the p r o w o f the ship w a s at the western end o f the pit
and the stern to the east; starboard timbers w e r e along the n o r t h side,
on the right as one faced the p r o w ; port timbers o n the south o r left-
hand side. T h e various elements o f the superstructure w e r e in the t o p m o s t 32
layers o f the pit, w h i l e the hull pieces l a y at the b o t t o m and around the
others, cradling t h e m just as the hull had cradled the contents o f the fully
constructed ship. O f course, the rigours o f time and decay had caused
s o m e shifting and settling o f the contents, so that not all the parts w e r e
w h e r e they had been placed b y the ancient w o r k m e n , but in general it
w a s possible to f o l l o w this scheme t h r o u g h o u t .

62 Four general classifying signs were used to indicateforward, port and starboard,
and aft, port and starboard, quarters of the ship. Most of the timbers were marked
with one of these signs to indicate where they belonged.

A n o t h e r clue to the eventual reconstruction lay in the fact that m a n y

o f the w o o d e n pieces o f the ship had been m a r k e d w i t h hieratic signs to
denote to w h i c h section o f the ship they b e l o n g e d . (Hieratic w a s a m o r e 62
rapid system o f w r i t i n g that had d e v e l o p e d v e r y early f r o m h i e r o g l y p h s .
A s a kind o f shorthand, it bears m u c h the same relationship to h i e r o g l y p h s
as m o d e r n cursive penmanship bears to the letters o f a mechanical printing
press.) -+- stands for the f o r w a r d right-hand section, or quarter, o f the
boat; X for the f o r w a r d left-hand side; 0-* for the starboard after
section; and II11 for the left-hand side in the rear. T h e G e r m a n E g y p t o ­
logist W o l f g a n g H e l c k , w h o has studied the signs most recently, has
s h o w n that they represent b r o a d general classifying w o r d s that refer not
j u s t to ships but to almost anything constructed o r under construction.
T h e parts o f a t o m b , for instance, are sometimes described w i t h these signs,
and they can even be used at times directionally, w i t h the sense o f left
and right, o r east and west.

87
 63 In addition to thefour general classifying signs (ill. 62), many other carpenter's marks helped in position­
ing pieces. The marks shown here indicated where battens should be placed over seams between the hull
timbers.

A s w e l l as these four general classifying signs, there w e r e dozens o f other

marks left on the w o o d b y the ancient carpenters, some o f w h i c h are illus­
363 trated here. These marks h a v e not yet been adequately studied or inter­
preted, but they are o b v i o u s l y also directions o f a sort, although m o r e
specific than the four general classifiers. A l t h o u g h they could not be g i v e n
a precise m e a n i n g , they w e r e nonetheless invaluable clues to the position­
ing o f certain pieces in relation to others.

Restoration and research

B e f o r e reconstruction could begin, the restoration w o r k had to be c o m ­
pleted. T h e w o o d had been preserved in D r Iskander's solution o f p o l y ­
v i n y l acetate i m m e d i a t e l y upon r e m o v a l f r o m the pit, but that solution
m e r e l y inhibited further d e c a y ; it did not rectify decay that had already
set in. In s o m e cases the decay w a s considerable, particularly o f pieces that
had been placed or had fallen near the b o t t o m o f the pit w i t h the w e i g h t
o f tons o f cedar l y i n g on top o f them. If these w e r e to stand up under

88
 CONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION

the stress o f reconstruction, they w o u l d h a v e to be strengthened. S o m e ­

times a patch o f w o o d o v e r a w e a k spot w a s all that w a s needed. A t other 70, 71
times n e w w o o d w a s built up a r o u n d a core o f old w o o d , o r alternatively, 64-67
if the core w a s w e a k , strengthening m e m b e r s w o u l d be inserted w h i l e 68, 69
preserving the external appearance o f the b e a m . S o m e parts had to be
replaced entirely w i t h n e w w o o d , but there w e r e surprisingly f e w o f
these, for the w o o d as it w a s r e m o v e d f r o m the pit w a s in astonishingly
g o o d condition. T h r o u g h o u t the exercise, the idea w a s not to disguise
the n e w w o o d so that it l o o k e d old, n o r c o n v e r s e l y to spruce up the old
w o o d like n e w . R a t h e r it w a s to strengthen the old w o o d w h e r e v e r neces­
sary in a m a n n e r that w o u l d be b o t h true to the original and at the same
time apparent to future archaeologists so that there could be n o possible
confusion b e t w e e n w o r k o f the O l d K i n g d o m and its m o d e r n imitation.
A l l the w h i l e there w a s the pressure o f time, not w e i g h i n g on H a g
A h m e d Y o u s s e f and his w o r k e r s , but on the Antiquities D e p a r t m e n t
w h i c h w a s understandably anxious to p r o d u c e results, dramatic results
that w o u l d justify the l o n g w a i t . T h e boat had been discovered during
a n
the spring o f 1 9 5 4 d u n c o v e r e d w i t h all the attendant publicity. It w a s
the late a u t u m n o f 1 9 5 7 before H a g A h m e d w a s able to b e g i n w o r k on
its reconstruction and there w e r e important people w h o had g r o w n i m ­
patient in the m e a n t i m e .
It is difficult for western E u r o p e a n s to understand the depth o f national­
istic sentiment in countries such as E g y p t , w h e r e a r e m o t e but glorious
past and the m e m o r y o f a once m i g h t y e m p i r e are c o m b i n e d w i t h m o r e
recent experiences o f the humiliation o f colonialism and the bitterness o f
a nation's i m p o t e n c e to shape its o w n history. Pride and shame are m i x e d
to a b e w i l d e r i n g degree, and there is the additional pressure o f the c o n ­
sciousness, rightly o r w r o n g l y , that foreigners, w i t h their m o n e y and the
expertise and t e c h n o l o g y at their c o m m a n d , could perhaps d o a better
j o b , and could most certainly d o it faster. It had b e c o m e a matter o f
national pride that the reconstruction o f the R o y a l S h i p should be finished
soon.
B u t in the end it w a s the patient, s l o w , sometimes apparently p l o d d i n g
m e t h o d o f the traditional craftsman that w o u l d bring the most satisfactory
results. H a g A h m e d refused to be hurried w i t h o u t g o o d reason. A l l that
first y e a r he had his assistants e n g a g e d in m a k i n g one-to-ten scale d r a w i n g s
and models o f e v e r y single piece that had been found. In this w a y he h o p e d
to be able to e x p e r i m e n t freely w i t h o u t subjecting the old timbers to too
m u c h stress. M e a n w h i l e , he himself w a s still studying m o d e r n b o a t - b u i l d ­
ing w h e n e v e r and w h e r e v e r he could. It w a s the basic structural principle
that he w a s after. B o a t - b u i l d e r s , w e h a v e already noted, are extraordinarily
conservative b y nature, and their basic principles h a v e remained m u c h

8 9
 RESTORING THE ANCIENT
TIMBERS

64-67 Before the ship could be reconstructed

restoration work had to be carried out. This
timber, part of a slteer strake, had been found in
relatively good condition except for the scarfed
end in the foreground which shows some
deterioration. The pictures illustrate the process
by which new wood was built up, encasing and
strengthening the old, and enabling the strake to
withstand the stress of incorporation in the recon­
structed ship.
68, 6g Some of the hull timbers were badly
damaged, In this case a strengthening beam is in­
serted inside the old timber. The old wood is, as
it were, peeled away from its decaying core. The
new core is inserted within a framework of laths
that provide for a tight join between new and
old wood.

70, 71 ( B e l o w ) The central shelf or stringer

that formed the spine of the ship was badly
cracked (see ill. 47, showing removal of this piece
from the pit), and it required a patch of new
wood.
C O N S T R U C T I O N A N D R E C O N S T R U C T I O N

the same throughout the millennia that men and w o m e n have been put­
ting to sea. T h e r e remained a fundamental difference, h o w e v e r , between
boats as they w e r e constructed in modern Egyptian boatyards and the boat
H a g A h m e d was trying to reconstruct. It is a difference that w e have
touched on before.
Basically, there are t w o w a y s o f building a w o o d e n boat, inside-out
or outside-in. M o s t modern European and N o r t h A m e r i c a n w o o d e n boats
are built inside-out, beginning w i t h the skeleton, the keel and ribs, on
to w h i c h the skin, or outside surface o f the boat, is attached. C o n t e m ­
porary Egyptian boat-builders operate within this tradition. A n older and
m o r e universal tradition is to build outside-in, that is, to build a shell o f
planks that arejoined edge to edge, into w h i c h a strengthening f r a m e w o r k
is then inserted. In frame-built ships, the hull planking is j o i n e d to the
ribs or frames; in shell-built ships the hull planks arejoined to each other
and are structurally independent o f any f r a m e w o r k . A l l ancient M e d i t e r ­
ranean boats that w e k n o w of, right d o w n to the Byzantine period, w e r e
edge-joined shell constructions, and it is a tradition that is still strong in

72 The bottom, or central, plank, was made

up of eight timbers in three sections, forward,
midships and aft. Laying out the timbers was
fairly easy, but the difficulty came in determin­
ing how the three sections were related, parti­
cularly what their angles of abutment should
be. On this depended the vital question of the
bottom curvature, or fore-and-aft rocker, of the
ship. Notice how much greater is the curvature
at this stage than it was in ill. 61.
73 The same care was taken at all stages of the reconstruction. During a trial assembly, one of the garboard strakes on the starboard
side is moved into place. At each point of contact the ancient wood is protected by blankets and rolls of heavy industrial felt. To
avoid undue stress the whole timber is supported by a steel I-beam.

India and Asia. S o m e rime in the M i d d l e A g e s , h o w e v e r - and no one

is at all certain w h e n - the Mediterranean tradition changed from shell-
built to frame-built ships. It seems likely that Egyptian ship-building
changed at the same time, or that the change possibly took place a little
later, w h e n Portuguese merchantmen rounded the African continent and
entered the Indian O c e a n , permanently affecting the construction o f large
cargo vessels in that area. Nonetheless, the tradition that produced the
R o y a l Ship, as well as the Dahshur boats and probably e v e r y other ancient
Egyptian w o o d e n boat too, was the shell-built, edge-joined tradition.
W i t h o u t question the most important element in a boat's construction
is the shape or profile o f the hull, w h i c h is in turn determined b y the
rocker, the curvature o f the keel or b o t t o m planking o f the ship, and the
sheer, the curve o f the upper edge o f the hull. T h e profile is the first thing
d r a w n b y the naval architect, whether he is building an admiral's flagship
or a fishing punt for his o w n use, for on the profile depends everything
else that has to do w i t h the eventual boat, her shape, her size, her strength,
and the w a y she will stand up to the j o b for w h i c h she is built.

93
 74 Looking aft, a trial assembly of the hull, curiously high
and narrow compared with the shape of the final ship.

R i g h t from the start, then, there was a serious problem in rebuilding

the R o y a l Ship, for because o f her peculiar construction, it was impossible
to tell w h a t the curvature o f the keel planking had been originally. H a g
A h m e d had quickly determined the shape the keel planking should take,
an elongated ellipse m u c h broader amidships than at either end, as well
as the w a y in w h i c h the eight separate timbers that made up the ship's
flat b o t t o m should fit together. T h e peculiarity o f the R o y a l Ship, h o w ­
ever, is that this keel planking has been constructed in three separate sec­
tions - forward, midships, and stern or after section - as a glance at the
strakes d r a w i n g will confirm. T h e midships section had been found l y i n g
81
on the floor o f the boat-pit, and the forward and after sections w e r e on
top o f it, overlapping the midships section front and back, w h i c h is h o w
a forty-three-metre-long ship could be fitted into a pit that was only
thirty-two-and-a-half metres in length. It was not difficult to w o r k out
that these forward and after sections should be j o i n e d to the midships sec­
tion, so that the w h o l e b o t t o m , laid out flat, l o o k e d as it does in the strakes

94
73 Another trial assembly that was to prove mistaken. Note
that the long, slender, notched timber (see ill. 43) is lying
in the bottom of the ship, since it was still felt at this point
that it functioned rather like a keel into which the frames
or ribs would fit. Only later did it transpire that this
'stringer' was in fact a central shelf which ran the length
of the ship and supported the thwarts or deck beams, giving
the structure its necessary rigidity (cf. ill. So).

d r a w i n g . B u t the biggest p r o b l e m remained; at w h a t angles should the

butted ends o f these sections fit together, the after section to the midships,
and the midships to the forward section, because on these t w o angles
w o u l d depend the curvature and profile o f the ship ? A n d there was no
indication o f h o w to solve this problem except through trial and error,
putting the pieces together o v e r and o v e r again until they l o o k e d and 61, 72
felt right, and w o r k e d together w i t h the other parts o f the ship. (I realize
that talking about the curvature o f a flat-bottomed ship m a y present some
problems to those w h o are unfamiliar w i t h naval architecture. T h e cur­
vature refers to a line d r a w n from b o w to stern d o w n the middle o f the
boat's b o t t o m , w h e r e the keel w o u l d be if she had a keel. A line d r a w n
across the ship, from port to starboard, at any point on the boat's b o t t o m ,
w o u l d be straight, because her b o t t o m is flat.)
B y the end o f the first year, H a g A h m e d and his dozen assistants had
produced three hundred scale drawings and ninety m o d e l pieces - out
o f the total o f more than t w e l v e hundred pieces o f the ship itself. ' C l e a r l y

95
CONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION

it w a s g o i n g to take us a g o o d ten years to d o the j o b . A n d I w a s quite

prepared to take that,' H a g A h m e d recalls. B u t i f ten years w a s a mere
drop in time's bucket for the H a g , impatience in the Antiquities D e p a r t ­
ment w a s g r o w i n g acute. A t the end o f 1 9 5 8 , a n e w department head
suddenly and u n a c c o u n t a b l y announced to the press that the ' S o l a r B o a t '
w o u l d be finished in three m o n t h s ' time. R a t h e r than d e n o u n c e this rash
and intemperate statement, H a g A h m e d set himself to meet the impossible
g o a l . H e still w o u l d not be rushed - indeed, in the end, the task took
l o n g e r than the ten years he had predicted - but n o w , he says, h a v i n g
spent most o f the previous y e a r w i t h the N i l e boat-builders and under
their direction m a d e the large models that are displayed in the m u s e u m ,
he felt confident o f his ability to w o r k directly on the original timbers
o f the R o y a l Ship.

The reconstruction
T h e r e w o u l d be a n u m b e r o f false starts and dead ends before the boat's
profile w a s determined, but once that decision w a s finally reached, it w a s
possible to m a k e template pattern forms, w h a t m o d e r n boat-builders call
76, 77 ' m o u l d s ' , to control the c u r v a t u r e o f the hull. It seems unlikely that the
ancient E g y p t i a n shipwrights used m o u l d s - certainly there is n o s u g g e s ­
tion o f them in a n y o f the m a n y t o m b scenes that s h o w boat-building
- but they w e r e e n o r m o u s l y useful in the reconstruction, especially
because they helped to relieve the strain on the old timbers. O n c e they
had served their function o f establishing the pattern o f the hull c u r v e ,
they w e r e r e m o v e d and they f o r m n o part o f the c o m p l e t e d boat.
O n e o f the most interesting p r o b l e m s presented b y the construction
o f the R o y a l S h i p w a s the m a n n e r in w h i c h the carved p a p y r i f o r m stem
and stern pieces w e r e attached to the boat. In V i k i n g and other N o r t h
E u r o p e a n ships, the separate stem and stern pieces, often themselves o f
great elegance and grace, are scarfed on to the ship's keel, but the R o y a l
Ship had n o keel, and the p a p y r i f o r m stem and stern w e r e socketed on
to the actual hull timbers. H a g A h m e d had postulated this f r o m the v e r y
44, 46 first w h e n he spied the t w i n pairs o f l o n g , blunt-ended blades, shaped like
lance heads, at either end o f the pit, n e x t to w h a t w e r e instantly recognized
as the stem and stern posts. T h e position o f the blades suggested to h i m
that they w e r e in s o m e m a n n e r the connection b e t w e e n the decorative
p a p y r i f o r m pieces and the main b o d y o f the boat. It w a s an inspired guess
and a brilliant piece o f intuition, for in fact the t w o pieces slid on to the
78, 79 blades like gauntlets sliding o v e r a sleeve. T h e h i g h stem post rising f r o m
the b o w , and the stern post raked back o v e r the afterdeck, are e n o r m o u s l y
h e a v y , but the ingenious m a n n e r in w h i c h they h a v e been socketed on

96
76, 77 Once the silhouette and section profile
of the boat were understood it was possible to
make template moulds around which the skin
of hull timbers was erected. When the hull
structure was complete, the moulds, having
served their function, were removed.
C O N S T R U C T I O N A N D R E C O N S T R U C T I O N

prevents them from breaking off at b o w and stern, and in fact contributes
to the overall strength o f the structure. C u r i o u s l y , i f the carved papyri-
form pieces are r e m o v e d from the boat, one is left w i t h an ordinary river
travelling boat w i t h truncated ends, such as the one being built in the
102 l o w e r register o f T i ' s great boat-building scene (see chapter six). Is it poss­
ible that this is not an ordinary boat at all, but that Ti's w o r k m e n are
engaged in preparing a papyriform funerary boat, perhaps for T i ' s o w n
m u m m y ? A n alternative suggestion is that, at least b y the time o f T i in
the Fifth D y n a s t y , special funerary boats w e r e no longer built; rather,
papyriform fittings w e r e grafted on to ordinary river boats w h e n e v e r they
w e r e needed.
N o w the great ship was c o m i n g to life once more, the timbers o f her
80 hull strakes bound edge to edge, sewn together w i t h a simple but effective
over-and-under stitch that holds the strakes in place w h i l e a l l o w i n g a cer­
tain resiliency and mobility under pressure. There are an incalculable

78, 7g One of the most interesting aspects of the ship's construction is the way in which the papyriform
bow and stern pieces fit like sleeves over the fore and aft sections of the hull. In the final assembly in
the museum ( b e l o w ) , we can see how the bowsprit slides over the bow, to produce the magnificent papyriform
shape of the completed ship ( o p p o s i t e ) .
 80 The internal structure of the Royal
Ship: the hull planks are held together
partly by pegs (1), but more importantly
by a system of ropes stitched through
seam holes (2) that do not penetrate to
the outside surface of the boat. Long, thin,
hemispherical battens (3) are lashed over
each seem, making caulking unnecessary.
Frames (4) inserted into the hull to
strengthen it support a series of stan­
chions (5), which in turn carry the weight
of the central shelf or stringer (6) that
runs the length of the ship. The thwarts
or deck beams (7) are let into the notches
of the stringer. Side shelves (8) similar
to the central stringer rest on the thwarts
and give further rigidity to the hull
structure.

n u m b e r o f forces that a ship must be able to take at any g i v e n m o m e n t ,

from w i n d , w a v e s , currents, the strains o f the ship's o w n m o v e m e n t , the
w e i g h t o f cargo. A properly built hull w i l l a c c o m m o d a t e all these forces,
yielding and resisting in a harmonious balance. T h e R o y a l Ship, though
she has never been floated in m o d e r n times, seems to have just such a hull,
far stronger than w h a t w o u l d be required for a ceremonial funeral barge.
V i e w e d from the outside, the ship's hull presents a smooth, streamlined
skin. N o n e o f the lashing or stitching can be seen, for the V-shaped binding
holes do not pierce t h r o u g h the cedar planks w h i c h are thirteen to fourteen
centimetres thick. A s in the w o r k o f a first-class tailor, the stitching is
83 hidden in the interior. O n l y w h e r e the stem and stern pieces actually lash
on to the ship's ends was it necessary to bring the lashing outside, and
82 at these points, c u r v e d rectangular pieces have been b o u n d o v e r the knots
to conceal them. Because o f the inevitable w a r p i n g o f the h u g e timbers,
132 it is possible today to see some o f the stitches in the gaps b e t w e e n strakes,
but w h e n the ship was n e w , from the outside one w o u l d have had n o
idea h o w she was held together.
Inside, she is an initially confusing j u m b l e that assumes a rational order
81 only on close inspection. T h e garboard or b o t t o m strakes, next to the
keel planking, and the sheer or topmost strakes, are each made up o f three
timbers; the binding strakes have t w o ; and b e t w e e n the garboard and
binding strakes on either side o f the ship are three extra planks, stealers,
inserted to fill out the swell o f the hull; there are thus eleven planks on
each side o f the hull. O n e rope can be threaded t h r o u g h the w h o l e trans­
verse girth o f the ship, securing all the planks together. T h e planks are
j o i n e d at their ends b y S-shaped h o o k scarves, and their edges are also
h o o k e d to g i v e a close, firm fit. In shipwrights' t e r m i n o l o g y , the planks
are set 'carvel', that is, e d g e to edge, rather than lapstrake, w i t h the edges

100
81-83 ( A b o v e ) A drawing of the strokes of the Royal Ship (bow to the
right) shows the relationship of the hull timbers and the way they have
been hooked and scarfed together. (Left) Curved rectangular battens con­
ceal the ropes lashing the papyriform stern piece to the stern section of
the boat. Similar battens serve the same function in the bow. ( B e l o w )
The interior of the completed hull, showing the over-and-under stitching
that binds the timbers together (cf. ill. 80). Modern steel braces help to
support the deck hatches overhead. Some carpenter's marks can be seen
in the left foreground.
C O N S T R U C T I O N A N D R E C O N S T R U C T I O N

80 overlapping. In addition to the lashing that binds them, the planks are
pegged together with mortise-and-tenon joints at various points along
their edges. On the inside of the hull, long, thin battens, hemispherical
in section, are lashed over the seams between the planks to make caulking
unnecessary. And at either end of the ship, the two pairs of lance-shaped
blades mentioned above are bound and pegged to both the bottom and
the side planking, and the papyriform stem and stern pieces slide over
these.
Sixteen frames or floor beams, big curved pieces shaped from a single
piece of cedar, are inserted into the hull and lashed to the hull planks to
strengthen it. On the frames rest a series of seven forked stanchions which
support, in their turn, the long stringer or central shelf that runs down
the middle of the ship. This stringer adds a longitudinal stiffening to
complement the lateral strengthening that is provided by the thwarts or
crossbeams, forty-six of which are let into the stringer at regular notched
intervals. The ends of the thwarts are let into notches in the sheer strakes
on either side of the ship. One of these thwarts, just forward of midships,
is broader and thicker than the others, and Björn Landström has suggested
that it is intended as a support for a two-legged mast, although no such
mast, or any other evidence of sailing gear, was found in the pit.

84 Erecting the cabin on the still incomplete ship in the restoration shed.
#5 The inner structure of the deckhouse, showing
the antechamber (l) and the main cabin (2) with
thepalmiform columns that support the central roof-
beam.

A long side-shelf or girder runs down each side of the ship, resting on 84
the thwarts. Between these two girders the decking is laid over the thwarts
in a series of removable hatches. On the foredeck, ten slender poles, their
finials carved, like those of the main deck canopy, in the elegantly re­
strained form of a papyrus bud, support the small baldachin or canopy. 59, 60, VII
It is not certain what this canopy is intended to shelter from the sun: an
image of the god? a lookout? the captain or first mate or other important
ship's personnel? perhaps a priest in charge of a ceremonial journey ?
The main deck cabin, situated just aft of midships and extending 85
between the side girders from one side of the boat to the other, is built
up of twelve wooden screens or panels, five on each side and one at either
end. A double door with a sliding bolt to lock it from the inside leads 7
from the foredeck to a small antechamber, and another similar door con­
nects this antechamber with the main cabin space. Within the cabin three
columns with palmette finials, like those on the carrying chair of Queen 90
Hetep-heres, support the central roof beam. A single door leads from the
cabin back to the afterdeck. The door from the foredeck and the door 89
into the main cabin are positioned in such a w a y that the oarsmen, standing
(or seated?) on the foredeck, would be unable to see into the main cabin.
The interior of the cabin on a hot summer's day on the Nile must have
been a dark, humid and airless space Apart from the doors, there are no
openings, and no passage for a cool breath of air to pass through. H o w ­
ever, according to Hag Ahmed Youssef, there was a way, an imaginative
way, to cool the cabin, for the whole structure is surrounded by thirty-
six columns, again with papyrus-bud finials, that support slender beams 93, IX
arching some fifteen centimetres over the roof of the cabin. Hag Ahmed

103
 THE CABIN

86 Part of a cabin wall panel indicates the care exercised

by ancient craftsmen in carving patches to fit holes left by
knots in the cedar.

87 The cabin wall panels were found as complete pieces

in the pit. They were taken apart and rejoined, both to check
on the condition of the wood and to understand their con­
struction.

