,

TERU SUB-BASIN LAND USE PLANNING STUDY PROJECT

EREBTI MEGALE TERU YALO

GOLINA AWRA

INCEPTION REPORT
33

NOVEMBE R, 2010 BAHIR DAR

34

Contents
List of Figure.................................................................................................................. 38 List of Tables..................................................................................................................40 1 CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................43 1.1 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................43 1.2 BACKGROUND........................................................................................................43 1.3 Objectives.............................................................................................................. 45 1.4 Description of the project area.............................................................................45 1.5 Scope of the reconnaissance survey.....................................................................46 1.6 Methodology......................................................................................................... 47 1.7 Limitations............................................................................................................47 2 CHAPTER TWO............................................................................................................. 47 2.1 PREVIOUS STUDIES REVIEW CONCERNING ON THE PURPOSE OF SURVEY IN ALL DISCIPLINES ................................................................................................................ 47 2.2 Agro climatic resources & zonation of the lowlands ..............................................47 2.3 Soil.........................................................................................................................50 2.4 Land use/Land cover..............................................................................................51 2.5 Watershed management and conservation...........................................................52 2.6 Hydrology and water resource assessment...........................................................53 2.7 Forestry and Wild life............................................................................................54 2.8 Socioeconomics..................................................................................................... 55 2.9 Agronomy.............................................................................................................. 58 2.10 Environmental issues and Change Detection.......................................................60 3 CHAPTER THREE...........................................................................................................61 35

3.1 The Reconnaissance Survey Results.....................................................................61 3.2 Physical Environment............................................................................................61 3.2.1 Agro climatic resource field Survey.................................................................61 3.2.2 Soils survey .................................................................................................... 66 3.2.3 Land-Use /Cover..............................................................................................74 3.2.4 Hydrology and Water Resource Assessment...................................................83 3.3 Biological Environment..........................................................................................87 3.3.1 Forestry...........................................................................................................87 3.3.2 Wildlife.............................................................................................................96 3.4 Socioeconomic survey...........................................................................................99 3.5 Livestock production and rangeland condition....................................................112 3.6 Animal Health Animal Health..............................................................................121 3.7 Agronomy............................................................................................................ 129 3.8 Watershed Management......................................................................................136 3.9 Environmental Issues and Hazards.................................................................143

4 CHAPTER FOUR.......................................................................................................... 156 4.1 PROPOSED PLAN FOR THE DETAIL SURVEY..........................................................156 4.1.1 General objective...........................................................................................156 4.1.2 Specific objectives ........................................................................................156 4.2 Soil survey...........................................................................................................157 4.2.1 Objectives .....................................................................................................157 4.2.2 Scope of the work..........................................................................................157 4.2.3 Methods to be employed...............................................................................157 4.3 Land use land cover assessment and environmental change detection..............160 4.3.1 General Objectives........................................................................................160 4.3.2 Specific Objectives.........................................................................................160 4.3.3 Scope of the work..........................................................................................160 36

4.3.4 Methodology of the Study..............................................................................161 4.4 Agroclimatic resource assessment......................................................................163 4.4.1 Objectives .....................................................................................................163 4.4.2 The scope of the investigation......................................................................163 4.4.3 Methods for Agro-ecological Zoning..............................................................163 4.5 Agronomy ........................................................................................................... 167 4.5.1 The objectives of the investigation ...............................................................167 4.5.2 Scope of the study........................................................................................167 4.5.3 Methodology of the Study..............................................................................168 4.6 Watershed Management and conservation..........................................................169 4.6.1 Objective of the Study...................................................................................169 4.6.2 Scope of the Survey.......................................................................................170 4.6.3 Methods ........................................................................................................ 172 4.7 Forestry and wild life............................................................................................172 4.7.1 Objectives .....................................................................................................172 4.7.2 Scope of the work..........................................................................................173 4.7.3 Methods ........................................................................................................ 173 4.8 Livestock production and range land management.............................................173 4.8.1 Objectives .....................................................................................................173 4.8.2 Scope of the Study........................................................................................174 4.8.3 Methodology of the Study..............................................................................174 4.9 Animal Health...................................................................................................... 174 4.9.1 Genera Objectives ........................................................................................174 4.9.2 Scope of the Study........................................................................................175 4.9.3 Methodologies...............................................................................................175 4.10 Socio-economic survey.....................................................................................176 4.10.1 Objectives....................................................................................................176 37

4.10.2 Scope of the Study......................................................................................177 4.10.3 Methodology of the Study............................................................................179 4.11 Watershed management and conservation......................................................181 4.11.1 Objective of the Study.................................................................................181 4.11.2 Scope of the Survey....................................................................................181 4.11.3 Methods ......................................................................................................183 4.12 GIS and Remote Sensing Application.................................................................183 4.12.1 Objectives....................................................................................................183 4.12.2 Scope........................................................................................................... 184 4.12.3 Methodology................................................................................................184 5 Expected Output .......................................................................................................186 6 Work plan...................................................................................................................187 7 Reporting .................................................................................................................. 187 8 Staffing...................................................................................................................... 188 9 Resource requirement for field work..........................................................................190 10 references................................................................................................................193 11 Annex ......................................................................................................................195 11.1 Annex 1: Questionnaires and Formats...............................................................195 11.2 Annex 2: Collected tabular data.........................................................................239

List of Figure
Figure 1-1 Map 0f Afar region......43 Figure 1-2 Project areas..................................................................................................44 Figure 1-3 Location of Teru Sub-Basin project area........................................................46 Figure 3-4 Soil texture assessment at the river bank of Awra River using hand feeling method (Teru woreda) ...................................................................................................69 Figure 3-5 Gully wall full of colluviums and alluvium, Gulina Woreda ...........................70 38

Figure 3-6 Surface sealing feature scene (Teru woreda) Rock outcrop coverage(Teru woreda)...........................................................................................................................70 Figure 3-7 Termite mounds at Fukisa kebele (Gulina).....................................................71 Figure 2-8 land use/land cover map..............................................................................76 Figure 3-9 the effect of different land limitations on the grazing land decreases the quality and quantity of grazing ......................................................................................80 Figure 3-10 Mobility as a common strategy to alleviate feed and water problem..........81 Figure 3-11 Drainage pattern of Teru sub-Basin.............................................................84 Figure 3-12 River Awra Teru woreda...........................................................89 Figure 3-13 Bush land in Golina woreda..........................................................................90 Figure 3-14 The Afar communities moving from place to place with caring traditional house constricting materials (bended branches of trees and shrubs)/ on the road Awera to Golina/........................................................................................................................92 Figure 3-15 Moringa olifora tree and its pods (Shiferaw) Yallo woreda...........................95 Figure 3-16 Moving during dry season to highland areas and return back during wet season to the previous places.......................................................................................100 Figure 3-17 Road development in Afar Region /Teru-Awra dry weather; Chifra-Gulina all weather & Mille-Semera main road/..............................................................................109 Figure 3-18 Local goat breeds (left) &long horn local cattle breed (right)....................115 Figure 3-19 Donkeys used as a pack animals (fetching water) - in Gulina. 116 Figure 3-20 the skin used as a doom figure...........................................................119 Figure 3-21 Sorghum (left margin); and teff (middle), wheat (right margin) cultivation under rain fed agriculture in Golina (Fukisa kebelle) and Yalo (Kilinagebuli kebelle) woredas...........................................................................................................130 Figure 3-22 Parthinium (left margin) and Africa bollworm (middle), termite mound (right margin) in Awura (Hida kebelle) and Golina (kelewan kebelle) woredas......................135 Figure 3-23 Gully erosion losing and dissecting the productive land in Golina wereda.140 Figure 3-24 Wind Erosion in Teru Woreda (at the Woreda town)..................................142 Figure 3-25 Stone bunds as hillside terracing in Yallo wereda......................................142 Figure 3-26 Land invaded by prosopis Juliflora at Yalo Woreda....................................146 39

Figure 3-27 Land Invaded by Parthenium Hysterophorus at Awera woreda..................150 Figure 3-28 illustrates the morphology of the Dabbahu tectono-magmatic segment, and the distribution of Quaternary eruptive centres taken from Yirgu, etal, 2005..............152 Figure 3-29 illustrates characteristic features of the Dabbahu tectono-magmatic segment........................................................................................................................153

List of Tables
Table 3-1 Soil types in Lower Awash Sub-basin (Afar Regional Atlas, June 2009)..........67 Table 3-2 Perennial Rivers, crossing kebeles, current uses & irrigation potentials of woredas in Teru sub basin.............................................................................................85 Table 3-3 intermittent rivers in each woreda of Teru sub basin......................................86 Table 3-4 No. of deep, shallow, hand dug wells & springs in Teru sub basin woredas . 87 Table 3-5 Vegetation cover of Teru sub basin/hectare/...................................................95 Table 3-6 Common tree and shrub species.....................................................................95 Table 3-7 Common mammals and aquatic wildlife in the study area (Teru sub basin)...98 Table 3-8 Population Size of Teru Sub-basin project Woredas by Sex ..........................100 Table 3-9 Population Size by Woreda, Percentage Share and Density..........................101 Table 3-10 Number of schools & teachers in each woreda .........................................104 Table 3-11 Health Institutions by type and number of health professionals in the study area...............................................................................................................................105 Table 3-12 Access to telecommunication, power, markets & financial services ..........110 Table 3-13 Type of cooperatives in TSB woreda...........................................................112 Table 3-14 Type and distribution of livestock species in Teru sub basin is indicated in the table below;..................................................................................................................114 Table 3-15 the type and distribution of the different forage species in the surveyed woredas is indicated as follows.....................................................................................118 Table 3-16 the grazing pattern and herd movement of the surveyed woredas is indicated below.............................................................................................................119 Table 3-17 the distribution of veterinary clinics, post veterinary clinics, pharmacy and professionals related to Woreda and no. of kebels.......................................................128 40

Table 3-18 the existing crop pattern of the study area under rain fed agriculture (meher) in the area.......................................................................................................130 Table 3-19 the existing crop pattern of the study area under irrigation agriculture (dry season) in the area.......................................................................................................131 Table 3-20 Cropping pattern of the study area in 2005/06-2009/10 cropping season (G.C)..............................................................................................................................131 Table 3-21 Existing crop rotation pattern ...........................................................132 Table 3-22 Agricultural input type, amount and distribution in the sub-basin (2001/02 cropping season). .......................................................................133 Table 3-23 Major Crop pests currently identified in rain fed and/or irrigation agriculture in the area.....................................................................................................................134 Table 3-24 Physico-chemical Analysis Report of water wells in Teru Sub-basin area....144 Table 3-25 Woredas of Teru sub-basin invaded by prosopis and status of invasion.. . .146 Table 3-26 Woredas of Teru Sub-basin invaded by Parthenium and Status of invasion150 Table 3-27 Time and location of relocated earthquakes for the Dabbau rifting episode. Depths are fixed at10km..............................................................................................153 Table 3-28 Woredas of Teru Sub-basin affected by flood and rivers cause flooding....154 Table 4-29 Soil survey specifications............................................................................157 Figure 1-1 Map 0f Afar region......43 Figure 1-2 Project areas..................................................................................................44 Figure 1-3 Location of Teru Sub-Basin project area........................................................46 Figure 3-4 Soil texture assessment at the river bank of Awra River using hand feeling method (Teru woreda) ...................................................................................................69 Figure 3-5 Gully wall full of colluviums and alluvium, Gulina Woreda ...........................70 Figure 3-6 Surface sealing feature scene (Teru woreda) Rock outcrop coverage(Teru woreda)...........................................................................................................................70 Figure 3-7 Termite mounds at Fukisa kebele (Gulina).....................................................71 Figure 2-8 land use/land cover map..............................................................................76 Figure 3-9 the effect of different land limitations on the grazing land decreases the quality and quantity of grazing ......................................................................................80 41

Figure 3-10 Mobility as a common strategy to alleviate feed and water problem..........81 Figure 3-11 Drainage pattern of Teru sub-Basin.............................................................84 Figure 3-12 River Awra Teru woreda...........................................................89 Figure 3-13 Bush land in Golina woreda..........................................................................90 Figure 3-14 The Afar communities moving from place to place with caring traditional house constricting materials (bended branches of trees and shrubs)/ on the road Awera to Golina/........................................................................................................................92 Figure 3-15 Moringa olifora tree and its pods (Shiferaw) Yallo woreda...........................95 Figure 3-16 Moving during dry season to highland areas and return back during wet season to the previous places.......................................................................................100 Figure 3-17 Road development in Afar Region /Teru-Awra dry weather; Chifra-Gulina all weather & Mille-Semera main road/..............................................................................109 Figure 3-18 Local goat breeds (left) &long horn local cattle breed (right)....................115 Figure 3-19 Donkeys used as a pack animals (fetching water) - in Gulina. 116 Figure 3-20 the skin used as a doom figure...........................................................119 Figure 3-21 Sorghum (left margin); and teff (middle), wheat (right margin) cultivation under rain fed agriculture in Golina (Fukisa kebelle) and Yalo (Kilinagebuli kebelle) woredas...........................................................................................................130 Figure 3-22 Parthinium (left margin) and Africa bollworm (middle), termite mound (right margin) in Awura (Hida kebelle) and Golina (kelewan kebelle) woredas......................135 Figure 3-23 Gully erosion losing and dissecting the productive land in Golina wereda.140 Figure 3-24 Wind Erosion in Teru Woreda (at the Woreda town)..................................142 Figure 3-25 Stone bunds as hillside terracing in Yallo wereda......................................142 Figure 3-26 Land invaded by prosopis Juliflora at Yalo Woreda....................................146 Figure 3-27 Land Invaded by Parthenium Hysterophorus at Awera woreda..................150 Figure 3-28 illustrates the morphology of the Dabbahu tectono-magmatic segment, and the distribution of Quaternary eruptive centres taken from Yirgu, etal, 2005..............152 Figure 3-29 illustrates characteristic features of the Dabbahu tectono-magmatic segment........................................................................................................................153

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1 CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 BACKGROUND
Afar region is located between 39o 34 up to 42o 28 E longitude and 08o 49 up to 14o 30 N latitude. It is found to the northeast of the country. Afar region is adjoining by Tigray region in the Northwest, Amhara region in the West and Southwest, Oromia region in the South, Somali region in the Southeast, Djibouti Republic in the East and Eritrea in the Northeast. According to the Atlas of Afar region BoFED, the region has a total area of 9,480,570.2 hectares (94,805.7km2). Based on the CSA 2007 population data afar has a total population of 1,411,092 with average density of 15 persons per km2. The peoples of the region are pastoralists and semipastoralists. The region has 5 zones, 32 woredas and 401 kebeles. Among them, zone 01 is the largest, which covers 36% of the region. On the other hand, zone 05 is the smallest, which only comprises 6% from the total area of the region. Adaar, Kurri and Bidu are recently added woredas by subdivided from other woredas (See figure1.1).
500000 .000000 600000.000000 700000 .000000 800000.00000 0 900000.000000

DALOL

KUNEBA BERAHLE

ABALA EREBTI MEGALE

AFDERA BIDU

YALO

TERU

KURRI ELIDAR

GOLINA

pu bli c

EWA DUBTI CHIFRA AYSAITA

ADAA'R TELALAK

MILLE

AFAMBO

Dji bu ti

DEWE DALEFAGE GEWANE

So m

SEMUREBI

DULESA ARGOBA

AMIBERA

AWASH

40 20

40

80

120

160 km

Oromia Region
500000 .000000 600000.000000 700000 .000000 800000.00000 0 900000.000000

Figure 1-1 Map

0f Afar region

1000000.00000 0

1000000.000000

1100000.00000 0

1100000.000000

ADELALA BURIMODAITU

ali

Re

gio

1200000.00000 0

1200000 .000000

1300000.00000 0

1300000.000000

AWRA

Re

1400000.00000 0

1400000 .000000

1500000.00000 0

1500000.000000

Er itre

1600000.00000 0

1600000.000000

Map of Afar Region

Tig ray Region

ra R Amha eg ion

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Afar is one of the nine federal regions of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia. Nearly, the whole of the region lies inside the East African Rift Valley. The famous Afar Triangle found in this region. Almost more than 80% of the region has altitude less than 1000m above sea level. The region has little rainfall in autumn and spring. However, the border of the region to the highlands of Ethiopia has summer rain. Awash is the main river in the region. The Amhara Design and Supervision Works Enterprise have three project areas; namely, Middle Awash Sub-Basin, Lower Awash Sub-Basin and Teru Sub-Basin integrated land use planning study project sites. Among them, Middle Awash Sub-Basin project is given to Oromiya Design and Supervision Works Enterprise as a sub-contractor. This reconnaissance survey only covers two of them; Teru and Lower Awash Sub-Basins, which covers a total of 3.2 million hectares of land.

Project Sites of Afar Region

500000.000000 1600000.000000 600000.000000 700000.000000 800000.000000 900000.000000

DALOL

KUNEBA

1300000.000000 1400000.000000 1500000.000000 1600000.000000 1000000.000000 1100000.000000 1200000.000000

1500000.000000

BERAHLE

ABALA EREBTI MEGALE

AFDERA BIDU

1400000.000000

YALO

TERU

KURRI ELIDAR

GOLINA

1300000.000000

AWRA EWA DUBTI CHIFRA AYSAITA

ADAA'R

MILLE

AFAMBO

1200000.000000

TELALAK

DEWE DALEFAGE GEWANE ADELALA BURIMODAITU

1100000.000000

SEMUREBI

DULESA ARGOBA

AMIBERA

1000000.000000

AWASH

40 20

40

80

120

160 km

500000.000000

600000.000000

700000.000000

800000.000000

900000.000000

Figure 1-2 Project

areas

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1.3 Objectives
The main objectives of this reconnaissance survey were: To collect baseline data for the detail survey. To identify the existing land use potentials and problems within the project areas. To Identify potential land uses such as commercial farming ,various investments industrial horticultural zones , food crop production , irrigable land, urbanization and settlements, for parking and wild life reserves, domestic, productive, protective and industrial forest, livestock grazing area and rehabilitation and conservation of degraded lands.

To propose potential LUTs. To prepare Land Map Units (base map) for detail survey. To devise methods and requirements for detail survey.

1.4 Description of the project area

Teru Sub-Basin is found in the Danakil Basin. The major rivers of the sub-basin originate from the highlands of Eastern Amhara Region. The sub-basin includes 6 (six) woredas, namely, Awra, Golina, Yalo, Teru, Parts of Erebti and Megale. The area of the project is 1(one) million hectares of land. The project area lies between 110 46 to 130 00 N latitude and 390 48.8 to 400 45.5 E longitude (See Figure 1.2). The project area has an elevation ranges between 133 and 2181 meters above sea level. Western parts of Golina, Yalo and Megale have high elevation with relative to the other woredas. Teru, Awra and Parts of Golina have gentle slope with low altitude. The project area shows a dramatic altitude change from the Western Highlands towards east and northeast direction. It marginalizes the western escarpment of the Rift Valley. For instance, there is about 1000 meters altitude change within a distance of less than 10 kilo meters only (See figure 1.3).

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No figure name???
1450000.000000 600000.000000 620000.000000 640000.000000 660000.000000 680000.000000 700000.000000

Location Map Teru Sub-Basin

EREBTI MEGALE

1420000.000000

1390000.000000

TERU YALO

1360000.000000

GOLINA AWRA

1360000.000000

1390000.000000

1420000.000000

1:1,000,000
10 5 0 10 20 30 40 km

1330000.000000

1300000.000000

600000.000000

620000.000000

640000.000000

660000.000000

680000.000000

700000.000000

Figure 1-3 Location

of Teru Sub-Basin project area

1.5 Scope of the reconnaissance survey

The survey concentrates on collection of secondary data. Based on the proposal and baseline maps prepared at office, data were collected from federal, regional and woreda offices of the Afar region. All woredas of the project area were visited except Megale Woreda, which wasnt accessible during the survey. Discussions and interviews were run with the woreda officials and experts. At this stage, documents were reviewed; major data were collected through questionnaires and interviews; and sample field observations were conducted. The survey covers 6 woredas, out of which Megale and Erebti have only some part in the project area. The project area has a total area of 1,001,481 hectares. Even though the numbers of woredas are small as compared to Lower Awash Sub-Basin, it took too many days from the total 53 days which were used to survey the two projects.

1330000.000000

46

1.6 Methodology
The major data collection methods applied was questionnaires and interviews. Questionnaires were supplied and answered by woreda experts and officials. Interviews were conducted to the respected bodies. Another method applied was reviewing previous documents. Different literatures and research works run in Afar region were intensively assessed both in federal and regional offices. The other data gathering method conducted in the survey was observation of sample areas. The collected data was analyzed and organized in a way that can be compatible to the survey objectives. In each discipline, the experts work to exploit the best out of their review and collected data. Group discussions and technical reviews were conducted at evening time in order to keep integrity of the whole data collected for the land use planning and for further verification.

1.7 Limitations
There were limitations in the survey. The major problems were inaccessibility (e.g. Megale woreda), heat stress, expensiveness of food items, lack of data in some woredas, absence of drinking water, roads and bridges damage (e.g. Erebti, Dewe and Telalak Woredas), Shortage of garages and fuel stations.

