Classification of Drugs

Chemical classification of drugs

Chemical constituents 1. Carbohydrates a) Monosaccharidase b) Disaccharide c) Polysaccharide Gum Mucilages Cellulose Drugs - Dextrose, fructose, galactose - Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose - Starch - Acacia, Tragacanth - Plantago seed - Cotton - Digitalis, strophanthus - Aloe, Cascara, senna - Arjuna - Wild cherry bark Amla, Bohera, Ashoka bark Clove oil, rose oil, peppermint oil, tulsi etc - Olive oil, castor oil, coconut oil etc - Bees wax

2. Glycosides a) Cardiac b) Anthraquinone c) Saponins d) Cyanophore 3. Tanins 4. Volatile oil 5. Lipids a) Fixed oils & fats b) Waxes

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of higher polyhydric alcohol.

It is a neutral compound made up of Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (C, H, O) in which H and O are in generally the same ratio as in water (H2O)
General formula of carbohydrate is (CH2O)n. The Chlorophil of the plants can easily synthesize carbohydrates from air, CO2 and H2O in the presence of light. The reaction is as follows CO2 + H2O Carbohydrate + O2

Carbohydrates

Uses of Carbohydrates
Nutrient good source of energy Sweetening suspension agent Tablet, syrup,

Masking bad test tablet, liquid (iron syrup) Diluent, binder, disintegrating agent, suspending agent, demulcent.

Antibacterial agent (at 66.6%) and preservative

Antioxidant (it is a reducing sugar)

Carbohydrates - Classification
By considering sweet taste-imparting property CHO are classified as1. 2. Sugar: Nonsugar: Monosaccharides glucose, fructose, galactose. Disaccharides - Sucrose, lactose, maltose. Polysaccharides starch, inulin, gums and mucilage, cellulose.
Carbohydrates

Sugar

Nonsugar (Polysaccharide)

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides
Starch Cellulose Inulin Gums & mucilage

Glucose

Fructose

Galactose

Sucrose

Lactose

Maltose

Glucose (Monosaccharides)
Monosaccharides, the simplest CHO, are aldehydes or ketones that have multiple hydroxyl groups. The general formula of many is (CH2O)n. It is obtained from hydrolysis of starch. In nature it is found in grapes and fruits.
Structure
CH=O | HC-OH | HO-CH | HC-OH | HC-OH | CH2-OH D-Glucose

Ring Structure of Glucose

Glucose - Use
Nutrient oral or intravenous injections.

It is also used in anticoagulant solution to preserve whole blood.

For manufacture of beverage, ice-cream, bakery products and in the caning industry.
Liquid glucose It is obtained from incomplete hydrolysis of starch. It is serupy liquid consist chiefly of dextrose, with maltose and water. It is used as a sweetening agent as a substitute of sucrose in syrup and as a tablet binder and coating agents.

Fructose
Fructose is a ketone sugar occurs naturally in most sweet fruits and honey.

Use: 1. 2. 3. Nutrient food for diabetics and may be of particular benefit of diabetic acidosis. Infant formula. When given parenterally it produces less urinary secretion than glucose.

Structure of Fructose

Ring structure of fructose

Glucose & fructose

5-membered ring structure

6-membered ring structure

Sugar (Sucrose, disaccharides)

Disaccharide consists of 2 monosaccharides (glucose & fructose) joined by an glycosidic bond.

Sucrose is the only disaccharide abundant in the free state in plants.

It occurs in fruit juice , sugar cane, sugar beet and in many other plants. Commercially it is obtained from sugar cane and sugar beet.
Structure

glucose

Fructose

Sugar (Sucrose, disaccharides)

6 CH

2OH

6 CH2OH

H O
4

O H
2

H
1

H O
4

O H
2

H
1

H OH
3

H OH
3

-linkage

OH

OH

glycosidic bond

Uses of Sugar
Nutrient good source of energy

Sweetening suspension

agent

Tablet,

syrup,

Masking bad test tablet, liquid (iron syrup) Antibacterial preservative agent (at 66.6%) and

Antioxidant (it is a reducing sugar)

Reducing sugar
The saccharides which reduce Fehlings reagent and Tollens reagent are called reducing sugar. For example: all monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, lactose).