88 ( B e l o w ) Assembling the cabin in the museum with

Ahmed Youssef Moustafa (lower right) looking on.
8g ( A b o v e ) Looking forward from the cabin
antechamber to the foredeck with the sliding door
lock (ill. 7) in the centre foreground.

go Interior of the main cabin looking towards

the antechamber.
C O N S T R U C T I O N A N D R E C O N S T R U C T I O N

believes that this open framework was intended to support a layer of

fabric, probably reed mats woven in brightly coloured geometric patterns
like those that are often depicted on boats in later wall-paintings. If this
matting were kept wet constantly with buckets of river water poured
over it, it would provide a primitive but highly effective kind of air con­
ditioning, a space of water-cooled air acting as an insulator around the
roof and sides of the cabin. The canopy extends several metres beyond
the cabin on to the foredeck to provide a shelter for the oarsmen from
the searing summer sun.
There are five pairs of oars, varying in length from about six-and-a-
79, 92, 93 half to nearly eight-and-a-half metres, on the foredeck, and an additional
134 pair of steering oars, each a little over six-and-a-half metres long, off the
afterdeck. Whether these actually provided the boat's propulsion is debat­
able. Lionel Casson, who has studied ancient Mediterranean boats exten­
sively, believes that a ship of this type may have been towed by another
boat, and that the oars and steering oars served simply to keep her on
course. It is entirely possible, as we shall see, that the oars were not manned

gi View aft along the starboard side, with the little gang­
plank leading off the forward deck.

i)2 ( R i g h t ) Two ofthe ten oars,five to a side, that provided

at least part of the ship's forward momentum (the ship may
have been towed as well as rowed). Note the arrow carved
on the blade of the oar in the foreground.
 by seamen at all, but by people who had a more ceremonial or ritual func­
tion.
All in all, Hag Ahmed was to put this great ship together five times
before she reached her final resting place in the museum next to the Great
Pyramid. The first complete reconstruction was achieved by 1968, ten
years after work had started on the actual timbers. Because of problems
in locating the museum site, the boat was in fact taken apart and re­
assembled several more times. Hag Ahmed is confident now that the final,
fifth reconstruction is the most satisfactory. In the end, he had reduced
his reassembly time from nearly two years to about three months, so fami­
liar had he grown with the elements of his puzzle.
93 The completed ship is 43.4 metres long and 5.9 metres in the beam.
Her depth, measured vertically from the base line to the level of the upper
deck planking at the position, just aft of midships, of maximum width,
is 1.78 metres. Her maximum draught is 1.48 metres at this point of maxi­
mum beam and her displacement is about 45 tons. In the water, her hull
timbers would expand and the rope lashings shrink to make a strong, flex­
ible, watertight vessel. A ship whose planks are stitched together seems
strange at first, but in fact it was until recently the characteristic w a y of
building sea-going vessels in the Arabian Gulf and in port towns and ship­
building centres all around the Indian Ocean. Today the tradition is dying

108
£5 A composite photograph shows the completed Royal Ship as she stands in the museum today. The
bow is to the left, facing west, as it was found in the pit.

out, though apparently a few examples can still be found in places like
Dhofar, but at one time sewn boats were used in the extensive China trade
when Arab ships sailed from the Gulf as far as Canton, Foochow and other
South China ports. Lionel Casson points to evidence that Classical writers
knew of sewn boats as an earlier, more primitive, tradition in the Mediter­
ranean. Virgil describes Aeneas crossing the Styx in a 'sewn skiff'.
Sewn boats have not been known in Egypt in modern times. Whether
the tradition was typical of all ancient Egyptian boat-building, or whether
it was something reserved for vessels as spectacular and as special as the
R o y a l Ship, whether it was a continuing tradition or whether it was alive
only during the Old Kingdom, are questions that cannot presently be
answered. As with many great discoveries, the R o y a l Ship asks as many
questions as it answers, opening up new and often unsuspected areas of
inquiry that must await further discoveries before they too can be
resolved. At the same time, the R o y a l Ship, in its construction as well
as its reconstruction, has told us much that we did not previously know
about ships and ship-building in ancient Egypt.

109
 BYBLOS m

* ;
Q\ VA®HELIOPOLIS
0

Abusir«)\\ »
Saqqara®f> M E M P H I S JXV
Dahshur^ S I N A I
j~fy ®IEI-Lisht II (S

El — F a i y u r n " ? ^ I i№ III

\\\ A R A B I A N %*JV iB^^k

UllBeni Hasan A/^^//^

H^^EI—Amarna D E S E R T ^^^^^^^

L I B Y A N IL ^

T
D E S E R T E G Y P ^

A B Y D O S ^ -~ ^gji HammamaJ_\rt o s e | r "7

B blos
I ~~ f * I ^^>~R6'P'T^S"~ ' \
^^rcM^ N a q a d a ®\
T H E B E
fi"/ S«^Karnak \
( \jL 0 300 6 0 0 miles @( Luxor \»
\ ¥X I 1 1 El-Gebelein %
N S^Ooseir l \Ss

1 «|HIERAKONPOLIS ^

V^" 1 1 0 20 40 60 80 100 miles

I /\ ^SV / i — ' • 1
' 1
• ' — 1

) vT*%v J S 0 4 0 80 120 160 km

y e m e n
c Jir^ ) "^L
I N|V. w) A s w a n
Bab e l - M a n d a b — \ t e ^ » 1st C a t a r a c t T JrSëP
\ ^l.Tana Il \ HT—
I \ _ ) ETHIOPIA^SOMALIA))] 1 <J
 CHAPTER SIX

Ships and ship-building in

the Old Kingdom

I went down to the sea in a boat one hundred and twenty

cubits long and forty cubits wide. One hundred and
twenty sailors from among the best of Egypt were in
it. Whether they looked at the sky or whether they
looked at the land, their hearts were fiercer than those
of lions. They could tell a storm wind before it came
1
and a downpour before it happened

From Byblos to the land of Punt

T h u s begins the tale told b y the s h i p w r e c k e d sailor, an oriental fantasy
w o r t h y o f S i n b a d himself, a fable o f s t o r m and w r e c k and miraculous
rescue b y a gold-plated basilisk w i t h lapis-lazuli e y e b r o w s . B y the time
the ' S t o r y o f the S h i p - W r e c k e d S a i l o r ' w a s first written d o w n , p r o b a b l y
during the E l e v e n t h D y n a s t y , early in the second m i l l e n n i u m B C , the
E g y p t i a n s had been a seafaring nation for at least a thousand years, t r a v e l ­
ling n o r t h across the Mediterranean to S y r i a and the Cilician coast and
s o u t h w a r d d o w n the R e d Sea t o w a r d s the H o r n o f Africa and b e y o n d .
F r o m the t o w n o f C o p t o s on the N i l e just north o f L u x o r , they w o u l d
cross the eastern desert, taking the w e l l - t r a v e l l e d but nonetheless perilous
route, eight d a y s ' m a r c h t h r o u g h the v a l l e y o f the W a d i H a m m a m a t 94
w h e r e m a n y o f t h e m left their names o r other inscriptions on the cliff
walls, to the port t o w n o f Q o s e i r on the R e d Sea coast. H e r e at Q o s e i r (Opposite)
the actual sea v o y a g e began, s o m e 1 , 3 0 0 miles d o w n the R e d Sea to the 94 Old Kingdom Egypt
was a political and cultural
land o f Punt, the semi-fabulous c o u n t r y that lay s o m e w h e r e b e y o n d the
unit from the Delta to
B a b e l - M a n d a b , in S o m a l i a o r the Y e m e n , and that p r o v i d e d the E g y p ­ Aswan. The Fourth
Dynasty Egyptians traded
tians t h r o u g h o u t their history w i t h g o l d and frankincense, leopard skins,
with Byblos, on the coast of
i v o r y and e b o n y . It has l o n g been a matter o f scholarly dispute w h e t h e r modern Lebanon, and,
the ancients trekked entire boats across the mountainous desert from the through the Wadi Hamma­
mat and down the Red Sea,
N i l e to the R e d Sea, or w h e t h e r they transported to Q o s e i r the actual with the land of Punt, prob­
timber f r o m w h i c h the boats w o u l d be built. C e r t a i n l y n o w h e r e on the ably located on the African
and I or Arabian coasts just
inhospitable R e d Sea shores w a s there a supply o f t i m b e r sufficient to build outside the Bab el-Mandab
sea-going trading vessels. T h e sophisticated construction o f the R o y a l (see inset).

Ill
SHIPS AND SHIP-BUILDING IN T H E O L D KINGDOM

Ship, the skill w i t h w h i c h it w a s built w i t h a v i e w to its eventual dismant­

ling and reconstruction, has g i v e n strength to the a r g u m e n t that these
ancient traders quite p r o b a b l y built their boats in the familiar confines
o f the N i l e V a l l e y , then t o o k them apart and transported them piecemeal
across the desert to Q o s e i r w h e r e they w e r e reassembled for the v o y a g e
south. In any case, the R e d Sea trading vessels w o u l d h a v e been a g o o d
deal smaller, simpler and, in the event, p r o b a b l y m o r e s e a w o r t h y than
Cheops' R o y a l Ship.
B u t w h e t h e r they w e r e b o u n d for the land o f Punt o r along the eastern
Mediterranean shores o r a n y w h e r e else, sea-going vessels w e r e a l w a y s
k n o w n to the E g y p t i a n s as ' B y b l o s boats'. It seems o b v i o u s that the first
o c e a n - g o i n g ships the E g y p t i a n s had experienced w e r e in the trade w i t h
B y b l o s , the Lebanese port t o w n that w a s for thousands o f years the chief
entrepot o f the eastern Mediterranean, w h e r e A e g e a n , African and W e s t ­
ern Asiatic merchants met r e g u l a r l y to trade r a w materials as w e l l as
finished products. A r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence f r o m both places has estab­
lished that trade existed b e t w e e n the N i l e V a l l e y and the S y r i a n coast e v e n
before the b e g i n n i n g o f the dynastic period, but w h e t h e r this trade w a s
initiated b y the Syrians o r b y the E g y p t i a n s is in dispute. W e r e the ' B y b l o s
boats' actually E g y p t i a n ships, o r w e r e they g i v e n that n a m e because they
had been built in B y b l o s b y S y r i a n shipwrights and sailed to E g y p t b y
95 S y r i a n seamen, laden w i t h cedar and other resinous w o o d s that w e r e so
precious to the E g y p t i a n s ?
T h e evidence seems to m e to point m o r e to an E g y p t i a n origin for this e x ­
tensive trade than a S y r i a n one. T h e r e is not m u c h e v i d e n c e for sea trade
in S y r i a n b o t t o m s before the Late B r o n z e A g e , a r o u n d the twelfth century
B c , whereas w e k n o w that the E g y p t i a n s w e r e e x p e r t b o a t m e n m o r e than
a thousand years earlier. A l t h o u g h the early B y b l i t e s w e r e skilled m e r c h ­
ants, unlike their Phoenician descendants they seem n e v e r to h a v e b e c o m e
sailors. M o r e o v e r , w h a t W . A . W a r d calls 'the e m o t i o n a l need' for the
2
B y b l o s trade w a s entirely on the E g y p t i a n s i d e . It w a s the E g y p t i a n s w h o
w a n t e d the precious w o o d s and oils that w e r e so important in their
funerary cult, and w h i l e it c o u l d be a r g u e d that the S y r i a n s ' need for E g y p ­
tian g o l d w a s j u s t as important, nonetheless the initial i m p e r a t i v e surely
c a m e f r o m E g y p t not S y r i a .
T h e presence o f c e d a r w o o d in predynastic g r a v e s confirms trade w i t h
the Lebanese coast as early as the latter part o f the fourth m i l l e n n i u m .
T h i s trade must h a v e been sea-borne, for it is inconceivable that the E g y p ­
tians, lacking as they did b o t h w h e e l e d carts and h e a v y draft animals,
could h a v e transported l a r g e quantities o f t i m b e r t h r o u g h territory a great
part o f w h i c h w a s hostile desert populated b y often unfriendly tribes. E v e n
i f the early trade w i t h B y b l o s w a s carried on o n l y sporadically o r i n -

112
93 The cedars of Lebanon near the village of Beshara in the mountains above Tripoli are all that remain of the once-majestic forests
that supplied the Egyptians and other ancient peoples with resinous timbers.

frequently, it would still have required boats that were large, stable and
swift - merchantmen of a sort. W e must assume that the Egyptians had
such boats even as early as the last part of the fourth millennium.
If further proof were needed of the ability of Egyptian shipwrights,
it is certainly provided by the Royal Ship. The size, the grace and the
sophisticated technology of this craft were not produced by a people who
had heretofore built nothing but rafts and dugout canoes. The Royal Ship

ii3
SHIPS A N D S H I P - B U I L D I N G IN T H E O L D KINGDOM

w a s built b y artisans w h o w e r e heirs to a l o n g , e v o l v e d tradition o f ship­

building and design, and although the R o y a l Ship itself m a y not h a v e
been an o c e a n - g o i n g vessel, nonetheless a superior t e c h n o l o g y like this
must h a v e been capable o f p r o d u c i n g s e a w o r t h y boats for long-distance
j o u r n e y s as w e l l .
It has been suggested that the R o y a l S h i p w a s built o f cedar precisely
because o f the almost sacramental nature o f the w o o d , w h o s e use w a s
restricted, together w i t h that o f the resins and oils extracted f r o m it, to
r o y a l t y and the g o d s and, b y special dispensation f r o m the k i n g , to the
nobility. B u t the cedars f r o m L e b a n o n had a m o r e practical attraction
for the O l d K i n g d o m ship-builders in their great size. O n l y in the m o u n -
95 tains o f the L e b a n o n could be f o u n d the e n o r m o u s trees that w o u l d p r o ­
v i d e boards for a craft the size o f the R o y a l S h i p , s o m e o f w h o s e hull
timbers, w e must r e m e m b e r , w e r e solid pieces measuring t w e n t y - t w o
metres l o n g and fourteen centimetres thick. T h e ships built b y K i n g S n e -
22 feru and m e n t i o n e d on the P a l e r m o Stone w e r e each m o r e than 1 0 0 cubits,
that is m o r e than fifty metres, l o n g - a little l o n g e r than C h e o p s ' ship.
O n e o f these vessels w a s built o f cedar, the other t w o o f a w o o d called
' m e r u ' , apparently another t y p e o f conifer i m p o r t e d to E g y p t f r o m the
S y r o - L e b a n e s e coast. W e must i m a g i n e that Sneferu's ships w e r e c o n ­
structed like C h e o p s ' o f h u g e pieces o f t i m b e r scarfed and p e g g e d and
lashed together.
B e c a u s e these great coniferous w o o d s and their b y - p r o d u c t s w e r e not
available in E g y p t , the B y b l o s trade w o u l d remain significant t h r o u g h o u t
E g y p t i a n history. T o w a r d s the end o f the O l d K i n g d o m , late in the third
m i l l e n n i u m , w h e n centralized authority seems to h a v e b r o k e n d o w n
c o m p l e t e l y and s o m e w h a t anarchic conditions prevailed t h r o u g h o u t
E g y p t , the w i s e m a n I p u w e r lamented the decline in trade: ' N o n e indeed
sail north to B y b l o s t o d a y . W h a t can w e d o concerning c e d a r w o o d for
o u r n o b l e deceased; one used to b u r y the pure ones [priests ? o r nobles ?]
w i t h its imports and o n e e m b a l m e d the appointees [ g o v e r n m e n t
3
officials?] w i t h its pitch in o r d e r to last
4
B u t the B y b l o s trade r e s u m e d , and flourished. A l m o s t a thousand years
later, in the eleventh century B C , at the end o f the N e w K i n g d o m w h e n
E g y p t i a n p o w e r and influence, once d o m i n a n t t h r o u g h o u t the M i d d l e
East, had declined, a g o v e r n m e n t official n a m e d W e n - A m o n reported to
his superiors on a trade mission to B y b l o s to purchase t i m b e r for the c o n ­
struction o f 'the great and n o b l e riverine b a r g e o f A m o n - R e , K i n g o f
the G o d s ' . P i r a c y , greed and hard bargaining on the part o f the ruler o f
B y b l o s w e r e o n l y a f e w o f the sufferings W e n - A m o n detailed, but his
report is interesting for o u r a r g u m e n t , indicating as it does that as l o n g
as the old beliefs and customs prevailed, that is, p r o b a b l y until the advent

114
 SHIPS A N D S H I P - B U I L D I N G IN THE OLD KINGDOM

o f Christianity, these coniferous w o o d s and their resins and oils remained

crucial for the E g y p t i a n s .

Navigation and the Nile

T h e extent o f E g y p t i a n m a r i t i m e activity, so far b a c k in ancient history,
should not be surprising. ' E g y p t ' , said H e r o d o t u s , 'is the gift o f the N i l e , '
and i f he w a s thinking m o r e o f agriculture than o f n a v i g a t i o n , it is
nonetheless true. A traveller in E g y p t t o d a y can o n l y be struck b y h o w
valid the statement continues to be. Industry and agriculture are alike d e ­
pendent on the N i l e . Indeed, until v e r y recently, the o n l y safe, c o m f o r t ­
able, rapid means o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n the c o u n t r y w a s b y boat
along the river's seven hundred and fifty unobstructed miles f r o m the
First Cataract at A s w a n to the Mediterranean Sea.
Despite m a n y contacts w i t h other civilizations, f r o m earliest times the
people o f the N i l e V a l l e y seem to h a v e had a linguistic and cultural unity,
5
strung out as they w e r e along the n a r r o w r i v e r b a n k s . A s c o m m u n i c a t i o n
d e v e l o p e d , they attained political unity as w e l l . T h e early unification o f
E g y p t under a strong centralized authority w a s m a d e possible b y this
slender but nearly unbreakable riverine thread o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e
S u m e r i a n civilization, w h i c h w a s d e v e l o p i n g in l o w e r M e s o p o t a m i a at
about the same time, n e v e r d e v e l o p e d politically b e y o n d a g r o u p o f i n d e ­
pendent city states and part o f the reason for this is surely g e o g r a p h i c a l .
N a v i g a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n along the N i l e w e r e further f a v o u r e d in
that the prevailing w i n d w a s n o r t h e r l y : d o w n r i v e r traffic rode w i t h the
current, w h i l e the s o u t h b o u n d traffic to U p p e r E g y p t , g o i n g against the
current, sailed before the n o r t h w i n d .
S o m e palaeobotanists h a v e suggested that the climate o f the N i l e V a l ­
ley, at least f r o m a r o u n d 5000 B C to the end o f the O l d K i n g d o m , w a s
rather m o r e h u m i d than it has been since, w i t h heavier, m o r e frequent,
w i n t e r rains. ( T o d a y the a v e r a g e annual rainfall at C a i r o is t w o - a n d - a -
half centimetres; in U p p e r E g y p t it rains once e v e r y t w o or three years.)
E x t e n s i v e marshes, like the thick stands o f p a p y r u s that are often depicted
in the paintings and reliefs o f O l d K i n g d o m t o m b s , w o u l d h a v e spread
along the N i l e banks, and farther back f r o m the river w a s perhaps open
park-land w i t h scattered trees - acacias, sycamores and sidders. S u c h trees
w e r e all useful, as w e h a v e seen f r o m the w a y their w o o d w a s used for
pegs and in other small details in the R o y a l S h i p , t h o u g h none o f them
g r e w to a n y i m p o r t a n t size. T h e s e lush marshes, rich in fish and g a m e ,
w e r e w h a t attracted the earliest settlers to the v a l l e y , and it w a s p r e s u m ­
ably one o f these earliest m e n o r w o m e n w h o first discovered that he
could venture e v e n farther f r o m the w a t e r y marshes out into the r i v e r

115
 g6 Boats are a characteristic motif on pottery from the Naqada 11
period, immediately preceding the First Dynasty. The two reed
huts pictured on this example may he religious shrines, or they may
have a more prosaic function. The boat represented is probably
wooden rather than a papyrus raft.

itself supported by a light floating bundle of papyrus reeds. When pre­

cisely this happened we cannot even guess, for of that first primitive
papyrus craft not a trace has been found. The invention of the first 'boat'
may have taken place as early as the Upper Palaeolithic period, when the
Nile Valley was settled by groups of hunter-gatherers moving in from
the deserts to exploit the fertile river banks; and it may have been centuries
after that first breakthrough that another man or woman discovered how
several bundles of reeds bound together could support more than one per­
son, could even be used to transport goods from one place to another.
The earliest abundant boat evidence that we have in Egypt is from what
archaeologists call the Gerzean or Naqada II culture, immediately preced­
ing the dynastic period. It used to be thought that the establishment of
the First Dynasty represented a decisive break with the immediate pre-
dynastic past, brought on at least partly by a cultural or military invasion
of the Nile Valley by outsiders who spoke a different language, wor­
shipped other gods and travelled in distinctively different boats. That view
has fewer adherents today, and students of the prehistoric period such as
6
Elise Baumgartel have shown that the Naqada II culture merges so im­
perceptibly into the early dynastic period that no hard and fast line can
(Opposite)
be drawn to separate them.
VII The little foredeck
baldachin or canopy, look­ Characteristic of Naqada II is a skilfully made red-painted pottery
ing towards the prow. covered with designs that are both naive and at the same time often

116
 SHIPS A N D S H I P - B U I L D I N G IN T H E O L D KINGDOM

e x t r e m e l y p o w e r f u l . B o a t s appear as an important m o t i f in this pottery, 96

so m u c h so that they are interpreted b y m a n y archaeologists as serving
s o m e kind o f ritual or religious function: the little reed huts that are their
cabins are seen as shrines, and the figures that stand on o r around the boats
are said to be participants in s o m e fertility dance o r d r a m a , a sacred couple
or a triad, the couple w i t h child. T h e theory is tempting, but w e still k n o w
v e r y little about early religious beliefs and practices. C e r t a i n l y it seems
likely that even if all the boats s h o w n on these pots h a v e s o m e ritual func­
tion, they are the same kinds o f boats that w e r e used for m o r e prosaic
purposes, fishing and transport. T h e evidence is o f an already h i g h l y d e ­
v e l o p e d t e c h n o l o g y - so h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d that a sea v o y a g e o f m o r e than
three hundred miles f r o m the Delta to B y b l o s is quite w i t h i n the range
o f possibility.
L a n d s t r o m has offered plausible reconstructions o f the c o m m o n e s t
types o f craft depicted on the pottery as w e l l as on r o c k d r a w i n g s in U p p e r
E g y p t and N u b i a . O n e t y p e o f vessel is a flat-bottomed w o o d e n boat
m a d e o f planks stitched together w i t h thwarts o r deck beams inserted to
g i v e the craft stability in deep w a t e r , a direct ancestor o f the R o y a l S h i p ,
even if a scaled d o w n version. T h e other type o f boat s h o w n on the pottery
is the papyrus raft, w i t h its ends b o u n d tightly together and d r a w n
u p w a r d s and i n w a r d s , to g i v e the raft a stability and m o b i l i t y it w o u l d
not otherwise h a v e . B o t h types o f boat are s h o w n at times under sail and
at other times w i t h a w h o l e fringe o f oars o r paddles. It has been suggested
that this fringe represents the m y t h o l o g i c a l 'Field o f R e e d s ' , mentioned
in the P y r a m i d T e x t s , but in the piece o f painted fabric f r o m a predynastic
g r a v e at Gebelein that is n o w displayed in the T u r i n M u s e u m , w e can
see unmistakably leaf-shaped oars not unlike the oars o f the R o y a l Ship.
XI
S o m e o f the boats painted on pottery s h o w similar oars.
T h e v e r y earliest evidence, then, indicates that there w e r e t w o parallel,
if not necessarily simultaneous, developments in E g y p t i a n b o a t - b u i l d i n g :
the raft built u p o f bundles o f papyrus reed, and the w o o d e n boat. T h e
reed raft w a s used w i t h o n l y m i n o r variations t h r o u g h o u t E g y p t i a n his­
tory - as it is still used t o d a y in southern Iraq and other m a r s h y areas
o f the w o r l d . T h e reasons for its persistence are o b v i o u s - cheap, light, (Opposite)
b u o y a n t , easy to construct, easy to replace w h e n it falls apart, it is the VIII A close-up view
ideal w o r k and transport vehicle in the marshes. reveals how the oars are
lashed to the hull.
IX Papyrus-hud finials
crown the slender columns
Reed rafts and w o o d e n boats that support the cabin
canopy. Cf. ill. 35.
In their tomb-paintings, E g y p t i a n nobles l o v e d to s h o w themselves p u n t ­
X The cabin and central
ing t h r o u g h the reed marshes on a light, c o m f o r t a b l e papyrus raft, the section of the ship seen from
m e n hunting o r fishing w h i l e the w o m e n seem to h a v e been m o r e content the forward port side.

119
 simply to gaze at the lush scenery. It was a favourite form of relaxation.
Queen Meresankh III, a granddaughter of Cheops and wife of his son
97 Chephren, was painted on the walls of her Giza tomb together with her
mother, another queen, the two royal ladies standing on a graceful little
raft while they gather papyrus blossoms, a favourite decorative motif
throughout the pharaonic period. More than a thousand years later, the
98 young King Tutankhamun, in a gilt statuette from his tomb in the Valley
of the Kings, stands astride an elegant model raft, a harpoon in his raised
right arm to symbolize the ritual of the hippopotamus hunt. Despite the
ornate and rather decadent feeling of Amarna art, beneath the elaborate
gilding one detects exactly the same form and function as the raft on which
Meresankh and her mother floated a millennium earlier.
One of the loveliest of all these marsh scenes is in the Fifth Dynasty
99 mastaba of the nobleman Ti at Saqqara. The impassive official, clinging
to his staff" of authority, is being punted through dense stalks of papyrus
that stand in regular vertical ranks like an impenetrable wall. But around
the static and conventionalized figure of the deceased, the artist was free
to depict the teeming luxuriance of life in the marshes, the varieties of

120
97 Queen Meresankh III, grand­
daughter of Cheops and wife of his son
Chephren, is portrayed on the wall of her
tomb in the Giza necropolis, together
with her mother, Hetep-heres II, in a
papyrus raft, gathering flowers in the
marshes-a traditional scene in tomb
paintings throughout Egyptian history.

g8 In this fine gilt statuette from Thebes

the young King Tutankhamun stands
astride a papyrus raft very like Queen
Meresankh''s of a thousand years earlier,
except that the ends are flattened rather
than upturned.

fish, crocodiles and hippopotami; high overhead the graceful papyrus-

blooms nod and sway, heavy with the abundance of small birds and ani­
mals that nutter and perch amongst them. The relief has long since lost
its colours, but one has nonetheless an inescapable sense of the cool green­
ness of these marshy depths and their appeal to the Egyptians whose actual
dwelling- and work-places were more apt to be in the hot sun.
Landstrom says that bundles of papyrus were still being used to cross
the Nile in the nineteenth century, but in Upper Egypt papyrus had died
out by the Eighteenth Dynasty, though it continued to flourish in the
Delta until the last century. N o w it has disappeared completely as a wild
plant, and with it of course have disappeared the boatwrights with the
knowledge of how to build these craft. When Thor Heyerdahl, the N o r ­
wegian archaeologist-explorer, prepared a papyrus raft to carry him
across the Atlantic, although the boat was built in the western desert
within sight of the Giza pyramids, Heyerdahl had to import his boat-
builders from Lake Chad, far away to the southeast below the Sahara
Desert, and his papyrus reeds from the shores of Lake Tana in the Ethio­
pian highlands at the source of the Blue Nile.

