Solar Crop Dryer

1 Project Report-2011

Abstract
A multi-purpose solar crop dryer was developed for drying various agricultural products such as fruits, vegetables, medicinal plants etc. The newly developed system consists of a small fan, a solar air heater and a tunnel dryer. The simple design allows production either by farmers themselves, using cheap and locally available materials, or by small scale industries. Due to the low investment required, the solar dryer is predestined for application on small farms in developing countries. Depending on the crop to be dried and the size of the dryer 1001000 kg of fresh material can be dried within 17 days to safe storage conditions. The solar dryer was successfully tested in Greece, Yugoslavia, Egypt, Ethiopia and Saudi Arabia drying grapes, dates, onions, peppers and several medicinal plants. Compared to traditional sun drying methods, the use of the solar dryer reduces drying time significantly and prevents mass losses. Furthermore, product quality can be improved essentially. During drying, the crop is protected completely from rain, dust, insects and animals. All these features contribute to the desired high product quality. The energy cost required for operating the fan features contribute to the the additional earnings from reduced mass losses and improved quality. On-farm tests also showed that the dryer can be easily operated by farmers. However, at present the dissemination of the solar dryer is limited to electrified areas.

Solar Crop Dryer

2 Project Report-2011

Chapter 1 Introduction
Drying is an excellent way to preserve food and solar food dryers are appropriate food preservation technology for sustainable development . Drying was probably the first ever food preserving method used by man, even before cooking. It involves the removal of moisture from agricultural produce so as to provide a product that can be safely stored for longer period of time. Sun drying is the earliest method of drying farm products ever known to man and it involves simply laying the agricultural products in the sun on mats, roofs or drying floors. This has several disadvantages since the farm products are laid in the open sky and there is greater risk of spoilage due to adverse climatic conditions like rain, wind, moist and dust, loss of products to birds, insects and rodents (pests); totally dependent on good weather and very slow drying rate with danger of mould growth thereby causing deterioration and decomposition of the products. The process also requires large area of land, takes time and highly labour intensiv. With cultural and industrial development, artificial mechanical drying came into practice, but this process is highly energy intensive and expensive which ultimately increases product cost. Recently, efforts to improve sun drying have led to solar drying. In solar drying, solar dryers are specialized devices that control the drying process and protect agricultural produce from damage by insect pests, dust and rain. In comparison to natural sun drying, solar dryers

Solar Crop Dryer

3 Project Report-2011

generate higher temperatures, lower relative humidity, lower product moisture content and reduced spoilage during the drying process. In addition, it takes up less space, takes less time and relatively inexpensive compared to artificial mechanical drying method. Thus, solar drying is a better alternative solution to all the drawbacks of natural drying and artificial mechanical drying. The solar dryer can be seen as one of the solutions to the worlds food and energy crises. With drying, most agricultural products can be preserved and this can be achieved more efficiently through the use of solar dryers.

Solar dryers are a very useful device for: Agricultural crop drying. Food processing industries for dehydration of fruits and vegetables. Fish and meat drying. Dairy industries for production of milk powder. Seasoning of wood and timber. Textile industries for drying of textile materials, etc. Thus, the solar dryer is one of the many ways of making use of solar energy efficiently in meeting mans demand for energy and food supply. Air is commonly used as a heat transfer fluid in many types of energy conversion systems. In drying applications and space heating solar energy can take part in a major role because which can be done with warm air alone. Nearly any black surface which is heated by the sun will transfer heat to air when the air is blown over it. Air is

Solar Crop Dryer

4 Project Report-2011

distributed over the black radiation-absorbing surface and the air stream should be in contact with the complete collector surface to achieve higher temperatures. Air collector is usually over-laid by one or more transparent covers to reduce the heat loss. A good review of solar air heaters and their applications has been reported. Conventional, fuel-operated artificial dryers are more efficient, providing uniform high quality products. But such units are beyond the reach of the farmers with limited crop volume and high requirements of financial resources with respect to the cost of equipment. The increasing rate of fuel consumption in agriculture has made it necessary not only to save energy by intensifying the drying processes and improving their designs and where these solar energy systems can play a major role.

Solar Crop Dryer

5 Project Report-2011

Chapter 2 Literature Survey Sunlight

Sunlight, sunlight in the broad through sense, is the total frequency and solar spectrum of electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. On Earth, is filtered the Earth's atmosphere, radiation is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon. When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine, a combination of bright light and radiant heat. When it is blocked by the clouds or reflects off of other objects, it is experienced as diffused light. The World Meteorological Organization uses the term "sunshine duration" to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter. Sunlight may be recorded using a sunshine

recorder, pyranometer or pyrhelio meter. Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach the Earth. Direct sunlight has a luminous efficiency of about 93 lumens per watt of radiant flux, which includes infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light. Bright sunlight provides illuminance of approximately 100,000 lux or lumens per square meter at the Earth's surface.

Solar Crop Dryer

6 Project Report-2011

Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis, a process vital for life on Earth.

Calculation
To calculate the amount of sunlight reaching the ground, both the elliptical orbit of the Earth and the attenuation by the Earth's atmosphe- re have to be taken into account. The extraterrestrial solar illuminance (Eext), corrected for the elliptical orbit by using the day number of the year (dn), is given by

where dn=1 on January 1; dn=2 on January 2; dn=32 on February 1, etc. In this formula dn-3 is used, because in modern times Earth's perihelion, the closest approach to the Sun and therefore the maximum Eext occurs around January 3 each year. The value of 0.033412determined knowing that the ratio between perihelion. (0.98328989AU) squared and the aphelion (1.016710033 AU) should be approximately 0.935338. The solar illuminance constant (Esc), is equal to 128103 lx. The direct normal illuminance (Edn), corrected for the attenuating effects of the atmosphere is given by:

Solar Crop Dryer

7 Project Report-2011

where c is the atmospheric extinction coefficient and m is the relative optical airmass.

Solar constant
The solar constant, a measure of flux density, is the amount of incoming solar electromagnetic radiation per unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) (roughly the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth). When solar irradiance is measured on the outer surface of Earth's atmosphere, the measurements can be adjusted using the inverse square law to infer the magnitude of solar irradiance at one AU and deduce the solar constant. The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation, not just the visible light. It is measured by satellite to be roughly 1.366 kilowatts per square meter (kW/m).