2 CHAPTER TWO
2.1 PREVIOUS STUDIES REVIEW CONCERNING ON THE PURPOSE OF SURVEY IN ALL DISCIPLINES 2.2 Agro climatic resources & zonation of the lowlands
The main factor influencing air temperature in Ethiopia is elevation. As elevation increases air temperature falls. The lowlands below 1500-m elevation are thus the warmest parts of the country, with annual mean temperatures ranging from 20 to 25C (NMA, 1996). For the lowlands, the basic dichotomy involves unimodal and bimodal systems. In terms of extent of land affected, the most important unimodal system is found to the extreme north and north-east Afar territory. The regional variation in temperature and rainfall in the lowlands provides a basis for understanding climatic variability. This, in turn, yields important differences in vegetation and primary production
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that influence human ecology and agricultural development potential. For example, very arid climates tend to occur under unimodal rainfall and warmer temperatures, while the semi-arid climates occur under bimodal rainfall and cooler temperatures closer to the highland massif (FAO, 1978). Here a simpler categorisation is used to partition the Ethiopian lowlands into three agro-ecological zones. The arid zone: has up to 90 growing days per year. It includes the lowest areas such as Dalol in Afar territory near Djibouti, which has the lowest elevation in the country at 100 m below sea level. The arid zone makes up nearly 64% of the lowlands, including territories of the Beni Amer, Afar. Range plant communities have low production potential. Vegetation types include dwarf shrub grassland and dry thorn bushland. Livestock composition is diverse but tends to emphasize browsing species (camels and goats) that forage from woody vegetation. Human lifestyles are nomadic, involving frequent movements of households as well as animals. Social systems tend to be decentralised in terms of traditional leadership (FAO, 1978). Cultivation is very risky and often confined to early maturing drought-tolerant grain crops (e.g. sorghum or millet) planted in depressions or flood plains. The semi-arid zone: has from 90 to 180 growing days per year. This zone clings to the periphery of the highland massif below 1500 m elevation, except in the west where it occurs below 1000 m. The semi-arid zone makes up about 21 % of the lowlands. Annual temperatures tend to be cooler than in the arid zone (20C isotherm) and rainfall (400 to 700 mm/year) is bimodal. Range plant communities have much higher potential productivity than those of the arid zone. Plant communities commonly consist of perennial savannahs and dry woodlands with grasses. Here People tend to be semi-nomadic, with households sedentary in most years and livestock being mobile if necessary. Compared with the arid zone, livestock diseases appear to be a more serious production problem in general. The sub humid zone: This zone occurs near 1500-m elevation (particularly to the west) and has a longer growing season (180 to 270) than the driest zones due to higher annual rainfall (800 to 1300 mm) and lower temperatures. Sub humid regions also extend into pockets of the highland massif and it may comprise a gross area of 15% of the lowlands. Cultivation of cereals (especially maize) is important and tends to be limited more by soil fertility than by moisture (FAO, 1995). Sedentary, mixed crop-livestock operations are the norm. Land availability is usually not a major limiting factor and livestock nutrition tends to be limited by forage quality rather than forage quantity (Jahnke,
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1982). Common livestock are cattle, sheep and goats. Camels are not typically kept where annual rainfall is over 900 mm (Wilson, 1985). More refined approach has been developed by the Land Use Planning and Regulatory Department (LUPRD) of the Ministry of Agriculture for the preparation of land resources maps (Hendrickson et al, 1984). The methodology and the input variables of AEZ are scale-independent. In this approach the major factors considered in assessing land resources are: The growing period- defines the period of the year when both moisture and temperature conditions are suitable for crop production. It provides a framework for summarizing temporally variable elements of climate, which can then be compared with the requirements and estimated responses of the plant. The calculation of LGP has been developed by FAO (1978) and although it cannot account for local conditions like runoff during high intensity rains, soil water augmentation from subsurface drainage, variable soil water storage characteristics, etc. it remains a useful concept at regional and national levels. The estimation of growing period is based on a water balance model which compares rainfall (P) with potential evapo- transpiration (PET). If the growing period is not limited by temperature, the ratio of P/PET determines the start, end and type of growing period. Assessment of LGP for individual years, based on the use of historical rainfall data, enables quantification of the level of risk as well as the potential production under average climatic conditions. Such an approach greatly improves the utility of the assessment, particularly in areas subject to periodic drought. From previous works, four major lengths of growing periods are identified in the region; these are from not possible, very high, medium and low. About 85.50% of the region area LGP is not possible for crop production in rain fed agriculture, whereas 13.99% are highly suitable. Since the PET is much higher than rainfall, in general crops cannot grow on most part of the region under rainfed condition and perennial streams do not originate inside the region. The reason that most part of the basins belongs to arid climate indicates that irrigation has no alternative to achieve food security at regional level. Thermal zone (TZ) - refers to the amount of heat available for plant growth and development during the growing period and closely related to altitude in Ethiopia. It is usually defined by the mean daily temperature during the growing period. In regional and national AEZ assessments, thermal zones may be defined based on temperature intervals of 5C or 2.5C.
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The soil mapping unit is the basic unit taken from the soil map. On small-scale maps, soil mapping units rarely comprise single soils, but usually consist of a combination of a dominant soil with minor associated soils. The land resource inventory is essentially an overlay of climatic and soil information. The resulting units are the AEZs, which have a unique combination, or a specified range of soil mapping units, growing period regimes, & thermal regimes. Multiple overlay techniques are particularly applicable when GIS is used, and the resulting agro ecologic cells (AECs) and zones are more effective planning units when such information is included. Unfortunately the Land Use Planning and Regulatory Department (LUPRD) of the Ministry of Agriculture, low land resource classification is based on relatively scant meteorological information and on satellite imagery which has not been fully verified on the ground. However, it remains the most complete and up to date information available for the whole country. Agro-ecological zoning (AEZ), as applied in FAO studies, defines zones on the basis of combinations of soil, landform and climatic characteristics. The particular parameters used in the definition focus attention on the climatic and edaphic requirements of crops and on the management systems under which the crops are grown. Each zone has a similar combination of constraints and potentials for land use, and serves as a focus for the targeting of recommendations designed to improve the existing land-use situation, either through increasing production or by limiting land degradation. The addition of further layers of information on such factors, as land tenure, land availability, nutritional requirements of human and livestock populations, infrastructure and costs and prices, has enabled the development of more advanced applications in natural resource analysis and land-use planning.

2.3 Soil
In connection with Awash Development Plan and various rangelands development, different studies have been carried out in Afar Region. During this phase of survey, the following relevant soil studies have been reviewed. 1. Rangelands and Water Development Study, Volume III, Part II The Afar Rangelands and Water Development Study incorporates a number of sub-sectoral studies of which the soil study constitutes one sub-sector. This study report is one of the annexes that form the final Report of the Afar Rangelands and Water Development Study. This study document is prepared by METAFERIA CONSULTING ENG. PLC in 2001.
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According to the study the Afar Region comprises the following geological units: Lava flows (mainly basaltic) often connected to volcanic edifices. Fissural flows dominantly comprising basaltic lava, subordinate ignimbrites and rhyolites Basalts along the plateau margin, poorly defined and deeply weathered basalt flows with scarce tuffs. Lacustrine and swamp deposits and volcano lacustrine deposits of rift floor. Allivial and Colluvial deposits on the foot escarpments and plains

2. Afar Regional Atlas 2 This revised Atlas is a joint product of Afar and Amhara National Regional States of Finance and Economic Development Bureaus in June, 2009. The Main objective of this Regional Atlas is to show the spatial distribution of regional resources by the help of Maps and description. The detail objectives are: To gives direction for future sectoral development, by showing the existing distribution of social and economic sectors of each woreda. To help planners and policy makers on pastoral activity, by showing the needed and the available animal feed. To show the pressure/ density/ of human and livestock population on area to compare the available resource and the existing pressure on that specific area. Based on this Atlas document, 6 major distinct soil types, which account 88.12 % of the region area, and other 10 minor soil types, which covers 11.88 % are identified in the Region. The major soils are: Lithosols /20.60%/, Regosols /18.88%/, Solonchaks /18.72%/, Fluvisols 12.57%/, Rock surface / 9.29%/ and Cambisols /8.06%/,

2.4 Land use/Land cover

Very few but important studies were carried out in Afar region with relation to land use and watershed treatment. A number of books and documents were assessed in order to analyze the land
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use/land cover and to know the way how GIS tools used in the land use planning. The basic guideline to review was the agreement document signed between ADSWE and MoARD. For both sub-basins, the document was very important. It gives a good direction where should be concentrate and which reference should be reviewed. STRATEGIC PLAN FOR THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, CONSERVATION, AND MANAGEMENT OF THE WOODY BIOMASS RESOURCES/January 2004, with different volumes is the main document assessed. Especially volume 4, which is OUTLINE OF GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND REMOTE SENSING METHODOLOGIES/July 2003, was very important document. The other one, volume 5, which states the methodology of Land use systems analysis, was a significant document at preparation and survey stage of the study. In most disciplines, an important review was done from AWASH RIVER FLOOD CONTROL AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT STUDY PROJECT document with various volumes, which is run by Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR). WORKING PAPER I-VI, Interim Report and Inception Reports were valuable documents in the collection of the required data. The documents were produced at different years by Halcrow Group Limited.

2.5 Watershed management and conservation

Water and Rangeland Development (METAFERIA PLC, 2001) In this study it was indicated that lowlands predominantly constitute the Afar Region with altitudes generally ranging from 200-1500 meters. The land cover distribution of grasslands, cultivated lands, shrubs and bushs were in proportion to the area of the region. The types and forms of erosion were indicated in Regional scale. Flooding as a cause of land degradation and its damages was verified. Afar Regional Atlas 2 The present landscapes of the region was indicated to be the product of tectonic processes. Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project (2004) In this study, soil erosion was described. Soil loss by water erosion was quantitatively indicated by zone and woreda level
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2.6 Hydrology and water resource assessment

A. Master Plan for The Development of Surface Water Resources in Awash Basin.
This report contains the climatic characterstics of Awash Basin and analysis of meteorological parameters, principally rainfall , are described in the report.The surface water resources are assessed in the report. This section describes the analysis undertaken to obtain the data files of flows for input to the simulation and optimization models and also describes a regional flood frequency analysis of the tributaries of Awash. In general Appendix A of the report contains description of data bases which were compiled during the course of the study and describes an investigation into data quality and makes recommendations for improvments to the gauging networks. It also contains summary of statistics of rainfall and flow data. Climate The climate of Awash Basin comes under the influence of Inter Tropivcal Convergence Zone (ITCZ). This zone of low pressure marks the convergence of dry tropical eastreilies and moist equtorial westerilies.According to HALCROW (1989), the seasonal rainfall distribution within the basin lies in annual migration of the ITCZ across the basin. The ITCZ starts the its advance across the basin from south in March, bringing the small or spring rains. In June and July the ITCZ reaches its most northerly location beyond the basin which then expiriences the heavy or summer rains throughout.The ITCZ returns southwards during August, September and October, restoring a drier, easterly airstream which prevails until the ITCZ resumes its northward migration in March. The annual rainfall distribution resulting from this cycle is seen most clearly in two distnict rainy periods which are observed in the northerly plains of the basin. The hills to the soouth east of the Basin still display two rainfall peaks separated by periods of lower rainfall but on the plateau to west , around Addis Ababa , the distribution shows a continual increase from the spring rain to the summer peak rainfall.The hills extending northwards and forming the western boundary of the basin display the Bimodal distribution of lower plains. The distribution of rainfall over the highland areas tends to be modified by orographic effects. Potential evapotranmspiration (PET) is also reltated to altitude. The relation between PET and altitude is developed for Awash and Part of Abay River Basins (Yilma S., 53

2002).Therefore; the regional equations developed in his work are used to estimate PET in areas where there is scarsity of climatic varioables. Surface Water Resources The hydrological Department of of EVDSA provided the project with a catalogue of all the flow gauging instalations in Awash Basin and also provided , in manuscript, all available monthly runoff data at the stations used for the project. Data Quality ; flow data was checked for anommalies . This consisted of chechking for artimethetic errors. The data was then inspected for non-arthemetic errors. The study revealed cases where suddden high and low figures in the data record could not be reconciled with adjacent figures or records at adjacent stations. In the work basic statistics parameters were also examined to detect further anommalies in records such as exceptional floodds.Cummulative mass plot were drawn and examined and downward shift in trend was not noticed in the records after 1977.

2.7 Forestry and Wild life

To collect the required secondary data or information the following relevant documents and previous studies reviewed on the following topics. The forest resource and potential, the type, coverage and description of the natural forest (vegetation) of the region reviewed from previous studies of CHDEP consultant (1998), Forestry action program volume 1 ANRS, BoA Wondimu Asfaw (2001), Forestry development assessment for the proposed regional land use plan. AWBSP (2004), A Strategic plan for the sustainable development, conservation and management of woody biomass MoARD Identification, description and use value of trees and shrubs of the region and their local and scientific name reviewed frame Gebru Bonger (2001), Vegetation assessment for the proposed regional land use plan Azen Bekele (1993), useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia hand book no 6
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The wildlife conservation methods, descriptions and potentials of the region, species type, habitats, scientific and local name of wild animals reviewed from CHDEP consultant (1998), Forestry action program volume 1 ANRS, BoA PDPA (2005), Compendium of notes on wild life conservation and Training manual (unpublished), Bahir Dar

2.8 Socioeconomics
1. Afar Regional State A Strategic Plan for Sustainable Development, Conservation

Management of the WOODY BIOMASS Resource Rural Socio-Economic Survey Final report, volume II, 2003 The general objective of the socio-economic survey is to provide the sociological and economic baseline information required for developing strategic options for sustainable utilization and management of natural resources, with an emphasis on woody biomass. This information will assist decision makers and planners in understanding not only the socio-economic implications of policies related to woody biomass resources, but also the key parameters that should orient policies and programs at the national and regional levels. Socio-cultural and economic conditions are well defined: Characteristics such as human population and livestock density, pressure on natural resources, natural resource dynamics in response to these pressures, accessibility to roads and markets and, consequently, commodity prices are all well defined within the farming/pastoral system boundaries. The study shows that the Afar population settlement pattern and the main ethnic groups live in the region. The main ethnic groups are Afar (97%), Amhara (1.3%), Argoba (0.8%), Oromo (0.3%), Wolayita (0.3%), Tigray (0.2%) and Hadiya (0.1%). As the study shows that, the livelihood of the rural population of the Afar Regional Sate is based mainly on livestock production, although 18 percent of families are more dependent on crop production. Extreme variability in and low amounts of rainfall cause the livestock-rangeland system to be in a state of dis-equilibrium. Years of average to good rainfall lead to a rapid increase in livestock numbers, which then crash after one or two years of poor rainfall. This is in sharp contrast to the Highland livestock systems, which are in a state of relative (low level) equilibrium. In Afar Regional State livestock numbers oscillate around the ecological carrying capacity.
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As the survey was designed to take into account the four major farming systems in the Afar Regional State; each farming system can be categorised as follows: Farming System 1 - Sedentary rain fed agriculture, growing maize and sorghum. Livestock holdings are comparatively very small (10 or less cattle and less than 20 ruminants). Herd splitting does not generally occur. There is little or no movement of livestock. Farming System 2 - Rain fed agro-pastoral agriculture based on rain fed agriculture cultivating maize and sorghum. Livestock holdings are large (11 or more cattle and/or 20 or more ruminants.). Herd splitting occurs. Livestock movements can occur over long distances in search of grazing and browse. Camels travel the furthest because of their ability to go for long periods without water. The dry cattle herds can travel long distances but must be within a maximum of three days to water. Goats and sheep generally stay within one days travel of the settlement, although goats have a wider feeding range than sheep because of their ability to consume a greater proportion of browse. Calves and milking cows generally stay close to the settlement. Farming System 3 - Pastoralism involving no crop cultivation and large livestock holdings, generally larger than agro-pastoral families. Herd splitting occurs. Movement of livestock for grazing and browse are the same as for the agro-pastoralists. Farming System 4 - Irrigated agro-pastoral agriculture based on irrigated agriculture in the Awash delta area. Maize, sorghum and sesame are grown. Livestock holdings are large. Herd splitting occurs. Movements of dry cattle and camels in the wet season are as far as Chifra Woreda. Sheep graze over relatively short distances along the awash floodplain, whilst movements of goats and camels occur over much larger distances. 2. Afar region survey, identified agricultural investment areas This revised document is a joint product of Afar and Amhara national regional states of finance and economic development Bureaus in July 2009. The study shows the potentials and opportunities available for agricultural investments in the region. 3. Afar nation regional state BoFED regional atlas 2, June, 2009, semera The Atlas shows that the special distribution of regional resources on the help of Maps & Descriptions. It shows the pressure /density/ of human and livestock population on area. This helps to compare the available resources and the existing pressure on that specific area.
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4. WARC-APARI SURVEY, 2007, Assessment made on the potential, constraints and opportunity on the production system of ANRS, Case study on selected woredas of zone 1, 4 & 5. The study shows that the production system of Afar region is dominated by pastoralism from which agro-pastoralism is now emerging following some permanent and temporary rivers on which small scale irrigation is developed. The Afar pastoral communities depend on multi-species livestock production. However, camels, sheep, goats, cattle, and donkeys constitute the main productive assets of the local community. They are sources of food and cash, and are important in establishing relationships, which provide the security, flexibility, and mutual aid essential for Afar. The livestock products and by-product processing technologies are based on indigenous knowledge, which is primitive, laborious, time taking and non-hygienic, and need further improvement. The livestock in the region depends on rain-fed rangeland, which its productivity is declining as a result of recurrent drought, land degradation, lack of market infrastructure, mismanagement, encroachment of agriculture, conflict and invasion of weeds. Semi-nomadic peoples, who are settled along the rivers and streams that flow to the region, practice crop production as a mixed farming. Parts of the Afar community engaged in such system are increasing steadily recently. The major crops grown by such group of the community include majorly maize, sorghum and tef. But, vegetables, fruits, oil crops and root crops are also cultivated in a limited range as source of food and income. They perform backward and inefficient farming practices and tools. This leads the farming activity very laborious, time consuming and low productive. The region encloses potential natural resources that were either under-used or never used while the Afar community is suffering from severe poverty. With respect to the natural resources, the region is endowed with plenty of seasonal and permanent rivers that are potential to irrigate tremendous hectares of land through pressurized pumps and gravity. On the other hand, the, soil types are transported Fluvisols around the course and Regosols towards the hills. The fertility is found in a good state except some salinity problem around some river basins. The soils require irrigation water to produce crop. Similarly, the vegetation and the wild life resources are innumerable in their species diversity, coverage, and abundance. Insufficient socio-economic services, such as schools, roads, health facilities, electricity, and marketing services left the afar pastoral community in a very difficult
situation that needs especial attention.

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2.9 Agronomy
Worer agricultural research center and Afar pastoral agro pastoral research institute Assessment made on the Potential, Constraints, and Opportunity on the Production System of Afar National Regional State; Case Study on selected Woredas of zone 1, 4, and 5. This study investigated opportunities and constraints of crop production which are more or less the same in most part of the study area, hence present together: Constraints Lack of crop production skills Lack of awareness and experience are the most important bottlenecks of the localities in expanding the cultivation and productivity of crops. As a result, crop production using irrigation in the woredas was started very recently. The inhabitants of the study woredas shifted from pastoral to agro-pastoral desperately by the recurrent occurrence of drought. These discrepancies can be witnessed from their poor crop husbandry and vast array of crops they try to cultivate in their limited landholding.
Lack of irrigation, drainage structures and unstudied field irrigation water application

In the study woredas, irrigation structure was observed as the most important limitation of irrigated areas, as the irrigation structure constructed by the regional government in the study woredas is relatively very less in number and standard, the irrigation water supply to the crop producers is very unsatisfactory.
Flood and canal damage by siltation

Silt sedimentation was understood as the common challenges of irrigated farm situated along the Awash River basin and at the start of the river course. Despite the limited availability of irrigation structure constructed by skilled person, the inhabitants who cultivate crops made a water canal by themselves. These water canals are constructed from the width of the river course especially during the dry season and can have a long distance. The irrigation canals either washed away or sedimented by silt when the river increased in volume or accidental flood occurred in the woredas. In the mean time of canal damage the producers face shortage of water. On the other hand, the development of irrigation water from the existing irrigation structures and the maintenance system given to the irrigation canals is very weak.
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Adapted varieties and seed supply Shortage

In almost all study woredas, adapted varieties were hardly available especially in those rain-fed woredas (Semu Robi, Chifra). Consequently, the producers use local varieties (land races) which are low yielding. In the past, none of the research centers as well as regional woredas agricultural Bureau supplied improved and adaptable verities for producers in the woredas. Despite the presence of adaptable crop verities to various agro-ecology developed or released by the research centers in the country, still the producers of study woredas could not use those varieties. The reason is the remoteness of the survey woredas which resulted in poor linkage with the Bureau of woredas Agricultural and less effort to promote the improved varieties. Seed is very important material or engine in order to get reasonable quality and yield. In fact, it is scarcely available in almost all zones of the region currently. So the crop production activity in the focus woredas as well other is highly affected due to seed shortage.
Pest and animal damage

The issue of pest challenge remained ignored agenda in the past times of Agricultural Bureau of the focused woredas under study. In Awra and Ewa woredas, the pests on major crop maize become more sever this time. Some of the major pests of maize are locust and beetles (black and yellow winged). Besides, animals like porcupine and warthog damage maize farms very seriously. In this Woreda as the producers have little knowledge of crop protection, complete loss of yield due to insect out break might be caused. At Dewe Woreda, high insect pest infestation on cereals crops was pointed out by the interviewed group of Woreda Agricultural Bureau experts. The problem is more aggravated by the poor skill of farmers pest management. Supporting farmers who cannot afford immediate payment for chemicals is mandatory. The other common pest in the study woredas is weed. The observation made by the survey team identified parthenium weed in all woredas. More critically the parthenium invasion was observed at Awra and Ewa woredas. At Dewe and Telalak, in addition to parthenium a number of weed species exist in association with crops. Hence, the yield and quality loss due to these weeds and their control method should be studied.
Lack of farm implements and trained oxen

The access to trained oxen, oxen driven implements, and hand tools is very limited. Even the concept of using drought power animals and other farm implements is vague to farmers of focus woredas. In

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turn, as observed by the survey team in all woredas there was a big problem of land preparation. Therefore, specifying drought power animals suitable and trained for traction should be done.
Potentials and Opportunities

Huge amount of flat to almost flat fertile irrigable land. Some infant starts and know hows on how to cultivate crops. schemes and presence of different seasonal streams.

Perennial Rivers that could be accessed through small scale gravity& pressurized pump Presence of NGOs like SSD, PCDP etc. The availability of large cultivable land and the existence of several perennial as well as Seasonal rivers for irrigation and crop production. The availability of research organizations (both federal and regional) such as Werer Agricultural Research Center (WARC) and Afar Pastoral and Agro pastoral Research Institute (APARI) that are fully involved in agricultural research activities in general and crop production in particular. The presence of various non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) that involve in agricultural development activities in the region. The availability of readymade improved technologies in WARC and other research centers suitable for semi-arid and arid agriculture.

2.10 Environmental issues and Change Detection

Halcrow, 2006 in the review of the physical environment and its impact on flooding in the Awash River basin identified the following environmental issues: (1) Population increase, (2) deforestation, (3) soil erosion and land degradation in the uplands, (4) displacement of pastoralists by irrigation, (5) land pressure in the lowlands from over grazing, (6) flooding and agradation along the river valleys. This study was referred and served as a spring board to organize environmental issues that were identified during the reconnaissance survey. No specific land use/cover change detection has been undertaken for the Teru sub-basin. However, land use /cover dynamics in Northern Afar rangelands (Abaala district including a small area in Eastern Tigray) has been conducted by Tsegaye D., et.al. in 2010.

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Tsegay D. et.al. Describe the methodology employed (remote sensing data, field observations and information from local people) to analyze the patterns and dynamics of land use/cover changes for 35 years as follow:(1)Land sat MSS(multispectral scanner) acquired on November2,1972, Landsat (Thematic Mapper) acquired on January5,1986, and ETM+ ( Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus) acquired on March12,2007 were collected and used for this study,(2)the MSS and TM images were geo referenced using the ETM+ as a master image,(3) seven land-use/ cover classes were identified for image classification based on classification criteria for East African rangelands(Pratt and Gwynne,1977),with minor modification,(4)a total of 570 ground truth points collected from the field were used for 2007 image classification(285) and validation(285),(5)then, the land-use/cover changes between the three periods(i.e. 1972,1986 and 2007) were quantified and a change detection between matrix of from-to change was derived(Braimoh,2006;Pontius etal.,2004) to show land cover class conversion transitions during 35 year period by overlaying the 1972 and 2007 images,(6) in relation to the transition matrix, net change and net change-to- persistence ratio(Braimoh,2006;Pontius etal.,2004 were computed to show the resistance and vulnerability of a given land use/cover type, (7)image processing and mapping were undertaken using ILWIS open3.7 Remote Sensing and GIS software, and (8) to further understand the dynamics of land use / cover change, possible major drivers and consequences of the changes were explored using 35 key informants and group discussion. In order to design the methodology for the semi-detail activity of the land use plan, the above methodology with minor modification will be employed to analyze the land-use/cover dynamics of the Teru sub-basin.

