Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Electrical Machines

Paper ID 1221

Environmental and Life Cycle Cost Analysis of a Switched Reluctance Motor

E. Martnez, P. Andrada, B. Blanqu, M. Torrent, J.I. Perat, J.A. Snchez Grup dAccionaments Elctrics amb Commutaci Electrnica (GAECE) EPS dEnginyeria de Vilanova i la Geltr, Departament dEnginyeria Elctrica Technical University of Catalonia (UPC) Avinguda Victor Balaguer s/n, 08800 Vilanova i la Geltr Barcelona, Spain E-mail: mtzpiera@ee.upc.edu

Abstract-This paper presents an analysis of the environmental and life cycle costs of a switched reluctance motor (SRM) drive. The analysis was carried out according to the Energy-Using Product Directive (EuP 2005/32/EC) and following the Methodology for the Eco-Design of Energy-Using Products (MEEUP methodology). The base case model adopted is an 8/6 SRM with 1.5 kW of output power that can be considered representative of the small power range. The analysis shows that SRMs could generate large savings comparable to or even better than those of Eff1 three-phase induction motors in the use phase.

The base case model adopted is an 8/6 SRM (300 V, 1.5 kW of output power and IEC-90 frame) that can be said to be representative of the small power range (Fig. 1). The SRM, whose specifications are given in Appendices A and B, was designed and built for the authors but has not been commercialized yet. Several eco-design considerations were taken into account in the design, namely: The number of materials should be reduced. The number of non-recyclable parts (i.e. plastics) should be minimized. The motor should be easily assembled and disassembled. The windings should be easy to remove.

I.

INTRODUCTION

The use of energy-efficient motors can save enormous quantities of energy and reduce the emission of greenhouse gases [1]. Today, it is not enough to take into account the efficiency of an electric motor: all life cycle costs (production, use and disposal) must be considered. The Energy-Using Products Directive (EuP 2005/32/EC) sets the requirements that energy-using products must fulfill for them to be put on the market and/or into service. To evaluate whether and to what extent a product fulfills the Directives criteria, the MEEUP methodology (Methodology for the Eco-Design of Energy-Using Products) was developed [2] [3]. Although energy-efficient motors have generally been associated with three-phase induction motors [4] [5], switched reluctance motors (SRMs) are claiming their place in the electric motor market because of their simple, robust construction, fault tolerance capability and high efficiency. In this paper, the environmental and life cycle costs of an SRM are analyzed according to EuP 2005/32/EC and following the MEEUP methodology, for a sample base case model that is representative of the small power range. II. SRM DRIVE DESCRIPTION SRM drives have some drawbacks: they require an electronic control and shaft position sensor, a huge capacitor is needed in the DC link and the double salient structure causes noise and torque ripple. They are, however, gaining recognition in the electric drive market because of their simple, robust construction, low expected manufacturing cost, fault tolerance capability, high efficiency and high torque-to-inertia ratio.

The SRM is controlled using the drive depicted in Fig. 2. The power converter is a four-phase, asymmetric half-bridge, classic converter, with two IGBTs and two fast diodes per phase. The rotor position is determined by means of an encoder or an ensemble formed by a slotted disk and three optointerrupters placed inside the SRM.

Fig. 1. Cutaway view of the 8/6 SRM

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Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Electrical Machines

Fig. 2. A schematic block diagram of the SRM drive

The speed controller, a proportional integral (PI) controller, generates a current command based on the error between the reference speed and the motor speed. The current in the appropriate phase is regulated at the reference current by hysteresis control. The firing angle calculator computes the turn-on and turn-off angles at every instant, taking into account the actual speed and reference current. III. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND LIFE CYCLE COSTS The MEEUP methodology provides an Excel spreadsheet for estimating the environmental impact. First of all, study data is collected, including materials, energy use and economic data for the various life stages of the products. The model then translates these inputs into quantifiable environmental impacts. The description of the base case is the result that concerns the products (Bill of Materials), including packaging, the estimated volume of the packaged product, the consumption of energy and other resources during the production phase, the use phase and finally a scenario for recycling, re-use and disposal (Tables I and II and Appendix C). Table III shows the life cycle impact of an 8/6 SRM, for which a lifetime of 12 years, 4000 hours per year of operation and an average load factor of 60 % are considered. The life cycle indicators are divided into three blocks: main indicators, emissions to air and emissions to water. It is important to point out that the Table presents a loss-based impact analysis because an SRM is considered to be an energy converter and not an end use device. Therefore, only losses are consumed inside the SRM, with the remaining energy being transmitted as mechanical power. The life cycle costs are summarized in Table IV. In this table the product list price is just an estimate. The electrical

energy costs are computed considering 4000 hours of operation per year and the price of electricity in Spain. The repair and maintenance costs are negligible because motors of less than 5 kW are not generally repaired upon failure.
TABLE I BILL OF MATERIALS MATERIALS Electrical steel Other steel Aluminium Copper Insulation material Impregnation resin Paint Plastics Electronics Packing material kg 7.46 1.50 4.48 2.50 0.01 0.20 0.06 0.53 0.36 1.50