Solar Crop Dryer

8 Project Report-2011

Sunlight intensity in the Solar System

Different bodies of the Solar System receive light of an intensity inversely proportional to the square of their distance from Sun. A rough table comparing the amount of light received by each planet on the Solar System follows -

Planet

Perihelion - Aphelion distance (AU)

Solar maximum (W/m) 14,446 6,272 2,647 2,576 1,413 1,321 715 492 55.8 45.9 16.7 13.4 4.04 3.39 1.54 1.47 and

radiation minimum

Mercury 0.3075 0.4667 Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus 0.7184 0.7282 0.9833 1.017 1.382 1.666 4.950 5.458 9.048 10.12 18.38 20.08

Neptune 29.77 30.44

The actual brightness of sunlight that would be observed at the surface depends also on the presence and composition of an atmosphere. For example Venus' thick atmosphere reflects more than 60% of the solar

Solar Crop Dryer

9 Project Report-2011

light it receives. The actual illumination of the surface is about 14,000 lux, comparable to that on Earth "in the daytime with overcast clouds". Sunlight on Mars would be more or less like daylight on Earth wearing sunglasses, and as can be seen in the pictures taken by the rovers, there is enough diffuse sky radiation that shadows would not seem particularly dark. Thus it would give perceptions and "feel" very much like Earth daylight. For comparison purposes, sunlight on Saturn is slightly brighter than Earth sunlight at the average sunset or sunrise (see daylight for comparison table). Even on Pluto the sunlight would still be bright enough to almost match the average living room. To see sunlight as dim as full moonlight on the Earth, a distance of about 500 AU (~69 lighthours) is needed; there is only a handful of objects in the solar system known to orbit farther than such a distance.

Composition

Solar Crop Dryer

10 Project Report-2011

The spectrum of the Sun's solar radiation is close to that of a black body with a temperature of about 5,800 K. The Sun emits EM radiation across most of the electromagnetic spectrum. Although the Sun produces Gamma rays as a result of the Nuclear fusion process, these super high energy photons are converted to lower energy photons before they reach the Sun's surface and are emitted out into space. So the Sun doesn't give off any gamma rays to speak of. The Sun does, however, emit X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light , infrared, and even Radio waves. When ultraviolet radiation is not absorbed by the atmosphere or other protective coating, it can cause damage to the skin known as sunburn or trigger an adaptive change in human skin pigmentation.

Solar irradiance spectrum above atmosphere and at surface.

The

spectrum

of electromagnetic

radiation striking

the Earth's

atmosphere is 100 to 106 nanometers (nm). This can be divided into five regions in increasing order of wavelengths

Solar Crop Dryer

11 Project Report-2011

Ultraviolet C or (UVC) range, which spans a range of 100 to 280 nm. The term ultraviolet refers to the fact that the radiation is at higher frequency than violet light (and, hence also invisible to the human eye). Owing to absorption by the atmosphere very little reaches the Earth's surface (Lithosphere). This spectrum of radiation has germicidal properties, and is used in germicidal lamps. Ultraviolet B or (UVB) range spans 280 to 315 nm. It is also greatly absorbed by the atmosphere, and along with UVC is responsible for the photochemical reaction leading to the production of the Ozone layer. Ultraviolet A or (UVA) spans 315 to 400 nm. It has been traditionally held as less damaging to the DNA, and hence used in tanning and PUVA therapy for psoriasis. Visible range or light spans 380 to 780 nm. As the name suggests, it is this range that is visible to the naked eye. Infrared range that spans 700 nm to 106 nm [1 (mm)]. It is responsible for an important part of the electromagnetic radiation that reaches the Earth. It is also divided into three types on the basis of wavelength: Infrared-A: 700 nm to 1,400 nm Infrared-B: 1,400 nm to 3,000 nm Infrared-C: 3,000 nm to 1 mm.

SOLAR RADIATION THE ENERGY SOURCE FOR SOLAR DRYING

Solar Crop Dryer

12 Project Report-2011

The sun is the central energy producer of our solar system. I has the form of a ball and nuclear fusion take place continuously in its centre. A small fraction of the energy produced in the sun hits the earth and makes life possible on our planet. Solar radiation drives all natural cycles and processes such as rain, wind, photosynthesis, ocean currents and several other which are important for life. The whole world energy need has been based from the very beginning on solar energy. All fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal, etc.) are converted solar energy. The radiation intensity of 6000oC solar surface corresponds to 70,000 to 80,000 kW/m2. Our planet receives only a very small portion of this energy. In spite of this, the incoming solar radiation energy in a year is about 200,000,000 billion kWh; this is more than 10,000 times the yearly energy need of the whole world. The solar radiation intensity outside the atmosphere is in average 1,360 W/m2 (solar constant). When the solar radiation penetrates through the atmosphere some of the radiation is lost so that on a clear sky sunny day in summer between 800 to 1000 W/m2 (global radiation) can be obtained on the ground. Solar energy will be extremely expensive as compared to other energy sources. However there is an unlimited amount of power across different countries in summer. There will not be enough input from other sources and therefore we must work extremely hard on solar energy. It will be indispensable. The only problem is that the public is unwilling to make the huge investments in solar that are needed, and if we wait too long to make these investments it will be too late. In order to use this energy, we will have to have seasonal industries that take advantage hat when the sun doesnt shine, the factory wont work and it might be necessary to go to bed early because there is no electricity. Capital costs of solar will be very high because the percentage of time

Solar Crop Dryer

13 Project Report-2011

that it is available is so small. A lot of labour will be required but labour will be cheap after oilo depletion power needs for an economic one. The information gained can then be used in large power plants or in house sized installations.

Global Radiation
The duration of the sunshine as well as its intensity is dependent on the time of the year, weather conditions and naturally also on the geographical location. The amount of yearly global radiation on a horizontal surface may thus reach in the sun belt regions over 2,200 kWh/m2. In north Europe, the maximum values are 1,100 kWh/m2. The global radiation composes of direct and diffuse radiation. The direct solar radiation is the component which comes from the direction of the sun. The diffuse radiation component is created when the direct solar rays are scattered from the different molecules and particles in the atmosphere into all directions, i.e. the radiation becomes un-beamed. The amount of diffuse radiation is dependent on the climatic and geographic conditions. The global radiation and the proportion of diffuse radiation is greatly influenced by clouds, the condition of the atmosphere (e.g. haze and dust layers over large cities) and the path length of the beams through the atmosphere.

Solar energy

Solar Crop Dryer

14 Project Report-2011

Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary solar-powered resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most of the available renewable energy on earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used.