3 CHAPTER THREE
3.1 The Reconnaissance Survey Results 3.2 Physical Environment
3.2.1 Agro climatic resource field Survey

This altitude- rainfall relationship fairly represents the whole afar region except those areas where their altitude is below sea level. According to the dwellers, the main rainy season of Teru sub-basin (Teru, Erebti, Megale, Awra, Gulina, and Yalo) is bi-modal in most woredas of the sub basins with low annual rainfall in the western escarpments decreasing to the arid zones (to the east). In general
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the sub basin receives three rainy seasons. The main rain, karma, is from mid-June to midSeptember. This is followed by rainy showers in mid-December called dadaa and a minor rainy season during March April called sugum. This is in line with the fact that Afar region gets its main rainy season in July and August when ITCZ positioned in northern Ethiopian or above it. The small rain around April is generated from the high pressure system over the gulf of Aden-Indian Ocean by south east wind. The annual rainfall distribution resulting from this cycle are two rainy periods in the region namely the major rains in July- August and minor in March-April. The sub basin is highly characterized by low rainfall zone. The rainfall of the region is highly associated with altitude and vegetation cover of the area. Relatively high altitude area such as all western part of the sub basin (zone two and four) receive sufficient rainfall for crop production, but it covers too small portion of the project area. Whereas, most parts of zone two receive low rainfall. Disruptions on the performance of any rainy season will impact on the availability of pasture and water as well as the overall food security situation of the pastoral and agro-pastoral communities. The climate of the basin belongs to semi-arid and arid in such a way that aridity increasing from south to north. Most part of the region receives low amount of rainfall whereas the escarpment area and southern part of the basins gets better rain fall. The net work of climatic parameters particularly those useful for the calculation of PET are not available in the basin. Daily data, (rainfall, temperature min and max) of 13 stations in and near the study area have been collected from NMA. Climatological data outside but near the boundary of the basins have also been collected. Those data, though they are not in the project area, are very useful to determine the climatic characteristics of the basin. Temperature and altitude also have a direct relationship in the basin. As dwellers mentioned, temperature in the basins is generally high, especially in the month of June all woredas have high temperate condition. There are areas in the northern part of the Teru basin around Erebti and Teru that have much higher temperature. It is believed that these areas are one of the hottest places in the world. North West part of the region has normal temperature which is suitable for different agricultural practices. However it covers too small portion of the study district. As per the discussion with government officials held on woredas, most of them explain that the bimodal nature of rainfall at average condition, and the rare existence of rain in March & April make rainfall characteristics as uni-modal. Certainly rainfall is reliable only for two months, July and
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August, which is sufficient for growing of grasses but not crops. This might be one of the reasons why the Afars are traditionally pastoralist instead of tillers. Moreover, Woredas found in Eastern and northern parts of the basin (Teru, Erebti and Megale) are those in which the rainfall on a given area of land is not adequate for regular crop production. When we assess ,the major crops cultivated in the basin are cereals (maize, sorghum, beans, wheat), pulses (field peas,), oil seeds (sunflower, sesame, groundnuts, etc), (pepper, garlic,), fruits (banana, papaya, mango, avocado, orange), sugarcane, fibres (cotton is typical in most woredas), vegetables (onion, tomato, cabbage, etc), root and tuber crops (potato, sweet- potatoes) and date palm. The Productivity of the Crops varies from zone to zone based on the existing climatic condition and fertility of the Soil. According to the discussions with dwellers, we found that the frequent and main climate-related or hydro-meteorological hazards affecting pastoral and agro-pastoral communities common in every year are all types of drought, sometimes flood, moisture stress, high temperature spell, pests, locust, infestation, bush encroachment diseases, human diseases (mostly malaria), and livestock diseases. Drought and famine are not sudden events rather the end result of long-term degradation of the environment due to poor land use and irrational exploitation of natural resources. According to communities and government officials at the Pastoralist, Food Security and Disaster Preparedness Offices in the basin, so far drought frequency in the region has been every 6-8 years, but has now increased to every 1-2 years. Since 2005, at least two major droughts (in 2006 and 2008) have strike most of the woredas in the Teru sub basin. Especially 2006 and 2008 drought, which causes the death of people and weak animals, was severe, impeded pasture and crop growth. The worst years in Afar region in terms of drought were 2007 and 2008 with communitys loss of their cattle, sheep, camels and goats. This shows that different livestock types have different resilience to climate hazards and livestock loss may be in part related to rainfall amount and distribution. The rangeland and livestock were on the process of recovery from the effects of the drought. Unfortunately the two main rains Kerma and Sugum were below average and the third short rain, Deda (December) was missing in most areas. The drought affected the whole region but it appeared to be very serious in Zone 2. People and livestock have also migrating to neighbouring highland woredas in Amhara and Tigray regions.
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Crops grown by agro-pastoral communities are also affected by drought. Agro-pastoralists mentioned the failing of crops during drought/dry years and some are even questioning the suitability of agriculture in view of changing climatic conditions, i.e. decreasing rainfall predictability, shorter rainy seasons, increasing drought frequency and increased rainfall intensity. As stated by one government officials in Dubti woreda Since 2005, rain has been erratic, and when it comes, it is too much and destroy our crops. On the other hand, pastoralists are slowly introducing and expanding farming activities to support themselves on times of drought. In the discussions with government officials drought impacts include decreased pasture availability leading to pasture shortage, overgrazing, and land degradation; decreased water availability leading to water shortages and travel over long distances by women in search of water; decreased livestock disease resistance decrease livestock productivity in terms of milk and meat; emaciation and death of livestock decreased livestock prices and household incomes; crop failure in agro-pastoral areas, food insecurity and malnutrition mostly affecting children, pregnant women and old people; abnormal community mobility increased school drop-out due to community migration in search of pasture and water; interruption of development activities increased human diseases and death. As government officials in the study district woredas and kebeles found near river banks, flood is among the most devastating natural hazards. In the district the excessive rain triggered flood, crop damage and contributed to the spread of disease such as malaria, dengue fever, and cholera. While abundant seasonal rain favored crops and pastures, it also triggered severe flooding. They told us that in the period from 2004 to 2006 flooding afflicted several areas of the region, damaged crops, killing and displacing people with their livestock, but flood coming from highland is advantageous for some woreda.Flood protecting mechanism is essential to prevent communities. Self-help for long-term mitigation should be encouraged. At present, the accuracy and lead times of flood forecasts in Ethiopia is limited or questionable. Thus, training and investigation should place emphasis on the prevention of floods. New study and collaborative efforts are needed to advance flood management in the future. Extreme heat was mentioned as a major hazard and severs in Teru sub basin. So an increase in temperature has greater negative impacts sometimes exceeding the temperature threshold of livestock, crops and humans. It is observed that the impacts of extreme temperatures are similar to that of
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droughts including decreased pasture availability; increased water evaporation leading to water shortages, emaciation and death of livestock which decreased livestock disease resistance and productivity, decreased livestock prices and household incomes, crop failure in agro-pastoral areas, food insecurity and malnutrition, increased human diseases, decreased human labor productivity, and increased conflicts over scarce resources. This in lined with the statement heat stress and drought are likely to have further negative impacts on animal and human health and disease resistance (IPCC, 2007). Community coping strategy: The response of the Afar community to the declining availability of water and fodder for their livestock include Herd Splitting in which Male animals and dry cows are separated from the herd and sent to other areas (permanent rivers), selling of animals starting from male, collecting wild fruits and cutting trees for livestock, moving livestock to higher grounds, early selling of weak and old animals while livestock prices are still good. Communities are observing significant negative impacts of drought and extreme heat events on natural resources such as pasture, water sources, farmland and tree growth as well as pod and leaf production. Also, coping strategies undertaken by communities in time of drought (such as firewood and charcoal selling) lead to increased deforestation rates. Tree planting (or reforestation) does not seem to be a common activity in the project areas, and very few community groups and governmental officials mentioned it as a potential adaptation strategy in the face of future climate change. Donating and supporting people suffered by different climate hazard, For instance, distributing chemicals for crop diseases, informing and looking for assistance from the government and external agencies, is other coping mechanism. Many government officials mentioned that existing coping strategies are not adequate to withstand future climate changes and that additional external support will be needed. Moreover, there is a strong cultural belief among the pastoralists that drought and famine are acts of God against sinful human actions .so they try to solve through pray. Continuous monitoring and investigation is needed for better understanding of climatic impacts and adaptation and how they are evolving over time. Due to the lack of long-term and/or continuous meteorological records in many parts of the study district as well as the lack of scientific projections at more localized scales, scientific information is often insufficient for analyzing local exposure to climatic characteristics of the district. As a result, scientific information must build upon and be complemented by an analysis of local-level climate observations through consultations with
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communities and other local actors who are on the frontlines of climate. All aforementioned are feedback for characterizing agroecological zones for land use planning in the basin.
3.2.2 Soils survey

Climatic conditions and sparse vegetation are the prominant factors for poorly developement of soils in Afar National Regional State. The region is composed of very young geological formations and the pedological development soils is very much restricted. This is evidenced by the wide spread occurrence of Leptosols and Regosols in the region. Salinity, sodicity and alkalinity are the common insidences observed in most areas of the region. The soil survey in Teru sub-basin land use planning project is conducted to identify the different soil types, to describe their characteristics and predict their suitability for different land use types in the sub-basin. This reconnaissance survey is carried out at a scale of 1:250,000. The soil survey in Teru sub-basin involved identification and description of physical soil characteristics that influence or affect soil fertility, soil formation, erosion hazard, water holding capacity, infiltration, organic matter content, root growth, etc. These physical soil characteristics include land form, slope, texture, structure, soil depth, drainage, surfacial characteristics (stoniness, vegetation cover, rock out crops, coarse rock fragments, surface sealing and surface cracks), parent material and erosion conditions. For the purpose of agricultural development activities in the future, potentials as well as the limitations of the soils are roughly identified. Other soil chemical properties like salinity and sodicity conditions are described based on the information provided by woreda experts reinforced (followed) by limited field observations. Questionnaires were used to collect the necessary data within the woredas of the sub-basin. Moreover, data were collected based on previous studied documents, and periodical technical verbal reports of the woredas. Besides this, field observations are carried out at randomly selected kebeles in each administrative woreda. Soil reconnaissance survey in Teru sub-basin is carried out in six administrative woredas namely Gulina, Awra, Yalo, Teru, Erebti and Megale. Major soil types of the Teru Sub-basin

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The reconnaissance soil survey of Teru Sub Basin enabled to visual identification of major soil groupings namely Fluvisols, Leptosols, Regosols, Arenosols, Andosols, Solonchaks, Solonetz, Vertisols, and Calsisols.

Table 3-1

Soil types in Lower Awash Sub-basin (Afar Regional Atlas, June 2009) Soil type Eutric Regosol Eutric Vertisol Haplic solonchacks Lithic Leptosol Rock outcrop Sand Coverage in % 3 2 36 51 6 2 1 11 28 59 1 Teru Gleyic solonchacs Haplic Solonchaks Lithic Leptosol Rock outcrop Sand 17 2 4 65 3 wored a Soil type Coverage in % 12 5 19 62 2

wore da Awra

Megale Clcaric Fluvisol Gleyic Solonchaks Haplic Solonchaks Lithic Leptosols Rock outcrop

Erebt i

Calcaric Fluvisol Gleyic Solonchacs Lithic Leptosol Rock out crop Sand

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Gulin a

Eutric Vertisol Haplic Solonchaks Lithic Leptosol Rock outcrop Vertic Cambisol

7 1 25 13 54

Yalo

Calcaric Fluvisol Gleyic Solonchaks Lithic Leptosol Rock outcrop Vertic Cambisol

9 17 50 9 15

Land form and slope:-The land form in Gulina, Awra, and Teru woredas is categorized into plain which covers about 75%, undulating and dissected plain, escarpment, hilly and mountainous land features covering about 25% of the total area. Based on field observations and information from woreda experts, the slope gradient of the majority plain areas of Gulina, Awra, and Teru woredas ranges from 03% and to a lesser extent from 3-8%. Whereas, the gently undulating, hilly, and mountainous areas, the slope ranges from 8-15, 15-30%. Land located in bordering areas of Amhara National Regional State namely Gulina and Awra woredas the slope is relatively higher. In the same manner, land form in Yalo and Erebti woredas consists of dominantly hilly and mountainous lands that cover about 65% with a slope gradient of > 30%. Chain of rugged hills and mountain land features predominate the area. The plain area covers about 35% of the total area with a slope range of 0-8%. Parent material:-The responsible parent materials for the formation of soils in Teru sub-basin are due to in-situ weathering of basalt and sedimentary rocks, Aeolian and alluvial depositions. Volcanic lava flow of basaltic origin covers an extensive area of land in Teru woreda. This extrusive rock is formed by the outpouring or volcanic eruption of lava all along escarpments, ridges, hills and mountainous areas, covering almost all parts of the escarpment and the crest areas of the sub-basin. Basalt and igneous rocks are the most common varieties of volcanic rocks found in these areas. The soils in Erebti are derived from in-situ weathering of mostly volcanic rocks, and partially of sedimentary rocks. Soils of the plain land have mostly alluvial origin while that of the foot slopes do have colluvial and in-situ poorly developed soils. Alluvial deposits are found extensively around the flood plain areas.
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Texture:-Most part of the plain land of Teru sub-basin has diversified soil texture it is more of medium textured, dominantly sandy clay loam, to some extent salty soil and even clay loam texture. However, the uplands including the hills and mountainous regions are covered by coherent hard rocks of volcanic origin, full of gravel and unweathered and disintegrated rock fragments. The valley floor of Teru woreda and the vast plain of Didiksala area have sandy, salty soils of alluvial and Aeolian origins.

Figure 3-4 Soil texture assessment at the river bank of Awra River using hand feeling method (Teru woreda)

Drainage:-Regarding the drainage condition of the plain area of Teru sub-basin, water is removed from the soil readily but not rapidly. Based on our physical observation and secondary data collected, there is no evidence of seasonal ponding and inundation within the area. Soil depth:-The soil depth in the plain area varies from moderately deep to very deep but in some cases very shallow soils are also found. On the basis of the data collected using formats, questionnaires and field observations at gully walls and road cuts, soil depth in alluvial plain areas varies from moderately deep (Gulina and Yalo woredas) , to very deep ,(Awra, Teru, and Erebti woredas). Whereas, the rugged, hilly and mountainous areas are characterized by lithic phase of which the feature is covered by unweathered coherent hard rock. Incised gully channels like this along the alluvial plains of the sub basin are common. The fragile Soils are being eroded and move along the flowing water and joins lagoons and streams leaving
69

behind the infertile subsoil. Showing the need to take an immediate measure before it is too late, and before the land dies.

Figure 3-5 Gully wall full of colluviums and alluvium, Gulina Woreda

Surface characteristics:-The dominant vegetation types of Teru sub-basin are open shrub land and bush land dominated by thorny and drought resistant acacia species. In some places such as the flood plain of river banks of alluvial deposition like that of Awera river , rich in humus and dense vegetation cover reveals that the surrounding environment has very fertile soil. There is an extensive rock out crop and coarse surface fragments in escarpments, hilly and mountainous areas in the sub-basin that can limit the use of modern mechanized agricultural equipments. According to the data collected from woreda, the relative abundance of the rock out crop in Erebti Yalo and to some extent Gulina ranges from about 15-40% and in areas around the crest foot slopes and mountainous areas of Teru woreda the abundace is 40-80%. According to woreda natural resource experts, medium to extremely wide surface cracks and potholes are evident in the plain areas of Teru, Gulina and Awra woredas., Surface crusting due to salinity and sodicity problem is also prevalent in alluvial plains.

Figure 3-6 Surface sealing feature scene (Teru woreda)

Rock outcrop coverage(Teru woreda)

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Figure 3-7 Termite mounds at Fukisa kebele (Gulina)

Erosion conditions: Water erosion is common phenomenon within the sub basin as a whole. However, the degree and intensity of erosion varies from place to place depending on the soils susceptibility to erosive agents. Amongst the widely known types of erosion, sheet erosion is the most serious type within the basin, as this form of erosion is responsible for the wearing a way of top soil, followed by gully and river bank erosion types. Overgrazing, high livestock population associated with trampling, poor organic matter content, lack of vegetation cover, Poor soil structure, and lack of appropriate soil and water conservation measures are the major factors which escalates the soils erodibility.

Wind erosion is a severe problem next to water erosion in Teru sub-basin responsible for the loss of topsoil, especially in Teru, Awra and some parts of Erebti woredas. In comparison from the other woredas soil erosion by wind is very severe problem in Teru woreda. Wind turbulences blowing towards Teru from the north eastern cost of the region blows away the loose soil material to a great distance with a vast area of coverage. As a result of this catastrophic event, large area of land loses its top soil forming sand dunes and moving soil mass from one place to the other. In general this condition has a negative impact in the soil development of the surrounding environment.

71

Darkness at noon! Clouds of dust high up in the the atmosphere at Teru woreda. The dust usually spreads out (horizontally and vertically) up to 20-30kms in the air. The organic matter, clay, and silt in the soils are carried great distances by the wind. Many tons of top soils are being blown away at a single blow. Sand and heavier materials drifted/moved against houses, fences, domestic animals and any physical obstructions. Movement of sand grains by the wind causes formation of micro reliefs like sand dunes, which you may not find them in the same place the next day. Any one of us has knowledge of trees waving to and fro, bending down their heads; drop off their leaves while wind blows. This reality may not always be true in the case of Teru woreda where you see the wind blowing towards you with hand full of dusty materials to damp on your face.

High wind waves, seasonal over flooding hazards, Long and recurrent Drought, overgrazing, lack of vegetation cover and lack of appropriate soil conservation measures are the major causes of severe soil erosion that are also responsible for the degradation of natural resources in the Teru sub-basin. According to the information gathered from woredas natural resource department, experience of SWC measures are minimal with an exception of few Area closures and check dams in Teru woreda and construction of Stone bunds, moisture harvesting structures like trench, micro basins, and gabion check dams in Yalo woreda. In addition, few Soil bunds in Awra woreda and micro basins, check dams construction, and biological gully treatments in Gulina woreda are started to control soil erosion.

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In general,this reconnaissance study has its own limitations due to limited field observations and crude secondary data. However,at this phase of study the following major soil potentials are identified, such as: alluvial soils along the leeves and deltas of several major streams, the biodiversity coverage, convenient land form for agricultural food crops(maize,sorghum, etc), suitable land resource for horticultural crops(datepalm,mango,banana,orange,papaya etc), suitable land resource for cash crops (cotton,sugarcane,tobacco,sunflower,sesame etc), sourse of different minerals access to irrigation intervention are some of the potentials.

In the same manner, soil limitations of the sub-basin like severity and extent of wind and water erosion drought & mosture stress occurence absence of erosion control measures frequency and degree of damage due to overflooding degradation due to overgrazing salinity,alkalinity, and sodicity problems extent of rock outcrop coverage deforestation poor drainage problem in certain areas infertile sub soil deposition (coming from other place) at the surface very shallow soil depth (truncated) over a considerable area thus, both potentials and limitations need further verification and investigationas during the preceeding detail study.
73

3.2.3 Land-Use /Cover

Land Use
The major land cover system of the basin is natural that is closely, related to rainfall and temperature factors. As being the local community pastoral, the natural land cover system is not distributed. There is no man induced land cover system, with the exception of few plots of cultivated lands .It is true that the dominant land use activity in the region is grazing with cultivation confined mainly to areas adjacent to the banks of perennial rivers in a few woredas. According to Metaferia CE 2001, the land cover of the region was described as cultivated land, grassland; shrubs and buses lands of the region constitute 2.33, 77.88, 1.35 and 22.5 respectively. Of course this land cover distribution is summary of the region and it may not directly describe Teru sub-basin. Existing data on the land cover distribution is scare at by wereda in the basin; we used woody Biomass Inventory and strategic planning project document (2003), available data, by wereda, at regional and federal level, for the different land use categories. 1. Cultivated Land: Refers to the land which is being cultivated. Even though the basin has vast area of cultivable land, it is only a small proportion has been cultivated. A considerable experience of cultivation is present in Golina Woreda, which accounts the highest share from other woredas; whereas the remaining are still on the way of start. 2. Grazing Land: Is most important land use system for the pastoralists in the basin. This land covers uses as the major source for grazing. It extensive areas of grass land is mainly found on the wide plains of the basin. As we have seen in our reconnaissance survey, the low lands plains of Golina, Awra. & Yallo Woredas has a good surface cover of grazing materials in rainy season, due to the possession of higher rain. 3. Bush and Shrub Lands. This vegetation type is found more or less in all woredas of the basin. It is often inter mixed with woodlands and grazing lands. This land use covers the largest part of the low land plains of the basin. The most common shrub type exist invading the basin is prosopis juliflora. 4. Woodland, Riverine Forests and Natural Forests: This land use system is found in all woredas. According woody Biomass, Teru Woreda shares the highest proportion of woodland coverage of the

74

basin where as Golina Woreda have highest Riverine forest cover. Natural forests are almost nil in most woredas except Erebti wereda. 5. Exposed Rock Surface: This land cover is obviously found in Teru Woreda, where the mountain ridges and hills are the product of tectonic processes. This wereda accounts the highest contribution of rock land of the basin. on the other hand; the remaining woredas contribute mountains and hills formed from shallow and stony soils as rock lands. 6. Exposed Sand Surface: This land use usually named as bare land the second most land unit of the basin next to shrub lands. This land predominantly exists in Teru land Erebti. The low lands and plains are bare lands exposed sand surfaces.
The different land use (land cover) distribution by wereda
S.N Zone Rainfed cultivat e-ion (ha) Irrigate d cultivati on (ha) 0 0 0 0 0 0 428 0 Grass land (ha) 7613 52185 68356 19652 36946 29311 234063 Shrub land (ha) 44939 80919 135959 82101 104895 99948 548761 Wood land (ha) 5 150 3917 3727 8204 1616 17619 Natur al forest (ha) 245 0 0 0 17 0 262 Reverie forest woodlan d (ha) 0 0 76 690 0 0 766 Water (ha) Wetl and (ha) 0 0 35 0 0 0 35 Expose d Soil, Sand (ha) 50044 34466 44962 9508 55747 19059 213786 Rock (ha)

1 2 3 4 5 6 Total

Erebti Megale Awra Golina Teru Yalo

0 0 511 6 101 0 618

122735 28902 47536 9508 159654 32034 400369

Source: Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project (2004)

According to FAO classification of 2005, Afar Region has four major land covers. These are Bare soil, Sparse grassland, Open grassland with sparse shrubs, and crop lands. There are also water bodies. Lower Awash sub-basin has these all classes. However, there is also forest cover in the project area. Majority of the eastern part of the sub-basin has dominantly bare soil and sand dunes, except following the valley of Awash River, which has dense vegetation cover. Woredas found in this area,

75

Dubti, Ayssaita and Afambo, has basically such sandy bare land. But, along the Awash River valley, trees and crop lands are common. This valley has evergreen riverine forests. Whereas, the western part has good vegetation cover which slowly sparse towards the middle. Specially, Dewe, Telalak, Adaar, Ewa and Chifra woredas have trees with sparse grassland. Some crop lands are also found around this area adjoining foot slopes of the Central highlands.

