Rustico Antonio C.

Cahanding BSCS 1-F

Wednesday/Friday 2:30PM-4:00PM Prof. R. A. Lumawag

CHAPTER 4 Mechanism of Human Behavior

I. Introduction
To understand the nature of behavior, it is important to know the physiological mechanism of the human body.

II.

Definition of Terms
1. Axon 2. Brain Scan 3. Cochlea 4. Cones 5. Cornea 6. Eardrum 7. Electroencephalogram 8. Glands 9. Hair Cells 10. Iris 11. Involuntary Muscle 12. Neurons 13. Optic Nerve 14. Oval Window 15. Retina 16. Rods 17. Sclerotic Coat 18. Synapses 19. Tetany 20. Voluntary Muscle

III.

Receiving Mechanism or Receptors

A. Definition Different sense organs of the body that receive the stimuli from the environment B. Kinds of Receptors 1. Exteroceptors A person becomes aware of the color, shape, smell, taste, sound, heat 2. Proprioceptors Situated in the linings of the tendons, muscles and joints 3. Interoceptors Found in the linings of the respiratory, digestive and genital urinary tracts

IV.

The Eyes and Visual Sensation

A. Definition Eyes give the sense of vision which allows one to see the world. One has to consider the stimulus that produces vision which is light. The eyes react to light which causes Visual Sensation. B. Parts of the Eye 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Fovea Iris Lens Muscle controlling lens Optic Nerve Pupil Transparent Cornea Retina

C. Coats of Eyeball 1. Sclerotic coat bulging tough white membrane 2. Choroid coat The front part of the choroid is the iris 3. Retina is the innermost coat which contains the true receptor cells D. Receptor cells of Retina 1. Rods are long and cylindrical. Responsible for twilight vision or light of low intensity 2. Cones short, thick and tapered. Responsible for daylight vision and colors E. Color Vision and Night Blindness There are people who have limited perception of light and colors. 1. Color blindness Cannot distinguish certain colors either totally or partially. a. Dichromats can match the entire colors or spectrum into two colors 1. Deuteranopes sees red as poor yellow and green as gray 2. Protanopes cannot see red but black and green as whitish gray b. Trichomats can see three colors from the spectrum F. Common Eye Deviations from Normal Vision There are individuals who suffer defects from normal visions. 1. Myopia or Nearsightedness is caused by abnormal long eyeball so that the image is focused in front of the retina. 2. Hyperopia or Farsightedness This happens when the eyeball is so short that the image is focused behind the retina 3. Presbyopia farsightedness of old age which is caused by the slow hardening of the lens 4. Astigmatism caused by the uneven curvature of the cornea 5. Cross-eye congenital farsightedness or defect in the eye muscles

V.

The Ears and the Auditory Sensation

A. Definition The ears are the sense organs for hearing and the stimulus, to which it is sensitive, is the sound wave which is caused by the vibration of objects. B. Parts of the Ear 1. Outer Ear a. Auditory Canal b. Eardrum 2. Middle Ear a. Anvil b. Hammer c. Stirrup 3. Inner Ear a. Basilar Membrane b. Cochlea c. Oval Window d. Semicirular Canals (contain otoliths) C. Hearing Defects 1. Conductive Deafness result of disturbance in the conduction of air waves from the outer ear to the inner ear 2. Nerve Deafness caused by the loss of sensitivity of the receptors. Sound wave stimulus to which the ears are sensitive

D. Features of Sound wave 1. Loudness magnitude of the sound 2. Pitch high or low 3. Timbre the quality of sound

VI.

The Sense of Smell and Olfactory Receptors

A. Definition It is said that smell is a distance sign and a sensitivity that informs a person on the presence of the object before one has an actual contact with it. Olfactory Receptor located in the upper part of the nasal cavities B. Some qualities that describe Smell b. Flowery scent comes from blooming flowers such as sampaguita, rose, and other fragrant flowers c. Ethereal smells refer to perfume or cologne d. Fruity smell is found in fruits like orange, mango and pineapple e. Spicy emits from garlic, pepper, onions and mustard f. Resinous is detected in turpentine, paint, varnish and lacquer g. Smoky or scorched comes from burn paper, feather, leaves h. Putrid stink results from salted fish like bagoong, buro, patis, decaying fish or meat Anosmia loss or impairment of the sense of smell

VII. Taste Receptors and Gustatory Sensations

A. Definition The receptor cells for taste are located in the taste buds which are distributed across the tongue B. Different taste qualities 1. 2. 3. 4. Sweet sweet is perceived at the tip of the tongue Sour sour taste is found on the sides Bitter bitter taste is at the back Salty salty is perceived in the entire area of the tongue