Solar

powered electrical

generation

relies

on heat

engines and photovoltaics. Solar energy's uses are limited only by human ingenuity. To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use solar panels. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive

solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

Energy from the Sun

Solar Crop Dryer

15 Project Report-2011

The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet. Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their temperature. Warm air

About half the incoming solar energy reaches the Earth's surface.

containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 C. By photosynthesis green plants convert solar

Solar Crop Dryer

16 Project Report-2011

energy into chemical energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived. increased food prices by diverting forests and crops into biofuel production.
Yearly Solar fluxes & Human Energy Consumption Solar Wind Biomass Primary energy use (2005) Electricity (2005) 3,850,000 EJ[6] 2,250 EJ[7] 3,000 EJ[8] 487 EJ[9] 56.7 EJ[10]

The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined. From the table of resources it would appear that solar, wind or biomass would be sufficient to supply all of our energy needs, however, the increased use of biomass has had a negative effect on global warming and dramatically As intermittent resources, solar and wind raise other issues.

Solar Crop Dryer

17 Project Report-2011

Solar energy can be harnessed in different levels around the world. Depending on a geographical location the closer to the equator the more "potential" solar energy is available.

Applications of solar technology

Average insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world primary energy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year. Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m/day. Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends. However, all renewable energies, other than geothermal and tidal, derive their energy from the sun.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces

Solar Crop Dryer

18 Project Report-2011

that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies.

History
There are records of solar collectors in the United States dating back to before 1900, comprising a black-painted tank mounted on a roof. In 1896 Clarence Kemp of Baltimore, USA enclosed a tank in a wooden box, thus creating the first 'batch water heater' as they are known today. Although flat-plate collectors for solar water heating were used in Florida and Southern California in the 1920s there was a surge of interest in solar heating in North America after 1960, but specially after the 1973 oil crisis.
Work in Israel Main article: Solar power in Israel

Passive (thermisiphon) solar water heaters on a rooftop in Jerusalem

Flat plate solar systems were perfected and used on a very large scale in Israel. In the 1950s there was a fuel shortage in the new Israeli state, and

Solar Crop Dryer

19 Project Report-2011

the government forbade heating water between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m.. Levi Yissar built the first prototype Israeli solar water heater and in 1953 he launched the NerYah Company, Israel's first commercial manufacturer of solar water heating. Despite the abundance of sunlight in Israel, solar water heaters were used by only 20% of the population by 1967. Following the energy crisis in the 1970s, in 1980 the Israeli Knesset passed a law requiring the installation of solar water heaters in all new homes (except high towers with insufficient roof area). As a result, Israel is now the world leader in the use of solar energy per capita with 85% of the households today using solar thermal systems (3% of the primary national energy consumption), estimated to save the country two million barrels of oil a year, the highest per capita use of solar energy in the world.

Other countries.

New solar hot water installations during 2007, worldwide.

The world saw a rapid growth of the use of solar warm water after 1960, with systems being marketed also in Japan and Australia Technical

Solar Crop Dryer

20 Project Report-2011

innovation has improved performance, life expectancy and ease of use of these systems. Installation of solar water heating has become the norm in countries with an abundance of solar radiation, like the Mediterranean, and Japan and Austria, where there Colombia developed a local solar water heating industry thanks to the designs of Las Gaviotas, directed by Paolo Lugari. Driven by a desire to reduce costs in social housing, the team of Gaviotas studied the best systems from Israel, and made adaptations as to meet the specifications set by the Banco Central Hipotecario (BCH) which prescribed that the system must be operational in cities like Bogot where there are more than 200 days overcast. The ultimate designs were so successful that Las Gaviotas offered in 1984 a 25 year warranty on any of its installations. Over 40,000 were installed, and still function a quarter of a century later. In 2005, Spain became the first country in the world to require the installation of photovoltaic electricity generation in new buildings, and the second (after Israel) to require the installation of solar water heating systems in 2006. Australia has a variety of incentives (national and state) and regulations (state) for solar thermal introduced starting with MRET in 1997 . Solar water heating systems have become popular in China, where basic models start at around 1,500 yuan (US$190), much cheaper than in Western countries (around 80% cheaper for a given size of collector). It is said that at least 30 million Chinese households now have one, and that the popularity is due to the efficient evacuated tubes which allow the heaters to function even under gray skies and at temperatures well below freezing . Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar water heating systems with over 30%-40% of homes using them.

Solar Crop Dryer

21 Project Report-2011

See Appendix 1 at the bottom of this article for a number of countryspecific statistics on the "Use of solar water heating worldwide". Wikipedia also has country-specific articles about solar energy use (thermal as well as photovoltaic) in Australia, Canada, China, Germany, India, Israel,Japan, Portugal, R omania, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United States.

Solar air heat

Solar air heat is a type of energy collector in which the energy from the sun, solar insolation, is captured by an absorbing medium and used to heat air . Solar air heating is arenewable energy heating technology used to heat or condition air for buildings or process heat applications. Solar air collectors can be commonly divided into two categories: . glazed (recirculating types) unglazed (ambient air heaters -transpired type)

Glazed Air Systems

Functioning in a similar manner as a conventional forced air furnace, systems provide heat by recirculating conditioned building air through solar collectors - Solar thermal collectors. . Through the use of an energy collecting surface to absorb the suns thermal energy, and ducting air to come in contact with it, a simple and effective collector can be made for a variety of air conditioning and process applications.

Solar Crop Dryer

22 Project Report-2011

SPF Solar Air Heat Collector

A simple solar air collector consists of an absorber material, sometimes having a selective surface, to capture radiation from the sun and transfers this thermal energy to air via conduction heat transfer. This heated air is then ducted to the building space or to the process area where the heated air is used for space heating or process heating needs.

Air Heat Applications

A variety of applications can utilize solar air heat technologies to reduce the carbon footprint from use of conventional heat sources, such as fossil fuels, to create a sustainable means to produce thermal energy. Applications such as space heating, pre-heating ventilation makeup air, or process heat can be addressed by solar air heat devices. Further strides are being made in the field of solar co-generation where solar thermal technologies are being paired with photovoltaics (PV) which increases the efficiency of a typical PV system by generating additional useful energy in the form of both electricity and heat.