Non-reducing sugar
The saccharides which do not reduce Fehlings reagent and Tollens reagent are called non-reducing sugar. For example: polysaccharide. disaccharide (sucrose) and

Lactose
It is a reducing sugar. Upon hydrolysis lactose yields dglucose and d-galactose. It is obtained from fresh, unpasturized or pasturized cows milk. It is also known as milk sugar. The sugar is crystallized from the whey obtained in cheese manufacture. The manufacturing scheme is shown below
Milk Keep stand for few hour Separation

of cream (Skimmed milk) Treated with rennin Cheese Separation of liquid (Whey) Crystallization of Lactose Redissolved in water Decolorized with Charcoal Recrystallized

Lactose
Uses: Diluent Tablet Nutrient Infant food

Caramel or Burn Sugar:

It is a concentrated solution of the product obtained by heating sugar or glucose until the sweet taste is destroyed and a uniform dark brown mass result. A small amount of alkali, added during heating of the sugar. Uses: Coloring agent Food and Pharmaceuticals

D-Sorbitol:
It is originally obtained from the ripe berries, Sorbus sp. (Fam Rosaceae). It also occurs in many fruits but is generally prepared from glucose by hydrogenation or by electric reduction. Uses: Humectants: (act as moisturizers by attracting water. They are often used to prevent creams from drying out). Sweetner Diluent/Vehicle Food Diabetic food (substitute of glucose) Diuretic

Polysaccharide - Starch
Polysaccharide
The complex CHOs are generally called polysaccharide as they are formed by the linkage of a large number of monsaccharide units. The polysaccharides yield the component monosaccharide units on enzymetic or acid hydrolysis.

Starch
starch is most widely distributed organic compound in plants. It is produced in large quantities in green leaves as the temporary storage form of potosynthetic products. It stored in seed, stems and roots. It is lacking in animal. Commercially it is obtained from corn, cereal (rice, wheat, maize), potato tubers etc.

Starch - Chemistry
Starch generally is a mixture of two structurally different polysaccharides which are

Amylose (b-amylose):
It is a linear molecule composed of 250 300 d-glucose units uniformly linked by -1,4 glucosidic bond. Structure of amylose:

Amylopectin (a-amylose):
It consists of 1000 or more d-glucose units of which most are connected with -1,4 linkage but there are also a number of -1,6 linkage occurring (4%) at branch points.

Structure of Amylopectin

Amylose vs Amylopectin
Property Amylose Amylopectin

Water solubility
Reaction with I2 Composition Unit composition Type of linkage Shape of the molecule Enzymetic hydrolysis

More soluble
Blue color complex 25% of total starch D-glucose -1,4 glucosidic bond Linear -amylase, Split -1,4

Less soluble
purple color 75% of total starch D-glucose -1,4 & -1,6 glucosidic bond Branched -amylase, Split -1,4 & -1,6 D-glucose

Acid hydrolysis (HCl or D-glucose H2SO4)

Uses of Starch

Diluent Binder

Disintegrating agent

Cellulose
Cellulose is the main structural material of trees and other plants. Wood is 50% cellulose, while cotton wood is almost pure cellulose. The general (C6H10O5)n. formula of cellulose is:

Cellulose
Chemical structure:

Cellulose is made of about 5,000 glucose units joined to each other by b-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Properties: It decomposes on strong heating. It is insoluble in water and most organic solvent. It is hydrolysed by heating with dilute HCl or H2SO4, give d-glucose.

Derivatives of Cellulose
Methyl cellulose Ethyl cellulose Hydroxyethyl cellulose Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Na-CMC)

Derivatives of Cellulose

Methyl cellulose
It is a methyl ether of cellulose containing not less than 26% and not more than 33% of methoxy (-OCH3) groups.

Preparation:
It is obtained by reaction of cellulose with caustic soda (NaOH) and an organic solvent (CH3Cl).

Properties:
It swells in water to produce a clear viscous solution.