600000.000000 1440000.000000

620000.000000

640000.000000

660000.000000

680000.000000 1440000.000000

Land Cover Map of Teru Sub-Basin

EREBTI

TERU

YALO

GOLINA

AWRA

Agricultural land Exposed rocks (Intermidiate) Exposed rocks (Older) Exposed rocks (Younger) Sandy fields Vegetation Water bodies
600000.000000 620000.000000 640000.000000 660000.000000 680000.000000

10

20

30

40 km

Figure 2-8 land use/land cover map

1320000.000000

1320000.000000

Legend

1350000.000000

1350000.000000

1380000.000000

1380000.000000

1410000.000000

1410000.000000

MEGALE

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Identified existing major land utilization types

In the Teru sub basin the following major land utilization types were identified and selected for description 1. Agro pastoral- Rain fed cropping 2. Agro pastoral- Irrigated agriculture 3. communal grazing land 4. Natural Forest Vegetation 5. Settlement Description of major existing land utilization types

1. Agro pastoral rain fed agriculture Since the rainfall amount, reliability and frequency is very low in the sub basin, rainfed agriculture is hardly seen except few woredas of Gulina, Yallo and Megallie which is characterized by low input, low yield and poor management practice (very less weeding practice). Due to high temperature, hence, high evaporative potential, the moisture amount in the project area is minimum; as a result it is not able to support plants with high water requirements. Maize is the dominant crop followed by sorghum. Sesame, groundnut, tomato, Red pepper and onion are also produced. The market orientation is mainly toward subsistence, very limited amount is sold. Capital intensity is low under traditional technology; the present cropping is confined to bush clearing prior to cultivation. Some simple hand tools with animal traction are used. In other way, more households own cows than Oxen. This shows that has high emphasis on milk and herd reproduction and has strong preference for goats over sheep. Natural communal grazing land is the common feed resource for their animals. 2. Agro Pastoral Irrigated Agriculture In the sub basin, this land utilization type is found in irrigated areas (woredas) of Awra and Megallie. During the survey, the Woreda experts told us, there is difficulty in obtaining sufficient irrigation water they required because of low water level in the river. Maize, sesame, sorghum, onion, tomato are mostly produced. The market orientation is mainly toward subsistence, very limited amount is sold. Capital intensity is low under traditional technology; the present cropping is confined to bush clearing prior to cultivation. Some simple hand tools with animal traction are used. Natural grazing
77

land is the most feed source for their livestock. Livestock holdings are very large. The herd composition and grazing management patterns and herd movement systems are largely determined by seasonal patterns of rainfall and surface water. 3. Communal Extensive Grazing land Land as whole, grazing and browsing lands is communal in the community and belongs to the tribe (clan). Anybody who is the member of the clan can feed his herd in the grazing and browsing land. The brief description of extensive grazing land is made below in terms of primary (range land and feed development) and secondary (live stock production conditions). Extensive grazing, as a major land use can be sub divided in to three land utilization types, each with their own specific produce and management, namely nomadic pastoralism, sedentary and transhumance pastoralism . Nomadic form of grass land utilization involving the regular movement of herds & flocks with the whole families of the households to seasonal grazing is found. According to Belayhun Hailu Mamo study 2005 the pastoral nomadism moves up to 30-40 k.m per day in search of grazing for animals. In addition to extensive grazing on range lands, animals graze around fields where crop residues, stable and weeds are accessible. In semiarid and arid range lands where the overall vegetation density is low, the forage supply and its quality vary greatly over time. When combined with periodic shortage of drinking water for the livestock, these great fluctuations force the herders to roam continuously with their herds of camels, cattle, donkeys, sheep and goats in nomadic existence. This diversity of animal species permits maximum exploitation of the sparse vegetation, and decimated by drought, diseases or others circumstances largely beyond the herders control. The life of a nomad is entirely dependent on his livestock. Cows and goats are the most important, principally for their milk. Camels and donkeys are so essential for transport. Nomadic pastoralism is the least common system of extensive grazing. In sedentary grazing (e.g. Awra woreda) women and children may be left near the water points (as the result of irrigation canals from Awra river, few people divert the flow of the water from the canal in to the grazing lands). To grow crops. Small animals may be herded in the vicinity while the main herd goes to specific distant grazing lands

78

In Trans humans- herders take advantage of seasonal vegetation growth by moving their animals between two or more separate areas. Livestocks are first grazed in semi arid or montane areas, which have short growing seasons because of low rain fall, and are then moved for wetter areas or that milder witness for the remainder of the year. Transhumance takes advantage of the good quality herbs and grasses that grow seasonally. At the end of the season, as drinking water diminishes, the herds men are forced to seek other areas. Further detailed land evaluation and planning studies have to be made of these levels and be based on the concept of land utilization type.
Primary Level of Production- Range Land & Feed Development

Definition: Range land is uncultivated land that will support grazing and browsing animals. Range lands are primarily arid and semi arid land where other land uses such as agriculture are not economically feasible but they may also areas that have in the past or may have in the future be used for cultivation or forestry (Holochek, et, al. 1989). Here, the description is made in detail giving attention the present socio economic situations prevailing in the sub basin. Livestock production in the sub basin can be increased qualitatively through increasing the output per animal and the productivity per unit area of the grazing land. A major factor in increasing live stock productivity will be the improvement of animal nutrition and feed supplies. Disease and parasitic control, breeding and management also need attention. But initially a major emphasis must be placed on providing better nutrition and then the management aspect. The sub basin has a significant number of livestock populations. However; the products are very low, being limited largely by nutrition, poor disease control, traditional system of management by pastoralist and over grazing of range lands. Thus, live stock development schemes which do not first improve the (traditional system) feed recourses, may cause further problems due to increased animal numbers without increasing forage resources. The relationship between stocking rate and production must be described in detail studies for range land improvement and management, including the effects of stocking rates on range land, as dependent variable of seasons and mobility pattern. The yield of range land under natural conditions is affected by a range of factors influencing growth of plant species, the quality (nutritive value) and the yield.
79

The main factors which affects extension pasture growth & yield are:a. Climatic factors: temperature, humidity, wind and Rainfall

b. Soil factors: Chemical and physical properties, soil moisture content

c. Range land species: genetic potential for yield & nutritive value, adaptation to the

environment, enchromcment of exotic thoring bush species /Prosophis guliflora)

d. `Range land management: Stocking rate and stocking system used, type of animal grazed

weed control

Figure 3-9 the effect of different land limitations on the grazing land decreases the quality and quantity of grazing

80

Secondary Level of production-Livestock Production

The sub basin has ample resources of livestock (cow, sheep, goat, camel, donkey etc) and wild life animals (Orex, Bushduiker, Soemmrings gazel, warthog etc). If properly managed and controlled it was observed that some of the sub basin woredas especially Awra and Yallo are untouched (relatively undisturbed) areas for wild life development. At present, the cultural trend of the rural communities is more over very interesting that not attack the wild life animals.

Since unlike plants, livestocks are mobile (so do the owners, herders) and are often able to find feed over a wide area. In the sub basin animal mobility is a common strategy employed to minimize feed and water limitation. It applies to each of the land utilization types of extensive grazing, because in each case live stock use different parts of the range land throughout the year. Mobility causes some of the key attributes of extensive grazing land utilization types to vary over the different grazing seasons.

Figure 3-10 Mobility as a common strategy to alleviate feed and water problem

Thus, the first and most fundamental consideration in any appraisal of pastoralism in the sub basin should be its essential diversity and variety. The most common division is in to nomadic and semi nomadic by which it is usually implied that the former community has no fixed home while the later has a home base of an identifiable nature. Both of them derive their subsistence entirely or partially

81

from the recurrent products of their animals milk and meat. Almost in all woredas of the sub basin the by products skin and hide is not properly marketed with the exception of using it locally.
It was observed that movement of pastoralists is matter of necessity arising from the level of technology prevailing in the community and the circumstances of the physical environment. So any developmental efforts in the sub basin, has to pay due attention to the knowledge, attitude, real situation, and immediate needs of the community even in the specific area of anticipated developmental interventions.

Natural Forest Vegetation

The vegetation cover of the area is mostly characterized by the aridity tolerating characters such as small leaves, thorns and stunted growth in their physiology. Land utilization type of natural dry land vegetation in which animal feed, fuel and construction of local home and directed primarily at the needs of the local community are of its main usage. The most common species are like Acacia Abyssinia, Acacia Oerfota, Acacia seyal, Acacia Senegal, prosopis julifora and other bushes. This is formerly based on collection from natural vegetation with little or no deliberate cilviculture. The level of capital investment is very low. Management is by the community clan. On the other hand planting of tree species and managing it is not as such practiced with the exception of planting of limited tree species like Asanderachta indica (true neem), Millie Indica (false neem), Moringa Olifera, Sesbania .This is because of the cultural life of pastoralists (which is movable), moisture stress, luck of extension service and others related factors are the main reasons of less practice in afforestation. As what has been mentioned from the Woreda experts, there was no trend of cutting especially live trees (good culture). But now adays, the people are cutting trees in some woredas for charcoal production. The produce especially charcoal is marketed to the main road neighboring towns. This situation put the resources to be endangered. Vegetation change over time clearly affect the level of biodiversity, conservation status and productivity of rang land. So pastoralists and extension workers need to know what these changes are so that they are better equipped to respond to and utilize them as wisely.

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Settlement
The settlement pattern is characterized by villages made up of cluster of houses and organized in to clan /kinship/ groups. The houses are typically constructed from local acacia trees and grasses. Villages are sparsely constructed with two or more houses. They settle around water points and grazing areas. So availability of water and feed for their animals is the two most criteria for selection of settlement areas by pastoralists. This sparse settlement makes less labor availability. Generally, there are two types (ways) of settlement pattern practiced by pastoralists. Fixed and temporarily way. The fixed type of settlement is in such way that mostly aged fathers and mothers with babies wait for and cannot leave their surroundings. Whereas the temporary way of settlement is commonly practiced at dry season by medium aged families of the household. They move temporarily in search of feed for animals. This problem of displacement of the pastoralists calls an integrated solution 3.2.4 Hydrology and Water Resource Assessment Hydrological study practices of the developing countries like Ethiopia is very poor. Hydrology for land use planning is also a new concept in Ethiopia. According to the Afar regional state there is no such type of studies except some rough hydro geological & geological surveys. But hydrological studies & water resource assessment are very important concept for land use planning. This section of the report (inception report) deals with the hydrology and water resource assessment of Teru sub basin in afar national regional state. In this study level all the secondary datas are collected i.e. both surface and sub surface water resources. The surface water resources such as perennial rivers, intermittent rivers, lakes and artificial ponds (in some extent) are assessed in the sub basin. Concerning with the sub surface water resources, datas about deep wells, shallow wells, hand dug wells and spring sources are collected in the Sub basin in each woreda under kebele level. Besides of these the conditions of the wells are identified. The details of the wells are annexed at the back the report document. The rain fall pattern of the study areas is erratic. But the runoff from Amhara Mountains is very high results flooding of many areas and destructing structures such as bridges and eroding river courses
83

(banks). The reconnaissance survey results of the Teru sub basin and the secondary datas collected during the reconnaissance survey are presented below.
580 000
.0 0 00 00

600 000

.0 000 0 0

620000

.0 000 00

640000

.0 0 00 00

660000

.00 000 0

680 000

.00 00 0 0

700000

.00 000 0

.00000 1440000 0

E E T R BI

.00000 1410000 0

T R E U

.00000 1380000 0

YL AO

.00000 1350000 0

G L A O IN

.00000 1320000 0

L en eg d
R er iv T B eru asin T eru_B in as
0 5 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 k m
580 000
.0 0 00 00

600 000

.0 000 0 0

620000

.0 000 00

640000

.0 0 00 00

660000

.00 000 0

680 000

.00 00 0 0

700000

.00 000 0

Figure 3-11 Drainage

pattern of Teru sub-Basin

A. Surface water resources

The surface water resources in Teru sub basin include rivers/streams i.e. both perennial & intermittent and artificial ponds. Awra River is the main perennial river in the sub basin, even if there are other perennial rivers in Megale woreda. There is no lake in Teru sub basin. Generally all the perennial & intermittent rivers end their path at Teru deep ration in Teru woreda. Teru woreda is the hottest woreda and found in lower elevation compared to the other Teru sub basin woredas. Because of this many rivers flow into Teru woreda and sips there. Some of the rivers that flow in Teru woreda are Awra, Gulina, Megale, Wantabo, Faro/asabara/ & Uletabaa. Taro/Asabara/, Wantebo & Uletabaa are hot waters/rivers/ that drain during rainy season for a short period of time. Gulina & Awra Rivers are joining at Namahara kebele in Teru woreda. After that they continue as the name Awra until it sips in Teru deep ration. In general the abutments of the rivers are very weak results changing the morphology from time to time at different places.

.000000 1320000

A R WA

.000000 1350000

.000000 1380000

.000000 1410000

MG L E AE

.000000 1440000

D rainage pattern of T S eru ub-B asin

84

There are also many intermittent rivers that drain for a short period of time in all woredas of in the sub basin. These streams where get their source majorly the precipitation from Amhara highlands and a little bit from direct precipitation around the study area itself. Almost all the rivers that found in the Teru Sub Basin used for irrigation and drinking purpose for animals & humans, except few intermittent rivers, they are used any of the three purposes or two. There are also different artificial ponds in the sub basin. For example, in Awra woreda 4, in Yallo woreda 8 & in Teru woreda 12 ponds are available. All the rivers that found in the study area are presented with their different description in tabular forms below.
Table 3-2 Perennial Rivers, crossing kebeles, current uses & irrigation potentials of woredas in Teru sub basin

s/n Woreda
name

Stream No perennial river Megale, Timuga, Ginizil, Erosselea, Bubushiota and Eriarkiaro No perennial river No perennial river No perennial river

Crossing kebeles

Current uses

1 2

Erebity

Irrigation potential of the woreda No an agricultural practice

remarks The irrigation potential of the woredas are taken from basic agricultural data study document prepared by Afar regional agricultural office. The hectare explained here is not the potentials of the correspondi ng rivers.

Megale

No data

3,250ha For animals &humans drinking

3 4

Yallo woreda Gulina woreda

>> >>

4413ha 6140ha

Teru woreda

>>

No irrigation practice

Awra woreda

Awra river

>>

For 14,264ha animals &humans drinking

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Table 3-3 intermittent rivers in each woreda of Teru sub basin

S/n Woreda name 1 2 3 4

Erebity woreda

Megale woreda Yallo woreda

Gulina woreda

Teru woreda `

Awra woreda

Intermittent rivers Mingia, Waledo, Undergolo, Leiadd Mekebushi &Demonumema Gorisso, Anduli, Dibnoli & Walee rivers Gulina, Alena, Derytu, Yebekenu, Wanasa, Mersi, Gelebitinaboteni & Genu Awra, Gulina, Megale, Wantabo, Faro/asabara/ & Uletabaa. Hida , Aseala, Deriytu, Amomoleyta, Woeli, Motalsa, Subulale, Begaraga, Hantilale, Leliale & Sokayta

Current uses for Humans & animals for Humans & animals For Humans & animals Humans, animals & for irrigation

Remarks

Diversion weir were constructed at Alena river

animals & for irrigation

Taro/Asabara/,Wantebo & Uletabaa are hot waters

Humans, animals & for irrigation

B. Sub Surface water resources

The sub surface water resources that assessed in the reconnaissance survey include deep wells, shallow wells, hand dug wells and springs. Many bore holes were drilled in the past even if some of them were not functional currently because of different reasons. Generally the ground water potential of Teru sub basin woredas is good except Erebity woreda & most part of Teru woreda. The water qualities of the wells are also good in the limit of drinking standards. The wells that found in Erebity woreda are not functional. On the other hand in Teru woreda at Digdiga kebele five deep wells were drilled and they are functional. Digdiga kebele is accessible & rich in ground water potential as
86

compared to the other kebels. NGOs & Minstry of water resource tries to drill deep wells in Teru woreda at different kebeles such as Awdi, Nemehara & Yewdlul kebeles. But they are all failed due to the absence of water and the geological conditions of the soil structure. Spring sources are found in Erebity around Erebity town and in Megale woreda. The sub surface water resources are summarized in tabular form below.
Table 3-4 No. of deep, shallow, hand dug wells & springs in Teru sub basin woredas

s/n 1 2 3 4 5 6

Woreda name Deep wells

Erebity

2 1 7 6 5 6

Name of schemes Shallow Hand dug wells wells 1 2 4 4 4 9 2 -

Remark springs 1 1 All well not functional

Megale Yallo Gulina Teru Awra

3.3 Biological Environment

3.3.1
Forest cover

Forestry

The forest resource of the afar regional state is source of diversified forest products such as fuel wood, construction material and fodder; and it is very important for supporting human life and livestock population of the region. More than 90% of the population is predominantly pastoralists depend mainly on animal husbandry and have a wide tradition of practicing and using the existing trees, shrub and herbs for their livestock and other uses. The distribution of the forest cover in the region mainly influenced by climatic factor such as temperature and rainfall distribution within the region; the forest or vegetation coverage of the afar regional state were assessed by different governmental and nongovernmental organization and they mention different information or data on their report. These un matched reports indicates the importance of verification of datas by conducting a detailed survey of vegetation cover of the region in particular of the study area Teru sub-basin.
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From previous studies; the one which was lately conducted is the WOODY BIOMASS INVENTORY STRATEGIC PLAN document prepared by Federal MoARD for Afar Region in 2004 is categorized the region vegetation cover in to five groups as mentioned below. Grass land ....1, 409,426 ha30.52% Shrub land.3, 005,719 ha65.08% Woodland..164, 152 ha.3.55% Riverine /Riparian/ forest wood land.28, 721 ha.0.62% Natural forest..10, 379 ha.0.22% The above data indicate that the total vegetation cover of the region is 4,618,397 ha. Of this the forest land covers 3,208,971 ha. that is 33.68% of the region land covered by different forest types. Based on the above source data, the study area Teru sub-basin approximately covers 147742 ha of forest (excluding Irrebeti and megale woredas) that is 14.75 % of the basin area coverage is covered by forest. As it is mentioned above, the actual coverage and forest type of Teru sub- basin needs conducting a detail study or survey. Teru sub- basin is very distinctive with regard of its harsh climate for its low and erratic rainfall distribution, high temperature and wind turbulences. As mentioned by woreda expert due to this harsh climatic condition and human interferences or influence on the existing forest or vegetation, the area become decline both in quality and quantity; The remaining riverine /riparian forest wood land, shrub and bush land, and woodland forests subjected to steady degradation. Tree and Shrub Species The type and distribution of vegetation resources or plant species in any environment is a direct image of the area climatic condition; that is temperature and rainfall distribution of that particular area. The study area Teru sub-basin lies with altitude range between 133mt.asl. And 2181mt asl; most of the high lands are located in the western part of the sub-basin on the boundary of Amhara regional state. These climatic variations determine the type of forests or trees, shrub and bush species found in the study area. During reconnaissance on filed observation and woreda experts mentioned the following trees and shrub species are grown in different forest types.

a. Riverine /Riparian/ forests

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Riparian forest is a plant community with a complex or variable vegetation either seasonal or permanently grown along river, water banks, stream and the like. (WBISP, 2004). There are numerous perennial and intermittent rivers in the study area Teru sub-basin.

Figure 3-12 River Awra Teru woreda The main Riverine /Riparian/forest wood lands in Teru sub-basin are Awra, Gullina and Yallo water ways with variety of Acacia species /A.tortilis(Behebay/Eibeto), A.oerifora (Gerento ), A.melifera (Merkeato),A.senegal(Adaho)/ and other Balentis aegyptica(Udda) , Grewera villesa(Gerawaito/Habeli), Grewera ferugginea ( Hidaito)etc.such types of forests are an important sources of fodder for livestock during the dry season, and are sources of fuel and construction material and also home to many plant and animals. b. Shrub lands. Shrub land are stands of shrubs, usually not exceeding 6 m in height with a canopy cover greater than 20% ( ANRS FAP 1998 ); The main characteristic of this semi arid vegetation is often irregular density, wide spacing of the shrubs with a few large trees 3-10 m. high story (Wondimu Assefaw, 2001).) In the study area Lower Awash sub basin such type of forest observed in Yallo, golina and Awera woredas. Consists mainly Acacia species(Acacia miliflora, A.oerifora (Gerento), A.senegal(Adabo), A.horida (Eibeto) ) and other Prosopis juliflora /Weyanie/Dergi hara/, Balentiies aegyptica /Udda/, salvadore perisica /Adaito/ mostly this forests are used as permanent grazing area for pastoralists. C. Bush land Low growing plants mainly cover bush land area with many woody teems coming up from the roots and a canopy cover about 20% with a single or layered (Wondimu Assefaw 2001), ), such type of forests are found in the low altitude areas of Lower Awash sub basin, Teru, Irrebeti, Golina and Awra woredas, consist of a

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severely degraded Acacia bush lands and scrubs vegetations on highly eroded land with rock out crops evident every were.

Figure 3-13 Bush land in Golina woreda

During reconnaissance survey as mentioned by woreda experts and filed visits such type of forest land uses observed almost in all woredas of Teru sub-basin , and dominated by trees and shrubs of Acacia miliflora, A.oerifora (Gerento), A.senegal(Adabo), A.horida (Eibeto), Salvadore perisica, (Adaito)Codiinea sens (Mederto ), Balenties aegyptica(Udda)etcare observed.

d. Woodland Wood land forests are lands covered by an open stand of trees up to 20 mt. height and a canopy cover more than 20% (EFAP, 1994). During reconnaissance Woodland forests with scattered trees up to 8 mt. in height with the dominant trees species like Acacia toritalis (Behibay/Eibeto),A.nilotica (keselto), A.aetibica(Eibeto), Balentes aegyptica (Udda), Ziziphes spain-chrust (Kusraito ) etcare observed in Golona, Awera, and Yallo weredas. This wood land forests serve as grazing land for wild animals and livestock. e. Prosopis juliflora In addition to the vegetation type and species composition described above, Prosopis juliflora becoming an aggressive plant rapidly colonizing vast area of the Afar regional state land scapes. Prosopis juliflora is a thorny shrub but can become a shapely tree to 15 m. though usually 3-5 m. height. It grows well in arid regions with altitude range of 400-1600 mt.asl. , producing deep roots
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and tolerating sandy, rocky or poor and saline soils, in most cases it has got a pair of thorns up to 5 cm. (Azene Bekele, 1993 ) Concerning our study area Lower Awash sub-basin; in time of field observation prosopis juliflora observed with spreading over large area, due to lack of proper management and its behavior of tolerating moisture stress, sandy rocky or poor and saline soils. Teru and Yalo woredas of thirteen kebeles as mentioned by woreda experts and field observation specially following Awera river and other water ways and road sides are highly invaded by Prosopis juliflora. Prosopis by nature it has money advantage and disadvantages that are mentioned on page . of this document. For minimizing its invasion and disadvantage a serious management strategies must be design with detail studies. Tradition of natural forest management and utilization The existing forest resource in the study area used by the local community for fire wood, charcoal, building material, food for livestock, and medicine for man and animals. Due to such importance of plants with spatial uses highly appreciate and protected by the local community and they have also their own traditional rule to administer the forest. No one cut trees without valid reason, in the case of utilizing the forest individuals should make clear to all members of the clan or the clan leaders. As mentioned above the existing forests are the main source of fuel and construction wood for the local community; During reconnaissance as woreda and some knowledgeable peoples mentioned traditionally the Afar people collect any dry and dead trees and shrubs species for fire (fuel) wood; now a day this tradition of collecting dry and dead plants cant exist as it was, as the number of peoples increases, getting dry and dead plants become difficult to collect nearby and the people have began cutting living trees. Similarly the existing forest, in Teru sub-basiun is the main source of construction material for traditional house of Afar community. This house constructed from bending branches of trees and shrubs and easy to move from place to place during seasonal migration and it requires less volume of wood in relation to non-traditional houses. The most common species used for construction purpose Tamarix aphylla (Segento), Acacia abysinica (keselto), Acacia tortilis (Behebay/Eibeto /Eeb), A. mollefera (Merkeato).