121
 SHIPS A N D S H I P - B U I L D I N G IN T H E O L D KINGDOM

T h e raft m a d e o f p a p y r u s reeds continued for s o m e time to be the o n l y

f o r m o f m a r i n e transportation available to the ancient E g y p t i a n s . O n e
can be quite positive about this because o f the later use o f a t w o - l e g g e d
mast on w o o d e n sailboats. T h i s k i n d o f w i d e s p r e a d mast, l o o k i n g s o m e ­
thing like a ladder, w i t h its v e r y special system o f r i g g i n g , w a s d e v e l o p e d
for use on fragile reed rafts, w h e r e the i m m e n s e pressure f r o m the mast
itself, and f r o m the b i g sail these boats carried, had to be distributed o v e r
as great an area as possible i f the w e a k fibres o f the boat w e r e not to split
apart. B u t the t w o - l e g g e d mast continued to be used on all types o f sailing
vessels right t h r o u g h the O l d K i n g d o m , w h e n it n o l o n g e r served any
useful function. M a r i n e archaeologists feel that this is excellent evidence
for the d e v e l o p m e n t o f reed rafts large e n o u g h to carry h e a v y sails l o n g
before w o o d e n boats c a m e into c o m m o n use.
B u t h o w and w h y and w h e n did the d e v e l o p m e n t o f w o o d e n boats
take place? A g a i n , w e can o n l y say that it too must h a v e been far back
in antiquity, so far back in fact that its origins are lost. It must h a v e been
an entirely separate d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m that o f the reed raft. B o a t historians
such as Basil Greenhill, D i r e c t o r o f the N a t i o n a l M a r i t i m e M u s e u m at
G r e e n w i c h , b e l i e v e that the d u g o u t , the h o l l o w e d - o u t l o g , often w i t h
its sides extended b y planking, is the o r i g i n o f most types o f w o o d e n boats
in the w o r l d . I d o not think that this is p r o b a b l y true in E g y p t for a n u m b e r
o f reasons, the m a i n one being that, f r o m as m u c h as w e k n o w o f the
E g y p t i a n w o o d e n b o a t - b u i l d i n g tradition, it did not rely e v e n in small
craft on a keel and strakes f o r m e d o f large single boards, such as w o u l d
be the usual d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m dugouts. R a t h e r , because the locally a v a i l ­
able s u p p l y o f h a r d w o o d w a s limited in length (acacia, w h i c h is a g o o d
local h a r d w o o d and w a s quite c o m m o n l y used until v e r y recently in N i l e -
side boatyards, is o n l y available in short lengths) E g y p t i a n boats, even
those as elegant in line as the R o y a l S h i p , w e r e built o f short lengths o f
w o o d , j o i n e d end to end and then b o u n d along their edges. E v e n the
central part o f the boat, corresponding to the keel, w a s built u p o f
segments. In the R o y a l S h i p this 'keel plank', as L i o n e l C a s s o n calls it,
w a s m a d e o f eight shorter pieces o f timber.
H e r o d o t u s described E g y p t i a n b o a t - b u i l d i n g in the fifth century B C ,
and it had p r o b a b l y not c h a n g e d m u c h o v e r the previous t w o thousand (Opposite)

years: ' F r o m the acacia tree they cut planks three feet l o n g , w h i c h they 99 As we have seen (ill.
lg) the raft-in-the-marshes
put together like courses o f brick, building up the hull as f o l l o w s : they motif was by no means re­
j o i n these three-foot lengths together w i t h l o n g , close-set d o w e l s ; w h e n stricted to royalty; nobles
too enjoyed hunting and
they h a v e built up a hull in this fashion [out o f the planks] they stretch fishing from reed boats.
cross-beams o v e r them. T h e y use n o ribs, and t h e y caulk seams f r o m the Here the Fifth Dynasty
nobleman Ti commands his
inside using papyrus fibres. T h e y fashion a single steering oar and this followers in a relief from his
7
they pass t h r o u g h the keel. T h e y use masts o f acacia and sails o f p a p y r u s . ' Saqqara tomb.

123
 loo, ¡01 The boats discovered at Dahshur in
18gj were thought by their excavator to have
been part of the burial equipment of the
Twelfth Dynasty king, Sesostris III, but
doubt has since been cast on this attribution.
The strakes drawing of one of the two boats
now in the Cairo Museum ( a b o v e ) shows its
similarities with - and its differences from -the
Royal Ship of Cheops. Note the narrow
central plank in three sections joined by dove-
tail clamps. The Dahshur boats had no frames
and relied on deck beams or thwarts to maintain
their rigidity. The third surviving boat
( b e l o w ) is today in the Field Museum of
Natural History, Chicago. The metal bands
to support the hull are a modern addition.

This technique of boat-building is best exemplified in the Dahshur

100, 101 boats, which had been buried near the pyramid of Sesostris III, although
it has never been entirely clear whether they were actually part of the
king's burial equipment or that of some lesser dignitary from one of the
many other burials in the neighbourhood. A sledge found near the boats
was assumed to have been used to transport them, together with their
contents, from the edge of the river or floodplain to the pyramid site south
of Saqqara, where they were placed apparently within a large mud-brick
vault outside the south temenos wall of the pyramid area. T w o of these
boats are in the Cairo Museum, and one is at the Field Museum of Natural
History in Chicago. There were three (or perhaps more) other boats, but
in such poor condition that they could not be preserved. Landstrom, who
has studied the Cairo boats, says that they are made of wood that had
been used earlier for other purposes. Is it really possible, he asks, that 'the
most powerful King of the Middle Kingdom should have been borne
to his grave in such a wretched craft?'
But the question of the ownership of the Dahshur boats need not con-
cern us here. What is of greater importance is the w a y in which they were
constructed, which is precisely as Herodotus had described. Short lengths
of wood (Ahmed Fakhry says it is cedar, but even that is uncertain) are
joined along their edges with little butterfly or hourglass wooden clamps
that are set into the wood from the inside. Apparently, unlike the R o y a l
Ship, no lashing or sewing was used. It seems incredible that the planking
could have held together in water by means of these rather simple clamps.
As in the R o y a l Ship, the hull was built up around a central plank instead
of a proper keel; this plank was made of three or four sections of wood

124
 SHIPS AND SHIP-BUILDING IN T H E OLD KINGDOM

j o i n e d at the ends w i t h dovetail clamps that w e r e s o m e w h a t larger than

those used in the rest o f the ship. U n l i k e the R o y a l S h i p , there w e r e n o
frames inserted into the hull, but thwarts or deck beams running across
the ship at the level o f the g u n w a l e s g a v e it rigidity. T h e s e beams w e r e
p e g g e d to the hull p l a n k i n g w i t h d o w e l s . T h e deck itself w a s p r o b a b l y
laid in r e m o v a b l e hatches o v e r the deck beams, like the deck on the R o y a l
Ship. T h e timbers used w e r e all o f u n e v e n lengths, and one does indeed
get the impression that the builders g r a b b e d w h a t e v e r l a y to hand and
fitted it in w h e r e v e r it w o u l d g o . In his report, the e x c a v a t o r , J a c q u e s
de M o r g a n , said that one o f these boats w a s painted w h i t e , another red,
and that both had m u l t i - c o l o u r e d ornaments, but not a trace o f this paint­
ing can be seen t o d a y . T h e C a i r o boats are in a fairly neglected condition
in a n y case, w h i c h m a y account for L a n d s t r o m ' s description o f them as
'wretched'.
L a n d s t r o m has also pointed out, in the M i d d l e K i n g d o m t o m b o f the
official K h n u m - h o t e p at B e n i Hasan, an e x a m p l e o f such a boat under
construction. F i v e m e n are w o r k i n g on the boat w h i l e a sixth, perhaps
a foreman b y the cut o f his g a r m e n t , is l o o k i n g on. L a n d s t r o m believes
that the boat's planking is being s e w n together b y the second w o r k m a n
from the left w h o appears to be d r a w i n g bindings tight. In a n y case, it
is definitely a question o f short pieces o f w o o d that are being j o i n e d
together like bricks, as H e r o d o t u s said, and at least in this case they are
a g o o d deal m o r e regular than the pieces used in the D a h s h u r boats. A b o v e
this scene, t w o carpenters are w o r k i n g , one pulling his s a w t h r o u g h an
upright plank, and the other using an adze o f a sort similar to the one
in the boat-building scene b e l o w . T h i s tool seems to h a v e been an all-
purpose i m p l e m e n t in ancient E g y p t , for it is s h o w n o v e r and o v e r again
in d r a w i n g s and reliefs, and is often part o f burial equipment, even for
so exalted a being as the k i n g .
T h e ship-building scene w a s a favourite motif, like s o w i n g the grain
or the birth o f calves, that occurred repeatedly in the reliefs and w a l l -
paintings o f later O l d K i n g d o m t o m b s , w h e r e officials and nobles set out
w i t h pride not just their o w n public achievements but the rich ordinariness
o f their e v e r y d a y lives. In the same Fifth D y n a s t y mastaba o f T i as the
marsh scene described a b o v e , another relief s h o w s different types o f boats 102
being constructed, each t y p e o b v i o u s l y to serve a different purpose. T h e
boat on the right side o f the m i d d l e register has r o u n d e d ends, that
on the left has one end (the stern ?) sharply pointed and the other abruptly
c h o p p e d off. T h e boat in the l o w e s t register is the most interesting for
us, for, as w e h a v e seen, this is the same shape as the hull o f the R o y a l
Ship w i t h the p a p y r i f o r m stem and stern posts r e m o v e d . W e k n o w o f
a n u m b e r o f these ships f r o m reliefs o f the Fifth D y n a s t y , most o f t h e m

125
126
102 The Fifth Dynasty mastaba tomb of Ti (see ill. go) has also provided us with this scene - until
the discovery and reconstruction of the Royal Ship one of our few clues to ancient methods of ship-building.

127
SHIPS AND SHIP-BUILDING IN T H E O L D KINGDOM

s h o w n under sail t h o u g h there are a f e w w i t h the mast l o w e r e d and the

oarsmen at w o r k . A s w a s noted a b o v e in the chapter on the reconstruction
o f the boat, it has been p r o p o s e d that p a p y r i f o r m boats w e r e m o r e often
than not o r d i n a r y river travelling boats on to w h i c h the p a p y r i f o r m pieces
w e r e socketed, as they w e r e on the R o y a l S h i p , to transform it into a
boat for a special occasion.
In the T i reliefs, the adze in several sizes is, again, the all-purpose tool,
used ubiquitously for shaping and s m o o t h i n g . A n o t h e r almost equally
useful is a l o n g h a m m e r i n g tool, shaped like a bat. T h e saw on the right
in the l o w e s t register, one w r i t e r has pointed out, is a p u l l - s a w , d e r i v i n g
its thrust f r o m being pulled t o w a r d s the s a w y e r rather than, as w i t h
m o d e r n saws, being pushed a w a y . In the b o t t o m register w o r k m e n are
attaching the b u l w a r k to a nearly c o m p l e t e d hull and w e can see the tenons
o f the mortise-and-tenon joints that w i l l secure the b u l w a r k to the sheer-
strake. In the scene a b o v e , a w o r k m a n , perhaps a foreman, b e t w e e n the
t w o boats is h o l d i n g a ferrule and lead w i t h w h i c h to check the accuracy
o f the hull curves.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y there is not m u c h evidence, in either pictures or text,
o f the initial stages o f boat-building. B u t the m a k i n g o f boats is a c o n s e r v a ­
tive occupation, particularly in rural parts o f the w o r l d w h e r e boats are
m o r e often than not m a d e b y the m e n w h o sail them and w h o hand the
tradition on to each succeeding generation, f r o m father to son. B o a t s and
b o a t - m a k i n g are v e r y s l o w to change. It seems safe to assume, then, that
ancient E g y p t i a n boats w e r e m a d e m u c h as the edge-joined, shell-built,
s e w n boats are constructed t o d a y in the f e w places, such as southern A r a b i a
and B a n g l a d e s h , w h e r e they are still being built. T h e s e m o d e r n boats all
seem to be built around a keel w h i l e the E g y p t i a n boats, as w e h a v e seen,
had n o keel until p r o b a b l y s o m e time in the N e w K i n g d o m .
B o t h the R o y a l S h i p and the D a h s h u r boats w e r e built up a r o u n d the
central keel plank that w a s f o r m e d o f several smaller pieces o f w o o d . A
100 glance at the strakes d r a w i n g s will s h o w that, in the D a h s h u r boats this
81 keel plank w a s a l o n g n a r r o w d i v i d i n g piece, whereas in the R o y a l Ship
it w a s a g o o d deal w i d e r and virtually f o r m e d the entire flat b o t t o m o f
the craft. In the R o y a l S h i p , the eight timbers o f the keel plank w e r e
p r o b a b l y laid first, j o i n e d at their ends and along the edges. T h e n the f o r ­
w a r d and after sections w e r e raised and shored up to g i v e the p r o p e r c u r ­
vature to the hull. A s the sides w e r e built up, they w e r e supported f r o m
the outside b y m o u l d s o r buttresses o f s o m e sort. Greenhill describes the
building o f a similar craft in B a n g l a d e s h , 'surrounded b y a forest o f struts
and guylines h o l d i n g the planks in tension'. O n c e the side planks had been
raised, frames w e r e sometimes, t h o u g h not a l w a y s , inserted to strengthen
the hull, and then the deck beams w e r e laid across the central 'spine',

128
 SHIPS A N D S H I P - B U I L D I N G IN T H E O L D KINGDOM

the n a r r o w shelf o r stringer that ran f r o m b o w to stern d o w n the length

o f the ship.
In a series o f w a l l - p a i n t i n g s f r o m a t o m b at Z a w i y e t e l - M e i t i n , a c c o r d ­
ing to Andre S e r v i n , the French historian w h o studied ancient E g y p t i a n
ships and their construction, w e can see w o r k m e n w i t h hatchet-like axes
c a r v i n g out w h a t appears to be the central stringer ('le l o n g e r o n central
du p o n t ' ) . S e r v i n w a s mistaken about a n u m b e r o f features, but a l t h o u g h
he w a s w r i t i n g s o m e years before the d i s c o v e r y o f the R o y a l S h i p , his
description o f the interior structure o f the boats in the Z a w i y e t e l - M e i t i n
painting as w e l l as others f r o m the O l d K i n g d o m , is r e m a r k a b l y close
to the actual structure that w a s revealed b y C h e o p s ' craft. In S e r v i n ' s
d r a w i n g , the central stringer rests on stanchions spaced at intervals, and
supports the deck beams, e x a c t l y as it does in the R o y a l Ship.
O n e o f the paintings at Z a w i y e t e l - M e i t i n s h o w e d six w o r k e r s twisting
levers in order to tighten a r o p e truss that arches o v e r the boat f r o m b o w
to stern. S e r v i n t h o u g h t they w e r e d r a w i n g u p b o w and stern to achieve
the p r o p e r sheer for the craft, but it has been pointed out that n o hull
could withstand this k i n d o f strain w i t h o u t bursting the seams. L a n d s t r o m
says such trusses represent a stage in construction, a support for the u n ­
finished hull, like Greenhill's 'forest o f struts and g u y l i n e s ' , that w i l l be
r e m o v e d w h e n the boat is finished.
W e k n o w these h o g g i n g trusses f r o m finished boats as w e l l , w h e r e they
are used to g i v e greater flexibility to ships that must travel in h e a v y seas,
often laden w i t h c a r g o . T h e d o u b l e r o p e runs f r o m b o w to stern, in fact
loops o v e r both b o w and stern. A stick, inserted b e t w e e n the t w o strands
o f the d o u b l e r o p e and twisted, w o u l d tighten the cable and thus help
to maintain the sheer o f the boat and keep her f r o m b r e a k i n g up in h e a v y
w e a t h e r . A n o t h e r t y p e , the girdle truss, w a s sometimes used instead of,
o r in conjunction w i t h , the h o g g i n g truss. T h i s consisted o f t w o ropes
that encircled the hull a b o v e the waterline. A third r o p e w a s w o v e n or
laced b e t w e e n t h e m in such a m a n n e r that strain on the hull timbers could
be counteracted b y tightening the girdle to h o l d t h e m together.
A t A b u s i r , j u s t north o f S a q q a r a , in the m o r t u a r y t e m p l e o f K i n g
Sahure, one o f the early rulers o f the Fifth D y n a s t y , w e r e once the remains
o f a w o n d e r f u l series o f reliefs s h o w i n g the departure and subsequent
arrival h o m e again o f a merchant fleet o f t w e l v e b i g ships, doubtless in
the Syrian trade to j u d g e b y the n u m b e r o f Asiatics, recognizable b y their
l o n g hair and beards, on b o a r d the returning vessels. T h e s e ships all h a v e
h o g g i n g trusses and m a n y h a v e girdle trusses as w e l l , so they h a v e o b v i - 103
ously been used to transport h e a v y cargoes o v e r l o n g distances. T h e same
h o g g i n g trusses can be seen in the painted reliefs o f Q u e e n Hatshepsut's
temple at D e i r e l - B a h r i , w h e r e the Eighteenth D y n a s t y queen's merchant

129
SHIPS A N D S H I P - B U I L D I N G IN T H E O L D KINGDOM

fleet is shown upon its return from a successful voyage to Punt; on another
wall are the huge hog-trussed barges that transported a pair of giant
104 obelisks, each weighing about 2,400 tons, for the queen from Aswan to
Thebes.

The papyriform boat

As we have seen, the R o y a l Ship is neither a papyrus raft nor an ordinary
wooden boat, but a papyriform boat, a wooden boat that was deliberately
built in the shape of a huge raft made of papyrus bundles. Landstrom
distinguishes this type as early as the Badarian period, that is, about six
thousand years ago, in a ceramic model boat. Already, then, if we accept
his evidence, in the fourth millennium there were at least three distinctive
kinds of boats: simple reed rafts, probably used primarily for hunting or
sport within the marshes but rarely on the broad reaches of the river itself;
wooden boats, faster and more stable than the lightweight rafts, most
likely used for riverine travel and transport but that would later on in
their sturdier versions be commandeered for long-distance ocean
voyages; and papyriform boats that were built with the same technology
as the wooden river-boats but for some reason in a deliberate, if more
elaborate, imitation of the shape of papyrus rafts. The papyriform boats
seem always to have been used in connection with some cult or religious
purpose, as pilgrimage or funeral or burial boats or perhaps to transport
the king or the image of a god or goddess. The point about all this is
that the R o y a l Ship of King Cheops is not a development or evolution
from papyrus rafts. Rafts, as both Landstrom and Greenhill have pointed
 104 The Eighteenth Dynasty queen Hatshepsut shipped two enormous obelisks - each about 2,400 tons-from the quarry
site at Aswan downriver to Thebes. A modern reconstruction of the barge, based on reliefs in Hatshepsut's temple
at Deir el-Bahri, clearly shows how a hogging truss was passed beneath bow and stern to prevent them from collapsing
under the tremendous weight.

out, are a dead-end development in maritime history; that is, they did
not evolve into anything else. N o matter how big you make it, or to
what extent you build up its sides, a raft is still a raft, deriving its buoyancy
from the lightness of the material used, whether lightweight wood or
reed, while a boat is buoyant because it encloses a volume that is as light
as, or lighter than, the volume of water it displaces. Boats change and
develop according to the uses to which they are put, the climate and
waterways they must deal with. Despite its papyriform shape, then, the
developments that led to the Cheops ship came from wooden boats rather
than from papyrus rafts.

103 One ofthe ships depicted on the walls of King Sahure's

mortuary temple at Abusir, the Fifth Dynasty complex just
north of Saqqara. Note the girdle truss (1) around the hull,
and the hogging truss (2) with a stickfor tightening the ropes
so that the boat could be made more rigid in heavy seas and
less likely to ship water.

131
105 An early model of a papyriform boat, no longer a royal ship, but already, by the Sixth Dynasty, an example of how nobles
were beginning to assume burial privileges formerly connected only with royalty. The four little seated figures facing aft are oarsmen
and the figure facing them may be the helmsman or captain of the ship.

THE PAPYRIFORM BOAT

106, 107 (Below and opposite above) The funeral andjor pilgrimage boat of Chancellor Meketre (Eleventh Dynasty), from
his tomb at Thebes, is one of a pair (cf. colour ill. XII). The mast and rigging of this vessel indicate that it was intended to be
propelled by sail on an upriver journey. The shape of bow and stern, and the papyrus-bud finials on the columns, are very reminiscent
of Cheops' Royal Ship.
108 Queen Neith in the late Sixth Dynasty was buried
with a number offine large boat models, including the
papyriform model shown here in plan and section. De­
spite the exaggerated sheer, the profile is very like that
of Cheops' Royal Ship.

log (Below) In a late relief, temple priests are shown

bearing aloft a sacred papyriform funerary barque.
 SHIPS AND SHIP-BUILDING IN T H E O L D KINGDOM

T h e particular f o r m o f the R o y a l S h i p , w i t h its straight vertical p r o w

and the stern post d r a w n back in a graceful c u r v e o v e r the after quarters
o f the ship, can be traced back to the rock d r a w i n g s o f boats that h a v e
been found in U p p e r E g y p t and N u b i a , t h o u g h it is not clear w h e t h e r
these outline d r a w i n g s represent papyrus rafts o r p a p y r i f o r m boats. Land¬
strom believes that the p a p y r i f o r m shape w a s restricted to r o y a l t y , at least
during the O l d K i n g d o m . C e r t a i n l y during that period, and even later,
the models and relief carvings that are associated w i t h r o y a l burials s h o w
the same elegant and graceful profile as K i n g C h e o p s ' ship. O t h e r d e p i c ­
tions s h o w w h a t are also clearly p a p y r i f o r m boats, but the fore and aft
o v e r h a n g s are treated differently, especially during the O l d K i n g d o m , as
105 w e can see in the S i x t h D y n a s t y m o d e l f r o m a t o m b at A s w a n . B u t even
i f one concludes that the shape was restricted to r o y a l t y during the O l d
K i n g d o m , b y the M i d d l e K i n g d o m , like so m u c h else o f the r o y a l burial
ritual and funerary paraphernalia, the p a p y r i f o r m shape seems to h a v e
been taken o v e r for use b y the nobility, as w e can see f r o m the fine
106, 107 E l e v e n t h D y n a s t y models o f p a p y r i f o r m boats that w e r e f o u n d in the
XII t o m b o f M e k e t r e at D e i r e l - B a h r i .
In the m o r t u a r y temple o f K i n g Sahure's p y r a m i d c o m p l e x at A b u s i r
58 w e r e found the ruins o f a delicately c a r v e d relief o f a p a p y r i f o r m ship
that, except for the fact that it is under sail, could be a d r a w i n g in stone
o f the R o y a l Ship o f K i n g C h e o p s . A l l w e can see unfortunately is the
p r o w o f the ship and the figures o f a f e w sailors, w i t h the great b i l l o w
o f the h u g e sail, decorated like damascene w i t h a pattern o f framed rosettes
in the fine relief w o r k that w a s typical o f the Fifth D y n a s t y . T h e p r o w
has a m o r e finished appearance than the one on C h e o p s ' ship, topped as
it is b y a half-open p a p y r u s b u d and the disc o f the S u n - g o d . ( B y the
Fifth D y n a s t y , under the increasing influence o f the priests o f Heliopolis,
the S u n - g o d seems to h a v e b e c o m e m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t than during
the Fourth D y n a s t y . ) T h e p r o w o f Sahure's S h i p o f State, as it is called,
(Opposite) has the same elegant lift as C h e o p s ' , and the little baldachin on the foredeck
X/ Two Nile boats painted is matched b y the one on the R o y a l S h i p . T h e wedjat-eye, the all-
on linen from a predynastic
grave at Gebelein. The seeing e y e o f the h a w k - h e a d e d g o d H o r u s , w a s painted on the p r o w
leaf-shaped oars are not as a talisman against evil.
unlike those of the Royal
Ship. L a r g e p a p y r i f o r m models w e r e buried together w i t h other m o d e l boats
XII A funerary and/or near the S a q q a r a p y r a m i d o f the S i x t h D y n a s t y queen N e i t h . N e i t h w a s
pilgrimage boat from the the daughter o f Pepi I and w i f e o f the l o n g - l i v e d Pepi II, w h o reigned
Eleventh Dynasty tomb of
Meketre at Thebes. Similar for about ninety years. Q u e e n N e i t h ' s p a p y r i f o r m boats also had the same
in shape to the Royal Ship, profile as the R o y a l S h i p , a l t h o u g h they had such an e x a g g e r a t e d sheer
this model is the pair of the
little funerary barque shown
that the midships section o f the craft w o u l d h a v e been a w a s h had they
in ill. 106. e v e r been floated.