TABLE II USE PHASE VARIABLES Lifetime (years) Global efficiency (%) Operating hours 12 82.6 4000

Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Electrical Machines

TABLE III ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS (PER PRODUCT)

MAIN INDICATORS Total energy GER(1) (MJ) Of which, electricity (in primary MJ) Water process (l) Waste, non-hazardous landfill (g) Waste, hazardous incinerated (g)
(1)

162071 160066 10804 256458 4889

Gross energy requirements

MEEUP methodology is that it does not reflect one of the main advantages of SRMs, which is the ease with which its various parts and materials can be separated in the disposal phase. SRMs have not yet reached the status of standard commodity products; as a result, OEMs, who are mainly interested in motor prices as they do not pay operating costs, do not consider them to be a good choice [5]. The production phase of SRMs must improve so that initial costs can be reduceda clear disadvantage is the high waste of magnetic steel in punchingbut this is difficult to achieve if there are few potential purchasers. Regulatory measures focusing on minimum efficiency standards for motors would be a first step to removing inefficient motors from the market and pushing SRMs to the forefront. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science and the ERDF (DPI2006-09880). REFERENCES
[1] A.T. de Almeida, F.J.T.E. Ferreira, D. Both. Technical and Economical Considerations in the Application of Variable-Speed Drives with Electric Motor Systems IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 41, No.1, January/February 2005, pp 188-198. http://ec.europa.eu/energy/demand/legislation/eco_design_en.htm VHK, DG ENTR (European Commission) Methodology Study Ecodesign for Energy using Products. November 2005. A.T. de Almeida, F.J.T.E. Ferreira, J. Fong, P. Fonseca. EUP Lot 11 Motors FINAL, February 2008. A.T. de Almeida, P. Fonseca, H. Falkner, P. Bertoldi. Market Transformation of Energy-Efficient Motor Technologies in the EU. Energy Policy 31 (2003), pp. 563-576.

EMISSIONS TO AIR Greenhouse gases in GWP100 (kg Co2 eq) Ozone depletion emissions (mg R-11 eq) Acidification potential (g SO2 eq) VOCs (g) Heavy metals (mg Ni eq) Particulate matter (g) 7128 negligible 42395 75 3197 3832

[2] [3] [4]

EMISSIONS TO WATER Heavy metals (mg Hg/20) Eutrophication (g PO4) 1116 11

[5]

APPENDIX A
TABLE IV LCC FOR SRM LAMINATIONS OF THE FOUR-PHASE 8/6 SRM

MAIN INDICATORS Product list price Electrical energy Repair and maintenance costs 384 5795 ---

IV. CONCLUSIONS An environmental and life cycle cost analysis of an 8/6 SRM drive that can be considered to be representative of the small power range is described in this paper. The analysis was carried out according to EuP 2005/32/EC and following the MEEUP methodology. From the analysis it can be concluded that SRMs could generate large savings, mainly due to their high efficiency. In the use phase, the savings generated by SRMs are comparable to or even better than those of Eff1 three-phase induction motors. Unfortunately, a drawback of the

Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Electrical Machines APPENDIX B

SRM DATA PARAMETER Stator outer diameter Stack length Stator inner diameter Stator airgap diameter Rotor airgap diameter Airgap Stator pole arc Rotor pole arc Stator pole width Rotor pole width Stator yoke thickness Rotor yoke thickness Stator slot depth Rotor slot depth Shaft diameter Shaft diameter (drives end) Lamination steel Number of coils per pole Wire diameter Insulation class Np dc SYMBOL D0 L Di Ds D g s r bs br hy hn hs hr De Dout VALUE 150

1 mm

95 mm 132 mm 80.8 mm 80 mm 0.4 mm 20.68 23.07 14.5 mm 16 mm 9 mm 9 mm 25.6 mm 16 mm 30 mm 24 mm FeV 270-50 HA 97 1.18 mm H

APPENDIX C
GLOBAL EFFICIENCY OF THE FOUR-PHASE 8/6 SRM DRIVE