Space Heating Applications

Space heating for residential and commercial applications can be done through the use of solar air heating panels. This configuration operates

Solar Crop Dryer

23 Project Report-2011

by drawing air from the building envelope or from the outdoor environment and passes it through the collector where the air warms from conduction of the absorber and is then supplied to the living or working space by either passive means or with the assistance of a fan. Ventilation, fresh air or makeup air is required in most commercial, industrial and institutional buildings to meet code requirements. By drawing air through a properly designed unglazed transpired air collector or an air heater (such as an http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_recovery_ventilation energy and heat recovery ventilators ERV/HRV]), the solar heated fresh air can reduce the heating load during daytime operation. Many applications are now being installed where the transpired collector preheats the fresh air entering a heat recovery ventilator to reduce the defrost time of HRV's.

Process Heat Applications

Solar air heat can also be used in process applications such as drying laundry, crops (i.e. tea, corn, coffee) and other drying applications. Air heated through a solar collector and then passed over a medium to be dried can provide an efficient means by which to reduce the moisture content of the material.

Unglazed Air Systems

Transpired Air Collector

Transpired air collectors are becoming the most popular type of solar air heating system in North America. These unglazed solar collectors are low cost and primarily used to heat ambient air and not building air. Transpired collectors only require one penetration into the building, or

Solar Crop Dryer

24 Project Report-2011

if existing fan inlets are used, then no additional penetrations are necessary. The transpired air collectors are generally wall mounted to capture the lower sun angles in the winter months, additional sun reflection off the snow and they also capture heat loss escaping from the building envelope which is collected in the SolarWall air cavity and drawn back into the ventilation system. As of 2009, there are over 1500 transpired collector installations with over 300,000 square meters of collector surface.

Solar Heating Efficiency

Solar air collector heat loss is lowest when the temperature of the air entering the solar panel is equal to (or less than) ambient temperature. This occurs with transpired collectors designed to pre-heat outside air for ventilating a building. Space heating collectors are designed to reheat inside building air so the air entering the collector is warmer than outside air resulting in some heat loss through the glazing. Space heating systems must also heat the air above room temperature whereas with ventilation heating, it is only necessary to raise the outside air temperature to room temperature (20 C). On cold, overcast days, there may be insufficient energy for space heating but ambient air heaters may still be able to extract a few degrees of useful energy from the filtered sunlight. Transpired collectors will provide significant energy savings when heating ventilation air for buildings that have high fresh air requirements such as factories, schools, hospitals arenas etc. Transpired collector systems are generally day time solar heaters without storage. Most homes have low ventilation requiements and need higher temperature air and thus transpired collectors are not as popular for residential applications.

Solar Crop Dryer

25 Project Report-2011

Active solar
Active solar technologies are employed to convert solar energy into usable light, heat, cause air-movement for ventilation or cooling, or store heat for future use. Active solar uses electrical or mechanical equipment, such as pumps and fans, to increase the usable heat in a system. Solar energy collection and utilization systems that do not use external energy, like a solar chimney, are classified as passive solartechnologies. Solar hot water systems, except those based on the thermosiphon, use pumps or fans to circulate water, an anti-freeze mixture, or air throughsolar collectors, and are therefore classified under active solar technology. The solar collectors can be nonconcentrating or 'flat-plate', or of various concentrating designs. Most solar-thermal collectors have fixed mounting, but can have a higher performance if they track the path of the sun through the sky. Solar trackers, used to orient photovoltaic arrays or daylighting, may be driven by either passive or active technology.

Solar trackers may be driven by active orpassive solar technology

Solar Crop Dryer

26 Project Report-2011

Passive solar
Passive solar technologies are means of using sunlight for useful energy without use of active mechanical systems (as contrasted to active solar). Such technologies convert sunlight into usable heat (water, air, thermal mass), cause air-movement for ventilating, or future use, with little use of other energy sources. A common example is a solarium on the equator-side of a building. Passive cooling is the use of the same design principles to reduce summer cooling requirements.Passive solar energy is a type of energy. Technologies that use a significant amount of conventional energy to power pumps or fans are active solar technologies. Some passive systems use a small amount of conventional energy to control dampers, shutters, night insulation, and other devices that enhance solar energy collection, storage, use, and reduce undesirable heat transfer. Passive solar technologies include direct and indirect solar gain for space heating, solar water heating systems based on the thermosiphon or geyser pump, use of thermal mass and phasechange materials for slowing indoor air temperature swings, solar cookers, the solar chimney for enhancing natural ventilation, and earth sheltering. More widely, passive solar technologies include the solar furnace and solar forge, but these typically require some external energy for aligning their concentrating mirrors or receivers, and historically have not proven to be practical or cost effective for widespread use. 'Low-grade' energy needs, such as space and water heating, have

Solar Crop Dryer

27 Project Report-2011

proven, over time, to be better applications for passive use of solar energy.

Chapter 3 Solar Drying Food dehydrator

A food dehydrator is an appliance that removes moisture from food to aid in its preservation. A food dehydrator uses heat and air flow to reduce the water content of foods. The water content of food is usually very high, typically 80% to 95% for various fruits and vegetables and 50% to 75% for various meats. Removing moisture from food restrains various bacteria from growing and spoiling food. Further, removing moisture from food dramatically reduces the weight of the food. Thus, food dehydrators are used to preserve and extend the shelf life of various foods.

Solar Crop Dryer

28 Project Report-2011

Tomato slices ready to be dried in a food dehydrator. In this model, multiple trays can be stacked on top of each other and warm air flows around the food.

A food dehydrator's basic parts usually consist of a heating element, a fan, air vents allowing for air circulation and food trays to lay food upon. A dehydrator's heating element, fans and vents simultaneously work to remove moisture from food. A dehydrator's heating element warms the food causing its moisture to be released from its interior. The appliance's fan then blows the warm, moist air out of the appliance via the air vents. This process continues for hours until the food is dried to a substantially lower water content, usually fifteen to twenty percent or less. Most foods are dehydrated at temperatures of 130 F, or 54 C, although meats being made into jerky should be dehydrated at a higher temperature of 155 F, or 68 C, or preheated to those temperature levels, to guard against pathogens that may be in the meat. The key to successful food dehydration is the application of a constant temperature and adequate air flow. Too high of a temperature can cause case hardened foods; food that is hard and dry on the outside but moist on the inside.

Solar Crop Dryer

29 Project Report-2011

The first food dehydrator was sold in 1920. Solar dryers use solar energy to create a flow of warm air through the tray.

Drying (food)
Drying is a method the of food food, preservation that which inhibits works the by removing water from growth

of microorganisms and hinders quality decay. Drying food using sun and wind to prevent spoilage has been practised since ancient times. Water is usually removed byevaporation (air drying, sun drying, smoking or wind drying) but, in the case of freeze-drying, food is first frozen and then the water is removed by sublimation. Bacteria yeasts and moulds need the water in the food to grow. Drying effectively prevents them from surviving in the food.