134
 SHIPS AND SHIP-BUILDING IN T H E O L D KINGDOM

T h e shape o f the p a p y r i f o r m craft s u r v i v e d virtually unchanged

t h r o u g h o u t E g y p t i a n history. T u t a n k h a m u n ' s m o d e l boats are similar to
the R o y a l S h i p o f C h e o p s , and Q u e e n Hatshepsut's stately ship, carved
on the walls o f her temple at D e i r e l - B a h r i , is like it too, except for the
fact that both b o w and stern posts are c u r v e d back o v e r the hull and an
elegant baldachin arches o v e r the h i g h throne amidships. A similar type
o f ship w a s used in late N e w K i n g d o m times as the b a r q u e o f the g o d , X///
not j u s t o f the S u n - g o d alone but o f various other g o d s as w e l l . These
barques rested on c a r r y i n g platforms, so that they could be b o r n e aloft log
b y the priesthood d u r i n g religious ceremonies such as the Feast o f the
V a l l e y , w h e n the B a r q u e o f A m o n w a s taken f r o m the temple at K a r n a k
and displayed in processions at the other temples o f Thebes.
C o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h the r o y a l and religious ships, w e k n o w o f dozens,
perhaps hundreds, o f m o d e l s f r o m private t o m b s o f p a p y r i f o r m funerary
o r p i l g r i m a g e ships, and it is in these that w e see the greatest v a r i e t y o f
shapes. Private artists, lacking the skill o f court artisans and at the same
time not so strictly b o u n d b y conventions and traditions, w e r e free w i t h i n
certain limits to p r o d u c e w h a t e v e r they w i s h e d , and the fancies o f private
patrons must often h a v e influenced their ideas as w e l l . T h u s in the British
M u s e u m , for e x a m p l e , w e find the eloquent simplicity o f a T w e l f t h no
D y n a s t y m o d e l together w i t h the crudeness o f a p a p y r i f o r m sailboat,
w h e r e the w o o d w o r k e r has mistakenly reversed the stem and stern posts ! m
M o s t o f the oldest e x a m p l e s are s h o w n w i t h o n e o r m o r e rudders o r steer­
ing-oars and b y the M i d d l e K i n g d o m these are slung t h r o u g h rudder posts
that are often decorated w i t h the h a w k - h e a d s o f the g o d H o r u s . W i t h
the e x c e p t i o n o f Sahure's S h i p o f State, f e w o f the boats are sailboats ;
m o r e often they are s h o w n w i t h oars or, i f oarless, they are perhaps in­
tended to be t o w e d , either b y other boats o r f r o m the shore. M a n y o f
the little m o d e l boats s h o w the m u m m y o f the deceased seated in a chair
or l y i n g on a bier beneath the central baldachin, often a c c o m p a n i e d b y
priests and mourners. These boats m i g h t represent the j o u r n e y o f the
m u m m i f i e d b o d y to its final resting-place ; o r the soul's v o y a g e into the
afterlife ; or a p i l g r i m a g e to the h o l y places o f E g y p t that w o u l d be part
o f the funeral rite. O r , in a synthesis that w o u l d not be uncharacteristic
o f ancient E g y p t i a n belief, w i t h its r e m a r k a b l e interpénétration o f reality
and m y t h , the literal and the s y m b o l i c , the boats could s y m b o l i z e all o f
these things simultaneously.
(Opposite)
W h y these boats t o o k a p a p y r i f o r m shape, and w h y they should be
XIII The magnificent late
part o f a k i n g ' s burial e q u i p m e n t , are questions that w e h a v e b a r e l y New Kingdom 'Papyrus of
touched on. B u t before w e can consider the answers, w e must take a b r i e f Anhai' depicts Nun, the
god of the primeval waters,
l o o k at O l d K i n g d o m religious beliefs, i f o n l y to m a k e m o r e c o m p r e h e n ­ lifting up the boat of the
sible the terms o f reference w i t h i n w h i c h the p a p y r i f o r m boats must fit. rising sun.

137
n o A model funerary barque from the Middle Kingdom shows the owner's mummy lying in state beneath a canopy supported
by lotus-blossom columns. The Horus hawk-heads on the rudder columns are a rather crude approximation of what may have
been intended for the Royal Ship.

in In another example of a modelfrom aprivate tomb the woodworker has mistakenly

switched the papyriform bow and stern posts.
 CHAPTER SEVEN

Death, religion and survival

The Nile: flood and fertility

T h e great d r a m a o f the annual N i l e flood has been missing f r o m E g y p t i a n
life since the construction near the First Cataract at A s w a n o f a series o f 94
w a t e r controls culminating in the H i g h D a m w h i c h w a s inaugurated b y
President N a s s e r in 1 9 7 0 . E v e n t o d a y , h o w e v e r , w i t h the d a m and L a k e
Nasser behind it to steady the river's impressive surge, the n o r m a l l y rapid
flow has s l o w e d noticeably b y the middle o f M a y , and the w a t e r in the
irrigation canals, w h o s e interlacing n e t w o r k lends a tropical lushness to
w h a t w o u l d otherwise be desert, is a m u r k y , stagnant and unhealthy b r e w .
It is easy to i m a g i n e , then, w h a t it must h a v e been like each y e a r w h e n
the great river w a s reduced to a sluggish creek, and all E g y p t w a i t e d an­
x i o u s l y for a sign that the w a t e r w o u l d soon b e g i n to rise again.
B y m i d - J u n e the river begins to change. Far off in Africa, 1,500 miles
a w a y in the highlands o f Ethiopia and in the formidable, fetid marshes
o f the S u d d b e l o w the M o u n t a i n s o f the M o o n , the t w o sources o f the
N i l e , the B l u e and the W h i t e , quicken w i t h the rich, silt-laden run-off
f r o m spring rains in the mountains. In other times the rise w a s sudden
and dramatic, f r o m one d a y to the next. L u c i e D u f f G o r d o n o b s e r v e d
it in L u x o r in 1 8 6 4 . ' T h e N i l e is rising fast,' she w r o t e in a letter h o m e
dated 1 2 J u n e , 'and a star o f most fortunate character has m a d e its appear­
ance - so Y o u s s e f tells m e - and portends a g o o d y e a r and an end to o u r
afflictions.' T h a t star, o b s e r v e d b y L a d y D u f f G o r d o n ' s U p p e r E g y p t i a n
peasant friend in the 1860s, w a s the same Sothis o r Sirius, the D o g Star,
w h o s e annual re-appearance in the d a w n sky j u s t before sunrise heralded
for the ancient E g y p t i a n s the b e g i n n i n g o f the N i l e flood and the start
o f the solar N e w Y e a r . T h i s heliacal rising, as it is called, o f Sirius w a s
awaited w i t h anxiety, for on the success o r failure o f the N i l e flood
depended E g y p t ' s v e r y existence. T o o m u c h w a s as threatening as too
little (the afflictions referred to b y L a d y D u f f G o r d o n had been caused
b y an e x c e p t i o n a l l y h i g h flood the p r e v i o u s y e a r that had d r o w n e d crops
and animals, as w e l l as h u m a n s ) . T h o s e years, e x t r e m e l y rare t h o u g h they

139
DEATH, RELIGION AND SURVIVAL

w e r e , w h e n the flood failed altogether, w e r e greeted rightly e n o u g h as

national, indeed c o s m i c , calamities.
It is curious then that the ancient E g y p t i a n s seem n e v e r to h a v e w o r ­
shipped the N i l e directly as a g o d or p o w e r o r spirit. T h e N i l e w a s often
personified as H a p i , the strange old m a n w i t h pendulous breasts, but this
rather w e i r d figure seems to h a v e been a s y m b o l o n l y , perhaps a d e m i u r g e ,
w i t h o u t religious significance. It is true, as the A m e r i c a n E g y p t o l o g i s t
J a m e s Breasted pointed out, that the g o d Osiris in his fertility aspect w a s
identified w i t h the l i f e - g i v i n g waters o f the N i l e . B u t the N i l e , as w e shall
1 1 2
see, w a s o n l y one a m o n g m a n y sources o f the fertility o f Osiris. V i t a l
as the N i l e ' s flood w a s to E g y p t ' s s u r v i v a l , its role in religion seems to
h a v e been restricted to an area o f sympathetic m a g i c v e r y close to the
charms still practised b y the fellahin, w h o s e lives depend on the great river
even today.

Religion and the rhythm of life

If it is difficult for us to appreciate w h a t life w a s really like in ancient
E g y p t , it is almost impossible for us to c o m p r e h e n d the religion o f these
people w h o l i v e d in such intimate symbiosis w i t h the w o r l d around them.
Nonetheless, before w e can understand w h y K i n g C h e o p s , like other
E g y p t i a n s earlier and later, buried his great ship (and p r o b a b l y others like
it) n e x t to his t o m b , w e must l o o k at w h a t w e can discern o f E g y p t i a n
beliefs about life and death and s u r v i v a l in the hereafter.
' R e l i g i o n ' at first appears t o o dignified a w o r d for such a p r i m i t i v e
mishmash o f c o m p e t i n g totems, animal-headed g o d s , and inconsistent,
confusing, in fact conflicting m y t h o l o g i e s . T h e m o d e r n m i n d d r a w s back
in d i s m a y , embarrassed b y the superficial aspects o f E g y p t i a n belief. Y e t
w e are c o m p e l l e d to admit that these same beliefs persisted for at least
four thousand years o f h u m a n culture, that they w e r e a source o f c o m f o r t
in the face o f death and o f m o r a l assurance w h e n confronted w i t h life's
p r o b l e m s . It w a s a system that endured and continued to sustain its
adherents until the c o m i n g o f Christianity w h i c h , in its r e d e e m i n g aspects,
had a legitimate E g y p t i a n precursor in the Osirian faith.
A s w e h a v e seen in previous chapters, the earliest E g y p t i a n s w e r e an
intelligent and energetic people, capable, w i t h i n their limited means, o f
sophisticated feats o f t e c h n o l o g y , and gifted w i t h an artistic sensibility
that is b o r n e out in p o e t r y as m u c h as it is in stone. T h a t they had a p r o ­
found understanding o f the relationship b e t w e e n earth and the heavens
is o b v i o u s f r o m the alignment o f their m o n u m e n t s to the cardinal points,
to the pole star, to the seasonal solstices. W e also h a v e incontrovertible
evidence, f r o m as early as the b e g i n n i n g o f the dynastic period, o f their

140
112 Osiris, god of the underworld, was one of the few Egyptian gods invariably portrayed as anthropo­
morphic and as a mummy - here shown in traditional pose wearing the Atef-crown and carrying the crook
and flail in a late New Kingdom wall-painting from Thebes.

concern to find an underlying principle, a rightness and order at the heart

of things that would guarantee justice not as a moral principle, but as
an expression of divine will. If the philosophy is one that has so far eluded
modern minds, the fault lies not with the ancients but rather with our­
selves.
O f course, along with the sophisticated theology went a good deal of
primitive magic. One of the most appealing aspects of ancient Egyptian

141
DEATH, RELIGION AND SURVIVAL

religion is the w a y these t w o co-exist side b y side, a c h a r m to w a r d off

snakes o r scorpions n e x t to a d e e p l y m o v i n g h y m n to the regenerative
p o w e r s o f the sun. Perhaps part o f the failure o f m o d e r n religion, its i n ­
ability to a n s w e r to the needs o f m o d e r n life, lies in the w a y w e h a v e
separated t h e o l o g y f r o m folk belief. F o r the E g y p t i a n s , there w a s n o such
separation: m a g i c and superstition w e n t hand in hand w i t h the most
sophisticated speculation.
T o understand the b a c k g r o u n d o f E g y p t i a n religion w e must l o o k at
E g y p t ' s peculiar g e o g r a p h y and climate. T h e g e o g r a p h i c a l isolation
i m p o s e d b y the vast and hostile deserts that enclose the n a r r o w r i v e r v a l l e y
meant n o t o n l y a cultural isolation, the o p p o r t u n i t y to d e v e l o p w h a t w a s
an almost totally indigenous culture w i t h rare incursions f r o m outside,
but also a f r e e d o m f r o m invasion that w a s most unusual in the ancient
w o r l d . A brief glance at the destruction levels o f any other E a r l y B r o n z e
A g e culture in the M i d d l e East w i l l confirm the w o e f u l tale. In M e s o p o ­
tamia, in Syria-Palestine, in A n a t o l i a , t o w n s and city states erected massive
walls to protect themselves, o n l y to h a v e t h e m smashed and burned b y
invaders o v e r and o v e r again. Life w a s precarious and often terrifying.
T h e E g y p t i a n s a v o i d e d all this. O n l y in the u p p e r reaches o f the N i l e ,
on the borders w i t h N u b i a , did they build fortified t o w n s , and these w e r e
not so m u c h t o w n s as garrisoned trading posts to protect traffic along
the N i l e . T h e E g y p t i a n s w e r e free f r o m the o v e r r i d i n g fear that d o m i ­
nated other cultures. T h e i r g e o g r a p h y , m o r e o v e r , m a d e possible f r o m
v e r y early on a s t r o n g l y centralized authority that contributed to their
sense o f security, as w e h a v e seen. C o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h the outside w o r l d
w a s difficult; c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n E g y p t , along the N i l e , w a s swift and
easy, as easy as raising sail or setting to the oars. W i t h a g o o d f o l l o w i n g
w i n d , a message despatched f r o m the court at M e m p h i s c o u l d reach i m ­
portant posts in U p p e r E g y p t w i t h i n a w e e k .
T h e rainless desert climate, m o r e o v e r , added to the E g y p t i a n ' s sense
o f ease w i t h his e n v i r o n m e n t . D a y after d a y , w i t h o u t fail, the sun rose,
crossed the cloudless heavens, and set, to rise once again the f o l l o w i n g d a y .
R a i n f a l l w a s n e g l i g i b l e , storms almost non-existent; yet the terrible life
o f the true desert w a s u n k n o w n here in the r i v e r v a l l e y w h e r e , during
the spring and s u m m e r seasons, abundant w a t e r c o m b i n e d w i t h heat and
sunlight and the annual deposit o f silt, to create a rich, fertile land. In
the cultures to the n o r t h and east o f E g y p t , nature w a s a terrible, u n ­
predictable force to be r e c k o n e d w i t h , a j e a l o u s g o d o f the desert o r steppe,
to be placated w i t h p r a y e r and sacrifice, before w h o m h u m a n k i n d w a s
w e a k and powerless. In the v a l l e y o f the N i l e , despite the occasional failure
o f the flood, nature w a s seen as the E g y p t i a n ' s partner in an o r d e r e d and
beneficent universe.

142
 DEATH, RELIGION AND SURVIVAL

113 Seen here supported by the king, the little

seated figure of the goddess Ma'et, crowned
with ostrich plumes, represented the essential
and unchanging Tightness and order of the uni­
verse.

It has often been said that the ancient E g y p t i a n s lacked a sense o f history,
and to a certain extent this is true, especially during the O l d K i n g d o m .
T h e daily r h y t h m o f the sun, the regularity o f the river's flood o r the
seasons, i m p o s e d this feeling: things had a l w a y s been so, w o u l d a l w a y s
be so. H i s t o r y implies change, but life for the ancient E g y p t i a n w a s u n ­
c h a n g i n g and o r d e r l y . T h e role o f the k i n g as g o d , o r as g o d ' s representa­
tive, w a s to maintain that order. T h e r e is a curious little figure in the E g y p ­
tian pantheon, a kneeling female w i t h a characteristic feather o n her head,
w h o m w e call the goddess M a ' e t , t h o u g h she seems less a goddess in fact 113
than a s y m b o l for an important concept. O u r translation o f the concept
o f ma'et is tentative at best, for there is n o o n e w o r d in E u r o p e a n languages
to c o n v e y it: truth, justice, order, righteousness (but righteousness implies
a strictly m o r a l j u d g m e n t that is missing f r o m this idea). R u n d l e C l a r k ,
in Myth and Symbol in Ancient Egypt, describes h o w , at the end o f the daily
temple service, the officiating priest w o u l d raise the little figure o f M a ' e t
before the g o d ' s i m a g e , as a re-assertion o f the u n c h a n g i n g Tightness and
o r d e r o f the universe and o f the g o d ' s responsibility for maintaining it.
Perhaps the best interpretation o f the concept is in this sense o f the u n c h a n g ­
ing persistence o f things-as-they-are. It is difficult for us to appreciate a
v a l u e j u d g m e n t that has n o t h i n g to d o w i t h g o o d o r evil, but solely w i t h
a sense o f universal order, not as something t o w a r d s w h i c h w e strive, but
as something that is, and that is yesterday as it is t o m o r r o w , unhistorical,
u n c h a n g i n g , w i t h o u t past o r future.
T h i s changeless w o r l d w a s an ideal that w a s n o t a l w a y s achieved. E v e n
in the early dynasties w e can detect evidence o f internal conflicts, and later,
after the collapse o f the S i x t h D y n a s t y , there w a s a period b e t w e e n the
O l d and M i d d l e K i n g d o m s , called b y historians the First Intermediate
Period, that, t h o u g h brief in time, w a s characterized b y a feudalistic r e v e r ­
sion to local control. T h e lack o f centralized o r d e r w a s p e r c e i v e d b y later

143
 DEATH, RELIGION AND SURVIVAL

E g y p t i a n s as an intolerable state o f affairs and r e m e m b e r e d w i t h fear and

loathing.

Death and discontinuity

T h e sphere in w h i c h the E g y p t i a n did most clearly experience change
w a s the o n e c o m m o n to all h u m a n i t y : death. C o n c e r n e d as he w a s w i t h
order and continuity, death c a m e as the great interruption, and the c o m ­
prehension o f death, the need s o m e h o w to incorporate the fact o f death
in the u n c h a n g i n g order o f the universe, w a s central to his religious belief.
T o us, the ancient E g y p t i a n appears obsessed w i t h death; yet, w e should
rather think o f h i m as obsessed w i t h life's continuity. His deepest concern
w a s survival, not j u s t o f the individual (and least o f all during the period
w i t h w h i c h w e are dealing), but o f the w h o l e order and structure o f the
perceived w o r l d - sun, m o o n and stars, the ebb and flow o f the N i l e ,
the passage o f the seasons, the fertility o f crops, animals and humans.
Intimately related to the preservation o f the w o r l d ' s order w a s the insti­
tution o f kingship, notjust the political institution, in itself an u n c h a n g i n g
and eternal p h e n o m e n o n , but the k i n g as an individual personality as w e l l .
A v i g o r o u s debate has l o n g been w a g e d a m o n g E g y p t o l o g i s t s as to
w h e t h e r the k i n g w a s actually t h o u g h t o f as a g o d , or as a representative
o f the g o d s , or as an intercessor b e t w e e n h u m a n i t y and the divine, a sort
o f glorified chief priest. M o s t E g y p t o l o g i s t s feel that the k i n g certainly
b e c a m e a g o d after his death (though there are s o m e strong arguments
against this v i e w ) and it seems that, d u r i n g the O l d K i n g d o m , he w a s
seen as s o m e t h i n g v e r y like a g o d d u r i n g his lifetime, at least at certain
17 crucial ceremonial m o m e n t s such as the hebsed j u b i l e e , a m a g i c ritual to
restore the k i n g ' s flagging p o w e r s and vitality. B u t w h e t h e r he w a s actually
w o r s h i p p e d as a g o d o r not, the k i n g w a s certainly the g u a r a n t o r o£ma'et,
o f that order and stability and Tightness o f things-as-they-are. T h e t w o
concepts, tna'et and the kingship, w e r e thus intimately connected.
T h e crisis in this relationship c a m e w i t h the death o f the k i n g . Despite
its inevitability, the k i n g ' s death w a s v i e w e d w i t h alarm as a threat to
the established order - n o t j u s t to the political order o f g o v e r n m e n t , but
to the w h o l e c o s m i c order o f the universe. It w a s a m o m e n t o f almost
unbearable p s y c h o l o g i c a l tension. T h e earliest documents attest to the
p r o f o u n d distress that w a s e v o k e d b y an event o f such cataclysmic i m p o r t .
' S k y rains, stars darken, T h e vaults q u i v e r , earth's bones tremble, T h e
1
planets stand still,' U t t e r a n c e 2 7 3 o f the P y r a m i d T e x t s tells u s .
B y the time K i n g Z o s e r had built his Step P y r a m i d at S a q q a r a in the
12 T h i r d D y n a s t y , and p r o b a b l y m u c h earlier, an elaborate funerary ritual
had already been d e v e l o p e d to protect against this threatened incoherence

144
 DEATH, RELIGION AND SURVIVAL

o f the universe. Part o f that ritual, as it w a s p e r f o r m e d for the actual burial

rites o f the kings o f the P y r a m i d A g e , w a s described in chapter t w o .
W e can i m a g i n e that the burial service itself w a s preceded b y days, if not
w e e k s o r months, o f c e r e m o n y and ritual. (In the t o m b o f Q u e e n M e r e -
sankh III at G i z a , 2 7 2 days is m e n t i o n e d as the period o f time b e t w e e n
death and interment, but this m a y be e x c e p t i o n a l l y long.) T h e ritual
w o u l d h a v e been carried out in the greatest secrecy in order to protect
the ruler in his w e a k and powerless condition. A faultless p e r f o r m a n c e
o f the ceremonies w a s necessary to ensure the continuation o f the k i n g ­
ship, b o t h in the hereafter to w h i c h the dead k i n g proceeded, and in the
h e r e - a n d - n o w w h e r e the kingship continued in the person o f the heir to
the throne, maintaining and guaranteeing the order and stability oima'et.
Interestingly, the heir seems not to h a v e assumed the throne directly on
his predecessor's death but o n l y after the conclusion o f the l o n g burial
ceremonies. T h e r e could not be t w o kings, and the first w a s not w e l l and
truly g o n e until he had been c e r e m o n i a l l y despatched.
A t this early stage in E g y p t i a n history, as far as w e can tell, m u m m i f i c a ­
tion w a s used o n l y on the bodies o f m e m b e r s o f the r o y a l f a m i l y . T h e
oldest m u m m i f i e d b o d y k n o w n is said to h a v e been found in a Fifth
D y n a s t y g r a v e at M e i d u m b y the British archaeologist Flinders Petrie.
( T h e m u m m y , w h i c h w a s sent to E n g l a n d , w a s destroyed in the b o m b i n g
o f L o n d o n in 1944.) B u t even during earlier dynasties, efforts had been
m a d e to preserve bodies b y w r a p p i n g them in linen soaked in resins from
the fragrant w o o d s o f S y r i a and perhaps f r o m the land o f Punt as w e l l .
N o king's m u m m y has yet been found from the O l d K i n g d o m , but the
m u m m i f i e d viscera o f Q u e e n Hetep-heres w e r e found b y R e i s n e r buried
in an alabaster container in a niche close b y the queen's e m p t y alabaster
sarcophagus. S o m e o f the e m b a l m i n g fluid can still be seen in the b o t t o m
o f the container.
R e i s n e r ' s speculations about the reasons for Q u e e n Hetep-heres' secret
secondary burial near her son's p y r a m i d at G i z a (see chapter t w o ) w e r e
based on his k n o w l e d g e o f the tremendous i m p o r t a n c e E g y p t i a n s attached
to the preservation o f the b o d y after death and the fear and loathing that
w e r e e v o k e d b y its desecration. T h e b o d y w a s the repository o f the ani­
mating spirit o f the personality, w h i c h had t w o separate and quite dif­
ferent aspects. T h e ba, represented b y a little bird w i t h a bearded h u m a n 114
head, is usually translated as 'soul'. R e l e a s e d f r o m the b o d y at death, the
bird-soul c o u l d m o v e back and forth b e t w e e n the b o d y in its t o m b and
the w o r l d outside (it is often depicted fluttering in the shaft o f the t o m b )
as w e l l as in the transcendent w o r l d o f the stars a b o v e . T h e stars w e r e
sometimes t h o u g h t o f as the souls o f the deceased, so m a n y little fca-birds
clutching lamps in their beaks.

145
DEATH, RELIGION AND SURVIVAL

A more complicated concept is that of the ka, also confusingly often

translated as 'soul', but in a more general sense as a vital animating spirit.
The ka, which was created at birth, was shown hieroglyphically as two
115 arms extending upward, symbolizing a protective embrace. In that sense
it represents a beneficent power that can be transmitted from one being
to another, from a god to a mortal (usually the king), from the king to
his subjects, or, interestingly, from father to son. As Horus inherits the
ka of his father Osiris, so the king inherits his father's ka, the power of
the kingship.

114 ( A b o v e ) The'ba' or soul of the deceased was depicted

as a bird with a human face, often carrying a lantern. Here
the 'ha' hovers over a mummified body, recalling how Isis
fluttered her wings over Osiris to re-animate him.

113 The 'ka', symbolized by a pair of arms held out in

protective embrace, is like 'ba' often translated as soul - but
more in the sense of the vital, animating spirit of a per­
sonality.

146
 DEATH, RELIGION AND SURVIVAL

T h e period b e t w e e n an individual's death and interment w a s referred

to as the time w h e n his o r her ka w a s 'at rest'. T h e E g y p t i a n s then had
g o o d reason for the a n x i e t y they felt at the death o f the k i n g , for the
king's ka, the p o w e r that maintained order or ma'et, w a s t e m p o r a r i l y
absent f r o m the universe. O n c e the c e r e m o n y o f interment had been c o m ­
pleted, the ka could return to the b o d y . W i t h o u t the b o d y , the ka had
n o w a y to receive the offerings, prayers and rituals that w e r e to benefit
the deceased in his t o m b chapel. T h i s w a s the real reason for the i m p o r ­
tance o f the b o d y ' s preservation: w i t h o u t it, there w a s n o h o m e for the
ka.