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Figure 3-14 The Afar communities moving from place to place with caring traditional house constricting materials (bended branches of trees and shrubs)/ on the road Awera to Golina/ Concerning other non-wood forest products from natural forests; during reconnaissance as woredas experts and some knowledgeable persons indicate the common woody species like Acacia Senegal (Adabo), Acacia Siyal (Adequate) and Acacia mellifera (Merkato) used as source of gum, (Etan) and Commiphora (kurbeto) species used as incense; collected by the local people from the forest for domestic use and supply to the local market in Irrebeti, Teru, Yallo and Gulina woredas. This products in particular gum producing woody plant species traditionally used for adhesive, constitute for making ink, medicinally taken orally for cough and diarrhea and also to treat wounded bodies. Apart their gum production due to increasing the demand for fuel and fodder in the study area these woody plants highly affected and cut by the local people

As Woreda Experts mentioned even though the Afar community not cut trees without valid reason and have traditional rule that governs the community, the natural vegetation of the study area highly disturbed and the resource improvement through active management and tree planting has never take place in the region in particular the study area Teru sub-basin. Based on the above saying of woreda experts and knowledgeable persons; the main constraints in forest development and conservation are mismanagement practice or improper utilization of the natural forest area, climatic condition, high growth rate of live stocks, flood problem, water erosion, expansion of Prosopis juliflora in riparian forests and lack of peoples awareness has contributed to the degradation of forest cover and biodiversity. Generally overstocking or frequent trampling of the
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area by livestock minimize the natural regeneration potential of the natural forest and also seasonal movement or nomadic nature of the pastoralist community increases cutting of trees for various reason / fire wood, constricting traditional houses and crushes for their livestock, etc/ Agro- forestry and the Afar community Agro-forestry is a land management technique in which woody perennials (trees and/or shrubs) are deliberately used on the same land management unit with crops and/or animals. In Agro-forestry mostly the main components are trees/shrubs, crops, pastor and livestock together with environmental factors of climate, soil and land forms. In the case of Afar, Traditionally the Afar pastoralists and semi pastoralists have been selecting, managing and protecting naturally growing useful food and fodder tree and shrub species. This natural stands of tree and shrubs have always played a supportive role for both the pastoralist and agriculture. During reconnaissance study observed that traditionally the nomadic pastoralists of all woredas of Teru sub basin practiced silvo-pasyoral land use system (production of trees and/or shrubs with animal pastor or range land) in such land use system trees and shrubs which forms a more- or- less open canopy on grass land and according to their site condition supply a substantial fodder for livestock spatially for goats and camels. Apart from this silvo-pastoral land use system in Teru sub-basin; other like Agri-silvo-pastor (production of trees and or shrubs with animal and agriculture) and Agri-silvicultur (production of trees and or shrubs with agricultural crops) land use systems not practiced by the community. Some of the reason for lack of interest in agro forestry development is: - The nature of nomadic life does not allow for active participation in planting trees. Traditionally nomads are not plant trees, Lack of water is the most limiting factor, lack of extension and institutional support , ownership right and land tenure land is owned by clan leaders and individuals have no private land etc.

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Plantation forest and tree planting activities Plantation is a tree planting activities made artificially to satisfy the shortage of woods for fuel and construction and it could also establish to relive serious soil erosion or reclaim degraded hillsides. Depend or based on objectives of plantation can be categorized in to community wood lot plantation, industrial wood plantation, home stead plantation, etc During reconnaissance surveyobserved that community tree planting and plantation forest activities not adopted in Teru-sub basin woredas except some insignificant home stead plantations introduced in the urban areas of Yallo, Awera and Gulina woredas, the common exotic species introduced are Moringa olifera (shiferaw), Azanderacta indica (Neam), Millia azanderachta (false neam); when comparing the exotic tree species plantation in such woredas to the over-all land mass of the area is insignificant. But, on the way field visit almost in all woredas observed that there exist degraded and bear lands that can be used for establishing plantation forest depend on peoples need and site condition/quality. The major constraints of adopting practicing tree planting, mentioned by the Woreda experts and officials; lack of people awareness, lack of supporting institutes work on forest development, Absence or shortage of nurseries producing seedling The major constraints for adopting or practicing tree planting as mentioned by the Woreda experts and officials:- the nature of nomadic life does not allow for active participation in tree planting, traditionally the nomads are not tree planters, lack of water is the most limiting factor in tree production, ownership right and land tenure lands are owned by clan leaders individuals have no their own private land, lack of people awareness, lack of effective extension and supporting institutes working on forest development, Absence or shortage of nurseries producing seedling etc

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Figure 3-15 Moringa olifora tree and its pods (Shiferaw) Yallo woreda Table 3-5 Vegetation cover of Teru sub basin/hectare/

No Woredas Grass Shrub Wood Natura Riverain Total Remarks name land land land l forest forest 1 Teru 36946 104895 8204 17 150062 2 Irrebeti 27613 44939 5 245 72802 Not all area in the sub basin 3 Gulina 19652 82101 3727 690 106170 4 Yallo 29311 99948 1616 130875 5 Awera 68356 135959 3917 76 208308 6 Megallie 52185 80919 150 2 133256 Not all area in the sub basin 7 Total 234063 548761 17619 262 768 801473 Source: - WOODY BIOMASS INVENTORY STRATEGIC PLAN document prepared by Federal MoARD for Afar Region
in 2004

Table 3-6 Common tree and shrub species

Scientific name
Acacia abysinica Acacia nilotica Acacia siyal Acacia senegl Acacia totillis Acacia oerfera Acacia Mellifra

Common name/Afar/
Keselto keselto Adequento Adabo Behibay/Eibeto Gerento Merkeato

Scientific name
Commiphora spps. Cyprus obtusiflorus Datura spps Delonix elata Dichrostachyes cinerea Dobra globra Ehertia cymosa

Common name/Afar/
Kurbeito Godeyto Bouta-Hara Addo-habita Kukusa Gersa Wuluga 95

Acacia etibica Eibeto Ficus sycomorous Subula Acacia horrid Eibeto Grewia Villosa Habeli (Garauaito) Acacia oliveri Tikilbay Grewia feruginea Hidaito Acacia Mekani Indigefera Elaito ehrenbergiana articulate Acacia Hamersa Parkinsonia Garawanto breuspica aculeate Aerua juvanica Oila Prosopis juliflora Weyani/dergi-hara Balenties Udda Sema alexanderina Sanu aegyptica Balenties Alaito Salvador perisca Adaito orbicularia Belpharis Yamarukta Tamarindus indica Segento perisica Boswelia Yetan zafe Tephrosia Oliato papyrifera Cordia sinensis Mederto Tamarix aphylata Segento Cadaba Adangalito Ziziphus mukrinata Kusraito rotundifolia Cambratum Adalito Ziziphus spaina- Kusraito collinum chrest Calatropis Geleato procera Source:- vegetation survey for the proposed land use plan(Thematic report)By Gebru Bonger (NRMRD,MOA) Bureau of agriculture Afar national regional state January 2001 A.A

3.3.2

Wildlife

The Afar region wildlife resource is high and diverse compare to other regions of the country. The secrets of this diversity are the occurrence of diverse habitat from high land form to low land from highly arid form to wet land; now a day these potentials become source of foreign exchange earning to the country as well as the region and also become potential for maintaining ecological stability. Hence in the region to keep these potentials and conserve the diverse habitat and wildlife resource two national parks, four wildlife reserve areas and two controlled hunting areas established. Among these the following conservation areas located in the study area Lower Awash sub-basin. Understood Yangudi-Rassa National park (NP) Gewanie and Milla serdo wildlife reserve areas (WR) Gewanie ,Chifra and Telalak Dewie controlled hunting areas.

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During reconnaissance as Regional, Woreda and Park natural resource and wildlife experts mentioned the following wildlife species commonly found in each conservation areas. Among all these conservation areas of the region any one is not located in Teru sub basin, but during reconnaissance as Woreda experts mentioned the following wild life species

Struthio camelus (ostrich) inErebeti, and Awera, woredas Phocochoerus aethiopica (warthog ) Erebeti,Teru,Awra,and Golina woredas Gazella soemmurings (soemmurings gazela,Erebeti, Teru, Yallo and Awra, woredas

Panthera paradus (Leopard ) in Gulina and Awera woredas Oryx beisa (Orix ) in Golina and Awera woredas Lepus habessinicus ( Hare Abyssinian /Rabits) Gulina, Yallo and Erebeti woredas Canis mosomelas ( common jakal) in Gulina and Yallo woredas Sylulocupra grimmia (Bush duiker) in gulina Woreda Panthera lio (lion) in Awera Woreda

Based on the reconnaissance survey result of Teru sub-basin woredas observed or understood that there is no any clear and tangible information about the distribution and potential of wildlife resources; and during reconnaissance on the way of field visit, a number of different species of wild animals observed when they are searching their food, making themselves free from attacked by their enemies or predators, and sharing lands to satisfy their food requirements with domestic animals, Golin, and Awra woredas. This indicate that in the study area Teru sub-basin there exist a great potential of wildlife resource that could be a source for foreign exchange earnings and at the same time to maintain ecological stability and life support by conserving this wildlife resource. Though, to utilize these resources efficiently and establish additional conservation area ( NP, WR, CHA ) ; It is necessary conducting a detail study on ,identifying the wildlife potential areas and their economic importance of conserving, need identifying the existence of favorable habitats for wild animals and the biodiversity potential both in flora and fauna, assessment to understand the local
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communitys attitude and awareness towards wildlife conservation, opportunities and potentials to make the local community participant and beneficial from conserving and utilizing the existing wildlife resources.
Table 3-7 Common mammals and aquatic wildlife in the study area (Teru sub basin)

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No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Common /English name Oryx Soemmerings gazelle Bush duiker Wild ass Klipspringer Ostrich Lesser kudu Bushbuck common Guenthers Dikdik Warthog Golden jakal Black back jakal Baboon Anubis Lion Hare Abyssinian Leopard Hippopotamus Crocodile Nile Serval

Scientific name Oryx beisa Gazella soemmerings Sylulocupra grimmia Equus asinus Oretragus oreotragus Struthio camelus Trgelaphus imberibis Tragelaphus scriptus Rhynchotrgus strepsiceros Phacochoerus aethiopicus Canis aureus Canis mesomelas Papio Anubis Panthera leo Lepus habessinicus Panthera pardus Hippopotamus amphibious Crocodylus niloticus Felis serval

3.4 Socioeconomic survey

A.POPULATION & SETTLMENT PATTERN OF THE STUDY AREA

Population issues are very wide and too important for development planning. It has different parameters to measure the conditions of population in many angles for different planning and development purposes. The population data for this reconnaissance survey is limited in its extent since the source depends on secondary information which has limitations in itself. A very highlight and limited extent shall be discussed in this report mainly focusing on sex compositions, densities, settlement conditions at woreda and sub basin level; the seasonal migration trends; housing conditions shall briefly assessed in this report.
1.

Settlement pattern & population size in the study area

According to CSAs 2007 census, the region has 86.6% and 13.4% of the population live in rural and urban areas respectively; and the main criteria to delineate kebeles are clan based as compared to geographical ones. The settlement patterns is structured along clan or sub-clan with settlement area usually preferred to be in areas of accusers to abundant pasture for grazing and water resources. Clan is the most firmly bound group structure and strongest social organization. Grazing area, water
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pointes and other natural resources are communally owned and used by clan members. The social structure of the Afar people is linked as Tribes Clans Sub clan Lineage Family. The study area has a total population of 272,686 with 96.5% live in rural areas /most of them are mobile/ while 3.5% live in urban areas /i.e. permanently settled/. The majority of the population have not permanent house, rather they have temporary shelter which is easier to handle during camping and decamping.

Figure 3-16 Moving during dry season to highland areas and return back during wet season to the previous places

The main reason for seasonal movement from place to place is searching water and feed for their animals. It indicates that their livelihood is dominantly dependent on animal husbandry and the main economic activity performed in this area is pastoralism.
Table 3-8 Population Size of Teru Sub-basin project Woredas by Sex
Name of woredas Total
Afar Region 1,411,092 786,338

Urban + Rural Male Female

624,754

Urban Total
188,973

Rural Female
88,058

Town Female
536,696 Semera

Male
100,915

Total
1,222,119

Male
685,423

Erebti Megale Awura Terru

36,233 28,106 35,755 75,342

20,365 15,335 19,644 43,826

15,868 12,771 16,111 31,516

749 703 1,649 1,838

441 373 914 1,058

308 330 735 780

35,484 27,403 34,106 73,504

19,924 14,962 18,730 42,768

15,560 12,441 15,376 30,736

Lakora Megale Derayitu Alelu

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Yallo Gulina Basin Total

47,459 49,791 272686

27,313 28,256 154739

20,146 21,535 117947 9652

789 3,924 5357

436 2,135 4295

353 1,789

46,670 45,867 263034

26,877 26,121 149382

19,793 19,746 113652

Gubidora Kelewan

Source: CSAs 2007, population censes

The other aspect of the composition is the sex ratio at various age segments of the population. The sex ratio is usually calculated by dividing the number of males to the number of females within the same population age group. It is expressed as the number of males per 100 females. The calculation can give the picture of the compositions and will suggest ideas where development interventions should be made on the population issues. It has influence on gender division of labor, and therefore, has importance for socio-economic development planning. In the study area sex composition the male population constitutes 154,739 or 56.7 percent and the female counterpart is 117,947 or 43.3 percent of the population. Regardless of the age segments the sex ratio in the survey rural area is that there are 131 male populations for 100 female populations. Where as in the urban areas there are 125 male populations for 100 female populations. The ratio is important indicator there should be further investigation at household level to find the actual sex ratio at different age group particularly in the reproductive age segment (15 45 years) in the study area. 2. Population Density The Afar region average population density is 15 persons per km square; it shows that the region has relatively low density. In the study area the population density is 21 people per km square. In this regard Awra Woreda has lower density and Gulina Woreda is densely populated, 13 and 43 persons/km square respectively.
Table 3-9 Population Size by Woreda, Percentage Share and Density
Region/Zone /Woreda Total Population % Share from Total Population Population Density [person/km2]

Erebti Woreda Megale Woreda Awra Woreda Teru Woreda Yalo Woreda

36,233 28,106 35,755 75,342 47,459

2.57 1.99 2.53 5.34 3.36

16 14 13 22 28

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Golina Woreda Basin Total

49,791 272686

3.53 19.3

43 21

Source: CSAs 2007, population censes & ANRS BoARD reports

3. Land Tenure According to WARC-APARI Survey, 2007, like any other nomadic pastoralists, land is owned and utilized by the woredas clan community. It is a communal property. Of course, there is a territorial unity for the exclusive use of respective clan. The clan has the right to utilize the land and resources available on the land communally. Some years back, however they have reached consensus at regional level that each and every clan would have the right to graze its livestock in any clans territory provided that it respects the territorial supremacy of the other clan though it has a difficulty to practice it in reality. The change in the land tenure system may require the establishment or the integration of livestock farming with the direct participation of the community. In areas where the confrontations of tribal conflicts with the adjacent regions prevail, the community opts for communal ownership of land. Conflict over resource like grazing lands and water points is the main problems that hamper development in the woredas. In some part of the survived areas there was a conflict over grazing land with Awra woreda and the neighboring Amhara region Kobo Woreda. At this time the conflict becoming smooth and solved by the two regions common agreement in resource utilization and management.

4. Economic activities of the study area

The production system of Afar region is dominated by pastorals from which agro pastoral activity is now emerging following some permanent and temporary rivers on which small scale irrigation is developed. a. Livestock production As it has been indicated before the major livelihood source of the regions population is the livestock sector where cattle, shoat and camel do have a significant contribution both as a source of food and cash. Though the livestock sector is the dominant sector in the region, its productivity is less even compared with the national average because of shortage of forage due to various reasons, inferior

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breeds, livestock disease prevalence, poor & traditional livestock management, the traditional values given to cattle such as prestige values, poor & insufficient veterinary services etc. The sector is not operated in a competitive way to get advantage of the increasing demand both for beef and meat, though there are some development endeavors by the region. The average weight cattle in the region dont meet the minimum requirement of the meat industry as compared to other pastoral areas. More over poor marketing infrastructures in the region make the sector less competitive. b. Crop Production According to Afar Region Survey, 2009, the Afar region is endowed with an enormous potential of fertile agricultural land with adequate water resource that could be exploited. The potential of the region for irrigation is estimated about 165,545 hectares. Of which a total area of 45,931 hectare was developed by state farms previously. But following the change of the Government, the majority of the developed irrigated land was handed over to the pastoralists. Most of the potential of irrigated land is found within lower and Middle Awash Valley which is suitable & ideal for production different types of crops. The types of crops that could be successfully produced in the selected investment areas are Cotton, Maize, Sorghum, Sesame, Groundnut, Tomato, Onion, Mango, Banana, Papaya, Sugarcane and Date palm. In addition, though they are not yet well adopted by the local people /WARC-APARI, 2009/.
Table 3: Number of kebeles & rural population HHs employed in pastorals
S/ N Name of woreda Name of admi/zone Number of kebeles pastorals 13 5 7 6 10 12 Semipastoral 0 3 1 2 1 0 Town 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 13 8 8 8 11 12 Number of house hold heads pastoral 11449 3978 5854 4321 4866 9420 Semipastoral 0 702 146 879 858 0 Town 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 11449 4680 6000 5200 5724 9420

1 2 3 4 5 6

Erebti Megale Yallo Gulina Awra Teru

Kelbitiresu Kelbitiresu Fentiresu Fentiresu Fentiresu Fentiresu

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Total

53

60

39888

2585

42473

Source: compiled the collected data & Afar BoARD reports

S. N Name of Woreda Alterna tive 1-8 1 2 3 4 5 6 Erebti Megale Awra Gulina Teru Yallo Total 12 12 11 4 24 4 67 7 13 9 15 10 16 70 9-10 1 1 11-12 No. of Schools No. of teachers in 2002 e.c 12th grade M 8 5 3 7 14 17 54 F 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 T 8 5 3 8 14 18 56 M 22 29 22 26 30 31 160 Certificate F 9 17 12 21 5 17 81 T 31 46 34 47 35 48 241 M 8 17 5 15 8 13 66 Diploma F 0 6 0 1 0 3 10 T 8 23 5 16 8 16 76 M 1 0 0 7 0 0 8 Degree F 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T 1 0 0 7 0 0 8

B.SOCIAL

SERVICES

1.EDUCATION
In general terms, education is a key to bring about socio cultural, economic, and political transformations and overall development. Education is a means to sustain and accelerate over all development through creating effective and conscious citizens. The education policy of Ethiopia adopts forced education at primary level for all citizens within the school age population. According to the information collected from woreda education offices in the study area, there are 70 primary schools. There is only one highschool /9-10/ at Gulina Woreda Kelwan town. The information obtained from Regional Education Bureau annual report shows that, the overall education coverage in the region found to be first level (grade 1-8) 57.8%, second level (9-12) 10.7% and non formal education 18.4 percent. The major problems regarding in formal and non formal education are high rate of drop outs because of the existence of droughts and water shortage, absence of secondary schools in most rural areas, the presence of early marriage, lack of community awareness, shortage of education materials like text books, etc.
Table 3-10 Number

of schools & teachers in each woreda

Source: ANRS Education Bureau

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2.HEALTH The reconnaissance survey has tried to overview the health conditions of the people in the survey area. Some indicative data have been collected at woreda level health office and some other regional level data. Health being one of the fundamental social development indicators has to be one of the areas to be covered in the land use planning process. This due mainly the fact that the health situation of an area inevitable affected with the intervention of development program or development of an area is possible through the full participation of healthy and physically, mentally and economically sound people. On the other hand getting health service is part of human right, and without it economic development of a country becomes inconceivable. According to the data collected from Health Bureau of the Region and Afar Region Survey (2006), in study areas malaria is the major endemic disease of the region though many other diseases such as upper respiratory tract infection , phenomena , water born diseases and other parasitic diseases are existent as of elsewhere. The current health coverage of the Afar region is 78.7 percent. The establishment of health centers based on the number of population to give services on the assumption one health center for 25000 people and one health post for 2000 people. However, the health coverage is not uniform across the study districts. All the studied districts have health posts and health centers. The number of health institutions in the survey area is found to be 36 health posts constituting about 81.8 percent of the total institutions which is significantly higher in the area. The number of health centers is 6 about 13.6 percent of the total institutions, 1 clinic which covers 2.3% and only one district hospital at Gulina Woreda Kelewan town which upgraded in 2002 E.C.
Table 3-11 Health Institutions by type and number of health professionals in the study area
Zone Woreda Health institutions by type Health center 2 Clini c 1 Health post 8 1 11 Total Health professionals Male Female Total Remark

Hospital Two Erebti Megale Four Gulina 1

10 2 12

32 34

7 22

39 56

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Yalo Awra Teru Total

1 1 2 6

3 8 5 36

4 10 7 44

21 41 26

10 1 3

31 42 29

Source: Data collected from Woreda health offices The data collected from woreda health offices indicates that malaria followed by pneumonia, diarrhea, URTI, UTI, anemia, infection wounds, intestinal parasites, AFI and trauma is the top diseases that affect the health of the local people in the study area. Many other studies are also indicating this pattern of the human diseases. The major problems regarding the health service are, shortage of drugs and medical equipments, shortage of skilled man power, lack of infrastructures /like health institutions, transportation facilities, road accessibilities, water and power access/, the existence of malaria incidence and water born diseases, weak performance of health extension workers and lack of motivational mechanisms for better performed workers and insufficient budget allocation etc.
3. Water Supply

Water scarcity is a critical issue for many developing regions in general and for those of arid and semiarid areas in particular. The surveyed Woreda have very limited access potable water supply. For nomadic pastoralists, easy access to water differs significantly by seasonal variation. During the rainy season, they have an opportunity to have relatively accessible water for human and livestock consumptions and vice versa during the dry season. The major sources of water for pastoral and agropastoral community and their livestocks are Rivers, ponds, stagnant waters during the rainy seasons, hand dug wells, motorized deep wells. The quantity and distribution of existing surface and ground water supply schemes developed in the woredas are insufficient. It is more assessed on the hydrogeology and water resource section. C.GENDER ISSUES The increased participation of women in productive income generating activities strengthens economic independence and contributes to individual self-reliance. In line with country needs and with the international development priorities and targets, women related result indicators of
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programmes and projects relating to generation of employment of women, gender related skills development. The gender roles of men and women in the sample Woreda society may differ from one place to another. The concept of gender recognized that women and men are not homogenous group. Differences in age, class, race, ethnicity, and disability status cut across human society and affect status, power and access to resource. In the study area the values and ideas related to gender construction have undergone challenges, which differ according to socio-economic status, clan and ethnicity in the surveyed kebeles. But there is resistance to change in gender power relations though there is a little effort made. Like most pastoral group in Ethiopia, in the surveyed Woreda the community is a male dominating community, women are working for long hours. They are involved in childcare, husbandry of small ruminant and milking cows, feeding the family and supporting agricultural activities in the agro-pastoral kebeles and other productive and reproductive activities. However, their role in decision-making is very low and development relief support interventions most of the time are targeting only men. Marriage and partner selection is also made by their parents and it is based on cross-cons marriage /locally it is called ABSUMA/. They believe that this type endogamous marriage has the effect of creating a strong linkage and a cohesive social system.

D.INVESTMENT
Today the country as well as the region is in the way of free market. This market economy incites investment in the region. Based on the regional potential, most of the region investment is in agricultural sector, mainly in Cotton production and limited number in Broom Corn production. According to Investment office data, the regional investment activity is concentrated in 6 wereda namely Amibara, Gewane, Assayita, Dubti, Mile and Awash. 58.10% of the regional agricultural investment is covered by a single wereda i.e. Amibara.

Agricultural Investment practice

The middle and lower awash areas were known for a number of state farms operating specially on cotton plantation during the past regimes. During the Dergue regime these farms were operational
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mainly because of subsequent subsidy on production losses. After the fall of Durgue, the EPRDF's structural adjustment and free market economy policy many farms were abandoned and were privatized. After many steps and policy measures were taken by the federal government of Ethiopia to encourage and promote investment in every sector the Afar National Regional State on the way to take similar steps to encourage investment especially on adopting the investment proclamation and changing the land tenure system. These have opened the door to facilitate smooth and suitable flow of investment in the region. According to the regional investment office data, in the Afar region there are 50 commercial farms cultivating an estimated area of nearly 54,000 hectares. These investors have no any clear legal attachment with regional executive offices. This is because investors leased the land from the clan leaders (Afar Region Survey, 2009).