Solar Crop Dryer

30 Project Report-2011

A whole potato, sliced pieces (right), and dried sliced pieces (left)

Food types
Many different foods are prepared by dehydration. Good examples are meat such as prosciutto (a.k.a. Parma ham), bresaola, and beef jerky. Dried and salted reindeer meat is a traditional Sami food. First the meat is soaked / pickled in saltwater for a couple of days to guarantee the conservation of the meat. Then the meat is dried in the sun in spring when the air temperature is below zero. The dried meat can be further processed to make soup.

Solar Crop Dryer

31 Project Report-2011

Fruits change character completely[clarification needed] when dried: the plum becomes a prune, the grape a raisin; figs and dates are also transformed in new, different products, that can be eaten as they are or else after rehydration.

A collection of dried mushrooms.

Home drying of vegetables, fruit and even meat (to produce jerky) may be carried out by a do-it-yourself practice, employing electrical dehydrators (household appliance). If the user does not like to use additives as potassium metabisulphite, or BHA, BHT for meats, dried products may be hermetically shelf stored if it is to be consumed soon, or else in the refrigerator or even freezer if a long storage is to be expected. Freeze dried vegetables are often found in backpackers food, hunters, military, etc. The exception to this rule are bulbs, such as garlic and onion, which are often dried. Also chilis are frequently dried. Edible andpsilocybin mushrooms, as well as other fungi, are also sometimes dried for preservation purposes, to affect the potency of chemical components, or so they can be used as seasonings. For centuries, much of the European diet depended on dried cod, known as salt cod or bacalhau (with salt) or stockfish (without). It formed the main protein source for the slaves on theWest Indian plantations, and

Solar Crop Dryer was a major

32 Project Report-2011

economic

force

within

the triangular

trade.

Dried shark meat, known as Hkarl, is a delicacy in Iceland.

Grain drying
Hundreds of millions of tonnes of wheat, corn, soybean, rice and other grains as sorghum, sunflower seeds, rapeseed/canola, barley, oats, etc., are dried in grain dryers. In the main agricultural countries, drying comprises the reduction of moisture from about 17-30%w/w to values between 8 and 15%w/w, depending on the grain. The final moisture content for drying must be adequate for storage. The more oil the grain has, the lower its storage moisture content will be (though its initial moisture for drying will also be lower). Cereals are often dried to 14% w/w, while oilseeds, to 12.5% (soybeans), 8% (sunflower) and 9% (peanuts). Drying is carried out as a requisite for safe storage, in order to inhibit microbial growth. However, low temperatures in storage are also highly recommended to avoid degradative reactions and, especially, the growth of insects and mites. A good maximum storage temperature is about 18C. The largest dryers are normally used "Off-farm", in elevators, and are of the continuous type: Mixed-flow dryers are preferred in Europe, while Cross-flow dryers in the USA. In Argentina, both types are usually found. Continuous flow dryers may produce up to 100 metric tonnes of dried grain per hour. The depth of grain the air must traverse in continuous dryers range from some 0.15 m in Mixed flow dryers to some 0.30 m in Cross-Flow. Batch dryers are mainly used "On-Farm", particularly in the USA and Europe. They normally consist of a bin, with heated air flowing horizontally from an internal cylinder through an inner perforated metal sheet, then through a annular grain bed, some 0.50 m thick (coaxial with the internal cylinder) in radial direction, and finally across the outer perforated metal sheet, before

Solar Crop Dryer

33 Project Report-2011

being discharged to the atmosphere. The usual drying times range from 1 h to 4 h depending on how much water must be removed, type of grain, air temperature and the grain depth. In the USA, continuous counterflow dryers may be found on-farm, adapting a bin to slowly drying grain fed at the top and removed at the bottom of the bin by a sweeping auger. Grain drying is an active area of manufacturing and research. Now it is possible to simulate the performance of a dryer with computer programs based on equations (mathematical models) that represent the phenomena involved in drying: physics, physical chemistry, thermodynamics and heat and mass transfer. Most recently the evolution of quality indices is beginning to be predicted with some confidence, in order to add an essential performance parameter with which to establish a compromise of reasonably fast drying rate, limited energy consumption, and satisfactory grain quality. A typical quality parameter in wheat drying is the breadmaking quality and germination percentage whose reductions in drying are somewhat related.

Attempts to Harness Solar Energy

Some Background to the Concept

The idea of using solar energy to produce high temperature dates back to ancient times. The solar radiation has been used by man since the beginning of time for heating his domicile, for agricultural purposes and for personal comfort. Reports abound in literature on the 18th century works of Archimedes on concentrating the suns rays with flat mirrors; Antoine Lavoisier on solar furnace; Joseph Priestly on concentrating rays using lens. In the 19th century, development of solar

Solar Crop Dryer

34 Project Report-2011

distillation unit covering 4750sq meters of land, operated for 40 years and, producing 6,000 gallons of water from salt water per day has been reported. Also, John Ericsons work on conversion of solar energy into mechanical energy through a device, which produced 1hp (746 W) for each 9.3m2 of collecting surface has also been reported. Modern research on the use of solar energy started during the 20th century. Developments include the invention of a solar boiler, small powered steam engines and solar battery, but it is difficult to market them in competition with engines running on inexpensive gasoline .During the mid 1970s shortages of oil and natural gas, increase in the cost of fossil fuels and the depletion of other resources stimulated efforts in the United States to develop solar energy into a practical power source. Thus, interest was rekindled in the harnessing of solar energy for heating and cooling, the generation of electricity and other purposes

Capturing Solar Energy

Solar radiation can be converted either into thermal energy (heat) or into electrical energy. This can be done by making use of thermal collectors for conversion into heat energy or photovoltaic collectors for conversion into electrical energy. Two main collectors are used to capture solar energy and convert it to thermal energy, these are flat plate collectors and concentrating collectors . In this paper, emphasis is laid much on the flat plate collectors which are also known as nonfocusing collectors.