The cults of Osiris and Re-Atum

F r o m the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f E g y p t i a n history, that is, at least f r o m the
First D y n a s t y , w e can find traces o f the t w o cults, the one o f Osiris and
the other o f the S u n - g o d R e - A t u m in his m a n y aspects, that had impressed
themselves on the E g y p t i a n p s y c h o l o g y , o b v i o u s l y a n s w e r i n g to the deep
anxieties E g y p t i a n s felt about the great question o f death, especially the
k i n g ' s death. O f the t w o cults, that o f Osiris is m o r e accessible to o u r 112
minds, both because it is m o r e l o g i c a l l y coherent as a g r o u p o f legends,
and because it relates closely to the w h o l e eastern Mediterranean p h e n o ­
m e n o n o f the fertility o r corn g o d , w h o s e death and rebirth in s o m e sense
redeems h u m a n k i n d f r o m the terrible finality o f o u r o w n deaths. It w a s
once fashionable a m o n g E g y p t o l o g i s t s to see the t w o cults in opposition,
if not in outright conflict - a conflict that c o u l d be related in historical
terms to the political ascendancy o f various priesthoods. T h e sun-cult w a s
said to be exclusive and r o y a l , a religion o f the educated intellectual classes,
w h i l e the Osirian w a s a people's religion, emotional, appealing to the
heart rather than to the intellect, and democratic, in the sense that it w a s
said to h a v e guaranteed access to the afterlife to w h o e v e r f o l l o w e d the
prescribed rules o f b e h a v i o u r and ritual, rather than solely to r o y a l t y .
This theory o f a conflict is a little too neat to fit the facts such as w e
n o w k n o w them. It seems m o r e likely that a l t h o u g h there w a s a certain
a m o u n t o f tension b e t w e e n the t w o cults, they w e r e c o n c e i v e d o f as c o m ­
plementary w a y s o f expressing the same reality rather than antagonistic
and opposing versions o f the truth.
T h e k i n g w h e n he died b e c a m e the S u n - g o d o r part o f the g o d ' s
entourage that crossed the sky w i t h h i m in his b o a t ; he also b e c a m e Osiris.
It is a mistake to see t w o separate v i e w s o r e v e n t w o separate sets o f s y m ­
bols. F o r the ancient E g y p t i a n s , both w e r e v a l i d simultaneously, in a p a r ­
ticular and actual w a y . M o r e o v e r , the dead k i n g w a s also present in his
t o m b , w h e r e he received the daily offerings and prayers and the seasonal

147
 DEATH, RELIGION AND SURVIVAL

rituals that were presented to him. Again we come up against the Egyptian
habit of perceiving what appear to be separate realities, or conflicting
aspects of reality, with no sense of disharmony, and again we must be
116 The hieroglyph repre­ wary of approaching this ancient, non-logical perception with our insati­
senting the Primeval able need to categorize and systematize.
Mound, the first piece of
earth to emerge from the The collection of some seven hundred magic spells, hymns, prayers,
watery chaos at the crea­ incantations and fragments of mythology that Egyptologists call the Pyra­
tion - strikingly like King
Zoser's Third Dynasty mid Texts were intended to assist the dead ruler on his dangerous journey
Step Pyramid at Saqqara to the hereafter, and to secure his happiness and well-being once arrived
(ill. 12).
there. The Texts were found inscribed in long lines of hieroglyphs, filled
with once brightly coloured pigments and carved on the internal walls
of the pyramids of the kings and queens o f the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties.
The texts are vivid and dramatic in their imagery, and often fraught with
emotion. There are three main stages on the voyage to resurrection:
awakening in the dark tomb where, in a conjunction o f mythology and
actuality, the king's body must be protected by spells against the snakes
and scorpions that inhabit such places; the ascent or crossing to heaven,
over the water that separates earth from sky, by bribing or threatening
or pleading with the ferryman; and, finally, the joyous admission to the
company of the gods and the great god, the Sun-god himself. A t times
the dead king is identified as the son of Re-Atum, sharing in the Sun-
god's power; at other times he is said to ride as a passenger in the sun's
boat, or he is a member of the god's entourage, his amanuensis or secre-

ny As one of the representations of the

Sun-god, the phoenix bird, here depicted as
a crane, was said to have landed on the Pri­
meval Mound as the sun's rays lit the earth
when it emerged from the annual Nile flood.

I48
 DEATH, RELIGION AND SURVIVAL

Re-Herakhty, Horus-of-the-Horizon, was

another aspect of the sun deity. The hawk-headed
god wears the Atef-crown (like Osiris in ill. 112),
with its characteristic sun-disc in the centre and
plumes on either side.

( B e l o w right)
119 (Above) The dawn or rising sun was often
depicted as Khepri, the dung beetle, pushing its
ball of dung out of which, the Egyptians mis­
takenly believed, its offspring emerged as the sun
emerges from the eastern horizon. (Centre) The
evening sun, or the sun at night, was seen in the
ram-headed god carrying a sceptre. (Below) The
solar boat, here shown in a stylized hieroglyph,
almost always had a curious rectangular object
hanging off the bow - perhaps representing the
Field of Reeds through which the boat passed.

tary; at one point, thoroughly humbled, the King of Upper and Lower
Egypt pleads for a position as the little pygmy who dances 'to entertain
the heart of the god'. In one horrific passage, the king becomes a cannibal,
devouring all the gods and concentrating their powers into himself as the
supreme deity.
The Texts as we know them were compiled by the priesthood of Helio-
polis, now a suburb on the northern fringes of Cairo but in ancient times
the centre of the cult of the Sun-god and the seat of the sacred benben.
The benben was a cult object, probably of stone, shaped like a small pyra­
mid or pyramidion and representing the Primeval Hill, the first part of
the earth in creation mythology to have emerged from the watery chaos,
just as the black earth of Egypt emerged each year as the Nile flood waters
began to subside. The pyramids probably derived their shape (but not
of course their cumulative mass) from the benben, as did almost certainly
the obelisk, a later development. It was on the Primeval Hill of the benben
that the Sun-god first revealed himself in the shape of the phoenix bird.
In other forms the god manifested himself as Horus, the hawk, soaring
the heavens; as Khepri, the scarab beetle, pushing a ball of dung out of
DEATH, RELIGION AND SURVIVAL

w h i c h , the E g y p t i a n s mistakenly thought, the beetle's offspring e m e r g e d

as the sun e m e r g e s each m o r n i n g ; as the A t u m , the actual disc o f the sun
itself, especially at m i d d a y ; and, in a fusion o f t w o manifestations, as R e ­
lic? H e r a k h t y , the h a w k on the horizon. A l t h o u g h they are at first confusing,
these different names and manifestations all represent one great g o d . A l l
w e r e w o r s h i p p e d at Heliopolis (but not o n l y at Heliopolis) and all w e r e
seen as simultaneous manifestations o f the singular, i m m a n e n t p o w e r o f
the unique g o d o f the sun.
In w h a t e v e r f o r m he manifested himself, the S u n - g o d traversed the sky
in a special boat, w h o s e ritual shape and e q u i p m e n t remained m u c h the
same t h r o u g h o u t E g y p t i a n history. T h e S u n - g o d ' s boat w a s originally
a papyrus raft and from this w e can deduce that the cult o f the S u n - g o d
w a s v e r y old indeed, g o i n g back certainly to a time before the E g y p t i a n s
k n e w h o w to build boats out o f w o o d . M i r i a m L i c h t h e i m has translated
Utterance 263, w h i c h she says is the oldest o f the P y r a m i d T e x t s concerned
w i t h crossing the s k y b y b o a t :

The sky's reed-jioats are launched for Re,

That he may cross on them to lightland;
The sky's reed-floats are launched for Herakhty,
That Herakhty may cross on them to Re;
The sky's reed-floats are launched for Unas,
That he may cross on them to lightland, to Re;
The sky's reed-floats are launched for Unas,
2
That he may cross on them to Herakhty, to Re.

T h e reed-floats are a p r i m i t i v e kind o f transport, p r o b a b l y nothing m o r e

than t w o b i g bundles o f papyrus b o u n d together. Later texts mention
boats, and w h a t is meant is almost certainly p a p y r i f o r m w o o d e n boats.
S o m e t i m e s the boat that crossed the d a y t i m e s k y w a s said to be the same
as that w h i c h m a d e the m o r e perilous j o u r n e y beneath the w o r l d t h r o u g h
the hours o f darkness w h e r e the A p o p i s serpent lay in w a i t to s w a l l o w
X/// the sun. A t other times, it w a s said that the g o d possessed a d a y t i m e boat
129 as w e l l as a night-time boat, the latter equipped w i t h special offerings
and m a g i c charms to w a r d off the dangers and evils o f the u n d e r w o r l d .
T h e priesthood o f Heliopolis w a s p o w e r f u l e n o u g h to d o m i n a t e the
r o y a l m o r t u a r y religion. B u t at s o m e time before the P y r a m i d T e x t s w e r e
carved on the walls o f K i n g U n a s ' p y r a m i d , the cult o f Osiris had b e c o m e
sufficiently important that the Heliopolitan priests felt it necessary to in­
corporate large parts o f the Osirian religion w i t h the sun-cult.
W e cannot say that the w o r s h i p o f Osiris is as old as that o f the sun,
although it seems likely that an agricultural society w o u l d w o r s h i p a fer-

150
120 The body of Nut the sky-goddess arched over the earth to form the vault of heaven. She was sometimes said to swallow the
sun-disc in the evening and expel it again each morning. Her husband Geb, the earth-god, reclines at her feet whilst her father,
Shu, the god of air, supports her.

tility g o d . S m a l l figures related to the cult o f Osiris and his sister-consort

Isis w e r e found in predynastic graves, dating f r o m before 3000 B C, at H e l -
w a n , on the east bank o f the N i l e opposite the ancient site o f M e m p h i s ,
but there is n o evidence o f a n y t h i n g earlier. A n o t h e r early religious d o c u ­
ment, the M e m p h i t e T h e o l o g y , a creation m y t h that s o m e scholars
believe m a y g o back to the First D y n a s t y , recounts the death o f Osiris
and the subsequent succession o f his son H o r u s , a m y t h o l o g i c a l re-
enactment o f the death and succession o f the k i n g , indicating that b y the
First D y n a s t y the legend w a s already w e l l established.
Osiris, Seth and Isis (together w i t h their sister N e p h t h y s w h o p l a y e d
a m i n o r role in the m y t h ) w e r e the offspring o f N u t the goddess o f the
sky (whose arched b o d y forms the vault o f heaven o v e r the reclining earth 120
in ancient portrayals) and the e a r t h - g o d G e b . G e b had g i v e n d o m i n i o n
o v e r the w o r l d to his first-born Osiris, but Seth, in a fit o f j e a l o u s y ,
m u r d e r e d his brother, d r o w n i n g h i m in the N i l e , or, in later texts, dis­
m e m b e r i n g h i m and scattering his parts o v e r E g y p t . Isis rescued Osiris,
and pulled his b o d y ashore at M e m p h i s . (In Plutarch's recounting, De
hide et Osiride, Isis j o u r n e y e d to B y b l o s w h e r e she found Osiris' b o d y
in a tree trunk that had been cut d o w n to m a k e a pillar for the palace

151
 DEATH, RELIGION AND SURVIVAL

o f the prince o f B y b l o s , but there is n o trace o f this interesting excursion

in the earlier texts.) Fluttering her w i n g s o v e r his r e c u m b e n t b o d y , Isis
reanimated Osiris sufficiently that she w a s able to c o n c e i v e a son, H o r u s , 121
born in the reed marshes o f the Delta w h e r e s o m e scholars suggest the
Osiris legend originated. A f t e r his reanimation, Osiris b e c a m e k i n g o f 112
the dead. H o r u s , legitimate heir to Osiris' earthly d o m i n i o n , determined
to a v e n g e his father, and after a terrible struggle w i t h his uncle, during
w h i c h Seth p l u c k e d out one o f his n e p h e w ' s eyes (the eyes o f H o r u s the
f a l c o n - g o d w e r e said to be the sun and the m o o n ) , Seth w a s vanquished
and the victorious H o r u s succeeded to his father's throne, his e y e restored
b y the intervention o f the m o o n - g o d T h o t h . In the w o r d s o f the M e m -
phite T h e o l o g y : ' H o r u s appeared as K i n g o f U p p e r E g y p t and appeared
as K i n g o f L o w e r E g y p t in the e m b r a c e o f his father Osiris [that is, p r o b ­
ably in the fed-embrace that w o u l d transfer to H o r u s the vital divine and
r o y a l force o f Osiris] together w i t h the gods w h o w e r e in front o f h i m
3
and w h o w e r e behind h i m . '
In p r i m i t i v e agricultural societies, the institution o f kingship is closely
connected w i t h the fertility o f the soil. It m a y be, as some scholars h a v e
suggested, that w h e n the k i n g ' s p o w e r w a s seen to be w a n i n g , that is,
w h e n crops failed o r in their natural season died off, the k i n g w a s killed
and buried in the earth, that his r e m a i n i n g p o w e r m i g h t contribute to
a n e w season's g r o w t h . It is a m y t h f r o m the deepest origins o f h u m a n
culture. C e r t a i n l y there is n o suggestion that such dark events took place
during E g y p t ' s historical period, but the hebsed festival, w i t h a ritual race
run r o u n d a court such as the hebsed court at K i n g Z o s e r ' s p y r a m i d at 12
Saqqara, seems to h a v e been a c e r e m o n y designed to rejuvenate s y m b o l i c ­
ally the k i n g ' s flagging p o w e r . B y the time the E g y p t i a n s entered on the
stage o f history, they had already e v o l v e d a higher p h i l o s o p h y than that
o f the simple c o r n - g o d , but w e can still trace, in the E g y p t i a n notion o f
kingship, elements o f a m o r e p r i m i t i v e fertility cult.
C u r i o u s l y , h o w e v e r , the original fertility g o d , Osiris, is the dead k i n g ,
(Opposite)
and it is his son, H o r u s , w h o is the l i v i n g k i n g , guarantor o f ma'et, the 121 Horus the child (Har-
order o f the universe on w h i c h depended the fertility o f m e n , animals pocrates) is indicated by the
side curl of hair which was
and agriculture. H o r u s , w h e t h e r in the Osiris l e g e n d o r as the f a l c o n - g o d
the traditional symbol of
o f the sun, bears n o trace o f an o r i g i n in the cult o f a vegetation g o d . childhood in ancient Egypt.
H e is a w a r r i o r , pure and simple, w h o avenges his father's m u r d e r and The divine figure of Horus
is deeply embedded in many
defends his rightful inheritance, E g y p t . conflicting Egyptian myth­
H o r u s the l i v i n g k i n g becomes Osiris the dead k i n g w h o is succeeded ologies, as the falconer
hawk-god of the heavens, as
b y H o r u s the l i v i n g k i n g in an u n c h a n g i n g cycle. Professor Frankfort the god of the sun and as the
claimed that the E g y p t i a n w o r d hm, c o m m o n l y translated 'majesty' as royal avenger of his father
Osiris. In this image he is
in the sense o f ' Y o u r M a j e s t y ' , should in fact be translated as 'incarnation' seen emerging from the pro­
o r ' e m b o d i m e n t ' . T h u s the g o d ' s p o w e r o r ka w o u l d be t e m p o r a r i l y tection of his mother Isis.

153
 DEATH, RELIGION AND SURVIVAL

122 manifest in the person o f C h e o p s o r Djedefre o r C h e p h r e n , but the i n d i v i -

(Opposite)
122 Horns as the protector
of the king holds Chephren
in his embrace, both trans-
mitting and preserving the
royal power. This is
another view of the mag-
nificent diorite statue first
seen in ill. ¡8.
duals themselves w e r e successive incarnations o f one g o d . I d o not k n o w
w h e t h e r this theory can be sustained o r not, but it does p r o v i d e an interest-
ing insight into the notion o f a kingship that is as u n c h a n g i n g and p e r -
petual as the notion o f ma'et.
T h e p y r a m i d s themselves w e r e o b v i o u s l y a reflection o f the cult o f the
S u n - g o d , but I h a v e dealt at s o m e length w i t h the Osiris legend because
b y the time o f the P y r a m i d A g e , the t w o cults had interpenetrated in
E g y p t i a n t h o u g h t about the afterlife. W e can see this interpénétration in
the c o s m o g o n y o f the Great Ennead, the nine great g o d s , w h i c h began
w i t h A t u m , the sun, as creator and p r i m e m o v e r . A t u m engendered S h u
(air) and Tefnut (moisture) and f r o m this couple came G e b and N u t , earth
and sky, w h o w e r e , as w e h a v e seen, the parents o f Osiris, Isis, Seth and
N e p h t h y s . Osiris w a s w o r s h i p p e d chiefly at A b y d o s w h e r e the G r e a t P r o -
cession w a s an annual event that attracted p i l g r i m s f r o m all o v e r E g y p t .
T h e y c a m e b y boat, and their boats w e r e usually some derivation o f the
p a p y r i f o r m craft o f the S u n - g o d . R e - A t u m w a s w o r s h i p p e d in m a n y
places in his m a n y manifestations, especially in later history, but Heliopolis
remained the centre o f o r t h o d o x t h e o l o g y , the R o m e o f the E g y p t i a n
w o r l d . Increasingly the Osiris cult came to dominate the religious think-
ing o f the E g y p t i a n s , but the sun-cult too remained important. L o n g after
the end o f the O l d K i n g d o m , A m o n , a local g o d o f T h e b e s , b e c a m e
A m o n - R e , g o d o f the sun and supreme g o d o f E g y p t , and the cult o f
the sun really b e c a m e w h a t a m o u n t e d to an official state religion. B u t
that is all later E g y p t i a n history and need not concern us here.
T h e religion o f the ancient E g y p t i a n s is a c o m p l e x and difficult subject,
partly b y its v e r y nature, w i t h its great pantheon o f gods and goddesses
and its apparently conflicting statements about the relationships o f g o d s
and m e n in the universe, and partly because our o w n t h o u g h t processes
are so v e r y different. W e can l o o k u p o n the E g y p t i a n s as people in a p r e -
logical state, w h o s i m p l y did not understand that m u t u a l l y exclusive p r o -
positions could not be true at one and the same time. O r w e can v i e w
them as people gifted w i t h an insight that w e h a v e since lost - that truth,
as a philosophical o r scientific o r m o r a l statement, is not exclusive but
rather inclusive and all-embracing.
I h a v e tried in this discussion to stay a w a y f r o m the m o r e controversial
problems o f E g y p t i a n religion. M u c h has been written about the subject,
and m u c h o f that, unfortunately, has been nonsense. I w a n t e d to g i v e i n -
stead a brief s u r v e y o f E g y p t i a n attitudes t o w a r d s death and the afterlife
and the role o f the k i n g therein, during the period o f the O l d K i n g d o m ,
so that the reader w i l l at least h a v e s o m e guidance in the chapter that
follows.

154
123 A model of the Royal Ship, built by Ahmed Youssef Moustafa. Although the canopy in the model has been extended to the
baldachin, in the actual reconstruction the two do not touch and the baldachin is much farther forward.
 C H A P T E R EIGHT

Conclusion

W h y did the E g y p t i a n s build an e n o r m o u s , f o r t y - t h r e e - m e t r e - l o n g

w o o d e n ship to simulate a h u m b l e raft o f b o u n d bundles o f p a p y r u s ? A n d ,
h a v i n g d o n e so, w h y did they then proceed to dismantle the ship and
b u r y it for eternity in the pit n e x t to the p y r a m i d ?
T h e answers to these questions seem to lie in that most ancient and
enduring E g y p t i a n m y t h , the j o u r n e y o f the S u n - g o d a r o u n d the heavens
in his R e e d Float. P a p y r i f o r m boats w e r e built in a deliberate imitation
o f the S u n - g o d ' s raft, and in the earliest depictions that w e k n o w , the
shape o f the S u n - g o d ' s vessel closely resembles that o f the R o y a l Ship.
E v e n as late as the T w e n t y - s i x t h D y n a s t y , the sun-boat, painted piously
on coffins and papyrus texts, although it w a s often subject to artistic v a r i a ­
tions, continued to l o o k v e r y m u c h like C h e o p s ' great craft.
T h e S u n - g o d travelled b y boat, because that w a s v i r t u a l l y the o n l y
m e t h o d o f transport k n o w n to the E g y p t i a n s , at least in the O l d K i n g d o m .
A n d he travelled in a raft o f b o u n d papyrus p r e s u m a b l y because the m y t h
w a s so old that it antedated a time w h e n the E g y p t i a n s k n e w about and
could build w o o d e n ships. T h e p a p y r u s raft then gained a certain religious
significance b y association w i t h the S u n - g o d , and it maintained that sig­
nificance despite its m o r e practical and prosaic functions. B u t reed perishes
q u i c k l y , as the E g y p t i a n s , constantly repairing and rebuilding their marsh
boats, k n e w w e l l . F o r the hereafter a m o r e enduring material w a s needed.
W o o d , especially Lebanese c e d a r w o o d , w a s not o n l y peculiarly long-last­
ing, but it w a s also i m b u e d w i t h a sacred and r o y a l significance that m a d e
it the ideal material for the k i n g ' s imperishable R e e d Float, a duplicate
o f that o f the S u n - g o d .
T o say that the k i n g ' s p a p y r i f o r m boat duplicated the S u n - g o d ' s is not
to say that they had the same functions. A t this stage o f o u r k n o w l e d g e
about the O l d K i n g d o m , the question o f w h y this magnificent cedar vessel
w a s buried n e x t to C h e o p s ' Great P y r a m i d cannot be a n s w e r e d for c e r ­
tain, t h o u g h a n y n u m b e r o f assertions h a v e been and w i l l continue to
be m a d e .
N o t h i n g else quite like the R o y a l S h i p has e v e r been found. T h e D a h ­
shur boats, w h i c h are the closest thing to it, w e r e assumed b y their e x c a v a - 100, 101

157
CONCLUSION

tor to h a v e been part o f the burial e q u i p m e n t o f K i n g Sesostris III, but

recently serious doubts h a v e been raised as to w h e t h e r they h a v e a n y c o n ­
nection at all w i t h that i m p o r t a n t T w e l f t h D y n a s t y k i n g . T h e y are in
a n y case h a r d l y o f the scale o r elegance o r magnificence o f the R o y a l
Ship.
B o a t - g r a v e s , w h i c h w e assume once held actual boats (but did they
a l w a y s ?), o c c u r as far as w e k n o w at o n l y t w o periods in E g y p t i a n h i s t o r y :
during the A r c h a i c P e r i o d o f the First and S e c o n d Dynasties in the r o y a l
graves at Saqqara and in the necropolis o f the nobles across the r i v e r at
H e l w a n ; and d u r i n g the F o u r t h D y n a s t y , p r i m a r i l y at G i z a , w i t h the
e x c e p t i o n o f Djedefre's boat-pit n e x t to his p y r a m i d at A b u R o a s h . ( B u t
the p y r a m i d at A b u R o a s h m a y h a v e been intended b y its builder to define
the northern limits o f an eventual p y r a m i d field that w o u l d b e g i n w i t h
C h e o p s ' Great P y r a m i d at Giza.) A t the end o f the Fifth D y n a s t y o r the
b e g i n n i n g o f the S i x t h D y n a s t y K i n g U n a s had t w o boat-pits, each about
fifty metres l o n g and lined in w h i t e T u r a limestone, d u g in the b e d r o c k
to the south o f the fine c o v e r e d C a u s e w a y that led f r o m his Saqqara p y r a ­
m i d to its V a l l e y T e m p l e . E x c e p t for these, and the T w e l f t h D y n a s t y boats
that m a y h a v e b e l o n g e d to Sesostris III, w e k n o w o f n o other boat-pits
after the close o f the F o u r t h D y n a s t y . *
It is altogether possible that boat-pits w e r e a continuous tradition f r o m
the First D y n a s t y right up to the reign o f K i n g U n a s o r even later, and
that w e h a v e either not found most o f them o r that e v i d e n c e o f them
has been destroyed in previous excavations. B u t there are significant dif­
ferences b e t w e e n the early A r c h a i c boat-pits and the later ones o f the
Fourth D y n a s t y that m a k e m e think w e are possibly seeing t w o different
traditions.
In the first place, each o f the earlier boat-pits w a s located to the north
o f a g r a v e . ( T h e f e w exceptions to this rule m a y w e l l p r o v e on e x a m i n a ­
tion to be mistaken attributions that should in fact be t h o u g h t o f as b e l o n g ­
ing to graves that are to the south o f the boat-pits concerned.) A n o t h e r
difference o f possible significance is that the A r c h a i c P e r i o d boat-pits seem
a l w a y s to h a v e been single pits connected each w i t h an individual g r a v e .
In the Fourth D y n a s t y , on the other hand, w e often h a v e g r o u p s o f b o a t -
pits located on several sides o f the p y r a m i d g r a v e and not restricted to
the north alone.
M o s t , perhaps all, o f the F o u r t h D y n a s t y b o a t - g r a v e s are connected
w i t h reigning monarchs. A l t h o u g h the A r c h a i c boat-pits at Saqqara seem

* Another construction frequently mentioned along with boat-graves is the 'solar barque' of King
Niuserre in the Fifth Dynasty. It was a model boat built of mud-brick south of the sun temple
constructed by this king near Abusir, but as it was unconnected with his pyramid or his burial,
I feel it has no part in the present discussion.

I 8
5
 CONCLUSION

124 Painted on a limestone block near the

pyramid of Mycerinus at Giza, this boat
hieroglyph is thought by some archaeologists
to indicate the presence of at least one boat-
pit in association with this pyramid.

also to h a v e been connected w i t h r o y a l g r a v e s , it is not at all clear w h e t h e r

the graves at H e l w a n w e r e o f r o y a l t y o n l y , o r o f the n o b i l i t y and other
citizens as w e l l . T h e e x c a v a t o r , Z a k i Saad, certainly believed that the H e l ­
w a n burials w e r e not e x c l u s i v e l y r o y a l .
In the F o u r t h D y n a s t y , C h e o p s had five boat-pits that w e presently
k n o w of, C h e p h r e n possibly had six, and at the p y r a m i d o f M y c e r i n u s ,
the smallest o f the three G i z a p y r a m i d s , a boat h i e r o g l y p h has been found 124
that s o m e archaeologists believe m a y indicate the presence o f at least one
b o a t - g r a v e here as w e l l . S e v e r a l small boat-pits seem to b e l o n g to the
subsidiary p y r a m i d s n e x t to the G r e a t P y r a m i d . T h e s e little p y r a m i d s are
traditionally ascribed to C h e o p s ' principal queens, but there is not a great
deal o f evidence to support the assertion. E g y p t i a n c u s t o m generally p r o ­
v i d e d for o n l y one G r e a t Q u e e n , usually, as w e h a v e seen, the eldest
daughter o f the p r e v i o u s ruler, t h o u g h a k i n g m i g h t h a v e several w i v e s
in addition to his concubines. It seems o d d that C h e o p s w o u l d h a v e had
three principal queens. Perhaps these p y r a m i d s had s o m e other function
in the r o y a l burial scheme.
A t the end o f the dynasty Q u e e n K h e n t k a w e s had a boat-pit on the
southwest corner o f her most peculiar g r a v e , neither p y r a m i d n o r m a s -
taba, near the S p h i n x at G i z a , but a g o o d a r g u m e n t can be m a d e that
K h e n t k a w e s w a s a reigning m o n a r c h herself, the last ruler o f the F o u r t h
D y n a s t y , despite the fact that she w a s a w o m a n . Djedefre, o f course, had
o n l y one boat-pit that w e k n o w of, but his p y r a m i d c o m p l e x is in such
a ruinous condition that there m a y v e r y w e l l h a v e been others w h i c h h a v e
since disappeared.

