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Concept
What is a concept?
A concept is represented by a symbol that we use to name any object e.g. plant green tree wood
concept symbol
Milk
Coffee
Juice
Cow
Sheep
Mocca
Latte
Orange
Lemon
1. 2.
Characteristics can be expressed as: properties of the specific concept or relations to other concepts Next to those characteristics we also need specific classes that concepts belong to
Types of concepts
Many different types of concepts need to be structured carefully Three main methods to structure concepts: 1. class concepts 2. property concepts 3. relation concepts
1. Class concepts
Concepts can be attributed to a class to identify the type of concept e.g. Venus is attributed to the class of planets
2. Property concepts
Concepts can be grouped according to common properties and the distinctive features of a class e.g. quadrupeds = animals having four legs The common property = quadrupeds It can be divided by the distinctive of being tamed for human use into domestic and wild animals
3. Relation concepts
Concepts can be differentiated by the relationships between categories e.g. tables, chairs, cupboards = furniture It can be further differentiated into household furniture and office furniture
Relationships
Important way to structure concepts because any type of conceptual relationship can be relevant e.g. an object can be related to its geographical origin, its material substance, its method of production, etc. To structure relationships and to differentiate between them, they are divided up into the following main subgroups: 1. Generic relationship 2. Partitive relationship
1. Generic relationship
Divides concepts up according to a hierarchy: Broader (generic) concept is superordinate to Narrower (specific) concept This most common type of relationship can be expressed by the formula: X is a type of A Or X, Y, Z are types of A Or A has the specific concepts X, Y, Z Or A has the subtype X
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At each lower level the degree of specifity becomes higher, the intention becomes narrower
2. Partitive relationship
Also called whole-part-relationship whole-part Needed to indicate the connection between concepts consisting of more than one part and their constituent parts Can be expressed in the following formula: X is a constituent part of Y Or X, Y, Z are constituent parts of A Or A consists of X Or A consists of X, Y, Z,
Natural Science
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
Pure
Applied
Organic Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry
Botany
Zoology
Subject classification
Needed to classify larger groups of concepts next to the relationship Groups can be found in traditional dictionaries and glossaries as a hierarchical or alphabetical order. Limited by the fact that they cannot reflect relationships
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
The thesaurus is a compromise solution between classification and conceptual relationships. It has a deep hierarchical structure with (sometimes) seven or more sublevels e.g. In a Root-Thesaurus the mechanical Rootengineering is subdivided into Heat engineering Fluid engineering Vacuum engineering Prime movers Mechanical systems
At the end we are left with categories of topics or subject areas and not with concepts of separate entities, activities, properties or relations Subject classification helpful in structuring and selection of entities for a specialised dictionary But beyond this we need a broad structure as well as a complex set of relationships
Definitions
Methods of Definition
There are various methods of definition Choice of method according to:
the nature of the concept which has to be defined the particular purpose of the definition
Definition by Analysis
pneumonia = an inflammation of the lung tissue stomatitis = an inflammation of the mouth dog = a domesticated carnivorous mammal
Definition by Synonyms
software daisy dog
= logiciel = bellis perennis = canis lupus forma familiaris
Definition by Paraphrase
whiteness flotation lengthen
= the state of being white = the act of making something float = the process of making something longer
Definition by Synthesis
metatarsalgia = a painful neuralgic condition of the foot, felt in the ball of the foot and often spreading thence up the leg dog = a domesticated carnivorous mammal related to the foxes and wolves and raised in a large variety of breeds
Definition by Implication
dial = a clock or watch has a dial divided into segments for hours and minutes over which the hands move diagnosis = we make a diagnosis when we identify certain symptoms as characteristic of specific conditions
Definition by Denotation
dog = dogs are spaniels, poodles, Pekinese, alsatians and similar animals ocean = oceans are the Atlantic, the Pacific and the Indian Ocean
Definition by Demonstration
Definition by showing drawings, photographs or pointing to an object
A Theory of Terms
English Terminology
Synthetic and analytic means of term formation a) Synthetic methods: modify lexical items by means of affixes b) Analytic methods: combine independent and lexical units into larger units (e.g. compounding)
Terms in Dictionaries
Concepts represented in terminological dictionaries are predominantly expressed by the linguistic form of nouns Only selected verbs and adjectives Dictionary entries are relatively uniform:
Semantic and pragmatic information Graphic information Acronyms / other abbreviated forms Contextual variations Multiple compound nouns
Status of Terms
Terms can have a variable pragmatic status It is associated with their age, acceptability, exclusiveness of existence and spread of use TERM-DEFINITION-CONCEPT TERM-DEFINITION(e.g. sitt (German)) Translation theory quality label
Processes of Terminologisation
Terminologist:
1. Recorder of new terms 2. Advisor on designation 3. Administrator of gradual evolution of terms
Terminologisation: evolution of concepts is accompanied by stages of naming In the development of knowledge the concepts undergo changes Innovation in science is dependent upon our ability to question the validity of certain concepts while keeping others fixed
Difficulties for terminologists: recognition of terminological units in running texts lexicalization solves the problem by form of external characteristic like graphemic signs terminologisation is less dependent on such devices, because special language users are expected to know the appropriate concepts
A Model of Communication
A Model of Communication
Two specialists in the same discipline Sender is motivated to transmit a message Sender expects recipient message to receive
1. 2. 3. 4.
Message is the totality of Intention Assumed expectations Knowledge content Language selected by sender Specialist communication is highly conventional and stylised
Intention transmitted by non- linguistical nonmeans through 1. text forms of instructions 2. manuals 3. income tax returns,.....
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Compositional signals to signify intention Includes devices as laylay- out capitalisation underlining paragraph numbering subtitling Footnotes and bibliographic references fulfil an additional intention Communication is not successful, if senders intention is misinterpreted!!!
How do you achieve a successful communication? 1. Choice of intention 2. The selection of Knowledge 3. Choice of language
Use of special languages restricted Special language differs from general language in that : a) Constituted of special text types
Criteria for evaluating effectiveness of communication ( 3 objectives) : Message should be: 1. economical 2. precise 3. appropriate
Standardization
Conceptual innovation becomes manifested in the creation of new terms New terms are introduced to fill gaps or to replace existing ones A new concept becomes standardized when users reach public agreement Sets of definitions in textbooks, glossaries or manuals are the outward manifestation of this process Standardization is fixation of meaning
Principles of Standardization
Standardization is introduced after new concepts, objects and processes are established Then names are given to these new concepts Many alternatives exist Standardization is a retrospective activity
Instruments of Standardization
How do terms become standardized? Nomenclature commissions play a role in the efforts of standardization in their particular subject fields In the industrial sector, national standardization bodies are active Very few guidelines for the selection, definition and publication of terminology lack of uniformity
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) Issued basic recommendations Works on principles of and guidelines for terminology
Objectives of Standardization
ISO established seven principles on standardization 1. Objects are standardized first and then a term becomes standardized 2. Standardization is a social and economic activity 3. The publication of a standard has little value in itself
4. The establishment of a standard firstly requires a choice of a suitable term and secondly a fixation of this term and this definition 5. Standardization must be re- examined at reregular intervals and revised 6. It is necessary to determine test methods in order to verify whether the object conforms to the specifications 7. A standard has to be legally enforced and is a matter of convenience and economy
Methods of Standardization
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. There is a variety of methods and possibilities available to standardization Redefinition of words Redefinition of existing terms Derivation Composition Borrowing Compression
When the social, situational and intellectual role differences between participants in communication are minimal a higher proportion of standardized terms can be used Standardization undermines the creativity of a language
The British Standards Guide says about terms contained in a standard glossary that Terminology within a standard should be consistent, so that the same object or concept is always described or expressed by the same term and not by the use of synonyms The members of a standardizing company determine which terms get included
Only very few areas of British standardization are covered by glossaries Glossaries can be written before standardization of objects, methods or specifications begins Glossaries can be compiled after standards are established to collect the terminology So glossaries may be needed to prepare effective standards and effective standards lead to glossaries Glossaries fulfil the aim of standardization to provide means of communication