Importance of Solar Dried Food

Solar Crop Dryer

35 Project Report-2011

For centuries, people of various nations have been preserving fruits, other crops, meat and fish by drying. Drying is also beneficial for hay, copra, tea and other income producing non-food crops. With solar drying being available everywhere, the availability of all these farm produce can be greatly increased. It is worth noting that until around the end of the 18th century when canning was developed, drying was virtually the only method of food preservation. The energy input for drying is less than what is needed to freeze or can, and the storage space is minimal compared with that needed for canning jars and freezer containers. It was further stated that the nutritional value of food is only minimally affected by drying . Also, food scientists have found that by reducing the moisture content of food to 10 to 20%, bacteria, yeast, mold and enzymes are all prevented from spoiling it. Microorganisms are effectively killed when the internal temperature of food reaches 145F . The flavour and most of the nutritional value of dried food is preserved and concentrated . Dried foods do not require any special storage equipment and are easy to transport . Dehydration of vegetables and other food crop by traditional methods of open-air sun drying is not satisfactory, because the products deteriorate rapidly . Studies showed that food items dried in a solar dryer were superior to those which are sun dried when evaluated in terms of taste, colour and mould counts . Solar dried food are quality products that can be stored for extended periods, easily transported at less cost while still providing excellent nutritive value. This paper therefore presents the design and construction of a domestic passive solar food dryer.

Solar Crop Dryer

36 Project Report-2011

Chapter 4 Solar Crops Dryer Parts Collector types

A solar-thermal-collector is a solar-collector designed to collect heat by absorb ing sunlight. The term is applied to solar hot

Solar Crop Dryer

37 Project Report-2011

water panels, but may also be used to denote more complex installations such as solar parabolic, solar trough and solar towers or simpler installations such as solar air heat. The more complex collectors are generally used in solar power plants where solar heat is used to generate electricity by heating water to produce steam which drives a turbine connected to an electrical generator. The simpler collectors are typically used for supplemental space heating in residential and commercial buildings. A collector is a device for converting the energy in solar radiation into a more usable or storable form. The energy in sunlight is in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the infrared (long) to the ultraviolet (short) wavelengths. The solar energy striking the Earth's surface depends on weather conditions, as well as location and orientation of the surface, but overall, it averages about 1,000 watts per square meter under clear skies with the surface directly perpendicular to the sun's rays.

Due to varying air-ducting methods, collectors are commonly classified as one of three types: a) through-pass collectors, b) front-pass, c) back pass, d) combination front and back pass collectors.

Through-Pass Air Collector

In the through-pass configuration, air ducted onto one side of the absorber passes through a perforated or fibrous type material and is heated from the conductive properties of the material and the convective

Solar Crop Dryer

38 Project Report-2011

properties of the moving air. Through-pass absorbers have the most surface area which enables relatively high conductive heat transfer rates, but significant pressure drop can require greater fan power, and deterioration of certain absorber material after many years of solar radiation exposure can additionally create problems with air quality and performance.

Combination Passage Air Collector

In back-pass, front-pass, and combination type configurations the air is directed on either the back, the front, or on both sides of the absorber to be heated from the return to the supply ducting headers. Although passing the air on both sides of the absorber will provide a greater surface area for conductive heat transfer, issues with dust (fouling) can arise from passing air on the front side of the absorber which reduces absorber efficiency by limiting the amount of sunlight received. In cold climates, air passing next to the glazing will additionally cause greater heat loss, resulting in lower overall performance of the collector.

Fan
The main problem with a PV powered solar crop dryer is the fan: the fan should be in- expensive, durable and produce high flow rates at a high pressure while having a low power consumption in order to keep the prise of the solar crop dryer down and at the same time en- sure an efficient drying process. In order to limit the necessary size of the PVpanel the flow rate through the crop was de- creased considerably

Solar Crop Dryer

39 Project Report-2011

compared to conventional dryers. With the air flow in the design case of 300 m/h per unit the air speed through the drying bed was 0.06 m/s. This is very low com- pared to the 0.3-0.7 m/s in conventional cross flow dryers and also low compared to the 0.1 m/s in conventional platform dryers. The data sheet for the chosen fan is shown in appendix A. The fan is type 7212N from Pabst. The characteristic of the fan is shown in figure 2.8, curve 2. The figure shows that the pressure drop of the system should be below 50 Pa at a flow rate of 300 m/h as the flow rate else may drop to around 200 m/h. The voltage range of the fan is between 6 and 15 V and the nominal power demand is 12 W.

Chapter 5 Materials and Method

General Description of the Domestic Passive Solar Food Dryer
The most commonly seen design types are of cabinet form (wooden boxes with glass cover), some types are even improved making use of cardboard boxes and transparent nylon or polythene.For the design

Solar Crop Dryer

40 Project Report-2011

being considered, the greenhouse effect and thermosiphon principles are the theoretical basis. There is an air vent (or inlet) to the solar collector where air enters and is heated up by the greenhouse effect, the hot air rises through the drying chamber passing through the trays and around the food, removing the moisture content and exits through the air vent (or outlet) near the top of the shadowed side.

The hot air acts as the drying medium, it extracts and conveys the moisture from the produce (or food) to the atmosphere under free (natural) convection, thus the system is a passive solar system and no mechanical device is required to control the intake of air into the dryer.The solar food dryer consists of two major compartment or chambers being integrated together:

The solar collector compartment, which can also be referred to as the air heater. The drying chamber, designed to accommodate four layers of drying trays made of net cloth (cheese cloth) on which the produces (or food) are placed for drying.

Solar Crop Dryer

41 Project Report-2011

Drawings

Solar Crop Dryer

42 Project Report-2011

Solar Crop Dryer

43 Project Report-2011

Solar Crop Dryer

44 Project Report-2011

Materials Used
The following materials were used for the construction of the domestic passive solar dryer:

GI Sheet of gauge 16 (1.2mm)Glass -

as the casing (housing) of the entire system.

as the solar collector cover and the cover for the drying chamber. It

permits the solar radiation into the system but resists the flow of heat energy out of the systems.

Aluminium sheet -

of 18gauge - 1mm thickness (dimension 30cm 30cm) frames for constructing the trays.

painted black with mat finish for absorption of solar radiation.

Steel net and Steel rods as Thermocol

as insulation in drying chamber and glue as adhesive for insulation. the dryers door.

Welding for joining

Hinges and Magnet for Paint (black

and cherry red).

Solar Crop Dryer

45 Project Report-2011

Chapter 6 Design Consideration

1.

Temperature- The minimum temperature for drying food is 30C and the maximum temperature is 60C, therefore. 45C and above is considered average and normal for drying vegetables, fruits, roots and tuber crop chips, crop seeds and some other crops .

2.

The design was made for the optimum temperature for the dryer. T0 of 60C and the air inlet temperature or the ambient temperature T1 = 30C (approximately outdoor temperature).