159
CONCLUSION

T h e r e are then these significant differences b e t w e e n the A r c h a i c Period

b o a t - g r a v e s and those o f the Fourth D y n a s t y : their location in relation
to the g r a v e s ; the n u m b e r o f pits attached to a g r a v e ; and the presence
o r absence o f a r o y a l connection. T h e early Saqqara boat-pits are also a
g o o d deal smaller than the later ones, a v e r a g i n g b e t w e e n ten and fifteen
metres l o n g , w i t h n o n e l o n g e r than t w e n t y metres. W h a t are w e to m a k e
o f this? Is it possible, as has been suggested, that the A r c h a i c boat-burials,
situated to the north o f the g r a v e s , h a v e to d o w i t h a stellar cult, one
that w a s a l w a y s present to a greater o r lesser degree in E g y p t i a n religion
but that seems to h a v e been strongest just before the dynastic period, w h e n
it w a s taken o v e r , absorbed into the cults o f Osiris and o f the S u n - g o d ?
M a n y (although not all) E g y p t o l o g i s t s feel that the v e r y earliest
Utterances in the P y r a m i d T e x t s reflect this belief in a stellar cult that
w o u l d require the deceased to j o u r n e y to the stars or to j o i n in an afterlife
circuit o f the pole star, eternally w h e e l i n g , b y boat o f course, a r o u n d this
fixed northern point.
I h a v e not dealt m u c h in the p r e v i o u s chapter w i t h the stellar aspects
o f E g y p t i a n religion, because it is not really relevant to the P y r a m i d A g e
w i t h w h i c h w e h a v e been dealing. I noted earlier that the stars w e r e s o m e ­
times t h o u g h t o f as has, the bird-souls o f the deceased. T h e E g y p t i a n s also
sometimes described their dead kings as h a v i n g ascended to the stars, parti­
cularly to the stars that r e v o l v e d eternally a r o u n d the pole star. These
c i r c u m p o l a r stars w e r e called in the P y r a m i d T e x t s the Indestructible Stars
or the Imperishable Stars. B y the b e g i n n i n g o f the dynastic period, the
stellar cult is believed to h a v e diminished from its earlier importance, but
perhaps the northern location o f the early boat-pits reflects a lingering
tradition. C e r t a i n l y the northern placement o f the entrance to the p y r a ­
mids, w h i c h continued right t h r o u g h the P y r a m i d A g e , reflects beliefs
connected w i t h the earlier cult. R a t h e r than entrance, w e should perhaps
think o f it as an exit, the passage for the king's spirit to the stars.
If the earlier boats w e r e intended to transport the deceased to the stars,
w e r e the Fourth D y n a s t y boats, then, reflecting the p r e d o m i n a n c e at that
time o f the solar cult, meant to carry the dead king on his j o u r n e y w i t h
the S u n - g o d ? It is an a n s w e r that is often g i v e n and that is argued f o r c e ­
fully b y K a m a l e l - M a l l a k h , the discoverer o f the boat-pits, w h o has
referred to the R o y a l Ship as a 'solar b a r q u e ' from the v e r y b e g i n n i n g .
M a l l a k h believes that the reconstructed R o y a l Ship represents the m'ndt,
the boat in w h i c h the S u n - g o d crosses the d a y t i m e sky. T h e second, u n ­
opened boat-pit on the p y r a m i d ' s south face, he feels, w i l l be found to
contain the n i g h t - t i m e boat, the mskt.t, w h i c h , in keeping w i t h the m o r e
perilous nature o f the night j o u r n e y , w i l l be a c c o m p a n i e d b y offerings
to w a r d off the dangers o f the night.

160
 CONCLUSION

O t h e r archaeologists and E g y p t o l o g i s t s h a v e pointed out that the S u n -

g o d has a boat o f his o w n already. T h e dead k i n g w a s said to travel in
that boat and w o u l d therefore, to the literal-minded E g y p t i a n s , h a v e n o
need for another boat at all, at least as far as his solar j o u r n e y s w e r e c o n ­
cerned. M o r e o v e r , they argue, n o n e o f the attributes that are traditionally
found a c c o m p a n y i n g the solar barque w e r e found in the pit. These
attributes v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y : they m i g h t be the r a m - h e a d e d o r h a w k -
headed figure o f the S u n - g o d himself; or the disc o f the sun, the A t u m ; ng
o r the K h e p r i d u n g - b e e t l e ; o r the steps that m a y represent a ladder to
heaven and that m a n y E g y p t o l o g i s t s believe is the o r i g i n o f the f o r m o f
the Step P y r a m i d ; o r the curious blade-like instrument that is sometimes
called an executioner's knife. O n e o r several o f these attributes is a l w a y s
present to signify that a p a p y r i f o r m boat is in fact a solar barque and not
an o r d i n a r y funerary o r p i l g r i m a g e boat. A n o t h e r typical feature o f the
solar b a r q u e is a strange rectangular mat or fringe that hangs off the b o w 1 lg
post and that appears to be m a d e o f w o v e n reeds, perhaps in a s y m b o l i c
reference to the Field or M a r s h o f R e e d s t h r o u g h w h i c h the sun-boat
passes before it emerges at d a w n . T h e boat o f the S u n - g o d is n e v e r s h o w n
w i t h either sails o r oars, t h o u g h usually it has t w o o r m o r e steering-oars
slung off the after deck. B e i n g divine, it needs n o h u m a n or other p r o p u l ­
sion. N o t one o f these devices, as w e h a v e seen, w a s included w i t h the
R o y a l S h i p , and o f course the v e r y presence o f the five pairs o f oars, s y m ­
bolic t h o u g h their function m a y h a v e been, is an a r g u m e n t against the
solar barque.
A h m e d Y o u s s e f M o u s t a f a is c o n v i n c e d that the R o y a l Ship w a s not
intended as a s y m b o l i c means o f transport but w a s actually used - at least
once, if not several times. H e bases his j u d g m e n t on evidence f r o m the
ship itself: across certain o f the 'baffles', b o o m e r a n g - s h a p e d pieces o f
w o o d that w e r e inserted to relieve the great strain o f the rope bindings
on the w o o d , as w e l l as in other places, the w o o d w a s m a r k e d , scarred
as it w e r e , b y the ropes w h i c h , in shrinking, had left a clear imprint 125
on the water-softened w o o d . H a g A h m e d calls the R o y a l Ship a
'funerary b a r q u e ' . H e believes that it w a s used perhaps o n l y once, to trans­
port the dead k i n g ' s b o d y in a s o l e m n funeral procession f r o m M e m p h i s ,
the capital, d o w n - r i v e r to the r o y a l burial g r o u n d at G i z a . W e can see
a similar kind o f procession in a late papyrus, f r o m the T w e n t y - f i r s t
D y n a s t y , about 1000 B C , in the British M u s e u m . C a l l e d ' T h e B o o k o f 126
the D e a d o f Q u e e n N e j m t ' , it s h o w s precisely the same lines as the R o y a l
Ship in a p a p y r i f o r m funerary b a r q u e that is being d r a w n on a sledge
across the desert to the necropolis. ( O n e recalls that the D a h s h u r boats
had been found w i t h the remnants o f a sledge that had o b v i o u s l y been
used for the same purpose, to pull the boats f r o m the river's e d g e to the

161
C O N C L U S I O N

burying ground.) The mummy of the deceased queen - or of her consort,

the High Priest of Amun - is presumably inside the cabin which looks
astonishingly similar in construction to the cabin on the R o y a l Ship,
although it lacks a canopy.
The R o y a l Ship, in its journey from Memphis to Giza, would have
been towed by smaller craft, though it would have depended on the strong
river current for its main propulsion. The priests and nobles and royal
sons who manned the oars, including the two great steering-oars, would
have been there for symbolic reasons as well as to help keep the ship on
course. A witness to the stately procession would inevitably have been
reminded of the passage in the Pyramid Texts referring to the ferrying
of the dead king across the waters to the hereafter. Once again in Egyptian
belief, actual and symbolic acts interpenetrate, enriching each other with
both reality and magic.
Hag Ahmed believes that the R o y a l Ship was built on purpose as a
funerary barque, that is, that it was not part of the royal fleet comman­
deered after the king's death for this sacred use. Papyriform boats are usu­
ally shown painted green amidships and yellow ochre at each end, with
127 the all-seeing, all-protective wedjat-eye drawn on either side of the bow.
Björn Landström, who is not an Egyptologist but who probably knows
more about ancient Egyptian ships and ship-building than any person
alive, detects in the fact that the R o y a l Ship's hull is unpainted and mi-
decorated, evidence that the ship was built in a hurry - for a last pil­
grimage, Landström speculates, carrying the king's mummy to the holy
places of Egypt, Sais, Buto and Abydos.
D r Iskander, in charge of chemical restoration of the boat, would con­
cur with the idea of a hasty construction, for he believes that the R o y a l
Ship was actually built on the Giza plateau next to the already dug grave
- built, dismantled and buried all in one operation. D r Iskander's con­
clusion is based on the presence, in the mud plaster that covered the lime­
stone blocks over the pit, of many sizeable pieces of cedar, acacia and other
woods that had been used in the ship's construction, such as would have

125 Hag Ahmed Youssef believes that the

Royal Ship must have been used at least
once, for only shrinking ropes pulled tautly
across soft wet wood could have left such clear
impressions as these on the seam battens in­
side the ship's hull.

l62
 C O N C L U S I O N

126 A late papyrus, from the Twenty-first Dynasty, shows a boat similar to the Royal Ship being drawn on a sledge. The cabin,
which bears a curious resemblance to that on Cheops' boat, encloses the coffin of Queen Nejmt (or of her husband, the High Priest
of Amun) which is being borne to its resting place in the tomb. The Royal Ship, in similar fashion, may have borne the coffin
of Cheops, drawn on a sledge up the Causeway to the Great Pyramid.

been left by boatwrights in the normal course of operation. The question

that continues to puzzle is w h y the pit was so much shorter than the boat.
The only sensible answer has to be that the ship's exact measurements
for some reason were not available to the people who were excavating
the pit, which would dispose of Dr Iskander's theory, but would still leave
unexplained the carpentry debris left behind. I. E. S. Edwards, former
Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities at the British Museum, takes a more
cautious view. Assuming that all the boat-pits around Cheops' pyramid
once contained actual boats, he suggests that some of the boats were used
in the funeral ceremonies and processions, while others were intended 'to
provide the dead king with a means of transport in his After-life'. The
distinguished Egyptologist J . E. Cerny supported this theory; the R o y a l
Ship and her sister, he felt, were for the eastern and western voyaging
of the dead king, while the empty pits on the east face of the pyramid
probably once contained the boats for the northern and southern journeys,
and the now empty pit next to the Causeway the king's actual funerary
barge.
Throughout Egyptian history, the use of papyriform boats seems to
have been restricted to events that had a religious or cultic significance
- as pilgrimage boats, for instance, especially to the important site of
Abydos, sacred to Osiris, where every Egyptian hoped to journey if not
annually, at least once in his lifetime; or as funerary boats, to transport
1 2 7 The wedjat-eye was
the mummy across the river to the necropolis on the west bank; or as often painted as a protective
vehicles for the transport of important gods. In this last case, the religious device on the bows of ships,
particularly of papyriform
significance was doubly emphasized, for in later times (and probably craft. The absence of any
earlier as well) the image of the god - Amon, for instance - was exhibited decoration whatsoever on
the Royal Ship suggests
in a papyriform barque, a fabulous vessel of gold encrusted with precious that she was constructed
stones, never meant to be placed in the water but rather to be borne aloft hastily.

163
 C O N C L U S I O N

on the shoulders of the priests or other members of the religious procession

- and then to be placed in the seat of honour on an actual papyriform
barge, gilded equally lavishly, which was floated across the Nile during
the annual Feast of the Valley when A m o n visited the holy places of
Thebes.
W e have seen that the sacred form most probably originated in the
R e e d Float of the Sun-god which was itself a throw-back to a time when
the Egyptians knew virtually no other form of transport. Translated into
the permanence of cedar, which had special connotations of immortality,
it became the king's transport as well. It seems altogether possible that
the king never travelled anywhere for any reason in anything but a papyri­
form boat. Like so many royal privileges, this one too could be offered
to selected people whom the king wished to honour, in the same way
that he might also offer them a statue for their tomb, or a piece of land
the income from which would secure food and drink offerings for
eternity. In this way, many of the mortuary rites and customs that had
been restricted to royalty in the Old Kingdom had, before the Twelfth
Dynasty (that is, c. 1900 B C ) , become privileges that were assumed to
be rights of the noble classes. Later still, these same privileges of burial
rite and equipment would become available to anyone who had the means
to pay for them.
B y the Twelfth Dynasty, the Pyramid Texts had also been adopted
by the nobility and, with some changes and developments, painted on
130 the interiors of coffins - whence they derive their later name of Coffin
Texts. Just as it was now too expensive to carve these spells on the walls

128 This unfinished relief in the Deir el-Bahri (Thebes) tomb of Nespekashuti dates from the seventh century B C and shows a
papyriform pilgrimage boat, nearly 2000 years after the construction of Cheops' Royal Ship, being towed by another craft. The
relief is labelled ' The Return from Abydos', the city sacred to Osiris to which every Egyptian hoped to make the pilgrimage at
least once in his lifetime.
1 2 9 The night boat of the sun, in a preliminary drawing for an unfinished relief carving in the Eighteenth
Dynasty tomb of Horemhab. The ram-headed Sun-god is protected by two serpents, within and without the
shrine.

of tombs, so no one could afford to bury actual boats with the deceased.
The custom then grew up of placing models in the tombs - a delightful 131
custom that has granted us an extremely privileged look at daily life in
ancient Egypt - charming models of carpenters' shops, of potters' studios,
of laundries, bakeries, butchers, and many, many models of boats. Already
around 2000 B C the nobleman Meketre was buried at Thebes with a
dozen of these model boats, and w e must believe that these represented
exact replicas of the little fleet that a man of Meketre's standing would
have maintained in real life. There were four travelling boats, two under
sail and two to be rowed, two kitchen tenders to accompany the travelling
boats on voyages and provide for the crew as well as passengers, and four
papyriform 'yachts', to use their excavator's terminology, looking very
1
much like miniatures of King Cheops' R o y a l Ship. Painted green and
ochre, these must have represented Meketre's pilgrimage and funerary
vessels, to enable him to continue 'on the celestial Nile' the voyages he
had made in his lifetime. Not all Egyptians, by any means, could have

130 The serpent is both protector and adversary. Here

Osiris, on a painted coffin cover, lies in the starry under­
world, guarded by the serpent. But the serpent must be
defeated before Osiris can be resurrected, and the Dragon
of Darkness, Apopis, must be overcome before the sun's
boat can emerge into the new dawn.
 i j i This delightful model car­
penter's shop is from the same Ele­
venth Dynasty Theban tomb as the
papyriform model boat (ill. 106). The
sawyer in the foreground is using a
pull-saw (modern saws are pushed
rather than pulled).

maintained such a fleet, but almost all Egyptians would have needed a
papyriform pilgrimage and burial boat. Those who could not afford a
special vessel reserved for this purpose would perhaps, as w e have specu­
lated, have added papyriform stem and stern pieces to an ordinary travel­
ling boat, and it seems quite possible that these would have been socketed
on in precisely the same way the stem and stern pieces are socketed on
to the R o y a l Ship.
It has been suggested that the R o y a l Ship is part of just such a flotilla,
106, 107, XII on a grander scale, as the model one buried with Meketre. In Cheops'
case they could have been either ships used in his lifetime or special ones
constructed for his burial equipment. They may have been used to carry
to the pyramid his mummy in its coffin, his mummified viscera, perhaps
in an alabaster container like that of Queen Hetep-heres, and all the royal
funerary paraphernalia, burial equipment and offerings for his happiness
and well-being in the afterlife. The boats were then buried for the king's
use in eternity.

The Royal Ship today

The R o y a l Ship of King Cheops is the oldest, the largest and the best-
preserved of any ancient ship that has ever been found, an extraordinary
testimony to the technological skill of the ancient Egyptians and a precious

166
 C O N C L U S I O N

clue to the origins of maritime history. It is all the more a pity, then,
that this unique find, so carefully and intelligently restored by Ahmed
Youssef Moustafa, should be left virtually exposed to the elements in a
museum that is at best inadequate and at worst a downright threat to the 4, IV
ship's survival. 'The wooden parts of the boat', wrote the late Dr Abdel
Moneim Abubakr in 1 9 7 1 , 'were as hard and new as if they had been
placed there but a year ago.' Kamal el-Mallakh recalls that when
he opened the pit in 1954 the original colour of the w o o d was warm and
light and 'so highly polished that I could sometimes see my own reflection
in a piece of side planking'. These statements, unfortunately, are no longer
true. Despite all the attention that continues to be given to the boat, prin­
cipally by Hag Ahmed Youssef who maintains a constant check on the
condition of the ancient timbers, the ship will not be safe until it is decently
housed, and protected from temperature and humidity fluctuations as well
as from the danger of fire, which would be disastrous on the nearly water­
less desert plateau.

132 View along the port side of the reconstructed Royal Ship towards the how. The internal ropes stitching the ship together are
just visible between the hull timbers, though originally none would have been seen from the outside.
 CONCLUSION

E x p e r t s in the preservation o f ancient w o o d agree that the ideal situation

for the restored boat w o u l d be to duplicate as nearly as possible the c o n d i ­
tions in the pit, conditions that preserved the ship nearly intact for s o m e
four and a half millennia. E v e n w i t h the best air conditioning unit i m a g i n ­
able these conditions w o u l d be difficult to maintain in a glass house in
0
the desert. T h e temperature in the pit w a s fairly constant at 2 2 C e n t i g r a d e .
T h e temperature in the m u s e u m is often m o r e than t w i c e that. B u t h i g h
temperatures and d r y air are not in themselves such g r a v e p r o b l e m s as
are the fluctuations in temperature and h u m i d i t y . W o o d , e v e n 4 , 5 0 0 - y e a r -
old w o o d , is a natural l i v i n g m e d i u m , reacting to its e n v i r o n m e n t ,
e x p a n d i n g and contracting w i t h heat and cold, moisture and dryness.
S u c h continual changes, often taking place o v e r a short period o f time,
strain these ancient timbers to the b r e a k i n g point, and there is almost n o t h ­
ing that can be d o n e to counteract t h e m short o f c h a n g i n g the e n v i r o n ­
m e n t in w h i c h the boat n o w rests.
It w o u l d seem to be a simple e n o u g h chore, to redesign the glass
m u s e u m , or to build an entirely n e w m u s e u m , to house the R o y a l S h i p
in a w o r t h y setting and a p r o p e r e n v i r o n m e n t - simple, and not v e r y
costly w h e n measured, for instance, against the a m o u n t o f m o n e y that
w a s spent to rescue the N u b i a n m o n u m e n t s threatened b y the H i g h D a m
at A s w a n . M o n e y c o u l d certainly be found for such an i m p o r t a n t project,
and g o o d w i l l too is not lacking, as H a g A h m e d has s h o w n . B u t m o n e y
and g o o d w i l l alone cannot s o l v e the p r o b l e m . S o m e t h i n g m o r e is needed.
F r o m the d a y o f its d i s c o v e r y , the R o y a l S h i p has been the v i c t i m o f w h a t
inevitably appears to an outsider to be petty bureaucratic politicking and
crude j o c k e y i n g for public r e c o g n i t i o n . Individual pride and national
h o n o u r help to confuse the p r o b l e m : it is e x t r e m e l y difficult for the E g y p ­
tians to admit that a p r o b l e m does exist and to accept the fact that foreign
help, b o t h financial and technological, w i l l be necessary to s o l v e it. T h e
prospect o f losing the boat t h r o u g h n e g l i g e n c e and indifference is h o r r i f y ­
ing, but, to E g y p t ' s shame, it is a v e r y real possibility. W h a t can be d o n e
to save it?
P r o b a b l y the o n l y w a y in the end to control w h a t happens to the boat
and to w h a t is assumed to be the sister ship in the second pit is t h r o u g h
the establishment o f a national o r better, e v e n an international, c o m m i s ­
sion, under E g y p t i a n control but d r a w i n g freely on the expertise and e x ­
periences o f the great n u m b e r o f m a r i t i m e m u s e u m s that h a v e been estab­
(Opposite) lished lately in N o r t h e r n E u r o p e and A m e r i c a . S u c h a c o m m i s s i o n must
133 Looking up at the port h a v e an independent authority in o r d e r to distance itself as m u c h as poss­
side stern section - the ible f r o m the politicking that has d o g g e d the boat in the past. A n d it w o u l d
majestic sweep of the ship is
supported by a series of steel need financial independence sufficient to build and maintain a p r o p e r
stanchions. m u s e u m that w o u l d be l a r g e e n o u g h for both boats - and to m a k e possible

168
 CONCLUSION

the e x c a v a t i o n and restoration, under H a g A h m e d Y o u s s e f ' s supervision,

(Opposite)
¡34 The papyriform stem
section of the ship with the
two steering oars.
o f the sister craft.
B u t the p r o b l e m is not w i t h the boats alone. T h e entire G i z a plateau,
in fact the w h o l e stretch o f p y r a m i d fields south at least as far as Saqqara,
faces t w o threats: the expansion o f the city o f C a i r o , w h o s e population
has m o r e than trebled in the last dozen years, and the tourist b o o m that,
w i t h optimistic solutions in sight for E g y p t ' s external political problems,
has already b e g u n on a mass scale. E v e n today an extension o f the p y r a m i d
road leads up to the plateau itself, crosses right o v e r the black basalt p a v -
ing-stones o f K i n g C h e o p s ' M o r t u a r y T e m p l e , and s w i n g s out b e t w e e n
the t w o main p y r a m i d s t o w a r d s 'Sahara C i t y ' , a n e w l y fashionable
suburb, w h e r e unattractive b u n g a l o w s m a r the horizon, in full v i e w of,
and d o m i n a t i n g , the sacred burial g r o u n d o f E g y p t ' s ancient kings. U n d e r
the aspect o f eternity it is all a little ridiculous, a testament to m o d e r n
folly and greed. U n f o r t u n a t e l y it is likely to get m u c h w o r s e before it
ever gets even slightly better. A l r e a d y it is almost impossible to see the
p y r a m i d s as V i v a n t D e n o n s a w them w h e n he c a m e out w i t h N a p o l e o n
in 1 7 9 8 , 'in that refined and transparent c o l o u r i n g they o w e to the i m -
mense v o l u m e o f air surrounding them T h e great distance f r o m w h i c h
they can be perceived m a k e s them appear diaphanous, tinted w i t h the
bluish tone o f the s k y , and restores to t h e m the perfection and purity o f
2
the angles w h i c h the centuries h a v e m a r r e d . ' T h e s e days, f r o m a great
distance the p y r a m i d s too often cannot be perceived at all, o w i n g to the
industrial and a u t o m o b i l e pollution that stains the air for miles around
Cairo.
It has been proposed that the entire area surrounding the p y r a m i d s for
several miles be ceded to the D e p a r t m e n t o f Antiquities in perpetuity as
archaeological territory. T h e existing settlement at Sahara C i t y w o u l d be
dismantled before it has a chance to s w e l l any further, and the boundaries
o f 'Pacific Properties', a questionable v e n t u r e into tourist d e v e l o p m e n t
b y a H o n g K o n g real-estate speculator, w o u l d b e kept sufficiently far
a w a y to be invisible f r o m the heights o f the plateau. A d m i s s i o n to the
p y r a m i d area w o u l d be restricted to ticket-holders, and transportation b y
electric m o t o r carts w i t h i n the area w o u l d be under the supervision o f
the D e p a r t m e n t o f Antiquities w i t h n o private vehicles a l l o w e d . T h e in-
c o m e thus accumulated (surprisingly n o admission fee is presently charged
at the G i z a p y r a m i d s and at S a q q a r a the fee is m i n i m a l ) w o u l d p a y for
guards, guides and maintenance o f the m o n u m e n t s - including o f course
the R o y a l S h i p - w i t h a healthy s u m left o v e r to support further e x c a v a -
tion and restoration. If it all sounds a little bit like D i s n e y l a n d - o n - t h e -
N i l e , one must r e m e m b e r that the alternative is uncontrolled d e v e l o p -
ment led b y the w o r s t kind o f p r o p e r t y speculators and corrupt and

170
CONCLUSION

unscrupulous politicians w h o will sell off bit by bit not only Egypt's heri­
tage but also one of her major sources of income in the future.
Under this scheme the R o y a l Ship would be properly housed in a con­
trolled and stabilized environment, and the second pit would be un­
covered and its contents excavated and reconstructed under the super­
vision of Hag Ahmed Youssef. In the second boat-pit obviously lie
answers to many of the questions that the first boat has raised. In a certain
sense, the form as well as the function of the R o y a l Ship will never be
fully understood until the second pit is opened. But it must not be opened
until the first boat can be properly maintained. The R o y a l Ship was exca­
vated and reconstructed with the most painstaking methods, with the
wise, and indeed, loving attention of the men who were involved, Kamal
el-Mallakh, Salah Osman who supervised the removal of the blocks, Zaki
Nour, in charge of the pyramids region, Zaki Iskander, Abdel Moneim
Abubakr, and of course Ahmed Youssef Moustafa. It is a pity that the
R o y a l Ship has been left to fend for herself in the inappropriate environ­
ment of the glass museum; it would be a tragedy if this magnificent ritual
vessel, having survived forty-five centuries with a minimum of damage,
were to disappear, because of our negligence and indifference, within our
own lifetimes.

'35 Just two of the dozens of different knots that held together the various
sections of the Royal Ship-and that, reconstructed in modern rope, continue
to hold her together today.