Major challenges in the study area

Though the selected investment areas are suitable and ideal for the production of the above mentioned crop types, rural land is still under the ownership of clans, which makes the investment more complicated. Besides this irrigation crop production in the region will most likely be constrained by irrigation water shortage especially during dry season when the amount of Awash River drops down. The regional land tenure system is not attractive because of the inability to implement the land use policy. Agricultural investment promotion and regional investment office are not given more attention to attract investors in the region. In some districts, there are poor infrastructural developments. This will create difficulty to assess the potential of the specific area for the type of investment it suits. The sparse settlement of the population created scarce labor in the study areas. Getting adequate labor force one of the challenges that the investors will be facing. In such condition, additional labor could be obtained from highly populated areas of the neighboring regions incentives
The dominant productive land of the study area soil pH was alkaline.

provided

them with good

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E.INFRASTRUCTURS

1.Road Road construction plays a significant role in realizing economic development and for the expansion of investment. In line with the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization policy of Ethiopia in particular the role of construction of roads, which foster the spreading out of the transportation sector, is crucial for sustainable development. Progress in activities of agriculture trade and other service areas goes flourishing strictly with achievements attained in road development. Road construction also lays foundation for cultural exchange. Road development is essential with the perspective of saving of time, minimizing travelling expenses and improving services in trade, education and health sectors and so on. For the realization of sustainable social and economic development building new roads, maintaining and upgrading of the existing ones is vital. Afar regional state has made massive efforts to expand access to transportation services through construction of all weather and dry weather roads. So far, the region has 454 federal paved asphalt road, 441 km federal gravel road, 409 km of regional gravel roads and 43km regional earth road with the extension of the main highway that connects itself with Tigray, Oromiya, Amhara regions and Djibouti republic (Afar Region Survey, 2009).

Figure 3-17 Road development in Afar Region /Teru-Awra dry weather; Chifra-Gulina all weather & MilleSemera main road/

The total road network of the region is about 3,391.5 km, which makes the regional road density to be 21.72 km per 1000 km2. This implies that quite a number of people, especially in rural areas, are still travelling long distances to reach the main roads in order to get transportation services. In addition,
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farmers are unable to get inputs timely and sale their products to better markets and it is much difficult to obtain social services. However, considerable improvements have been made in the recent years. 2. Telecommunication From the existing modern communication technology, telecommunication is one. It enables information exchanges easy and faster, in this respect it is a key factor for development. Today the country coverage of this technology is fast and trying to access remote area. The data collected from the Woreda administrative show that Gulina and Awra towns have access to microwave system. Teru, Erebti, Megale and Yallo have access to VSAT and wireless telephone.
1.

Electricity

For modern communication and industrial development electricity service is one of the crucial service. But in the region, like other social and economic infrastructure electricity service is very limited. Today only three woredas get hydro electric power. The three hydro electric power are distributed in Erebti, Awra and Yallo towns where as the others have not access to hydro electric power.

2. Bank service
Bank is one of the economic sectors that should exist in the region. Like other, it is also not well distributed in the region. In the study area there is no banks, as a result, such woredas of the region use bank services outside the region such Banks as Mekelle & Alamata in Tigray Region and Weldya & Bati in Amhara region.
Table 3-12 Access to telecommunication, power, markets & financial services
District Telecommunication service Microwave Erebti Megale Awra Gulina Yallo Teru x x VSAT x x x Wireless telephone x x x Hydroelectric power x x x Financial institution /CBE/ --

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Source: Data collected from each Woreda and Afar Region Survey, 2009

3. Market Service
Markets are of fundamental importance in the livelihood strategy of most rural households, rich and poor alike. Markets are where, as producers, they buy their inputs and sell their products; and where, as consumers, they spend their income from the sale of crops or from their non-agricultural activities, to buy their food requirements and other consumption goods. Because of this, rural poor people in many parts of the world often indicate that one reason they cannot improve their living standards is that they face serious difficulties in accessing markets. Low population densities in rural areas, remote location and high transport costs are the present real physical difficulties in accessing markets. The rural poor are also often constrained by their lack of understanding of the markets, their limited business and negotiating skills, and their lack of an organization that could give them the bargaining power they require to interact on equal terms with other, larger and stronger market intermediaries. Though endowed with enormous livestock resource, the afar pastorals have not benefited much from it. In most of the surveyed areas, there is lack of market places. Given the magnitude of livestock, market centers are few in number forcing pastoralists to travel longer distances. Distances to the markets are too far for animals, which results highly exhaustion or even die up on arrival. Lack of feed and water compels distressed sells of livestock at low price (especially at dry seasons). Livestock prices fall during this time. While traders continue to visit markets, few cattles are available for sell and generally not available due to massive out migration to the adjacent regions. . Low market price of the cattle further deters pastoralists from selling. In the study area there is no main market at Woreda centers. Such woredas use markets Aysaita, Chifra, Ewa, Abala and Logia towns in the region and adjacent woredas of Amhara and Tigray regions out of the region.

F.COOPERATIVES AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS

In the surveyed area there are some cooperative organized by the communities. Some of the cooperatives are water users association, animal health association, "Hulegeb" association and association on saving and credit. The associations are cooperated by GOs and NGOs. However, in those areas there is lack of cooperative on livestock and livestock products marketing.
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Problems such as lack of market information, potential buyers, market centers and price fluctuations can be solved using cooperative on livestock and livestock products marketing on some organized conditions.
Table 3-13 Type of cooperatives in TSB woreda
Woreda Marketing coops No of members Coops number Purchasi ng coops No of members Coops number
Milk &milk products Service coops Saving & credit coops

s/n

Animal feed pr

Coops number

Coops number

No of Members

No of Members

No of Members

1 2 3 4 5 6

Erebti Megale Yallo Gulina Awra Teru Total

0 0 34 0 0 31 65

0 0 1 0 0 1 2

27 0 30 74 53 0 18 4

1 0 1 3 1 0 6

0 0
0

0 0
0

0 0
0

0 0
0

0 0
0

0 0
0

No of Members

0
0 0

Coops number 0
0 0

0 0 0 0

Coops number 0 0 0 0

67 0 50 11 7

3 0 2 5

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

Source: Afar region Pastoral & Rural development Bureau Annual Report

NGOs
The participation of local and International NGOs in the development activity will strength the regional capacity in different development interventions. In the study area about 6 NGOs are participating in developmental issues. Some of NGOs intervention area is regional but most of them are area specific.

3.5 Livestock production and rangeland condition

According the study of MCE, 2001 livestock of the Afar region is estimated to be 11,437,226 of which cattle 4,993,977; sheep 2,352,365; goats 2,908,976; camels 991,478 and donkeys 190,430 and about 95% of the pastoral household depends on livestock husbandry with cattle, sheep, goats, and camels being the main species.
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People move from place to place together with their animals in search of feed and water for the livestock and no shelters are made for livestock in the Region. At night they are kept in the enclosures or corrals. When livestock migrate to the seasonal area, they stay in the open air. Cattle and camels stay in the outer perimeter of the corrals as they can better defend themselves from predators .Sheep and goats are put in the inner section of the temporary corrals during the night. Sometimes different partitions are made for the different classes of livestock .Cattle, donkeys, calves and camels are kept on their own separate enclosures. Sheep and goats have a common space in the corrals and similarly, lambs and kids are kept together. Livestock production is a function of good grazing area and watering points. The production and productivity of livestock is directly related to bad or good years. Therefore during drought periods livestock particularly cattle are victims of the event while camels and to some extent small ruminants can cope up as they can browse on shrubs and trees and can provide few liters of milk.

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Livestock population Table 3-14 Type and distribution of livestock species in Teru sub basin is indicated in the table below;

woreda s e

cattl

Shoats sheep goats 122,210 131,040 58,707 233,093 76,377 17,159 638,586 63858.6 13.21

Types of animals Equines donkeys 271 3,748 1,919 7,726 3000 4,221 20,885 10442.5 2.16 horse mules -

camels

Sub total

poultry

beehives traditional modern 22 30 52

Gulina Awira Yalo Teru Erebti Megallie TOTAL TLU %TLU

11,235 86,094 19,372 131,32 5 40,334 38,992 327,35 2 229146 .4 47.41

70,053 114,951 17,752 209,552 40,889 54,982 508,189 50518.9 10.45

25,806 34,141 11,855 29,668 10,899 16,946 129,31 5 129 315 26.76

229575 369974 109605 611364 171499 132300

1624327 483281.4

50 50 100

80 100 180

100

Source; WPARD annual reports, (1998-2001).

Table 14 above shows the livestock in the surveyed woredas of the sub basin includes cattle 327,352; sheep 508, 1889; goats 638,586; Equines especially donkeys 20,885; camels 129,315; and 100 poultries and 232 bee colonies. But 47.41TLU, 26.76 TLU, 13.21TLU, and 10.45TLU represent cattle, camels, goats and sheep respectively.

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Breeds
The livestock of the sub basin especially cattle, shoats (sheep and goats), and camels (single humped) are indigenous. The majority of the cattle are long legged with medium to large body size and with varied coat colors of brown, black, grey and a combination of them .Most of the herds have long and large horns known as Sanga type(Boss Longiferons). The other type is with heavy, short horns known as Zebu type (MCE, 2004). According to the woreda experts, there are also 12 Barka breeds in Hida, Alibermesgid, Lekura and Lekuma kebeles of Awira woredas. There are also Boran breeds provided by the support of SSD project. The coat color of the sheep is mostly fawning and is known for their fat tailed while the coat color of the goats is mixed, black and white color. Poultry production is not popular but few numbers are raised by town dwellers of Awira and Erebti. Both traditional and modern beekeeping is practiced in Yolo and Erebti woredas.

Figure 3-18 Local goat breeds (left) &long horn local cattle breed (right)

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Purposes of Livestock
Livestock are kept for various purposes with milk and milk products being the primary items. Cattle are used for milk, meat, cash and hides and unlike the Lower Awash boys are benefited from the milk especially during the dry season. There are traditional practices that livestock are used to dispute when there is a disagreement between clans or peoples and slaughtered when peoples die. The skin and hide is not mostly brought to market but is used to prepare different utensils (bed, seating, water holding etc). Sheep and goats are mainly sources of cash but milk, meat and hides are also important. Kids are mostly slaughter in their younger age and are locally called Bekel Camels are important for milk, meat and transport. Unlike the Lower Awash sub basin there is a cultural taboo of camels milk selling because the camels are considered as a common wealth. Equines especially donkeys are mostly used as pack animals According to the woreda livestock experts, the average daily milk yield of a cow, goat, and camel is 2, 0.65 and 6.65 liters respectively..

as a pack in Gulina

Figure 3-19 Donkeys used animals (fetching water) -

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Livestock Feeds and Water Feeds

The livestock husbandry system of the Region is mostly pastoralism (especially transhumance and nomadic) that includes seasonal herding of animals grazing extensively on communal range lands. The major sources of feed for livestock are natural pasture, crop residues, aftermath grazing Industrial byproducts and improved forages. In low rain fall woredas like Teru in which crop production is not practiced, crop residues are provided by the support of FAO from other regions. There is stock exclusion area in Mulina-asale kebele of Gulina woredas (greater than about 40 ha) which has been used communally by cut and carry system. There is little practice of forage crop production under irrigation in Awira and Gulina woredas by the help of SSD project. These forages include Rhodes, Buffle and Panicum from grasses and Alfalfa, cowpea and Lablab from legumes.

Water source
According to the woreda experts, two sources are mentioned for surface water availability. These are surface runoff from neighboring highlands and runoff from the Region. The major sources of water for livestock in the surveyed woredas include rivers, springs, lakes ,ponds ,river intakes, wells and sand filters locally called Ellas. Awira, Gulina, Me gale, Timuga & Ginzil rivers are important permanent sources of water for livestock. Ponds & river intakes are sources of water in all the surveyed woredas except in Erebti and Teru Deep wells in exception of Megalle, Erebti remoteness and water borne diseases. and Teru woredas and shallow wells (except Teru) are also important sources of water for livestock. The problems associated with water in the basin are shortage,

Range Land Condition

According to the study of MCE(2001),bare lands cover 70% of the Region and the vegetation area(20% of the Region) includes grass lands, shrubs, bushes & riparian wood lands. The rest are water bodies and wet land. The Afar range lands occupy the vast area of which grasslands 1,409,426 ha, shrub land 3, 005,719 ha. The land utilization type is extensive type of grazing in which the animal feed comes mainly from range lands and over which the animals roam extensively.
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Range lands is a tract of land currently used for grazing by livestock or wildlife, where natural vegetation is the main forage resource(Gils,1984).The livestock husbandry system of the Region is mostly pastoralism (especially transhumance and nomadic ) that includes seasonal herding of animals grazing extensively on communal range lands. Unlike Awira, Gulina and to some extent Yolo (which have batter range lands), most of the range lands are totally degraded and the quantity of feed available in the range lands is almost nil. There is no/little Prosopis Juliflora in the surveyed woredas except Yolo and Teru.
Table 3-15 the type and distribution of the different forage species in the surveyed woredas is indicated as follows

Afar/vernacular Name Melif Musa Durfu Surukto Aiso Irareyta Afaramole Aiso Aitaydoita Randa Afaranole Gorob Sardoita Serdo

Grasses Scientific Name

Andropogon schumach Brachiaria eruciformi

Afar/vernacular Name cenchriformis Bunket Humbucto Killaito Udaito Gernto Keselto Hidaito Merkato Adaito Eibto Mederto Segento Eibto Adanglita

Shrubs/ Trees Scientific Name Tribulus terretiris L. Abutilanfruticosum Guill& per. commiphora Africana Balanites aegyptica(L.Del) Acacia oerfota Benth. Acia nilotica Grewia tenax Acacia mellifera salvadora persic Acacia asak Hyn Cordia Sinesis Lam Tamarix aphylla(L.)karsten Acacia tortolis Doberaglabra forssk.

Chrysopogon plulmulosus Hochst Chloris phycnotrix Trin Chloris roxburghiana schult Cynodon dactylon Trin Dactyloctenium aegyptium Beauv. Digitaria milinjina Rendles Tetrapogon cenchriformis Panicum maximum jacq Lintonia nutans Stampt. Andropogon canaliculatus schumach Cynodon plectostachyus pilge.r Cynodon dactylon

Hanti anunus Donhito

Cenchrus ciliaris(L.) Eragrostis cylindriflora

Geleato Mekani Eibto Alaito

Calotropis Procera(Ait.) Acacia Seyal Del Acacia horrid L.wild Balanites orbicularis

Source: ARWDS by MCE, 2001.

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Most of the sub basin woreda range lands especially Gulina and Awira range lands are dominated by Bunket (Tribulus terretiris L.).According to the pastoralist interviewed on field in Teru woreda, Dille, Dodob, Musa and Donicto grass species are decreasing and almost distinct.

Mobility Pattern
Livestock move from place to place in search of pasture and water. During the dry season from January(Tir) to June (Sene), livestock especially cattle from Awira, Gulina, Yalo and Teru move to Western part of Yalo, Gulina, Ewa Chifra and Mille and stay in the Eastern parts of the woredas during wet season from July (Hamille) to December(Tahisas).
Table 3-16 the grazing pattern and herd movement of the surveyed woredas is indicated below

Woreda Awira, Gulina, Yalo, Teru

Grazing pattern & herd movement Dry season; to Western Yale ,Gulina, Ewa, Chifra & Mille Wet season; to Teru ,Awira and Eastern parts of Yalo, Gulina, Chifra Dry season; to Dalol,Kuneba,Berhalle,Amala,Megalle Wet season; to Erebti and Afidera

Erebti ,Megallie

Source: ARWDS
Male animals that are borne during mobility, especially calves, are mostly killed immediately after birth and the pastoralists use the skin as a doom figure while milking and the reason for this is to reduce feed shortage during drought period. The animals that are more affected by feed shortage are cattle, sheep, goats and camels in order of increasing resistance. Cattle are herded by young boys and sheep and goats by young girls.

Figure 3-20 the skin used as a doom figure.

Conflicts over Resources

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Conflicts over natural resources has a long history and like the lower Awash sub basin the conflicts over natural resources in the Teru sub basin could be initiated internally or externally but to a lesser extent. . Internal conflicts are caused by differences of interests among the Afars regarding the use of communal grazing land and water. External conflicts are observed between Afars and the neighboring escarpment area settlers of Amhara, Tigray, and etc. regions.

Opportunities and Constraints of Livestock Production and Range Lands

The followings are some of the opportunities in the sub basin:
High priority of livestock production by the Regional government.

Presence NGOs working on livestock. Large area of grazing and browsing. Availability of different adapted animal species. Start of forage development practice by the woreda pastoral and agricultural and rural development offices
Proximity of rangelands to the populated areas etc.

And the followings are the constraints; Climatic limitation, rainfall being the key factor. Feed shortage. Low productivity of local breeds. Inter and intra-tribal conflict; which occur over water and grazing. Communal way of animal grazing. Large livestock number owned by pastoralists and agro pastoralists. Expansion of cultivation.
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 Traditional range and livestock management system. Absence of feed preservation and conservation techniques and etc.
Bush encroachment mainly by Acacia species and to some extent by Prosopis Juliflora

3.6 Animal Health Animal Health

Most of Africas enzootic and economically sever animal diseases are found in the teru basin of Afar region including areas of Golina,Awra,Teru,Yalo Megale and Erebti districts . The most common diseases and outbreaks in the study area are CBPP, Bovine pasteurellosis, Ovine pasteurellosis, PPR,CCPP, goat and sheep pox, anthrax, Black leg, Trypanosomiasis, internal parasites and external parasites.These different types of diseases greatly affect the health of different animals such as cattle,camel,goat,sheep and donkey. Manegenment system, Birth complexity, mechanical injury, veterinary service, type of treatments, amount of vaccines and amount of treatments also affect the health of the above animals directly and indirectly.The diseases and other associated health problems are major hurdle to livestock productivity such as decrease in milk and meat production,decrease in reproduction, reduced working ability,low quality hide and skine and death of animals. The movement of animals to search feed and water also play a great role in distribution and acquiring of new diseases. This makes the very severe problem to prevent and control the diseases in the study area. In this inception report the diseases found in the area are explained on species level. Emphasis has been given also to birth complexity, Mechanical injury, veterinary service (institution, man power, pharmacy and laboratory) and amount and type of treatments and vaccines delivered. Cattle Diseases Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP):-A highly contagious pneumonia generaly accompanied by pleurisy. It is caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp mycoides. susceptible cattle become infected by inhaling droplets coughed out by affected cattle.the plasenta and urine can be sources of infection. Susceptible herds may show up to 100% morbidity and mortality may reach 50%. Tewentyfive percent of recovered animals may become carriers with chronic lung lesions in the form of sequesra of variable size. Since carriers may not be detectable clinicaly or serologically they constitute a serious problem in control programs.The out breaks of CBPP have caused havoc among cattle herds in teru basin and causes large number of cattle death. All districts are affected by the disease. Some efforts have been
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exerted on the epidemics using monovalent CBPP vaccines but not succeful due to migration of animals to look for feed and water. Bovine Pasteurellosis (shiping fever, transit fever.):-It is a bacterial respirtory disease of cattle and caused by Pasteurella haemolytica and pasteurella multocida.The disease is very common in the study area and re-occurs each year when the animals are under journey, nutritional and environmental stress. all ages of cattle are susceptible but sever respiratory disease associated with pasterella spp generally in younger animals followng shipping ,thus, it is often called shipping fever. Especially during at the movement of animals to look for feed and water, the disease may affect the herd and the pastoralists may loss 1-10% of herd and 50% of herd may reqire treatments. Outbreaks are often sporadic in nature and vaccination campaigne are often launched to contain the out breaks.
Blackleg:-An acut febril disease of cattle and caused by clostridium chauvoei (feseri) and characterized

by emphysematous swelling, usually in the heavy muscles. The disease is prevalent throughout the teru basin. The disease affects young and fat animals. Thise results a great economical crisis and poverty in pasturalists. When outbreaks are encountered ,all susceptible cattle are vaccinated and treated prophylactically with penicillin to prevent the new cses in all destricts. Anthrax (splenic fever, charbon, milzbrand):-An acut,febril disease of virtually all warm-blooded animals,including man,caused by bacillus anthracis.This disease is common in some districts like Teru, Golina and Megale. It has been reported as cause of numerous livestock deaths among pastoral herds of the above districts.prevention and control is done by massive vaccination against anthrax. Internal Parasites:-Gastro-intestinal parasites account for the highest production loss in cattle and affect the whole age groups. Internal parasites are haemonchus,strongyls, tapworm,trichuris, e.t.c are prevalent in the teru basins. Commonly Gastro intestinal parasites are treated by broad spectrum anthelmintics such as albendazole, fasionex and ivermectine.

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External Parasites:-This is very common in each Woreda. Ticks and mange mite are a very common external parasites and these parasites causes decrease in livestock production. External parasites also greatly affect the quality and grade of hide. The pastoralists control the external parasites by diazinon 60% and ivermectin injectiuon.

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Camel diseases camel Trypanosomiasis

It is a fatal disease of camel caused by trypanosoma evansi and transmited by biting flies. The disease is very common in Teru. Camel trypanosomiasis is by far the harshest camel health problem. It causes economical losses through mortality, poor milk and meat output and reduced working ability. Internal Parasites:-It is prevalent in all study areas. Common Internal parasites are nematodes, (strongyls and haemonchus )cestodes, and protozoans(balantidium spp and coccidia oocyst) and cause production loss and reduced working ability. External Parasite:-It is also a very common disease in the study area. Ticks and mange mites are the most common external parasites and cause weight loss, restless production loss and expose the camel to the secondary diseases. The pastoralists control external parasites using ecto-pars. There is also unknowen camel disease prevalent in Awra, Teru and megale. The cause of the disease is not known and economically very important disease. The camels show the clinical signs, Such as loss of appetites, depressed, respiratory problem, recumbency and finally death.

Goat and Sheep Diseases

Peste Des Petitis Ruminants (PPR):- Peste des petits ruminants(PPR) is also called pseudorinderpest of small ruminants ,pest of small ruminants,pest of sheep and goat,Kata,stomatitispneumoenteritis syndrom,and pneumoenteritis complex.It is an acute and sub acute viral disease caused by a morbillivirus of family paramyxoviridae and affects goat and sheep characterized by fever,necrotic stomatitis,gastroenteritis,and pneumonia. The disease is prevalent in all districts and causes large number of goats and sheep death. Sometimes the disease may eliminat the goats and sheep in a village and the pastoralistes may become poor and dependant to the government. Massive vaccination Campaign against PPR is done to prevent and control the outbreaks in all districts before and after the incidence occures. Sheep and Goat Pox: - Serious, often fatal, disease characterized by widespread skin eruption. It is caused by poxviruses of sheep and goat (capripoxvirus). sheep and goat pox is an important and widely spread viral disease of goat and sheep. The disease is prevalent in all districts in the study area. It causes production loss, death and exposes the sheep and goat to the secondary diseases. it also affects the quality and grade of skin.
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Ovine Pasteurellosis:- Ovine pasteurellosis is caused by pasteurolla haemolytica and rarely by pasteurella multocida.The disease is very common in the study area and reoccurs each year when the animals are under journey, nutritional and environmental stress. It causes high production loss and death. Outbreaks are often sporadic in nature and vaccination campaigns are often launched to prevent and control of the outbreaks. Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (ccpp):- an acut pneumonias in goats are caused by mycoplasma mycoides subsp mycoides and mycoplasma mycoides subsp capri. The disease affects goats and may have 100% morbidity and 60-100% mortality. The disease is very common in all districts and causes high production loss and death. The outbreak is controled by massive vaccination. Internal Parasites:- The internal parasites accounted for the highest production loss in small ruminants. Internal parasites in sheep and goat are haemonchus, contortus, trichostrongylus colubriformis oesophagostom colombianum and trichuris ovis. these internal parasites are common in all areas. The parasite is controlled by anthihelementics in all districts. External parasites :- It is prevalent in all districts. Ticks and mange mite are the most common external parasites and it affects the skin. It causes weight loss, irritation, and expose to the secondary diseases, In addition to this it affects the quality and grade of the skin.