3.

Efficiency - This is defined as the ratio of the useful output of a device to the input of the device.

4.

Air gap In this work, a gap of 5 cm should be created as air vent (inlet) and air passage.

5.

Glass and flat plate collector -The glass covering should be 3-4mm thickness. In this work, 3mm thick transparent glass was used. Here the metal sheet thickness should be of 0.8 1.0 mm thickness; here an Aluminium sheet of 18gauge (1mm) thickness was used. The glass used as cover for the collector was 30 50cm2.

Solar Crop Dryer

46 Project Report-2011

6.

Dimension It is recommended that a constant exchange of air and a roomy drying chamber should be attained in solar food dryer design, thus the design of the drying chamber was made as spacious as possible of average dimension of 30 30 30cm with air passage (air vent) out of the cabinet of 2 diameter.

7.

Dryer Trays Steel Net was selected as the dryer screen or trays to aid air circulation within the drying chamber. Two trays were made. The tray dimension is 30 30cm . The design of the dry chamber making use of thermocol wall sides and tends to bleach colour, removes flavor and causes the food to dry unevenly.

Design Calculations
1. Angle of Tilt () of Solar Collector/Air Heater.

It states that the angle of tilt () of the solar collector should be = 100 + lat where lat is the latitude of the collector location, Region: Kerala Country: India Latitude: 10.516667 . Hence, the suitable value of use for the collector: = 100 + 10.5170 = 20.5170 2. Insulation on the Collector Surface Area.

A research obtained the value of insulation for Thrissur, Kerala, India i.e. average daily radiation H on horizontal surface as; H = 978.69W/m2

Solar Crop Dryer

47 Project Report-2011

and average effective ratio of solar energy on tilted surface to that on the horizontal surface R as; R = 1.0035 Thus, insulation on the collector surface was obtained as Ic =HR = 978.69 1.0035 Ic = 982.11W/m2 3. Determination of Collector Area and Dimension. The mass flow rate of air Ma was determined by taking the average air speed Va = 0.15m/s. The air gap height was taken as 5cm = 0.05m and the width of the collection assumed to be 30cm = 0.3m. Thus, volumetric flow rate of air V'a = Va 0.05 0.3 V'a = 0.15 0.05 0.3 = 2.25 10-3m3/s Thus mass flow rate of air: a = vaa Density of air a is taken as 1.28kg/m3 Ma = 2.25 10-3 1.28 = 2.88 10-3kg/s Therefore, area of the collector AC = Ma Cp dT / 0.6 Ic AC = (2.88 10-3 1005 (60-30)/(0.6 982.11) = 0.147356m2 The length of the solar collector (L) was taken as; L = Ac/B = 0.147356m2/0.3 = 0.491m Thus, the length of the solar collector was taken approximately as 0.5m. Therefore, collector area was taken as (0.3 0.5) 2 = 0.15m2 4. Determination of the Insulator Thickness for the Drying Chamber

Solar Crop Dryer

48 Project Report-2011

The rate of heat loss from air is equal to the rate of heat conduction through the insulation. The following equation holds for the purpose of the design. FmaCp (T0 Ti) = Ka(Ta Ta)/tb

K = 0.05Wm-1K-1 which is the approximate thermal conductivity for polyurethane [11]. F = 10% = 0.1 T0 = 60C and Ti = Ta = 30C approximately ma = 2.88 10-3Kgs-1 Cp = 1005JKg-1K-1 and Ac = 0.09m2 tb =[0.05 0.09 (60-30)]/[0.12.8810-31005(60-30)] = 0.001554m = 1.554mm For the design, the thickness of the insulator was taken as 50mm. The side of the drying chamber was insulated using thermocol (a polymer), the loss through the side of the collector was considered negligible. 5. Determination of Heat Losses from the Solar Collector (Air

Heater). Total energy transmitted and absorbed is given by IcAc = Qu + QL + Qs where Qs is the energy stored which is considered negligible therefore, IcAc =Qu +QL Thus QL the heat energy losses

Solar Crop Dryer QL = IcAc - Qu Since

49 Project Report-2011

Qu = maCp (T0 Ti) = maCpT and QL = ULAcT then ULAcT = IcAc - maCpT

UL = (IcAc - maCpT)/(AcT) was taken as 0.9 and = 0.86 Ta = 0.774 UL = (982.110.150.774 2.8810-3100530)/(0.1530) = (114.022971 - 86.832)/4.5 UL = 6.0424W/m2C

Therefore, QL = 6.0424 0.15 30 = 27.19W

This heat loss includes the heat loss through the insulation from the sides and the cover glass.

Solar Crop Dryer

50 Project Report-2011

Part no: 1 SL no Activity

Name: Collector Distance Time moved (m) (min)

Operations

Material laying store 5 Name: 10 Collector Time 2 Distance480 3 moved 180 (min) 60 300 10 15 480 180 60 300 15

no: 1 2 Part Moved to machine shop Activity 3 SL Welding 4 no Grinding 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Operations

Painting 1 (m) Material laying Delay time for 2 store drying point Moved to 5 Inspection machine shop Welding Grinding Painting Delay time for drying point Inspection 2 3 1 2

Solar Crop Dryer

51 Project Report-2011

Part no: 2 SL no

Name: Drier Distance moved (m) Time (min)

Operations

Activity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Material laying shop Moved workshop Welding Grinding Painting Delay time for drying Inspection to 5 2 3 1 2 10 420 120 60 300 15

Solar Crop Dryer

52 Project Report-2011

Estimation & costs

Cost SL no 1 2 Item Quantity Specification Rs Aluminium Sheet Thermo coal 1no 1no 3mm thickness cross 14*2 Sheet 1.5cm 150 10 Ps 00 00

thickness 4m diameter 2inch diameter 0.5inch wire grill long*2inch

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Total

PVC Pipe Bend Steel net Blower Reducer Magnet Paint Thermometer Glass Adhesive G.I. Sheet

1no 3nos 2no 1no 1no 1no 250ml 1no 1no 100ml 19.5kg

400

00

2mm thickness HP 1 Door Magnet

100

00

1400 50 100

00 00 00 00

200c 5mm thickness Synthetic gum 2mm plate thickness

225 105 20 1750 4310

00 00 00

Chapter 7

Solar Crop Dryer

53 Project Report-2011

Construction
The solar food dryer was constructed making use of locally available and relatively cheap materials. Since the entire casing is made of wood and the cover is glass, the major construction works is carpentry works (joinery). The following tools were used in measuring and marking out on the wooden planks:

Carpenters pencil. Steel tapes (push-pull rule type). Steel meter rule. Vernier caliper. Steel square. Scriber.