172
ij6 The Royal Ship today in the museum at Giza; the fans that stir the air and provide the only kind
of temperature and humidity control can be seen along the balcony in the middle left of the picture.
Acknowledgments

I a m grateful to the f o l l o w i n g individuals for the w e l l as their k n o w l e d g e o f ancient E g y p t i a n

help they g a v e m e and the patient courtesy w i t h
w h i c h m y questions w e r e answered and m y
needs w e r e m e t : to M a e T r a d , librarian o f that
unique institution, the C h i c a g o H o u s e L i b r a r y
in L u x o r ; to D r Lionel C a s s o n o f N e w Y o r k
U n i v e r s i t y , p r o b a b l y the w o r l d ' s leading auth­
ority on ancient ships, ship-building and m a r i ­
time trade; to K a m a l e l - M a l l a k h , Z a k i Iskander
and L a b i b H a b a c h i , a m o n g the m a n y E g y p t ­
ologists in that c o u n t r y and elsewhere w h o so
generously shared their m e m o r i e s o f the dis­
c o v e r y and reconstruction o f the R o y a l S h i p as
civilization; and o f course to H a g A h m e d Y o u s -
sef M o u s t a f a , w h o s e p r o f o u n d understanding o f
e v e r y aspect o f the R o y a l Ship's history and
construction m a d e it possible for this b o o k to
be written.
Special thanks are due to D r W i l l i a m W a r d
o f the A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y o f B e i r u t w h o in­
troduced m e to E g y p t o l o g y m a n y years a g o ; to
Christine S t u r k e n for her indefatigable efforts as
translator, hostess and friend; and to m y hus­
band L o r e n Jenkins for his support and patience
and undiminished enthusiasm.

N o t e s on t h e t e x t

Chapter Two differences and similarities in early times see

B a u m g a r t e l , E . The Cultures of Prehistoric
1 F o r a spirited defence o f this v i e w p o i n t , see
Egypt, vols. I and II, L o n d o n 1 9 5 5 and i 9 6 0 .
Mendelssohn, K . The Riddle of the Pyramids,
6 See note 5 a b o v e .
London 1974.
7 H e r o d o t u s , The Histories, B o o k T w o , para.
2 E d w a r d s , I. E . S . The Pyramids of Egypt, H a r -
96, transí. Lionel C a s s o n (unpubl.). A l t h o u g h
m o n d s w o r t h 1 9 6 1 , p. 96.
H e r o d o t u s speaks o f a keel, E g y p t i a n ships
3 H e r o d o t u s , The Histories, B o o k T w o , 1 2 2 ff.,
were flat-bottomed and keelless at least until
transí. A u b r e y de Selincourt, revised b y A . R .
well after the M i d d l e K i n g d o m .
Burn, Harmondsworth 1972.

Chapter Six Chapter Seven

1 L i c h t h e i m , M . Ancient Egyptian Literature,
1 T r a n s l . J o h n A . W i l s o n , in P r i t c h a r d , J . B . , ed.
vol. I, The Old and Middle Kingdom, Berkeley
Ancient Near Eastern Texts, 3 r d e d n , Princeton
1969. 1975¬
2 L i c h t h e i m , op. cit.
2 W a r d , W . A . , Egypt and the East Mediterranean
3 T r a n s l . J o h n A . W i l s o n , in Pritchard (ed.) o p .
World, Beirut 1 9 7 1 .
cit.
3 Transí. H . G o e d i c k e , in Journal of the Ameri­
4 Frankfort, H . Kingship and the Gods, C h i c a g o
can Research Center in Egypt, 6 ( 1 9 6 7 ) , 93 ff.,
1 9 4 8 , p. 4 5 .
quoted in W a r d , o p . cit.
4 If, in fact, it w a s ever c o m p l e t e l y b r o k e n ; see
Chapter Eight
W a r d , op. cit., for a discussion o f continuing
trade throughout the First Intermediate 1 See W i n l o c k , H . E . Models of Daily Life in
Period. Ancient Egypt, C a m b r i d g e , Mass. 1 9 5 5 .
5 O f course there were many, many local 2 Q u o t e d in H e r o l d , J . C . Bonaparte in Egypt,
differences. F o r an interesting survey of N e w Y o r k and L o n d o n 1 9 6 2 .

174
 Select bibliography

The abbreviation ASAE refers to the Annales du FAKHRY, A. 'The Stela of the Boat-Captain
Service des Antiquités en Egypte. Inikaf, ASAE, 38 (1938), 35fr.
— The Pyramids, rev. edn, Chicago 1969.
ABUBAKR, A. M. and MOUSTAFA, A. Y . 'The FAULKNER, R. O. The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid
Funerary Boat of Khufu', Beiträge zur Ägyp­ Texts, Oxford 1969.
tischen Bauforschung und Altertumskunde, 12 FRANKFORT, H. Kingship and the Gods, Chicago
(1971), 1-18. and London 1948.
ALDRED, C. Egypt to the End of the Old Kingdom, GARDINER, A. H. Egypt of the Pharaohs, Oxford
London and New York 1965. 1966.
BAUMGARTEL, E. J . The Cultures of Prehistoric — Egyptian Grammar, 3rd edn, Oxford 1973.
Egypt, vol. I, London 1955; vol. II, London GASTER, T. H. Thespis, New York 1975.
i960. GLANVILLE, S. R . K. Catalogue of Egyptian Antiqui­
BLACKMAN, A. M. The Rock Tombs of Meir, vols. ties in the British Museum, vol. II, Wooden Model
I-IV, London 1914-24. Boats, rev. and completed by R. O. Faulkner,
BREASTED, J . H. The Dawn of Conscience, New London 1972.
York 1968. GREENHILL, B. Archaeology of the Boat, London and
BUTZER, K. W. 'Archaeology and Geology in Middletown, Conn. 1976.
Ancient Egypt', Science, 132 (i960), 167 fr. HASSAN, S. Excavations at Giza, 10 vols., Oxford
CAPART, J . Memphis, Brussels 1930. and Cairo 1932-60.
CASSON, L. The Ancient Mariners, London and HELCK, W. 'Die Handwerker- und Priesterphylen
New York 1959. des Alten Reiches in Ägypten', Die Welt des
— Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World, Orients, VII (1973-74), 1-8.
Princeton 1971. HERODOTUS, The Histories, transl. Aubrey de
CERNY, J . 'A Note on the Recently Discovered Selincourt, rev. by A. R. Burn, Harmonds­
Boat of Cheops', Journal of Egyptian Archaeo­ worth 1972.
logy, 41 (1955), 75 ff. HEROLD, J . C. Bonaparte in Egypt, New York and
DUNHAM, D. The Egyptian Department and its London 1962.
Excavations, Boston 1958. JEQUIER, G. Les Pyramides des reines Neit et Apouit,
EDWARDS, I. E. S. The Pyramids of Egypt, rev. edn, Cairo 1933.
Harmondsworth and New York 1961. JOHNSTONE, P. The Archaeology of Ships, London
EMERY, W. B. The Tomb ofHemaka, Cairo 1938.
1974-
— The Tomb of Hor-Aha, Cairo 1939.
KLEBS, G. Die Relief des Altenreiches, Heidelberg
— Great Tombs of the First Dynasty, vol. Ill, Cairo
1915.
and London 1958.
LANDSTRÖM, B. Ships of the Pharaohs, Garden
FAGAN, B. M. The Rape of the Nile, New York
City, N.Y. and London 1970.
1976, London 1977.
LAUER, J.-P. Le Probleme des pyramides, Paris 1952.

175
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

L A U E R , J . - P . Saqqara, L o n d o n and N e w York REISNER, G . A . and SMITH, W. S. A History of the

1976. Giza Necropolis, v o l . II, The Tomb of Hetep-
L I C H T H E I M , M . Ancient Egyptian Literature, v o l . I, heres, the Mother of Cheops, C a m b r i d g e , Mass.
The Old and Middle Kingdom, Berkeley 1 9 7 5 . 1955-
L U C A S , A . Ancient Egyptian Materiah and Indus­ RUNDLE CLARK, R. T. Myth and Symbol in Ancient
tries, 4th edn, rev. b y J . R . Harris, L o n d o n Egypt, L o n d o n 1 9 5 9 (reprinted 1 9 7 8 ) .
1962. SAAD, Z . Royal Excavations at Saqqara and Helwan
M A R A G I O G L I O , V . and R I N A L D I , C . L'Architettura (1Ç41-45) ASAE, supplément, cahier 3 , C a i r o
delle Piramidi Menfite, Rome and Rapallo 1947¬
1965. — Royal Excavations at Helwan, ASAE, supple­
MENDELSSOHN, K. The Riddle of the Pyramids, ment, cahier 1 4 , C a i r o 1951.
L o n d o n and N e w Y o r k 1 9 7 4 . — Excavations at Helwan, Norman, Oklahoma
M E R C E R , S . A . B . The Pyramid Texts, N e w Y o r k 1969.
1952. S E R V I N , A . 'Constructions navales égyptiennes:
M O U S T A F A , A . Y . ' R e p a r a t i o n and restoration o f Les barques de p a p y r u s ' , ASAE, 48 ( 1 9 4 9 ) , 5 5 ¬
antiques', ASAE, 47 (1947), 7 7 - 9 5 . 88.
NOUR, M. Z . ,OSMAN, M . S . , I S K A N D E R , Z . and SIMPSON, W. K. The Literature of Ancient Egypt,
MOUSTAFA, A . Y . The Cheops Boats, part I, New H a v e n and L o n d o n 1 9 7 3 .
Cairo i960. SMITH, W. S. Ancient Egypt as represented in the
P É T R I E , W. M . F. Medum, London 1892. Museum of Fine Arts, B o s t o n i 9 6 0 .
P O S E N E R , G . De la Divinité du pharaon, Paris i 9 6 0 . — The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt, H a r -
P R I T C H A R D , J . B . , ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts, mondsworth 1965.
3rd edn, Princeton 1 9 6 9 . W A R D , W. A . Egypt and the East Mediterranean
R E I S N E R , G . A . Models of Ships and Boats, Cairo World, Beirut 1971.
1913. W I L S O N , J . A . The Culture of Ancient Egypt,
— The Development of the Egyptian Tomb down to C h i c a g o and L o n d o n 1971.
the Accession of Cheops, C a m b r i d g e , Mass. W I N L O C K , H . E. Models of Daily Life in Ancient
1936. Egypt, C a m b r i d g e , Mass. 1 9 5 5 .

176
 List of illustrations

Unless otherwise acknowledged, photographs are cour­ 17 K i n g Sneferu depicted on a stela f r o m D a h ­

tesy the Service des Antiquités, Cairo. shur. P h o t o K u r t Mendelssohn.
18 Seated statue o f C h e p h r e n . C a i r o M u s e u m .
Photo Hirmer.
Title-pages T h e reconstructed R o y a l Ship. G a r t h 19 Hunting scene in the marshes, Tomb of
D e n n i n g after L a n d s t r o m 1 9 7 0 . M e r e r u k a , S a q q a r a . P h o t o A l b e r t Shoucair.
1 T h e dismantled ship in the pit, before e x c a v a ­ 20 Seated figure o f B e z m e s . C o u r t e s y Trustees
tion. o f the British M u s e u m , L o n d o n .
2 T h e N i l e in flood at G i z a . C o u r t e s y M u s e u m 21 Limestone statue o f the vizier Hemiunu.
o f Fine A r t s , B o s t o n . Pelizaeus M u s e u m , Hildesheim.
3 M a p o f the O l d K i n g d o m p y r a m i d fields. 22 F r a g m e n t o f the P a l e r m o Stone. Palermo
4 T h e m u s e u m , south side o f the G r e a t P y r a ­ M u s e u m . P h o t o Soprintendenza Archeolo¬
mid of Cheops. Photo J o h n Ross. gica, P a l e r m o .
5 Palmiform column supporting the cabin 23 Wooden furniture o f Q u e e n Hetep-heres.
roofbeam. Photo J o h n Ross. C o u r t e s y M u s e u m o f Fine A r t s , B o s t o n .
6 D o o r latch in the cabin. P h o t o J o h n R o s s . 24 C a r t o u c h e o f Sneferu, detail o f Hetep-heres'
7 Sliding lock in the cabin. P h o t o J o h n R o s s . b e d - c a n o p y . C o u r t e s y M u s e u m o f Fine A r t s ,
8 A h m e d Youssef Moustafa. Photo J o h n Ross. Boston.
9 M i n i a t u r e i v o r y statuette o f C h e o p s . C a i r o 25 T h e Great Pyramid of Cheops from the
Museum. Photo Hirmer. southwest, early 1 9 3 0 s . C o u r t e s y M u s e u m o f
10 Slate palette of Narmer (reverse and Fine A r t s , B o s t o n .
obverse). C a i r o M u s e u m . 26 Section t h r o u g h G r e a t P y r a m i d and boat-pit
11 T h e traditional O l d K i n g d o m p y r a m i d c o m ­ containing the R o y a l S h i p . G a r t h D e n n i n g
plex. D r a w i n g b y K u r t Mendelssohn. after N o u r et al. i 9 6 0 .
12 M o d e l o f Step P y r a m i d c o m p l e x at Saqqara 27 Plan o f south side o f G r e a t P y r a m i d . G a r t h
b y J . - P . Lauer. D e n n i n g after N o u r et al. i 9 6 0 .
13 Cartouche of King Cheops, from Lisht. 28 Kamal el-Mallakh. Photo J o h n Ross.
Photo John Ross. 29 Plan o f limestone blocks sealing pit w i t h the
14 Plan o f the G i z a necropolis, w i t h the three R o y a l S h i p . G a r t h D e n n i n g after N o u r et al.
pyramids of Cheops, Chephren and i960.
M y c e r i n u s . G a r t h D e n n i n g after L a n g e and 30 C a r t o u c h e o f Djedefre, f r o m a b l o c k c o v e r ­
Hirmer 1968. ing the boat-pit.
15 B o a t - p i t s and mastabas to the east o f C h e o p s ' 31 T h e dismantled ship inside the pit, before all
p y r a m i d . P h o t o Peter C l a y t o n . the blocks had been r e m o v e d .
16 Sections t h r o u g h the principal p y r a m i d s o f 32 The pit (and dismantled ship) after the
the O l d K i n g d o m . r e m o v a l o f the blocks.

177
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

33 R e p r o d u c t i o n o f curtain b o x f r o m the t o m b 62 T h e classifying signs for the four quarters o f

o f Hetep-heres. C o u r t e s y M u s e u m o f Fine the ship.
Arts, Boston. 63 O t h e r carpenter's marks.
34 P a p y r u s - b u d finial f r o m Hetep-heres' b e d - 64-67 R e s t o r i n g part o f a sheer strake, adding
canopy. Courtesy Museum o f Fine Arts, n e w w o o d f r o m the outside.
Boston. 68, 69 R e s t o r i n g a hull t i m b e r b y inserting a
35 P a p y r u s - b u d finial f r o m the deck c a n o p y . core o f n e w w o o d .
36 W o o d e n statue o f K a - A p e r . C a i r o M u s e u m . 7 0 , 7 1 R e p a i r i n g a crack in the central stringer.
37 W e s t e r n end o f the pit before r e m o v a l o f the 72 T h e b o t t o m hull timbers in the restoration
blocks. shed.
38 R e m o v a l o f the first b l o c k on 2 3 N o v e m b e r 73 T r i a l assembly: m o v i n g a g a r b o a r d strake
1954¬ into place.
3 9 , 4 0 A n c i e n t matting as found in the pit. 74, 75 Incorrect trial assemblies o f the hull.
41 T h e ship's p r o w p h o t o g r a p h e d in the pit 7 6 , 7 7 A s s e m b l y o f the hull timbers around t e m ­
before e x c a v a t i o n . plate moulds.
42 Lifting the cabin d o o r assembly. 78 Sliding the b o w s p r i t o v e r the b o w .
43 T h e notched timbers in the pit. 79 T h e fully reconstructed ship in the m u s e u m ,
44 T h e hull planks o f the p r o w , western end o f v i e w e d f r o m the b o w . P h o t o J o h n R o s s .
the pit. 80 D i a g r a m s h o w i n g the internal structure o f
45 Detail o f western end s h o w i n g rope lashing. the R o y a l S h i p . G a r t h D e n n i n g after Land¬
46 T h e hull timbers o f the stern, eastern end o f strom 1 9 7 0 .
the pit. 81 D r a w i n g o f the ship's strakes . G a r t h D e n n i n g
47 Lifting one o f the notched timbers (stringers). after A h m e d Y o u s s e f M o u s t a f a .
48 R e m o v i n g hull timbers f r o m the b o t t o m o f 82 E x t e r n a l batten concealing the ropes lashing
the pit. stern piece to stern section. Photo J o h n
49 C o i l s o f rope in the b o t t o m o f the pit. Ross.
50 T i e d bundles o f w o o d in the b o t t o m o f the 83 Interior o f the c o m p l e t e d hull.
pit. 84 E r e c t i n g the cabin on the incomplete ship in
51 B r o k e n sleeve o f the p r o w and a d a m a g e d the restoration shed.
oar. 85 D r a w i n g o f the deckhouse. A f t e r L a n d s t r o m
52 L i m e s t o n e blocks at the v e r y b o t t o m o f the 1970.
pit. 86 C a b i n sub-assembly w i t h patches for knots in
53 T h e e m p t y boat-pit, l o o k i n g west. the w o o d .
54 T e n s y m b o l s painted on the south w a l l o f the 87 C a b i n w a l l panel w i t h mortise-and-tenon
pit. joints.
55 T h r e e objects f r o m the pit unrelated to the 88 A s s e m b l i n g the cabin in the m u s e u m .
boat itself: flint knife, basalt h a m m e r and 89 V i e w f r o m inside the cabin to the foredeck.
potsherd. P h o t o J o h n R o s s . Photo John Ross.
56 A h m e d Youssef Moustafa with a model of 90 Interior o f the cabin. P h o t o J o h n R o s s .
the ship's hull. P h o t o J o h n R o s s . 91 V i e w aft along the starboard side o f the
57 R e s t o r a t i o n shed and boat-pits on the south reconstructed ship. P h o t o J o h n R o s s .
side o f the G r e a t P y r a m i d in 1 9 6 3 . P h o t o 92 T w o o f the oars on the port side. P h o t o J o h n
Peter C l a y t o n . Ross.
58 R e l i e f f r o m m o r t u a r y temple o f Sahure. 93 C o m p o s i t e p h o t o g r a p h o f the reconstructed
C o u r t e s y Staatliche M u s e e n , Berlin. ship in the m u s e u m . P h o t o J o h n R o s s .
59 T h e dismantled parts o f the baldachin. 94 M a p o f O l d K i n g d o m E g y p t and n e i g h b o u r ­
60 T h e reconstructed baldachin. ing lands. D r a w n b y G a r t h D e n n i n g .
61 T h e parts o f the ship laid out in the restora­ 95 C e d a r trees near Beshara, L e b a n o n . P h o t o
tion shed. CNT/FATTAL.

178
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

96 N a q a d a II pot decorated w i t h a boat motif. 114 Ba-bird hovering over m u m m y . Papyrus of

British M u s e u m . P h o t o J o h n R o s s . Sui, T h e b a n B o o k o f the D e a d . Courtesy
97 R e l i e f in the t o m b o f Q u e e n M e r e s a n k h III Trustees o f the British M u s e u m , L o n d o n .
at Giza. P h o t o B . V . B o t h m e r . 115 Ka s y m b o l . F r o m R u n d l e C l a r k 1 9 5 9 .
98 Gilded wooden statue of Tutankhamun 116 Primeval M o u n d hieroglyph. F r o m R u n d l e
astride a p a p y r u s raft. Griffith Institute, A s h - Clark 1959.
molean M u s e u m , O x f o r d . 117 T h e P h o e n i x at Heliopolis. P a p y r u s o f A n i .
99 T i hunting in the marshes, a relief f r o m his C o u r t e s y Trustees o f the British Museum,
t o m b at Saqqara. P h o t o H i r m e r . London.
100 D r a w i n g o f funerary boat o f Sesostris III 118 R e - H e r a k h t y and T h o t h . C o u r t e s y Trustees
f r o m D a h s h u r , n o w in C a i r o M u s e u m . F r o m o f the British M u s e u m , L o n d o n .
Reisner 1 9 1 3 . 119 H i e r o g l y p h s for the sun at d a w n , sun at night
101 F u n e r a r y boat o f Sesostris III f r o m Dahshur. and solar boat. F r o m R u n d l e C l a r k 1 9 5 9 .
Field M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , C h i c a g o . 120 V i g n e t t e f r o m the B o o k o f the D e a d , D e i r
102 S h i p - b u i l d i n g scene, relief in the t o m b o f T i , el B a h r i , E g y p t . C o u r t e s y Trustees o f the
Saqqara. P h o t o courtesy o f the Oriental In­ British M u s e u m , L o n d o n .
stitute, C h i c a g o . 121 H o r u s emerges f r o m Isis' protection. Cour­
103 D r a w i n g o f a ship f r o m Sahure's m o r t u a r y tesy Trustees of the British Museum,
temple, A b u s i r . G a r t h D e n n i n g after L a n d ­ London.
strom 1 9 7 0 . 122 Detail o f statue o f C h e p h r e n . C a i r o M u s e u m .
104 Reconstruction drawing of Hatshepsut's Photo Hirmer.
barge, built to carry t w o e n o r m o u s obelisks. 123 Model of the Royal Ship. Photo John
A f t e r B j o r n L a n d s t r o m (based on relief at Ross.
D e i r e l - B a h r i ) , courtesy International Book 124 B o a t h i e r o g l y p h near M y c e r i n u s ' p y r a m i d ,
Production, Stockholm. Giza. P h o t o J o h n R o s s .
105 S i x t h D y n a s t y m o d e l funerary boat from 125 Battens s h o w i n g rope marks f r o m the R o y a l
Aswan. C o u r t e s y Trustees o f the British Ship. Photo J o h n Ross.
Museum, London. 126 S h i p being d r a w n on a sledge. Detail o f B o o k
106 Model funerary barque from tomb of o f D e a d o f Q u e e n N e j m t . British M u s e u m ,
Meketre. T h e Metropolitan M u s e u m o f A r t , L o n d o n . P h o t o C r a i g Meredith.
Museum excavations 1919-1920. Rogers 127 T h e wedjat-eye. Detail o f painted wooden
Fund, supplemented by contribution of stela. P h o t o J o h n R o s s .
E d w a r d S. Harkness. 128 'The Return from Abydos'. Unfinished
107 Drawing of one of Meketre's model relief, T o m b o f Nespekashuti, D e i r el-Bahri,
funerary barques. F r o m W i n l o c k 1 9 5 5 . T h e b e s . C o u r t e s y the B r o o k l y n Museum,
108 Plan and section o f a m o d e l boat o f Q u e e n N e w York.
N e i t h . G a r t h D e n n i n g after L a n d s t r o m 1 9 7 0 . 129 N i g h t boat o f the sun. Unfinished relief,
109 Priests c a r r y i n g a sacred ship. R i j k s m u s e u m T o m b o f H o r e m h a b , V a l l e y o f the K i n g s ,
v a n O u d h e d e n , Leiden. Thebes. Photo Harry Burton, courtesy
no M i d d l e K i n g d o m m o d e l funerary barque. Metropolitan M u s e u m of A r t , N e w Y o r k .
British Museum, London. Photo Craig 130 Coffin c o v e r s h o w i n g Osiris amid the stars o f
Meredith. the u n d e r w o r l d sky. C o u r t e s y Trustees o f the
in Model funerary barque. British Museum, British M u s e u m , L o n d o n .
London. Photo C r a i g Meredith. 131 Carpenter's shop f r o m the t o m b o f M e k e t r e .
112 Osiris, g o d o f the u n d e r w o r l d . T o m b of Cairo Museum.
Sennedjem, Deir el M e d i n a . Photo John 132 V i e w along the port side o f the R o y a l Ship.
Ross. Photo J o h n Ross.
113 Goddess M a ' e t supported b y the king. F r o m 133 T h e underside o f the stern o f the R o y a l Ship.
Rundle Clark 1959. Photo John Ross.

179
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

134 T h e stern section o f the ship, w i t h t w o steer­ V I T h e f o r w a r d section o f the ship on the port
ing oars. P h o t o J o h n R o s s . side. P h o t o J o h n R o s s .
135 K n o t s used in the R o y a l S h i p . P h o t o J o h n
Ross. AFTER PAGE Il6

136 T h e R o y a l S h i p in the m u s e u m . P h o t o J o h n
V I I T h e foredeck baldachin or c a n o p y . P h o t o
Ross.
John Ross.
VIII Detail s h o w i n g oars lashed to the hull.
Colour plates Photo John Ross.
IX Detail o f cabin exterior w i t h supporting
AFTER PAGE 32 columns. P h o t o J o h n R o s s .
X T h e cabin and central section o f the ship.
I The Great Pyramid seen from the
Photo John Ross.
southwest. P h o t o J o h n R o s s .
II T h e G i z a p y r a m i d s v i e w e d f r o m the air.
AFTER PAGE 134
Photo John Ross.
III O n e o f the e m p t y boat-pits on the eastern X I T w o N i l e boats painted on a cloth f r o m
side o f the Great P y r a m i d . P h o t o J o h n R o s s . Gebelein. T u r i n M u s e u m . P h o t o j o h n R o s s .
I V T h e south side o f the Great P y r a m i d , w i t h X I I F u n e r a r y a n d / o r p i l g r i m a g e boat f r o m t o m b
the m o d e r n m u s e u m . P h o t o J o h n R o s s . of Meketre, Thebes. Metropolitan M u s e u m
of Art, N e w York. Photojohn Ross.
AFTER PAGE 50
X I I I T h e boat o f the rising sun, f r o m the P a p y r u s
V T h e R o y a l S h i p in the m u s e u m . P h o t o J o h n o f A n h a i . P h o t o courtesy the Trustees o f the
Ross. British M u s e u m , L o n d o n .