Equine Diseases
Internal and External Parasites:- These parasites are very common in the study area. Despite equine contributes to the national and local economy;little attention has been given so far to the problem of helminthosis in equine as compared to other livstock species. These parasites cause weight loss and reduced working ability in equidae.

Birth Complexity
Still Birth: - Still birth occurs when the fetus has died in the uterus during labor or delivery. Some possibilities of the causes of death are: bacterial infection, birth defects, especially pulmonary hypo plasia. still birth becoming less common as care for pregnancy improves. Still birth is very common in all Teru basins.

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In these areas still birth becomes very worst because of two main reasons:
1. Cultural Problem: - The pastoralists prefer treat their animals by local medicine to treating

animals in veterinary clinics. This is is not effective because still birth treatment is given after the cause is known.
2. Remoteness of the area: The pastoralists move very far away from clinics to search feed and

water to their animals and some kebeles are very far from clinics. Dystocia:- Dystocia is difficulties at parturition may result from: myometral defects, hypocalcemia, uterine torsion or rupture, primary or secondary uterine inertia, in inadequate pelvice canal, insufficient dilation of the cervix vagina, or vulva, fetal hormone deficiency (fetal corticosteroid deficiency), fetal over size, fetal death, or abnormal fetal presentation. Dystocia is common in all species of mammals and in all districts and it affects greatly production. Dystocia is very worst in these areas due to two reasons. 1. Cultural problem: Most pastoralists prefer treating the animals by local medicines to veterinary clinics. 2. Remoteness of the area: These pastoralists live very far away from clinics and also they move very far distances to look for feed and water for their animals. animal

Mechanical Injury
Branding:- Branding is very common in cattle and camel in the whole study area. Branding is an act of marking cattle and camel with fire heated iron to identify the owners of the animal or clans. This practice become particularly widespread in Teru nation and with large cattle and camel grazing regions. The unique brand meant that; cattle and camel owned by multiple ranches could then graze freely together on the open range. In these area branding causes stress, injury and a great damage in quality and grade of hide. Harnessing Problem:-Harnessing problem is very common in Teru basin. The Camels and equines are more exposed to this problem and cause injury, expose the animal to the secondary disease and reduced working ability. The pastoralists have limitation of using saddling during transporting household goods and pulling carts.
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Horn Torn:-Horn torn is very common and study area and it is high in cattle. The Teru cattle have genetically long, sharp and strong horn. The sharp, large and strong horns cause hernia, mechanical wound, abortion, loss of eye and somtimes death. ` Bush torn:-Bush torn is also very common in the study area and very serious in cattle, camel and donkey respectively. Especially prosopises causes eye loss, and mechanical trauma in cattle, camel and donkeys in golina. In addition to this prosopes causes bloat and death in cattle camel and donkeys and also by tighting expose animals to hyena and other pridators.

Hyena and Fox bite

Hyena Bite:-The hyena bite is very common problem in the study area. Hyenas are scavengers and hunt in groups and usually at night time and once a kill is made they eat very quickly. The hyena attacks when the animals are more in individual, scattered, and weak. In pastoralists the management system is very poor and freely living of animals expose the animal to hyena bite.
Fox bite:-It is also a very common problem in areas of study especially very high in lambs and kids. The management system in this area exposes more to fox bite

Veterinary Service (Institution, Man power, Laboratory and Pharmacy)

Veterinary clinics and post veterinary clinics are built based on the ministry of Agriculture and rural development strategy. Based on this one veterinary clinic is built at Woreda level and one post veterinary clinic delivering for three kebeles or covers 7KM--- 10km radius from the clinic. It is possible to build more than one post veterinary clinics in three kebeles, if the kebeles are very wide and having geographical problems. All woredas have one veterinary clinic at the center of each Woreda except in teru. Post veterinary clinics are very important institution in the pastoral area. In Teru basin, some post veterinary
clinics are not following the strategy of the agriculture and rural development strategy. This is because some post veterinary clinics are built by NGOs and they built post veterinary clinics where they want. But at this time, the post veterinary clinics are built based on the Agricultural strategy either built by the government or NGOs under the control of regional Agriculture office. Except Yalo all districts have post veterinary clinics in kebele level. In some kebeles post veterinary clinics are not functional because of different reasons

1. Wind destruction

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2.

cultural influence

3. Remoteness
4. Movement of pastoralist and their livstock at the time of scarcity of food and water. Veterinary clinics and post veterinary clinics have man powered by well educated and experienced professional. The veterinary clinics and post veterinary clinics dont give laboratory service. Veterinary clinics and post veterinary clinics are not well equipped by laboratory equipments. Private veterinary clinics and pharmacy are not common in the area. Private veterinary service delivery is very hard to compite with governmental organization. The main reason is medicines and veterinary service is delivered to pastoralists by the government and NGOS without payment. the distribution of veterinary clinics, post veterinary clinics, pharmacy and professionals related to Woreda and no. of kebels.
Table 3-17

No. Name of Woreda

No. of kebeles
Urban Rura l

Vet.Clinic Post vet. clinic

Functional Non Functional

Professionals
DVM AHA AHT

Remark

1 2 3 4 5 6

Golina Awra Teru Yalo Megale Erebti

1 1 0 1 1 1

8 7 1 -----------2 1

-----------------3 ---------------------------1 1 1

4 4 2 2 1 3

14 8 9

? 6

Source:- from data collected at the field survey(woreda veterinary clinics)

Type and amount of Treatments and Vaccines Different types of treatments and vaccines are provides by regional agriculture Bereu to Teru Basin districts. When we look the last three years the provision of treatments and vaccines show an improvement. But the amount of treatment and vaccines is not very enough related to the number of animals. There is also limitation in type related to different species of animals and different nature of disease.

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3.7 Agronomy
Nowadays, due to the presence of exploitable crop production potentials, the past experiences shared from state farms and neighboring woredas of the other regions, presence of a number of NGOs and GOs intervening in crop production and recurrent drought reducing livestock holdings, the farming system the study area except Teru and Erebiti is transforming to agro pastoral mode of production (WARC and APARI et al., 2007G.C.). In line with this, pastoralists find themselves sliding into poverty unless they engage in crop production activities. Crops can be raised without irrigation during rainy season in most parts of Ethiopia but they suffer from moisture stress during normal rainy season in the study area. According to WARC and APARI investigation in the year 2007G.C. communities are not benefited from rain fed and irrigation agriculture and crop production activities are not well studied in detail and documented scientifically for each land units in Teru Depression. The objectives of this study therefore to survey and document the existing and the potential areas for food and market crops with their limitations and crop LUTs with their main agronomic activities like cropping pattern, cropping systems, cropping calendar, agricultural input use, agricultural extension services and training, and crop protection practices in both rain fed and irrigation agriculture. Rain fed agriculture The spatial and temporal rainfall variability, high intensity and monomodal rainfall, maximum daily PET and moisture stress render rain fed agriculture though the impossibility or possibility of rain fed agriculture is not ascertained scientifically for each land units (WARC and APARI et al., 2007G.C.). Therefore, agro pastoralists fear rain fed agriculture unless they use supplementary irrigation.

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Figure 3-21 Sorghum (left margin); and teff (middle), wheat (right margin) cultivation under rain fed agriculture in Golina (Fukisa kebelle) and Yalo (Kilinagebuli kebelle) woredas.

Irrigation agriculture Although the irrigable and cultivable potential is large especially along rivers drained to Teru sub-basin, crop production under irrigation at present is young and spate, at subsistence level, highly influenced by occasional drought and floods. Under such conditions, irrigation is promisingly taken as primary means for realizing food security at household level, raising the rural populations living standard and creating employment opportunities in the area (WARC and APARI, 2007G.C.). Agronomic practices in rain fall and irrigation agriculture A. Cropping pattern- It is the temporal and spatial distribution of crops. It is mainly determined by factors like abiotic factors (suitability of the soils, adaptability to the prevailing climate (rainfall, temperature, altitude and other climatologically aspects); length of growing period, food and economic value, farmers preference and experience in the production of the crop); and biotic factors (crop pests).
Table 3-18 the existing crop pattern of the study area under rain fed agriculture (meher) in the area
s/n Crop type Cereals 1 2 3 4 5 4 Sorghum Maize Teff Barley Sesame Vegetables and fruits Cultivated land(ha) 416 140 186 60 30 2.63 2.34 Production(qlt) 6,174 2,100 3,714 180 180 17 199 Productivity(q/ha 15 15 20 3 6 6.46 85

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Grand total

421

6,390

Source: Afar regional and Woreda Pastoral Agriculture and Rural Development Offices, 2010G.C.

As shown from table 1, 99 %of the total land is allocated to cereals (staple foods) of which maize, sorghum and teff share 44 %; 33% and third 14% respectively. Of the total cultivated land ccommunities in Yalo and Golina are engaging most in maize, teff, and sorghum cultivation.

Table 3-19 the existing crop pattern of the study area under irrigation agriculture (dry season) in the area
s/n Crop type Cereals 1 2 3 4 Sorghum Maize Sesame Veg &fruit Grand total Cultivated land(ha) 163 70 93 1.2 1.2 165.4 Production(qlt) 2,908 1,051 1,857 8 99 3,015 Productivity(q/h a 18 15 20 6.7 82.5

Source: Woreda Pastoral Agriculture and Rural Development Offices, 2010G.C. As table 2 manifests, 98%of the total land is allocated to cereals (staple foods) of which maize and sorghum share 56% and 42% respectively. Vegetables, fruits and sesame which are the most productive and valuable crops are cultivated traditionally through small scale irrigation. Of the total cultivated land ccommunities Awura and megale woredas take the largest shares.
Table 3-20 Cropping pattern of the study area in 2005/06-2009/10 cropping season (G.C)
Years 2005/06 Production(qlt) Cultivated land(ha) 2006/07 Production(qlt) Cultivated land(ha) 2007/2008 Production(qlt) Cultivated land(ha) 2008/09 Production(qlt) Cultivated land(ha) 2009/10 Cultivated land(ha) Production(qlt) Av.Productivity(q/ha)

Farming systems

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Irrigation Rain fed Total %

423 1

6,345 2

588 321 909 3

6,97 1 3,80 5 10,7 76 1.5

299.5 1,095 1,394 .5 3

4,953 17,905 22,858 3.2

748 1.5

12,9 89 1.5

165. 4 421 586. 4 1.1

3,015 6,390 9,40 5 1.1

20 10 15 -

Source: Afar regional and Woreda Pastoral Agriculture and Rural Development Offices, 2010G.C.

As table 20 shows; agricultural density, crop production and productivity under irrigation are increasing and better than that of rain fed agriculture, however, the ratio of the number of semi pastoralists to pastoralists and agricultural density are currently 6.5% and 0.22HH/ha respectively in the study area. Maize, sorghum, barley and teff are the dominant crops which are grown and can be grown under rain fed and/or irrigation agriculture in the study area like the tradition in Megale woreda. B. cropping systems-These types of systems are identified according to the major crops, their shares in land utilization, and income generation. Based on resource utilization and spatial and temporal distribution of crops, some of the cropping systems are:Continuous cropping-This type of practice is somewhat exercised within the sub-basin, however, the landholding size is large enough. Hence, fallowing and shifting cultivation are not common practices in the area. Crop rotation Growing of different crops on the same land one after the other gives higher yields than when the same crops (monoculture) are grown. Crop rotation practices are designed to prevent anticipated crop pest problems and allopathic effects that might arise from continuous cropping system. Scientifically, the most common crop rotation patterns are: long rooted crops followed by shallow rooted crops; leguminous crops (pulses) followed by non-leguminous crops; and heavy feeders (exhaustive crops) followed by moderate feeders. However, the traditional crop rotation pattern practices identified within the three woredas of the sub-basin are described below.
Table 3-21 Existing crop rotation pattern
Wored a names Growing seasons/years Season 1 season 2 season 3 season 4

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Golina Yalo Awura

Maize Maize Maize

Sorghum Teff Sorghum

Teff Sesame Maize

Maize Maize Sorghum

Source: Woreda Pastoral Agriculture and Rural Development Offices, 2010 G.C. Intercropping-It is a system of growing two or more crops having different growing periods that grow simultaneously on the same field at the same time. This practice is not common in the sub-basin except in Yalo Woreda practicing crops like maize in association with cowpea/bean and in the same manner teff with cowpea/bean. C. cropping calendar-It is determined by the communities preferences, existing farming systems, time for land preparation, labor availability, marketing time, planting and harvesting time, length of growing period and rainfall pattern. On the basis of WARC and APARI study in the year 2007 G.C , the variability of rainfall pattern is the most influential factor for crops not / to cultivate according to their cropping schedules. Based on this information and field observations, it can be said that none of woredas in the study area are cultivating crops following crop schedules. D. agricultural input use - Agricultural inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, seed varieties, motor water pump, motorized cultivator, tieridger, etc. can boost up and/or maintain crop productivity ,however, they are not widely applied in sub-basin due to their provision, distribution, and utilization problems.
Table 3-22 Agricultural input type, amount and distribution in the sub-basin (2001/02 cropping season).
Agricultural inputs Share to Teru sub basin and region Teru sub basin Region Motor pump(pc s.) 15 37 Pedal pump(pcs.) Small agritools(pc s.) 547 3,567 Seeds(Ql t) Pesticides Liter Kg Sprayers(p cs.)

16 18

16 860

50 3,400

300

22

Source: Woreda Pastoral Agriculture and Rural Development Offices, 2010G.C. E. crop protection- These are techniques of safe guarding growing crops and their products from crop pests. Crop pests are biological agents that bring 20-30%yield losses on field crops and storage grains (Reddy & Reddi, 1993G.C.) though the amount of yield loss, identification, and control measures of crop pests are not well-known in the area.
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Table 3-23 Major Crop pests currently identified in rain fed and/or irrigation agriculture in the area.
s / n crop pests Vernacular/local name(A) Yetef til Fenta Common name(E) Scientific/Botanical name(L) susceptible host(s)

Teff red worm Devills grasshopper Army worm Termite

Mentaxya ignicolis Aiolopus semilatrix/cataliopus spp Spodoptera exempta Isopteran spp.

Teff Sorghum, teff, sesame

Deyre Misit

Sorghum, maize, teff All crops and range lands Sorghum, maize Tree sp., cotton

Ageda korkur Anaytu

Stalk borer Tree locust

Busseola fusca/Chilopartellus Gleditisia triacanthos/Robina pseudoacia Thrips tobaci Coliothrips sp. Beruicomne brassicacae Mentaxya ignicolis Aphis gossypii Empoasca spp. Schistocera gregaria Parthienumspp. (P.hysterophores,P.aspera,P.a siatica,P.latiracea,P.euphrasio de) Portulaca olerace

1 Inse ct
pests

Yeshinkurt tirips Yetit tirips Yegomen afid Yetef til Yetit afid Yeselit jasid Yeberha anbeta Democracy

Thrips Cotton thrips Cabbage aphide Teff red worm Cotton aphid Cotton jassid Desert locust Congress/carrot/p artienium/white top weed

Onion, potato, cotton Cotton Cabbage Teff Cotton Sesame All crops Sorghum, maize, teff, sesame, Sugar cane

Purslane Abkita Abutalium Pricky lettuce 2 Wee ds Yeweyane zaf Prosopis

Maize Maize, vegetables

Lactuca inermis Prosopis juliflora

Sorghum All crops, grazing land

Source: Afar regional and Woreda Pastoral Agricultural and Rural Development Offices, 2010G.C.

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Figure 3-22 Parthinium (left margin) and Africa bollworm (middle), termite mound (right margin) in Awura (Hida kebelle) and Golina (kelewan kebelle) woredas.

As table 6 and figure 2(field observations) show crop pest problems are becoming the most limiting factor to increased crop production in the sub-basin. As crop intensification increases, the magnitude of the problem in the future will be higher unless careful management is in place. Crop production potentials and limitations Despite large irrigation and cultivable potential, its produce couldnt feed communities at sustainable basis. Based on field observations and investigation of WARC and APARI in the year 2007G.C. the following potentials, limitations which are similar in most parts of the study area are currently identified in rain fed and/ or irrigation. Potentials and/or opportunities Fertile cultivable and irrigable plain land for large scale and small scale farming system
A number of exploitable water resources

Suitable climatic resources

Presence of a number of NGOs, WARC and APARI

Constraints and/or limitations

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High evapotraspiration losses and soil moisture stress loss of top soil by wind and water erosion sedimentation ex. Awura woreda problem of provision, distribution, and utilization of agricultural inputs and tools Problem of water harvesting, pre- and post harvest technologies adoption poor extension services and lack of trainings problem of planning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating of agronomic activities problem of assessment, identification and controlling measures of crop pests, assessment problem of potential irrigable and cultivable land Irrigation water application and management

3.8 Watershed Management 1. Watershed

The rational for using the watershed as a basic unit for integrated planning of land resources utilization is that watershed is an independent hydrological entity, defined by important natural resource ,water, contributing runoff at a single point and is considered as an ideal unit for most effective and gainful management of natural resource.Sustainable development requires watershed based integrated approach which is not only optimizes the production but also ensures the protection of natural resources or production base with active participation of users concerned.
2. Watershed Delineation

A suitable watershed size is required for effective planning of conservation and maximum production. Efficient management of watershed resources is possible through an appropriate unit so that the resources are managed and handled effectively, collectively and simultaneously. Teru sub-basin could be sub-divided into a number of watersheds. However, the basin is not familiar with watershed delineation activities and watershed based integrated approaches. Even studies on watershed
136

management are rare; watershed study documents were in available as we observed in our reconnaissance survey. Since the sub-basin should be sub-divided into different sized watersheds to enable effective and gainful management of natural, resources, we divided the sub-basin into five watersheds using GIS tools.

600000.000000

620000.000000

640000.000000

660000.000000

680000.000000

Teru Sub-Basin River Catchment

Legend
DrainageLine Awash Catchment Golina-Awra Catchment
1300000.000000 1300000.000000

Lower Catchment Megale Catchment Yalo Catchment

10

20

30

40 km

600000.000000

620000.000000

640000.000000

660000.000000

680000.000000

The watersheds are delineated centering the main rivers aimed at effective soil conservation and water resource development the names of the watershed are accomplished in the detail survey. Watershed nomination is usually better done by the community, the watershed to get recognition. Even the size and shape can be filtered in the detail survey.

3. Topography
The development of land forms and landscapes change over time as a result of various dynamic factors. The factors include tectonic movement, weather, erosion and gravity. The present landscapes of the

1330000.000000

1330000.000000

1360000.000000

1360000.000000

1390000.000000

1390000.000000

1420000.000000

1420000.000000

137

region is very much a product of the tectonic process, continuing episodes of rifting and volcanism (regional atlas, 2006) The basin consists of various land forms generally with flat low land plains to very steep slope gradients of hills and altitudes generally ranging from about minimum 133 to maximum 2181meters asl. Low lands and plains predominately constitute Awra, Golina and Teru woredas. In Awra and Golina woredas, mountain ridges arent common rather isolated hills are located in sparse pattern. Even these hills occupy a very small are. Mountainous ridges and hills are have also a considerable proportion in Teru Woreda; these mountain ridges and hills are formed from rocks which are the product of tectonic processes like volcanism. Yallo and Erebti woredas, bordering Tigray region, constitute relatively major mountain ridges and hills. This mountain chains and hills are degraded land units having shallow and stony soils. 5. Soil Erosion Land degradations not a new phenomenon on the region. The disastrous soil degradation, which is the main type of land degradation, in the basins is caused by water and wind erosion. . Soil erosion caused by both water and wind agents is a common phenomenon becoming a major constraint to agricultural development in the basin as a whole Almost all part of the basins is subjected to water and wind erosion. Soil degradation is described by decline of organic matter, depletion of nutrient, Stalinization and drying up of rivers and lakes. However the degree and intensity of erosion varies from place to place depending on the soil types, and intensity of erosion agents 5.1 Water Erosion Soil erosion by water is recognized as the principal cause of land degradation and a major constraint to the development of agriculture. Water erosion is experienced in all parts of the basin. Most part of the basin is subjected to all forms of water erosion. Every rain storm, though it is not, frequent, is seen eroding soil. During our reconnaissance survey, we observed dark run off at all water courses In the basin, almost all the water courses are large river; there rivers, after every rainstorm, experience large volume of flow for long period of time. The soil resource of the basin is not exploited due to pastoral agriculture system; It is a reserved resource from agriculture, but is not reserved from erosion, and it is more series in the basin area bordering the highlands of Amhara Region, Awra, Golina and Yallo because of relatively higher slopes higher population density of both human and livestockand more rain.

138

5.2 Forms of Water Erosion The most important processes of soil erosion which occur in the basin are: 1. Sheet Erosion 2. Rill Erosion 3. Gully erosion 4. Road &Stream Erosion Sheet Erosion: Sheet Erosions is the removal of thin layer of soil and. it is unnoticed because of the total amount of soil removed in any storm usually small. However, it has series determinately effect on soil fertility and productivity since it removes lighter soil particles and soluble nutrients. Sheet erosions the dominant form of erosion occurring in all parts of the basin. It is the most widely destructive erosion process. However, it is obvious that sheet erosion is more series where the surface cover is little. Rill Erosion: Rill erosion is the next noticeable form of erosion. In all areas where sheet erosion occurs we can observe the symptoms of rill erosion. The symptom of rill erosion is the occurrence of rills or small channels on different land units. Rill erosion occurs in all parts of the basin and is considered as the second destructive form of erosion. The intensity of rills varies with in the basin; rills are observed frequently in areas of having relatively high slopes and frequent rain, Awra, Golina and Yallo.
Soil erosion on crop land by erosion class (ha) S.N 1 2 Zone Zone 2 Zone 4 0.25mm/yr 807 701 0.25-0.5mm/yr 1352 45 0.5-1mm/yr 203 105 1-2 mm/yr 80 173 2-4 mm/yr 9 37

Total Source: Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning (2004) Gully Erosion: Soil erosion has been an ignored series problem. Because of this neglection, gullies are

regularly expanding. Gully formation is a symptom of functional disorder of the land. Different land units are dissected into many plots by gully erosion. gully is becoming a common event in, Awra, Golina and

139

Yalo Woredas because of relatively higher slopes on and more rain. In this woredas gully erosion causes loss of productive land.

Figure 3-23 Gully erosion losing and dissecting the productive land in Golina wereda

Most of the gullies

occurring can be grouped to small and medium sized gullies with a potential to

develop to large gullies by channel erosion, down ward scoure of top soil, and upstream movement of the gully in width and depth if left untreated. All the gullies are active; this is related to desertification effect of the basin and of the region. Not only the gully surfaces but also the gully offsets are bare of vegetation.
4. Road and Stream Erosion 4.1 Stream Erosion

Stream bank erosion is also a threat on productive land units adjoining rivers. It causes loss of productive mass of soil in most parts of the basin and destroys infrastructures as bridges and culverts. The area affected by stream bank erosion may be small as compared to other forms of water erosion and treatment is not usually made because this land is considered as marginal land; however, it is causing damage to land adjacent to rivers.