Use:
Suspending agent suspension dosage form. Binder- tablet dosage form

Derivatives of Cellulose

Ethyl cellulose
It is an ethyl ether of cellulose containing not less than 45% and not more than 50% of ethoxy (-OC2H5) groups.

Use:
Suspending agent suspension dosage form. Binder- tablet dosage form

Derivatives of Cellulose

Hydroxyethyl cellulose
It is modified cellulose in which the H of OH groups is substituted by hydroxyethyl (-OC2H5) groups. It is soluble in water.

Use:
Suspending agent suspension dosage form. Binder- tablet dosage form Thickener

Derivatives of Cellulose

Sodium Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)

It is the sodium salt of polycarboxymethyl cellulose in which the H of OH groups is substituted by carboxymethyl (-OCH2COOH) groups. Use: Suspending agent suspension dosage form.

Binder- tablet dosage form

Thickener

Gums & Mucilages

Both gums and mucilages are generally considered as decomposition products of cellulose. They are translucent, amorphous substances usually produced by plants as a protective after injury. Gums when hydrolysed, yield large proportion of sugars and also contain a complex organic acid nucleus, by means of which they form salt with calcium, magnesium, etc. Gums are precipitated from solution by alcohol and lead acetate solution. Gums readily dissolve in water. Mucilages are generally sulfuric acid esters, the ester group being a complex polysaccharide. Mucilages do not dissolve in water but form slimy masses.

Sources of Natural Gum and Mucilage 1. Acacia: 2. Tragacanth 3. Agar:

Acacia
It is the dried gummy exudate from the stems and branches of Acacia senegal (Fam. Leguminosae). It is commonly known as gum Arabic.

Uses:
Suspending agent Demulcent Granulating agent Binder

Tragacanth
Source:
It is gummy exudate from Astragalus gummifer (Fam Leguminosae). It is commonly known as Gum Trgacanth. Uses: Suspending agent Emollient Binder

Agar
Source:
It is the dried, hydrophilic polysaccharide complex extracted from the algae known as Gelidium cartilagineum (Fam Gelidiaceae); Gracilaria cofervoides and other species.

Uses:
Suspending agent Thickening agent Laxative Bacterial media

Tests for Carbohydrates

Fehlings test Molischs test Osazone formation Resorcinol test Test of pentoses

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Tests for Carbohydrates

1. Molisch test:
10% solution of a-naphthol in alcohol is known as Molischs reagent

A solution of CHO is prepared with -napthol and taken in test tube. Concentrated sulphuric acid is added along the side of test tube A purple ring is formed on the junction below the aqueous layer which indicates the presence of CHO. [With insoluble CHO eg. Cellulose, the color will produce on shaking the reaction mixture]. This test is standard test for identification of CHO.

Tests for Carbohydrates

1. Molisch test:

a negative test (left) and a positive test (right)

Tests for Carbohydrates

1. Fehlings solution test:
Fehlings solution is an alkaline solution of cupric ion complex with tartrate ion.

To a heated solution of the CHO containing substance add drop by drop a Fehlings solution (equal parts of Fehlings solution 1 & 2). Red precipitate of cuprous oxide is produced
This test is used for reducing sugar such as all monsaccharides and many disaccharides like lactose, maltose. For nonreducing sugar like disaccharide (sucrose) and polysaccharides boils with acid for hydrolysis before testing with Fehlings solution, or cuprous oxide will fail to precipitate.
The cupric ion (complexed with tartrate ion) is reduced to cuprous ion by the aldehyde (which is oxidized) and precipitates as cuprous oxide (Cu2O); for this reason, sugars that react with Fehling's solution are called reducing sugars.

Fehlings solution test:

Fehling I consists of 7 g of hydrated copper(II) sulfate dissolved in 100 mL of dist. water. Fehling II is made by dissolving 35 g of potassium sodium tartrate and 10 g of sodium hydroxide in 100 mL of dist. water
Fehling's reagent: Equal volumes of Fehling I and Fehling II are mixed to form a deep blue solution.

conical measure 1
conical measure 2 conical measure 3

glucose solution
fructose solution sucrose solution

brick red precipitate

brick red precipitate no change