Taste buds where the receptor cells for taste are located Hypogeuia loss of taste

VIII. Skin Receptors and Cutaneous Sensations

A. Definition The sense organ involved in the sense of touch B. Different layers of Skin 1. Epidermis or Outer layer 2. Dermis or Intermediate layer 3. Adipose Tissue or the Deep layer Touch if the skin feels an object on it Pressure if an object is pressed firmly against the skin Pain and Pressure tactual or tactile experiences Warmth and Cold thermal experiences Lips and fingertips very sensitive to touch and pressure Skin tissue sensitive to pain Calf of the leg sensitive to cold

C. Vestibular Sensation Sense of balance that gives information about ones body as a whole and its position in relation to the pull of gravity and balance Vestibular apparatus located in the inner ears which are composed of the vestibular sacs and semicircular canals. These thin tubes are filled with fluid that moves and presses on hairlike receptors whenever the head rotates D. Kinesthetic Reaction These are found in the muscles, tendons and joints. These are related to the posture of the body and the movement of its part.

IX.

Connecting Mechanism or Connectors

A. Definition The connecting mechanism is made up of the nervous system. B. Parts of the Nervous System 1. Central Nervous System 2. Peripheral Nervous System

X.

Central Nervous System

A. Definition The Central Nervous System (CNS) is made up of the Brain and Spinal cord. B. Brain Encased in the skull which is a very tough set of bones. Responsible for the interpretation of sensory impulses, coordination and control of body activities and expression of emotions and thoughts. a. Parts of the Brain 1. Forebrain located at the front part of the brain. Consists of the following: a. Cerebrum largest of the brain mass b. Cerebral cortex principal part of Cerebrum c. Thalamus serves as the relay station for sensory impulses. Responsible in the wakefulness and sleep d. Hypothalamus serves as the integrating center of many kinds of physiological activities such as eating, drinking, maintaining body temperature and sex. Also involves emotional responses and homeostasis. 2. Mid-Brain part of the brain that serves as the connecting link between the hindbrain and the forebrain. It connects the sensory and motor pathways between the lower and upper portions of the nervous system. It have important role in the visual and auditory activities. 3. Hindbrain closed to the spinal cord. Compose of the following: a. Medulla oblongata Is the connecting link between the spinal cord and the brain proper. Plays important functions in the essential physiological processes like respiration, heartbeat, breathing and blood circulation. b. Pons Lies in the brain stem just a little above the medulla oblongata. Serves as a connection center and is involved in the motor coordination and equilibrium. c. Cerebellum Located under the back of the cerebrum. Maintaining posture and smooth out complex muscular coordination like walking, writing and even dancing C. Spinal Cord Large rope-like segments of nerve tissues running along the spine carrying message between the brain and the peripheral nervous system a. Spinal Nerves Dorsal carries sensory nerve fibers Ventral carries motor nerve fibers

D. Different techniques of looking how the brain works: 1. Brain Scan method of photographing the internal workings of the brain without opening the skull 2. Electroencephalogram (ECG) procedure that records the electrical signals being transmitted inside the brain 3. Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) computerized scanner that makes an image of the brain by putting together thousands of separate x-rays taken at slightly different angles 4. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanner that creates a powerful magnetic field to provide a detailed computer-generated image of brain structures 5. Position Emission Tomography (PET) procedure to determine activity within the brain at a given moment in time

XI.

Peripheral Nervous System

A. Definition Branches out from the spinal cord and the brain, and extended to the extremities of the body. Carries information to and from the central nervous system B. Major Division 1. Somatic Division Specializes in the control of voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles and the communication of information to and from the sense organs 2. Autonomic Division Concerned with the parts of the body that makes it alive the heart, blood vessels, glands, lungs and other organs that function involuntarily without ones awareness. The two subdivisions of the Autonomic are the following: a. Sympathetic Subdivision Part that prepares the body to respond to stressful emergency situations. Increases heartbeat, raises the blood pressure and sends the blood to the peripheral muscles b. Parasympathetic Subdivision Acts to calm and relax the body after the emergency situation is resolved. Dedicated to conserving the body energy C. Neurons Specialized cells that are the basic structural unit of the nervous system that transmit messages. The principal parts are the following: 1. Cell body found in the protoplasm which is the living part of the neuron 2. Dendrites are clusters of nerve fibers which carry messages towards the cell body. The nerve fibers look like twisted branches of a tree 3. Axon is a long, slim, tube-like extension which carries messages away from the cell body D. Classification of Neuron according to functions 1. Sensory or Afferent neuron carries messages from the receptors to the spinal cord and brain 2. Motor or Efferent neuron carry messages from the brain and spinal cord and send them to the motor organs like the muscles and glands. These neurons cause the muscles to contract and the glands to secrete 3. Connector neuron provide connection between the sensory and motor neurons. Found in the brain and spinal cord. Synapses formed in the process of connection between neurons. Junctions between the dendrites of some neuron and the axons of others. Neurotransmitter chemical messages