180
 Index

N u m e r a l s in italics refer to illustration n u m b e r s

A b u Roash n , 1 2 , 28, 49, 1 5 8 B e z m e s 3 8 ; 20 carpenters' marks 8 7 , 8 8 ; 62, 63

Abubakr, Dr Abdel Moneim boat-building 6 0 , 7 3 , 7 4 , 7 5 , 89, C a s s o n , Lionel 7 4 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 9 , 1 2 3
167, 1 7 2 9 2 - 3 , 96, 1 0 9 , i n . in, 119. cedar 8 , 1 3 , 3 6 , 4 0 , 5 4 , 6 2 , 6 4 , 6 5 ,
Abusir 1 2 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 4 , 1 5 8 1 2 3 - 5 , 1 2 8 - 9 ; 102 80, 8 3 , 8 8 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 2 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 4 ,
Abydos 30, 4 3 , 1 5 4 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 3 ; boat-pits: G r e a t P y r a m i d 8, 2 2 , 1 2 4 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 4 ; 95
'The Return from Abydos' 2 7 , 2 8 , 4 9 , 5 0 , 5 3 , 5 9 , 60, 6 4 - 8 1 , cenotaph 3 0
128 8 3 , 84, 88, 89, 9 4 , 96, 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 , Cerny, J . E . 163
acacia 80, 1 1 5 , 1 2 3 , 1 6 2 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 2 ; 14, 15, C h e o p s , K i n g 8, 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 4 , 1 6 ,
afterlife 3 1 , 3 5 , 3 6 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 4 , 26, 2 7 , 29, 32, 37, 39-53, 57, /77, 1 9 , 2 5 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 3 5 , 36, 3 8 , 4 0 , 4 1 .
160, 1 6 3 , 166 IV; see also R o y a l Ship 4 2 , 4 3 , 5 0 , 6 7 , 6 8 , 69, 1 2 0 , 1 4 0 ,
1
A h a , K i n g : mastaba t o m b o f 2 3 , boat-pits: of Aha 23, 28; of 1 5 4 . 1 5 9 . 6 3 ; cartouche o f 1 3 ;
24 A r c h a i c Period 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 , 1 6 0 ; statuette o f 9 ; p y r a m i d of, see
Akhenaton, K i n g : box of 61 o f C h e p h r e n 1 5 9 ; o f Djedefre Great P y r a m i d o f C h e o p s
alabaster 3 5 , 4 0 , 4 1 , 1 4 5 , 1 6 6 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 ; of Khentkawes 1 5 9 ; Chephren, King 28, 4 3 , 1 2 0 , 1 5 4 ,
A m e n e m h e t I 13 o f M y c e r i n u s 1 5 9 ; o f PSesostris 1 5 9 ; pyramid of 1 1 , 1 2 , 28, 49;
A m o n 1 5 4 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 4 ; Barque of III 1 5 8 ; o f U n a s 1 5 8 2,3,14,16G, II, III; statue o f 18,
137; XIII B o s t o n M u s e u m o f Fine A r t s 2 3 , 122; Valley Temple of 35
Amon-Re 114, 154 62, 79 Cilicia 3 6
A m u n , H i g h Priest o f 1 6 2 b o w s p r i t 5 4 , 98 climate 1 9 , 6 4 , 6 5 , 1 4 2
Apopis 1 5 0 ; J jo Breasted, J a m e s 5 7 , 1 4 0 Coffin T e x t s 1 6 4
A r c h a i c Period 1 5 8 , 1 6 0 British M u s e u m 3 8 , 64, 6 5 , 80, c o l u m n 1 4 , 2 3 , 6 3 ; 5 , 34, 35
Aswan 1 9 , 2 1 , 26, 1 3 0 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 9 137. 161 copper 36, 80; 5, 7
A t e f - c r o w n 112, 118 burial 1 2 , 1 4 , 2 3 , 3 6 , 4 0 , 4 1 Coptos in
Atum 150, 154, 161 burial e q u i p m e n t 2 2 , 2 3 , 4 3 , 1 2 4 , cult 3 1 , 1 3 0 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 3
125, 1 3 7 , 166
ba 1 4 5 , 1 6 0 ; 114 Buto 3 1 ,162 Dahshur 1 2 , 2 8 , 30, 3 1 , 4 0 , 4 1 , 4 3 ,
Badarian 1 3 0 Byblos 40, 1 1 2 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 6 , 1 1 9 , 60, 1 5 7 , 1 6 1 ; boats f r o m 84, 9 3 ,
baldachin (foredeck c a n o p y ) 86, 151. 153 1 2 4 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 8 ; 100, 101
1 0 3 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 7 ; 58-60,123, VII dakkah 5 0
basalt 2 6 , 4 7 , 1 7 0 ; 55 cabin 6 3 , 7 8 , 8 6 , 1 0 3 , 1 6 2 ; 32, 84¬ death 19, 36, 140, 144, 147,
Bass, G e o r g e 7 4 90, IX, X 154
B a u m g a r t e l , Elise 1 1 6 C a i r o M u s e u m 3 9, 4 3 , 60, 6 1 , 6 2 , Deir el-Bahri 1 2 9 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 7
benben 1 4 9 64, 1 2 4 Delta 2 1 , 3 1 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 1 , 1 5 3
B e n i Hasan 1 2 5 canal 2 2 Denon, Vivant 1 7 0
Bent Pyramid 1 2 , 28, 30, 40, 4 1 ; c a n o p y 1 4 , 6 2 , 6 3 , 7 8 , 86, 1 0 3 , desmostachya bipinnata 7 0
16C, 16D 106, 1 6 1 diorite 3 5 , 3 9 ; 18, 122

181
INDEX

Djedefre, K i n g 2 8 , 6 7 , 1 5 4 ; b o a t - Giza 1 4 , 3 1 , 4 1 , 4 9 . 7 8 , 1 2 0 , 1 4 5 , H u see H u n i

pit o f 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 ; cartouche o f 5 0 , 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 2 ; necropolis hull 80, 8 7 , 9 6 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 8 , 1 2 4 ,
6 8 ; 30; p y r a m i d o f 1 2 , 4 9 40, 4 5 , 5 4 ; ¡4; plateau 8, 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 7 , 1 6 2 ; 36, 68, 6g

d o o r 7 0 , 80, 1 0 3 ; 42 1 6 , 2 5 , 4 2 , 5 3 , 8 3 ; 2; p y r a m i d s Huni, King 28, 42

door-latch 1 0 3 ; 6 1 0 , 2 8 , 4 3 . 4 5 . 5 9 , 1 7 0 ; I-IV
Ipuwer 1 1 4
Double C r o w n of Upper and god-king 3 1 , 3 6 , 81
Isis 1 5 1 , 1 5 3
Lower Egypt 17 g o l d 4 0 , 6 1 , 62, i n , 112,163524,
Iskander, D r Z a k i 5 6 , 6 4 , 66, 7 0 ,
D r i o t o n , A b b e 4 9 , 50 34 7 1 , 7 6 , 7 8 , 80, 88, 1 6 2 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 2 ;
D u n c a n , D a v i d 5 4 , 5 6 , 6 5 , 70 Gordon, Lady Duff 1 3 9
39
D u n h a m , D o w s 2 2 , 79 granite 2 6 , 4 7 , 8 1 ivory 4 3 , 6 1 , i n ; 9
g r a v e - g o o d s 23
ebony 6 1 , 62, i n Great Procession 1 5 4 juncus arabicus 70
E d w a r d s , I. E . S . 3 1 , 1 6 3 Great P y r a m i d o f C h e o p s 8, 9, Junker, Herbert 4 7 , 57
Eighteenth D y n a s t y 2 8 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 9 ; 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 6 , 2 1 , 2 5 , 3 1 , 3 5 , 36, 38,
tombs of 59 40, 4 3 , 4 5 , 4 6 , 4 7 , 4 9 , 1 0 8 , 1 5 7 , ka 3 5 , 1 4 6 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 3 ; 113
Eleventh Dynasty 1 3 4 158, 1 5 9 ; 2-4, 14, 16F, 25-7, K a - A p e r see Sheikh el-Beled
Emery, W . B . 2 3 , 28, 30, 3 1 , 57 I-IV K a m o s e , K i n g : stela o f 5 4
Engelbach, R . F. 6 1 Greenhill, Basil 1 2 3 , 1 2 8 , 1 2 9 , Karnak 54, 59, 1 3 7
130 K a w a b , C r o w n Prince 3 5 , 3 6
g y p s u m 4 7 , 6 5 , 69 K f a r e s - S a m m ä n 9, 1 0 , 2 7 ; 2
faience 6 1 , 6 2
K h a f r e see C h e p h r e n
Faiyum 1 1 , 65 Habachi, Labib 5 4 , 5 7
Khentiamentiu 4 3 ; g
Fakhry, A h m e d 2 8 , 30, 4 1 , 57, Hapi 1 4 0
Khentkawes, Queen 49, 1 5 9
124 H a r v a r d - B o s t o n E x p e d i t i o n 40
Khepri 1 4 9 , 1 6 1 ; ng
Feast o f the V a l l e y 1 6 4 Hassan, S e l i m 5 7
Khnum-hotep, tomb of 1 2 5
fertility 2 1 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 3 H a t h o r 10
K h u f u see C h e o p s
Field o f R e e d s 1 1 9 , 1 6 1 Hatshepsut, Queen: temple
kingship 1 4 4 , 1 4 5 , 1 5 3 - 4
Fifth D y n a s t y 1 2 , 3 2 , 3 9 , 4 9 , 7 4 , reliefs o f 1 2 9 , 1 3 7 ; 104
98,120,125,129,134,145, 148, hebsed c e r e m o n y 3 0 , 1 4 4 , 1 S 3 ; 17 Landström, Björn 1 4 , 1 5 , 7 4 , 1 0 2 ,
158 Helck, W o l f g a n g 87 119, 1 2 1 , 124, 125, 129, 130,
First D y n a s t y 2 0 , 2 3 , 5 4 . n 6 , 1 4 7 , Heliopolis43, 1 3 4 , 149, 1 5 0 , 1 5 4 134, 162
151, 157, 158 Helwan 1 2 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 7 , 1 5 9 L i b y a n desert 4 3 ; escarpment 4 6 ,
First Intermediate Period 1 4 3 H e m i u n u , V i z i e r 3 8 , 4 2 ; 21 5 9 ; 3; plateau 2 2
flint 8 1 ; 55 H e m o n see H e m i u n u L i b y a n s 40
Fourth D y n a s t y 8, 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 6 , 2 0 , H e r o d o t u s 2 6 , 3 1 , 4 3 , 4 5 , 84, 1 1 5 , Lichtheim, Miriam 1 5 0
2 1 , 2 2 , 2 5 , 2 8 , 3 5 , 3 6 , 3 7 , 40, 4 2 , 123, 124, 125 Lily Lake 3 2
43, 46, 49, 50, 68, 1 3 4 , 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 , H e s y - R e 64 limestone 2 5 , 4 6 , 4 7 , 5 3 ; 21;
1 6 0 ; craftsmanship 5 - 7 Hetep-heres, Queen 4 0 - 4 2 , 62, b e d r o c k 8 , 2 2 , 4 6 ; blocks 5 0 , 64,
Frankfort, H . 1 5 3 6 3 ; burial hoard o f 6 2 ; 23, 24; 6 5 , 6 6 - 9 , 1 6 2 ; 29, 37, 38, 52
funerary boat 1 4 , 2 2 , 3 2 , 9 8 , 1 0 0 , curtain b o x o f 6 2 ; 33; furniture Lisht 2 7
1 3 0 , 1 3 7 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 3 ; log, no o f 6 2 , 6 4 , 80, 86, 1 0 3 ; 34, 35; lock 7
m u m m i f i e d viscera 1 4 5 , 1 6 6 L o r d o f the Westerners see K h e n -
g a n g p l a n k gi Heyerdahl, T h o r 1 2 1 tiamentiu
G e b 1 5 1 , 1 5 4 ; 120 hieroglyphs 1 9 , 3 2 , 4 0 , 6 8 , 7 0 , 8 7 , Lower Egypt 8, 2 0 , 3 1 ; R e d
Gebelein, painted fabric from 1 4 8 , 1 5 9 ; 33, 116, 119, 124 C r o w n o f 3 0 ; 10
1 1 9 ; XI H o r e m h e b , t o m b of: relief in 1 2 9 Luxor 59, i n , 1 3 9
Gelidonya, C a p e 74 Horus 1 3 4 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 6 , 1 4 9 , 1 5 1 ,
Gerzean 1 1 6 ; painted pot o f g6 1 5 3 ; 110, 121, 122 Ma'adi 75
G h o n e i m , Z a k a r i a 54 hm 1 5 3 M a ' e t (goddess) 1 4 3 ; 113

182
 INDEX

ma'et 1 4 3 , 1 4 4 . US. H7, 153, Napoleon 57, 1 7 0 P a l e r m o Stone 3 9 , 4 2 , 1 1 4 ; 22

154 N a p o l e o n i c invasion 4 5 palmiform column 5
M a l l a k h , K a m a l e l - 4 6 , 4 7 , 48, 49, N a q a d a II 1 1 6 ; painted pot of p a l m i f o r m finials 1 4 , 63 ; 5 , 90
50, 5 3 , 5 4 , 5 6 , 6 6 , 6 8 , 7 0 , 1 6 0 , p a p y r i f o r m boat 5 4 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 0 - 1 ,
1 6 7 , 1 7 2 ; 28 N a r m e r , palette o f 10 134, 150, 154, 157, 161, 162,
mast 1 0 3 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 8 Nasser, G a m a l A b d u l - 5 0 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 4 ; 10, 105
mastaba 1 2 , 2 3 , 2 4 , 2 8 , 3 5 , 3 6 , 5 0 , 139 p a p y r i f o r m stem and stern pieces
1 5 9 ; 14> ' 5 navigation 1 1 5 70, 96, 9 8 , 1 0 2 , 1 2 8 , 1 6 6 ; 78, 79,
matting 1 3 , 6 5 , 7 0 , 7 1 , 7 3 , 7 6 , necropolis 2 4 , 2 5 , 3 6 , 1 5 8 , 1 6 1 , 134
1 0 6 , 1 6 1 ; 3 9 , 40 163 papyrus 1 3 , 1 4 , 3 7 , 5 4 , 7 0 , 1 1 5 ,
M e i d u m 2 5 , 2 8 , 3 1 , 4 3 , 1 4 5 ; 16B Neith, Queen: model boat of 116, 1 1 9 , 120, 1 2 1 , 123, 130,
Meketre, Chancellor : model 1 3 4 ; 108 131, 150, 157
boat o f 1 3 4 ; 106, 107, XII N e j m t , Q u e e n 126 'Papyrus o f A n h a i ' X / / /
Memphis 1 2 , 1 4 , 20, 2 1 , 24, 2 5 , Nephthys 1 5 1 , 154 papyrus-bud motif 1 4 , 63, 1 0 3 ,
32, 43, 142, 1 5 1 , 161, 162 Nespekashuti, relief o f 128 1 3 4 ; 23, 34, 35, 59, 60, 106, IX
Memphite Theology 1 5 1 , 1 5 3 New K i n g d o m 54, 1 1 4 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 7 papyrus raft 1 3 , 5 4 , 7 0 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 1 ,
Mendelssohn, K u r t 28 Nile 1 0 , 1 1 , 2 2 , 36, 3 7 , 4 5 , 54, 70, 1 2 2 , 1 3 0 , 1 3 4 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 7 ; 1 9 , 41,
M e n e s , K i n g 2 0 , 43 75, 96, 1 0 3 , i n , 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 164, 97, 98
M e n k a u r e see M y c e r i n u s 1 6 5 1 3 ; inundation o f 1 0 , 2 1 , 3 1 , Pelizaeus Museum, Hildesheim
M e r e r u k a , mastaba o f 19 39, I 2
3 9 - 4 ° ; ', personification 38
Meresankh III, Q u e e n 1 2 0 , 1 4 5 ; of 140 Pepi I, K i n g 1 3 4
97 Nile Valley 20, 3 7 , 46, 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , Pepi II, K i n g 1 3 4
Middle K i n g d o m 1 1 , 1 2 4 , 1 2 5 , 121 Petrie, Flinders 2 6 , 1 4 5
134, 137, 143, 161, 162 Niuserre, K i n g 1 5 8 Philae 1 9
m'ndt 1 6 0 Northern Pyramid see Red phragmites communis 70
model boats 5 4 , 7 4 , 7 5 , 84, 1 3 0 , Pyramid pilgrimage boat 14, 130, 1 3 7 ,
134, 1 3 7 , 1 5 8 ; 56, 105-8, no, N o u r , Z a k i 80, 1 7 2 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 6 ; 12tS
111, XII Nubia 1 3 4 , 142 Plutarch 1 5 1
models 2 3 , 1 2 0 , 1 6 5 ; 131 N u b i a n s 40 priest 2 2 , 1 0 3 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 3 , 1 4 4 ,
Mortuary Temple 22, 27, 3 5 , 47, Nun X / / / 1 4 9 , 1 6 4 ; 109
49, 1 5 0 Nut 1 5 1 , 1 5 4 ; 120 P r i m e v a l Hill 1 4 9 ; 116
Moustafa, H a g A h m e d Y o u s s e f p r o w 1 3 , 5 4 , 7 0 , 8 7 , 1 3 4 ; 41, 44,
9, 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 5 6 , 5 9 , 60, 6 1 , 7 0 , oar 5 3 , 5 4 , 7 0 , 7 8 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 9 , 1 3 7 , 51
71,73,74,75,76, 80,83,84,85, 142, 1 6 1 , 1 6 2 ; 32, 5 1 , 92, 130, Punt 3 6 , i n , 1 1 2 , 130, 145
89, 94, 9 5 , 96, 1 0 3 , 1 0 8 , 1 6 1 , 134, VIII, XI Pyramid Texts 3 1 , 1 1 9 , 144, 1 4 8 ¬
162, 1 6 7 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 2 ; 8, 42, 56, obelisk 1 3 1 , 1 4 9 ; 104 50, 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 4
88 offering 1 9 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 4 , 3 9 , 4 2 , pyramids see Bent Pyramid,
mud-brick 2 3 , 1 2 4 , 1 5 8 81 Great P y r a m i d , R e d P y r a m i d ,
mud-plaster 4 7 , 5 0 , 1 6 2 O l d K i n g d o m 8, 1 2 , 1 4 , 1 9 , 2 1 , Step P y r a m i d and under names of
mummification 1 4 5 2 5 , 3 5 , 3 6 , 3 8 , 5 0 , 64, 89, 1 0 9 , individual kings
m u m m y 4 2 , 9 8 , 1 4 5 ; transporta­ 114, 1 1 5 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 5 , 129, 134,
tion o f 1 3 7 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 6 1 3 7 , 1 4 3 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 5 , 1 5 4 , 1 6 4 ; 3,
Qoseir i n , 1 1 2
M u q a t t a m hills 2 6 IU94
Murray, Margaret 42 ' O p e n i n g o f the M o u t h ' cere­
mony 3 2 , 35 'queens' p y r a m i d s ' 2 7 , 4 0 ; 14, 15
m u s e u m 9, 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 7 1 , 7 5 , 84,
96, 1 0 8 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 2 ; 4, IV Osiris 3 0 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 6 , 1 5 3 , 1 6 3 ; 112,
Mycerinus, pyramid of 1 2 , 28, 130; cult o f 1 4 7 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 4 , 1 6 0 ;
R e 53
6 3 , 1 5 9 ; 2 , 3 , 16H, II, III; boat death o f 1 5 1
h i e r o g l y p h near 1 5 9 ; 124 O s m a n , Salah 66, 1 7 2 ; 38 R e - A t u m , cult o f 1 4 7 , 1 4 8 , 1 5 4
R e - H e r a k h t y 1 5 0 ; 118
R e d P y r a m i d 1 2 , 2 8 , 3 0 , 3 1 ; 16E

183
 INDEX

reed raft 1 1 9 , I 2 I
3 > 3°, 157, 164; schist 3 5 Thoth 153
99 seal 2 1 T h r o c k m o r t o n , Peter 7 4
Reisner, G e o r g e 2 8 , 40, 4 1 , 4 2 , Second Dynasty 2 3 , 1 5 8 T i , mastaba o f 1 2 0 , 1 2 5 ; reliefs o f
5 7 , 6 2 , 7 8 , 7 9 , 80, 1 4 5 Servin, A n d r e 1 2 9 74, 7 5 , 9 8 , 1 2 8 ; 99, 102
religion 3 6 , 1 4 0 - 2 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 0 , Sesostris III, K i n g 84; burial trade 1 1 2 , 1 1 4
154, 160 equipment o f 1 1 5 ; p y r a m i d o f transportation 1 3 , 1 2 3 , 1 6 4
religious ceremonies 1 3 7 ; p r o - 124 T u r a limestone 2 6 , 1 5 8
cession 1 6 4 Sheikh el-Beled 6 4 ; 36 turquoise 3 6 , 6 1
ritual 1 2 , 2 4 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 0 , 1 3 4 , S h e m e l - N e s s i m 7, 8, 9 Tutankhamun, King 1 2 0 ; 98;
1 3 7 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 7 ; funerary 3 1 ¬ Shepseskaf, K i n g 28 t o m b o f 5 6 ; m o d e l boats of
6 ; race 1 5 3 ship-building see boat-building 137
r o p e 1 3 , 2 3 , 2 8 , 5 4 , 7 0 , 7 1 , 80, Shu 1 5 4 ; 120 T w e l f t h D y n a s t y 2 7 , 60, 84, 1 3 7 ,
sidder 80, 1 1 5 157, 164
1 0 0 , 1 0 8 , 1 2 9 , 1 6 1 ; 43, 49, 123,
Sinai 3 6 , 43 Twenty-first D y n a s t y 1 6 1
135
Sixth D y n a s t y 3 2 , 4 7 , 5 0 , 1 3 4 , Twenty-sixth Dynasty 57, 1 5 7
R o y a l Ship 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 2 2 , 3 2 , 40,
6 143, 148, 158 T w o Lands 43 ; 10
43» 5 . 5 9 , 6 2 , 6 6 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 ,
119, 129, 1 3 0 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 7 , 160, sledge 1 6 1 ; 126
1 6 1 , 1 6 5 , 1 6 6 ; conservation of Sneferu, K i n g 1 2 , 2 8 , 3 0 , 3 1 , 40, U n a s , K i n g : boat-pits of 1 5 8 ;
56, 7 8 ; construction o f 3 6 , 3 8 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 6 2 , 1 1 4 ; 17 pyramid of 3 2 , 150
6 4 - 5 , 7 1 , 7 3 , 84, 9 4 , 9 6 , 1 0 0 - 8 , solar barque 1 4 , 9 6 , 1 4 8 , 1 5 7 , 1 5 8 , U p p e r E g y p t 8, 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 6 , 3 1 , 5 9 ,
i n , 1 1 4 , 1 2 4 , 1 2 8 ; 44-6, 62, 63, 1 6 0 , 1 6 1 ; 119, 129 1 1 5 , 1 2 1 , 1 3 4 , 1 4 2 ; 94; White
78, 80-3, 85; excavation o f 5 7 , Sphinx 1 5 9 C r o w n o f 3 0 ; 10
6 7 - 8 1 ; 31, 37, 38, 42, 43' 47-9, stellar cult 1 6 0
30-2; model o f 6 1 , 89, 9 5 , 9 6 ; Step P y r a m i d 1 2 , 2 3 , 2 4 , 4 3 , 5 0 , V a l l e y T e m p l e 2 2 , 2 7 , 3 2 , 3 5 , 40,
36,123; reconstruction o f 8 3 - 8 , 54, 1 4 4 , 1 6 1 ; 12, 16A 1 5 8 ; 11
9 4 - 6 , 9 8 , 1 0 8 , 1 0 9 ; 72, 73-7, 79, succession 4 2 , 1 5 1
84, 88, 93, ¡32, 133, 136; restora- S u m e r i a n civilization 1 1 5 W a d i H a m m a m a t i n ; 94
tion o f 8 3 , 8 8 - 9 ; 61, 64-71 Sumerians 1 9 Ward, W . A. 1 1 2
rudder 5 3 , 1 3 7 sun-boat see solar barque wedjat-eye 1 3 4 , 1 6 2 ; 127
sun-cult 1 4 7 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 4 , 1 6 0 Wen-Amon 114
Sun-god 14, 3 2 , 5 3 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 7 , 147, W e n i s see U n a s
Saad, Z a k i 1 5 9 148, 149, 150, 154, 157, 161, w o o d , preservation o f 6 4 , 6 5 , 8 8 ¬
Sahure, K i n g : m o r t u a r y temple 1 6 4 ; 117 9, 1 6 8 ; 64-71
o f 1 2 9 , 1 3 4 ; 103; S h i p o f State s y m b o l s Si; 54 w o o d e n boats 5 4 , 9 2 , 1 2 3 , 1 3 0 ,
o f 5 8 , 86, 1 3 4 , 1 3 7 ; 38 1 3 1 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 7 ; 96
sail 1 0 3 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 4 , 1 4 2 , 1 6 1 ; Tefnut 1 5 4 writing 1 9 , 20
106 temenos 2 2 , 4 8 , 4 9 , 1 2 4 ; 1 1 , 57
Sai's 1 6 2 Thebes 59, 1 3 0 , 1 3 7 , 1 5 4 , 164, Z a w i y e t el-Meitin 1 2 9
Saqqara 1 2 , 2 3 , 2 8 , 3 0 , 4 3 , 5 4 , 64, 1 6 5 ; necropolis o f 5 9 , 60 Zoser, K i n g 1 2 , 2 3 , 50, 54, 1 4 4 ,
75, 120, 124, 129, 144, 157, 158, Third Dynasty 2 3 , 2 5 , 42, 50, 54, J
5 3 > p y r a m i d o f see Step P y r a -
1 6 0 , 1 7 0 ; see also Step P y r a m i d 64, 1 4 4 mid

184
 {Continuedfromfront flap)

a picture on the b o x — A h m e d Youssef

devoted fourteen years to the immense task
o f reconstruction. The triumphant result is
not only an aesthetic masterpiece to rival
the Great Pyramid but also a vital source o f
information about the design and con­
struction o f ancient ships and a tribute to
one of the greatest periods in the history of
civilization.

N a n c y Jenkins the archaeological journal­

ist and writer, has prepared this book in
collaboration with Ahmed Youssef
Moustafa, restorer o f the R o y a l Ship. The
photographs by J o h n R o s s o f the recon­
structed vessel are the first to be made
widely available.

Holt, Rinehart and W i n s t o n

383 Madison A v e n u e
N e w Y o r k , N e w Y o r k 10017

Printed in Great Britain

 Nancy
Jenkins

The Boat Beneath the Pyramid

Holt
Rinehart
Winston