The following tools were also used during the construction;

Hand saws (crosscut saw and ripsaw). Hammer. Pinch bar and pincers.

The construction was made with simple butt joints using nails as fasteners and glue (adhesive) where necessary. a

The metal sheet used was GI sheet of 16gauge (1.2mm) thickness. It was cut to the size of 30 50cm, 30 x 30cm, and 30 x 20cm according to the

Solar Crop Dryer

54 Project Report-2011

design. It was painted black with mat finish for maximum absorption and radiation of heat energy. The metal sheet, together with the insulator of 50mm thickness, was placed inside the air heater (drying chamber) compartment. The glass was cut into size of 30 50cm size was required as the solar collectors cover. The glass used was clear glass with 3mm thickness. The trays were made with steel rod as frame and steel net to permit free flow of air within the drying cabinet (chamber). Two trays were used with average of 10cm spacing arranged vertically one on top of the other, the tray size was 30 30cm. The interior of the solar food dryer was insulated to prevent the heat loss while the exterior was painted cherry red to minimize the adverse effects of weather and insect attraction on the drying chamber and also for aesthetic appeal.

Solar Crop Dryer

55 Project Report-2011

Chapter 8 Conclusion

Solar radiation can be effectively and efficiently utilized for drying of agricultural produce in our environment if proper design is carried out. This was demonstrated and the solar dryer designed and constructed exhibited sufficient ability to dry agricultural produce most especially food items to an appreciably reduced moisture level. Locally available cheap materials were used in construction making it available and affordable to all and sundry especially peasant farmers. This will go a long way in reducing food wastage and at the same time food shortages, since it can be used extensively for majority of the agricultural food crops. Apart from this, solar energy is required for its operation which is readily available in the tropics, and it is also a clean form of energy. It protects the environment and saves cost and time spent on open sun drying of agricultural produce since it dries food items faster. The food items are also well protected in the solar dryer than in the open sun, thus minimizing the case of pest and insect attack and also contamination. However, the performance of existing solar food dryers can still be improved upon especially in the aspect of reducing the drying time and probably storage of heat energy within the system. Also, meteorological

Solar Crop Dryer

56 Project Report-2011

data should be readily available to users of solar products to ensure maximum efficiency and effectiveness of the system. Such information will probably guide a local farmer on when to dry his agricultural produce and when not to dry them. The performance of a solar air heater without any cover is very poor and hence at least one cover should be used for better performance. The performance of the air heater is dependent on the number of covers used and the temperature difference between the inlet air to the ambient air. Therefore, the efficiency will be maximum when the inlet air temperature is more than the ambient air temperature. Even plastic covers can be used where the inlet temperature rise over the ambient air temperature is small. The fluid conduction has no effect on the overall performance of the collector. Increased flow ratio improves the matrix efficiency. With the addition of side mirrors one can produce the maximum output only in the peak hours. The highest output obtained from the inclined side mirror when compared to the vertical side mirror. Since the double exposure solar collector unit cost is estimated to be only 70 per cent greater than a conventional air collector it is efficient to go for the double exposure solar collector. Further work is needed to optimize the length and inclination angle of the side mirror of the flat plate collector.

Solar Crop Dryer

57 Project Report-2011

References
1. Scalin D., The Design, Construction and Use of an Indirect, Throughpass, Solar Food Dryer, Home Power Magazine, 1997, 57, p. 62-72. 2. GEDA-Gujarat Energy Development Agency, 2003, www.geda.com. 3. Dorf R.G., Energy, Resources and Policy, Massachusetts, Addison Werley Publishing Company, 1989.

Solar Crop Dryer 4.

58 Project Report-2011

The World Book Encyclopedia (1982). World Book-Childcraft

International Inc., Chicago, USA. 5. Whitfield D.E., Solar Dryer Systems and the Internet: Important

Resources to Improve Food Preparation, 2000, Proceedings of International Conference on Solar Cooking, Kimberly, South Africa. 6. Herringshaw D., All About Food Drying, 1997, The Ohio State

University Extension Factsheet-hyg-5347-97, www.ag.ohio-state.edu/. 7. Nandi P., Solar Thermal Energy Utilization in Food Processing Industry in India, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 2009, 10(1), p. 123-131. 8. Ayensu A., Dehydration of Food Crops Using Solar Dryer with Convective Heat Flow, 2000, Research of Department of Physics, University of Cape Coast, Ghana. 9. Sukhatme S.P., Solar-Energy-Principles of Thermal Collection and Storage, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, 1996. 10. Olaleye D.O., The Design and Construction of a Solar Incubator, 2008, Project Report, submitted to Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta. 11. 1982. 12. Ambrose, C. W.; Bandopadhyay, P. C. (1970). Asymmetrical heating in non circular ducts. proc., Inst. Solar Energy Conf., Melbourne, Paper No. 7/17. Fisk M.J., Anderson H.C., Introduction to Solar

Technology, Massachusetts, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc.,

13. Beckman, W. A. (1968): Radiation and convection heat transfer in a porous bed. J. Eng. Power, ASME, Jan, pp. 51-54.

Solar Crop Dryer

59 Project Report-2011

14. Bevill, V.; Brandt, H. (1968): A solar energy collector for heating air. Solar energy, 12(1), pp. 19-36. 15. Bliss, R. W. (1955): Multiple gauge flat plate solar air heaters. Proc., Word Symposium on Applied Solar Energy, Phoenix, pp. 151-158. 16. Buelow, F.H. (1956): The effects of various parameters on the design of solar energy air heaters. Michigan State University, Ph.D. thesis. 17. Buelow, F.H.; Boyd, J.J. (1957): Heating air by solar energy. Agri. Engng., 38(1) pp. 28-30. 18. Characters, W. W. S.; MacDonald, R. (1974): Heat transfer effects in solar air heaters. COMPLES, Revenue Internationale d Heliotechnique, 1, pp. 29-38. 19. Characters, W.W.S. (1971): Some aspects of flow duct design for solar air heater applications. Solar energy, 13(2), pp. 283-288. 20. Chiou, J. P.: Heat transfer and flow friction characteristics of metallic foil matrices using radiation as the heat source and their application to the design of solar collectors, University of Wisconsin, USA, 164. Ph. D. thesis.

Solar Crop Dryer

60 Project Report-2011