E. Synaptic connections 1. Reflex level simple inborn, automatic responses of some parts of the body a. Pupillary reflex narrowing of the pupils of the eyes in response to too much light stimulation b. Gaggling reflex happens when an object is placed on the back of the tongue, this is a protective reflex 2. Instinctive level Common to all members of the species. Related to nurtural and reproductive behaviors 3. Cortex level Most complex. Any activity that involves the thinking, reasoning, memory and imagination belong to the cortex level

XII. Reacting Mechanism or Reactors

A. Definition The reacting mechanism is composed of the muscles and glands. B. Parts 1. Muscles 2. Glands C. Muscles a. Kinds of muscles: 1. Voluntary muscles can be moved at the persons will. Sometimes called striped muscles because when seen under the microscope they appear to have stripes. Also called skeletal muscles because they are attached to some bone muscles. 2. Involuntary muscles cannot be moved at will. Have their own movement which are rhythmical. Sometimes called visceral muscles. Also known as smooth muscles because they look smooth and have no stripes as seen under the microscope. Example is peristaltic movement of the intestine. 3. Cardiac muscles are found in the heart that is why they are called heart muscles. Act like involuntary muscles, but their tough appearance and special structure are like the voluntary muscles b. Characteristics of muscles: 1. Contractility characteristic of the muscles to change from a long narrow shape while at rest and a shorter and thicker form while in action 2. Extensibility capacity of the muscles to be stretched or made longer 3. Elasticity power of the muscles to go back to its original size and shape 4. Tonicity ability to be in the condition of healthy tension or partial contraction at rest c. Functions of the muscles: 1. 2. 3. 4. Give shape to the body the firmer the muscles, the better shape the body has Secure the internal organs of the body make the internal organs function well Made for motion One cannot imagine how the body moves without those muscles Utilized for locomotion movement from one place to another

D. Glands Special secreting organs which pour the secretion either directly into the blood streams or pass it through the ducts or canals. Hormones chemicals that circulate throughout the blood and affect the functioning and the growth of parts of the body a. Ductless gland glands that have no canals. Also known as Endocrine glands

b. Duct gland glands that have canals. Examples are salivary glands, lachrymal glands, sebaceous gland 1. Endocrine Glands determine certain behavioral condition. They secrete hormones that affect body growth and functioning. 2. Pituitary Glands is found at the base of the brain. It is called the master gland because of its influence on the other endocrine glands Two parts are the following: a. Anterior lobes secrete growth hormone b. Posterior lobes secrete two important types of hormones y Vasopresin controls the secretion of water through the kidneys y Oxytocins stimulates the breast to produce milk Abnormalities of Anterior lobes: a. Dwarfism lack of supply of growth hormone in childhood b. Gigantism over secretion of growth hormone in early life c. Acromegaly oversecretion of growth hormone in adulthood. A condition marked by uneven growth of some portion of the body making the person difficult to recognize in his former self 3. Thyroid Glands is located at the base of the throat. It is a flat-butterfly-like-gland and secretes two known hormones thyroxine and idothyroxine Results of Deficiency y Cretinism undersecretion of thyroxine and idothyroxine. A condition of stunted growth and mental retardation. y Adult Myxedema severe thyroid deficiency. Characterized by the low basal metabolism. y Goiter less serious result of the insufficient secretion of thyroxine. Enlargement of the thyroid gland. 4. Parathyroid Glands are found behind the thyroid gland. Produce a substance called parathormone Parathormone controls the balance of different minerals in the blood stream specially calcium Tetany lack of supply of parathormone. Stiffening of the hand and fingers, muscles cramps and Irritability 5. Adrenal Glands located on top of each kidney. Parts of Adrenal Glands y y Adrenal Cortex secretes cortin. An excess of cortin hastens the onset of puberty and develops male characteristics in female. Adrenal Medulla secretes adrenalin. Serves to give extra energy needed during emergency. Also called emergency gland

6. Island of Langerhans are very small bodies floating in the pancreas. Secretes insulin Insulin directly responsible in controlling the amount of sugar or glucose in the blood. Diabetis a disease caused by underactivity of island of langerhans 7. Gonads sex glands. Differ for male and female y Testes male gonad. Secretes testosterone Testosterone promotes male sex secondary characteristics that make the male look masculine. y Ovaries female gonad. Secretes estrogen and progesterone Estrogen responsible for the secondary sex characteristic Progesterone stimulates the thickening of the uterine lining