140

Figure 2:

Stream bank erosion at Awra river in Teru wereda 4.2 Road Erosion

Road s from Awra to Yalo and Kobo suffer high erosion because of improper drainage system of the road and absence of conservation these roads are adjoining with long and active gullies. The soil is fragile plus the road has no drainage system, ditches. so run off collected and flowing along the road is eroding the functional land forming small to medium sized. This type of erosion damage both the productive land and the road 5.2 Wind Erosion Wind erosion may be as series as water erosion. In Teru Woreda, where the vegetation cover is very sparse and nil; wind speed is higher and low rain, wind erosion is potential a very series problem. Wind events prevail most part of the year in most areas of the basin. However the wind erosion of Teru seems unique in the basin even in the region. Wind turbulences blowing towards Teru from north eastern cost of the region blows away the loose soil material for a great distance with vast area coverage.

141

Figure 3-24 Wind Erosion in Teru Woreda (at the Woreda town)

This type of wind blow is common and regular. Every day nearly at regular time, wind blow a common event. The degree of the blow varies in that it causes moderate darkness to complete darkness of the area the blow covers. Wind erosion, where it occurs, is detrimental to health, land resources in general and different economic set ups. Some of the onsite damages caused by wind erosion include nutrient removal , long term loss in soil productivity, sand blasting of plants , burial as well as blowing out of crops. Off- site damages include air pollution ,sediment deposition on and around infrastructures such as schools ,clinics ,wells ,roads ,loss of grazing land and crop land as a result of deposition of vast quantities of sand in the form of sand sheets or dunes ,respiratory diseases of human and livestock ,abrasion of machinery , reduced visibility, mental stress ,etc.
6. Soil and Water conservation

The soil and water conservation trend in the basin the region as a whole is nil as compared to other regions. The semi pastoralists are not accustomed with traditional as well as scientific soil and water conservation activities. There is a trial of adopting scientific measures assisted by some development programs (NGOs) and regular program (government). However, the effect is little or none.

Figure 3-25 Stone bunds as hillside terracing in Yallo wereda

142

In some parts the basin, we are told that different physical and biological soil and water conservation measures has been constructed and established but quantitatively they can be considered as sample trials. As the local community is pastoral NGOs development programs are in titled on semi-pastoral agricultural development.
Soil and water conservation achievements S.N Soil and Measures Physical Soil bund Stone bund Microbasin Cutoff drain Biological Area closure Ha 106 Km Km No Km 14 30 804 9 water conservation Unit Calendar (E.C) 2002

I 1 2 3 4 II 1

3.9

Environmental Issues and Hazards

The study team during the reconnaissance survey identified different environmental resource bases such as climatic, soil, hydrological, forest, wild life and range land resources. These are the opportunities that the environment provides for the land use development process and treated independently in the above sections. Whereas the constraints that the environment provides for the land use development process particularly the major environmental issues and hazards are treated in this section. The major environmental issues or hazards that are identified in the project area during the reconnaissance survey and that should be integrated in the land use planning are: water pollution, Invasion of Alien species, Range-land and water resource conflict, and geologic and atmospheric hazards. Water Pollution The sources of water pollution can be natural sources (inorganic substances, trace metals, radioactive elements, and organic compounds) and anthropogenic sources (agriculture, urbanization, mining and
143

industrial activities).Generally the major sources of water pollution are of human origin however, a pollution source for this project area is a natural origin rather than human origin. The Teru sub-basin land use planning project area has a high potential for salinity of ground water because of high temperature, very little and scarce rainfall. High evaporation by high temperature produced high salt concentration in the soil as well as in the ground water; the percolating water can easily dissolves the salt from the soil during its movement towards the saturated zone. The non-point anthropogenic pollution sources from the water-shed is not as such significant since agricultural practices using chemical fertilizers and pesticides, industrial practices and high urbanization are not intensive.
Table 3-24 Physico-chemical Analysis Report of water wells in Teru Sub-basin area. Physico-chemical Parameters S. # of Sampling Site Laboratory: Sampling Source: Sampled by: Date of Sampling Date of Analysis Physical Taste PH TDS Conductivity s/cm Hardness: Total Hardness Alkalinity: Total Alkalinity Cations: NH3+ Na+ K+ Anions:
ClFNO3NO2-

Awra Deraytu (Reg. 2) 01 AAWSA Deep Well WWDE 02/02/98(GC) 21-22/02/98(GC) Non-object. 8.23 342 499 s/cm 216 234 0.30

Analysis Result of Sampling Site Yalo Teru Golina Dlbina 01

Megale Faro 04

Erebti

Well 1/8/08(GC) 30/4/08(GC) 8.13 810.0 1238.0 31.5 286.0 0.13 250.0 6.0
61.57 1.89 21.99 0.625

Deep Well WWDE 14/01/03

8.43 450 644.0 158.4 220.0 0.21 90.0 3.0

32.98 1.18 38.5 --

1.5 0.90 Nil Nil

144

PO43SO4
2-

0.564 46

0.41 214.2

-79.12

Source: - ANRS Water Resource Bureau, 2008

The result of the physiochemical analysis of water wells showed that PH value of the three woreda range between 8.13 to 8.43.The highest value of the result is observed in Megale (8.43). The PH value of those woreda satisfies both the WHO guidelines (6.5 to9.5) and Ethiopia guidelines (6.5 to 8.5) of drinking water standards. TDS value is in the range 342 to 810 mg/l .The highest value of the result is observed in Yalo(810mg/l) where as the lowest value is in Awra(342mg/l).The TDS value of two woreda i.e. Awra(342mg/l) and Megale (450mg/l are less than the WHO guide line for drinking water standards(500mg/l) whereas, the TDS value of Yalo(810 mg/l) is greater than the WHO guidelines for drinking water standards(500mg/l). The fluoride value varies between 0.90 to 1.89 and the highest value is identified in Yalo(1.89) and the lowest value in Awra(0.90).The sample of water wells of those three woredas has also showed that low level of nitrite, ammonia and phosphate. This could be ascribed to the absence of application of fertilizers in the Teru sub-basin.

Invasion of Alien/Exotic species

Invasive plant species, introduced deliberately or accidentally to different parts of the ecology/habitat, can cause important economic, environmental and social losses.

Prosopis Juliflora
Prosopis juliflora is one of the alien species invaded seriously the Afar region in general and our study area in particular. Prosopis juliflora is a multipurpose dry land tree or shrub native to South America, Central America and the Caribbean. However, despite its qualities and uses in its natural range, prosopis becomes a serious invading weed when introduced in to non-native areas. In the Ethiopian context, prosopis juliflora was wrongly introduced in the 1970s by ministry of Agriculture to high quality pasture lands and irrigable areas, including the Awash river basin in the Afar National Regional State (ANRS) 0f north east Ethiopia (Pasiecsnik etal., 2001 cited in DubaleAdmasu,2008). In our reconnaissance survey, concerning the problem of invasion of alien species a multiphasic question which contains the scientific and common name of alien species, woreds and kebeles invaded by alien
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species ,areas coverage in hectare ,previously covered but currently removed by different methods, advantages and disadvantages of alien species were included in the checklist but we couldnt get data on total area coverage in hectare invaded by alien species at the woreda and kebele levels and area coverage previously covered but currently removed. The invasion of prosopis in Teru sub-basin is not intensive as compare to the middle and lower Awash sub-basin areas .Woredas invaded by prosopis and the status of invasion are presented in the table below.
Table 3-25 Woredas of Teru sub-basin invaded by prosopis and status of invasion. Name of Alien species Scientific Name Prosopis Juliflora Prosopis Juliflora Common Name Woyana-Hara Woyana-Hara Invaded Woredas Yalo Teru Invaded Kebeles Status of invasion

8 kebeles Berentu,wedelule&Asaberi

Severely invaded Partly invaded

Figure 3-26 Land invaded by prosopis Juliflora at Yalo Woreda

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As we got information from our field observation, interview made with concerned experts and local communities, the environmental/ecological and economic significances of Prosopis Juliflora are summarized as follow: (1)Aesthetic value. In the project area, particularly in highly saline soils and water logging areas no vegetation cover except prosopis Juliflora since it can tolerate saline soils and water logging environment. The prosopis forest creates green areas and increases the aesthetic value of the desert and semi desert area of the project site. (2)Erosion control and wind break/shelter belt. Prosopis juliflora controls soil erosion by running water. Apart from control of soil erosion by running water, it acts as a wind break /shelterbelt. Luckily, prosopis juliflora can grow in saline soil areas which are highly exposed for wind erosion since it is saline tolerant species. So prosopis Juliflora is more effective for reducing wind movements. (3)Shedding Effect/Contribution for climate stability. Vegetation has a moderating influence on local climates and may create quite specific micro-climates. Since prosopis invaded arid and semiarid areas of the sub-basin, it serves as a shedding for livestock as well as livestock keepers. (4)Carbon Sequestration/Reducing global warming. As the co2 content of the air continues to rise, nearly all of earths plants, including various forest ecosystems, will respond by increasing their photosynthetic rates and producing more biomass. These phenomena will allow long-lived perennial species characteristic of forest ecosystems to sequester large amounts of carbon within their wood for extended periods of time (Chambers etal;1998), which could ultimately counterbalance co2 emissions produced by mankinds usage of fossil fuels. Since prosopis juliflora is a perennial tree species, it can sequestrate large amount of carbon with its wood and contributes to reduce the rate of global warming. Although the significances of prosopis juliflora are not yet well studied, it has the above economic and environmental/ecological significances/services, but it is being destroyed regardless of all this advantage. Moreover, the Afar region and woreda experts, the communities as well are complaining of its fast invasion and its consequence such as loss o f indigenous trees, decline in livestock production, health problems to animals and they are highly requesting that prosopis juliflora has to be cleared/removed totally.

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As we got information from our field observation and, interview with concerned experts and local communities, the disadvantages of Prosopis Juliflora are summarized as follow:

Loss of indigenous trees, shrubs and grasses due to the invasion of prosopis juliflora. Decline in the livestock production and productivity due to the loss of dry season grazing areas to prosopis plants. Palatable indigenous pasture species such aschrysopogon plumulosus, cenchrus ciliaris and setaria acromelana have also declined in the rangelands due to the invasion.

Health problems to animals such as constipation, dental disfiguration and reduced over all productivity. Local people call the disease in cattle Harmeko.

People and livestock suffer from injuries from the sharp and poisonous prosopis thorns. Predators(Hyena,Jackles, Lion and Leopard) attacks on livestock have increased since the prosopis invasion.

The malaria invasion probably aggravated by the invasion of prosopis. Since prosops plant is water logging tolerant species, it can grow and reduces the flow of water and creates stagnant and moist micro climate in prosopis invaded areas provided a favourable environment for mosiquitos multiplication.

In reality, it is difficult to reach decision i.e. whether prosopis juliflora should be removed totally or continue to exist with proper management without undertaking detail study. In order to reach such a decision, detail study such as environmental Resource Valuation and Environmental Impact Assessment should be conducted. The social, economic and environmental advantages and disadvantages of prosopis should be identified and evaluated. And if the disadvantage of prosopis is easily manageable and minimal as compare to the advantage, we may reach decision prosopis has to be continued to exist but its expansion should be managed. On the other hand, if the disadvantage of prosopis is unmanageable and its significance is minimal as compare to its disadvantage, the reverse will be decided.

Parthenium Hysterophorus
Apart from the invasion of prosopis juliflora, parthenium is now also spreading in Teru sub-basin. Parthenium is an annual herbaceous member of the Asteraceae, with a deep root and an erect stem. It has bi-pinnatfied and pale green leaves covered with soft fine hairs. Parthenium is an aggressive weed and
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therefore poses a serious threat to the environment and biodiversity owing to its high invasion and allelopathic effect which has the capacity to rapidly replace the native vegetation. Parthenium root of decayed plant release soluble sesquiferpene lactones, mainly partenin (Parasanta et al., 2005 cited in Shashie Ayele, 2007). Those chemicals inhibit the germination and growth of plants including pasture grasses, cereals, vegetables, and other plant species (Navie etal., 1996 cited in Shashie Ayele, 2007). In Ethiopia, parthenium has become a notorious weed since its discovery in the 1980s. It has been spreading from the eastern route of Ethiopia along Dire Dawa, Addis Ababa railway presumably between 1974 and 1980. Currently, parthenium is spreading at an alarming rate in Eastern Ethiopia: the centrasl rift valley, and neighboring localities of Afar Region, East shewa,Arsi,Bale and in southern Ethiopia( Shashie Ayele, 2007).Woredas of Teru sub-basin invaded by parthenium Hysterophorus and status of invasion are presented below.

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Table 3-26 Woredas of Teru Sub-basin invaded by Parthenium and Status of invasion Name of Alien species Scientific Name Parthenium Common Name Democracy Invaded Woreda Invaded Kebeles Status of invasion

Awera

Heda, Lakora, Alibarimesgied, Layikoma & Derayetu

partly invaded

Parthenium Parthenium

Democracy Democracy

Golina Yalo

Partly invaded partly invaded Invaded

According to the respondents of woreda natural resource experts, parthenium reduces the carrying capacity of the grazing land by reducing the composition as well as the diversity of palatable species; adversely affect the quality of milk and meat, and a harmful effect on human as well as animal health.

Figure 3-27 Land Invaded by Parthenium Hysterophorus at Awera woreda

Range Land and Water Resource Conflict

In the Teru sub-basin conflicts arise between Afar lowlanders and neighboring Tigray highlanders. In the case of the conflict between Afar and Tigray, those who came into frequent interaction with the Afar are the wajirat and Raya people. Relations between Afar and Tigrayan communities took the form of economic exchange, bond- friendship, cross territory resource sharing, and share cropping. On the other hand, there have also been incidents of conflict. Conflicts mostly relate to competition over resources

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such as grazing land and water points. Competitions often include series of raids and counter raids Yayneshet Tesfay and Kelemework Tafere,2004) During the last century, particularly in the period prior to the Italian occupation, the Afar experienced a series of raids from the Tigrayan highlanders generally the Wajirat and the Raya community in particular. In what they locally called the Gas(Gad) expedition, Tigrayans mobilized hundreds of villagers for the raid, which resulted in a considerable loss of lives and property from both sides. Historically, there was also times in which, Afar raided as most highland areas enjoyed a concentration of government units and perhaps a natural protection as well(Yayneshet Tesfay and Kelemework Tafere,2004) Conflicts between the Afar and the Tigrayans continue to arise even today. But in the past conflicts were in large group but at present conflict is confined to individuals. At present both the Afar and Tigrayans seem keen not to prolong hostilities and prefer to live in a peaceful co-existence. The Gereb is mutually established institutions which functions as an indigenous court and is run by the council of elders from both sides of the ethnic boundary separating the Afar from the Tigrayan communities.The elders are selected from different localities on the basis of their proven abilities in sound decision making, impartiality and honesty. They hold regular monthly meeting to review conditions in their respective territories. Geologic and Atmospheric Hazards Many areas of the Teru sub-basin are threatened by the hazards associated with the internal and external geologic processes as well as atmospheric processes. Volcanic eruption, Earth quake and flood hazards are the most threatening geologic hazards among others while drought, moisture stress and spell of very high temperature are the most threatening atmospheric hazards among others. (A)Volcanic eruption Volcanic eruptions, are caused by magma (a mixture of liquid rock, crystals and dissolved gas) expelled onto the earths surface. The special conditions for magma formation do not exist everywhere beneath the surface, and thus volcanism does not occur everywhere. It occurs in four principal settings:(a) along divergent plate boundaries,(b)in areas of continental extension,(c)along convergent plate boundaries where subduction is occurring, and(d)hot spots, away from the plate boundaries(Montgomery,2000.)

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Volcanic Eruption sites in this sub-basin are found in Teru woreda at three kebeles i.e, Dabbahu, Boyena and Degedega.According to the interview made with Ato Daneal Tewalede, the head of Teru woreda DPPFS office,particularly the Volcanic eruption which occurred in the year 1998E.C (192005G.C) resulted in the death of remarkable number of camels, goats and cattles and for one year the pastoralists live in those kebele migrate from the area. But those pastoralists migrated from those kebeles, currently resettled in those area and expose to the risk. The Dabbahu tectono-magmatic segment lies in the plate boundary zone between stable Africa (Nubia) and the Danakil microplate to the northeast. The Dabbahu segment is also similar in length and process to Quaternary Rift Segments in Afar. As yet, no lavas have been observed along active faults, but small volume fissural flows along faults in Dabbahu segment are common place (Yirgu etal, 2005)

.
Figure 3-28 illustrates the morphology of the Dabbahu tectono-magmatic segment, and the distribution of Quaternary eruptive centres taken from Yirgu, etal, 2005 Gabho and Dabbahu (red stars) are the two Quaternary centres that show subsidence, indicating magma chamber depletion. Red lines are the positions of dykes in the simple elastic models. Note the dissected stratovolcanoes forming a chain perpendicular to the trend of the Dabbahu segment near its centres. TGD is the Tendaho-Gobaad Discontinuity here separating the Nubia plate and the Danakil microplate. DH is Danakil horst, or, the Danakil microplate.

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Figure 3-29 illustrates characteristic features of the Dabbahu tectono-magmatic segment.

(B)Earthquake Earthquakes, in general, represent a release of built-up stress in the lithospher.95% of all earthquakes occur in the vicinity of the borders of the tectonic plates where tectonic plates push in to each other and/or one plate slides past the other, shallow earthquakes are common. The other five percent of earthquakes occur at faults located within plates (intraplate).They are much less frequent that those at plate boundaries (Montgomery, 2000). Many areas of Teru sub-basin are exposed to earthquake hazards. Particularly Teru and Gulina woredas are threatened by the hazard at different times. In Teru woreda the Dabbahu rifting areas of the earthquake is presented below.
Table 3-27 Time and location of relocated earthquakes for the Dabbau rifting episode. Depths are fixed at10km.
Date of Earthquake Yymmdd 050604a 050718a 050914a 050920a 050920c 050920d Time of Earthquake hhmmss.ss 184034.2 163142.4 150746.9 21802.15 212338.2 232707.2 12.5732 12.7823 12.5998 12.7585 12.7851 12.7909 40.635 40.7734 40.4335 40.4873 40.49 40.3949 Lat Long Date of Earthquake Yymmdd 050921p 050921q 050922a 050922b 050922d 050922f Time of Earthquake hhmmss.ss 233630.2 234910.8 13132.97 13937.34 31234.3 42818.89 13.1568 12.6207 12.8283 12.6421 12.7085 12.7436 40.6424 40.5372 40.621 40.5305 40.5521 40.5845 Lat Long

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050921a 050921b 050921c 050921d 050921h 050921i 050921j 050921l 050921m

143.44 42122.22 71258.45 84005.23 115724.2 133301.8 145727.2 184402.9 200452.7

12.8567 12.714 12.442 12.8719 12.6422 12.5673 12.5921 12.6832 12.6088

40.533 40.549 40.4977 40.5396 40.577 40.5369 40.5588 40.4602 40.6053

050922i 050922j 050922l 050922o 050922p 050923b 050923c 050923d

101424.6 115744.1 135845.3 195152.8 222250.5 45752.11 70609.55 91832.09

12.7443 12.7328 12.765 12.4475 12.623 12.5984 12.622 12.659

40.4399 40.5027 40.4644 40.557 40.4673 40.5583 40.5166 40.5234

(C)Flood Hazard

Throughout history humans have found it desirable to settle along the streams (rivers). Because rivers provide water for irrigation, drinking of human and livestock, transportation, fishing etc. Rivers not only provide water for different purpose but also fertile alluvial soils which are suitable for crop production. But human populations that live along streams/ rivers also have the disadvantage that the flow of water in streams /rivers is never constant. High amount of water flooding in rivers often leads to flooding. Likewise, in Teru sub-basin the potential areas for crop production and livestock are those that are situated along the river basin of Awura and Gulina Rivers. But pastoralists that live along those rivers basins have affected by flood hazards particularly from July to September whenever the Ethiopian highland summer rains high. In those areas, humans are particularly sensitive to flood hazards because of lack of flood hazard control measures(dyke construction),absence of zoning regulation( peoples temporarily settle flood prone lowland areas),lack of well organized response infrastructure and early warning systems. But the hazards of flood in Teru sub-basin is not serious as compare to the Lower Awash sub-basin. Rivers that cause flood hazard, name of kebeles exposed to flood hazard are presented in the table below.
Table 3-28 Woredas of Teru Sub-basin affected by flood and rivers cause flooding. Name Rivers of Woredas Exposed Kebeles Exposed to flood hazard to flood hazard

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Awura& Gulina Awura& Heda Lakora& Emebela

Teru Awura Erebti

Berentu, Abedi, Meremer and Boyena kebeles. Derayetu and Heda Erebti, Adu, Garbena, Bahiren, Embela &Laade

iii) Drought Drought is a relative term that can mean different things to people with different profession. From the context of pastoral settings, drought implies two or more consecutive years when rainfall is less than 75% of the long term average (Coppock1994 cited in Yayneshet Tesfay and Kelemork Tefferi, 2004). According to the interview made with the head of the core process of Disaster Preparedness in DPPFS bureau, the Afar region has experienced major droughts every 2-3 years for the past 10 years since 1993E.C and affecting an increasingly large number of the rural population. Among 32 drought affected woredas of the region; Elidar, Kurri, Mille, Teru, Yalo, Golina and Uwa are seriously affected by drought. Even though 6 woredas of the Teru sub-basin project area have been affected by drought at different years, Teru, Yalo and Golina are the most seriously affected woreda in the sub-basin. Droughts affect pastoralists only after extended period of desiccation and unlike crop farmers have better resistance to early drought stages. An extended drought such as the one that is observed in the near past for3-4 years in the area leads to loss of the purchasing power of pastoralists. A major impact of drought is on the loss of livestock assets that take longer time to replenish. As a result of this exposure of pastoral families to external food aid also increase. As we got information from different woredas DDFS offices, different woredas have been affected by drought at different years. The drought resulted in different effects and the people adopted different risk minimizing strategies or coping mechanism. Death of animal, shortage of animal fodder, school dropout, reduction in the price of livestock, failure of farming activities in agro pastoralist areas and increase the vulnerability of animals for different diseases are the major effects of drought among others in the project area. Migration of animals to the neighboring areas, increase livestock sales, purchase of fodder(getting fodder from NGOs(FAO)),slaughtering of calves, and in some woreda searching of other alternative
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means of income generating activities such as charcoal selling and employed as a daily laborer in some projects are the major risk minimizing strategies or traditional coping mechanism among others.

4 CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 PROPOSED PLAN FOR THE DETAIL SURVEY
4.1.1

General objective

During this landuse plannig study various major activities are planned to perform, as those activities are considered to be very vital clues.Hence, the following general objective is set as: .

Conduct an assessment of the agroclimatic,social,economic environmental and other aspects; and analyse /verify the field data through coorelation of primary data with that of secondary data; to achieve a sustainabe landuse planning.
4.1.2 Specific objectives Undertake the physical and biophysical resource assessments , identify potentials ,limitaions and recommend appropriate measures/solutions. Interprete the potentials interms of social,environmental ,economical importances and show their drawbacks(limitations) with coresponding solutions carryout augering along selected traverses ,verify and delineate boundary of the possible newly discovered land units Describing the morphological characteristics of the soils for the purpose of their sustainable and maximum exploitation Analyse and state participatory and a sustainable forest resource development, production and protection mechanisms through well organized management practices . identify scientific measures to conserve the ecosystem through environmental protection and management strategies layout development plan for effective cachment treatment activities maximize productivity and secure food self sufficiency of the people identify animal diseases and recommend preventive and control measures 156

classify the study area into different agro climatic zonations for the purpose of land evaluation indicate the system or strategy to create attitudinal change in the peoples perception (through strong extension approaches and mass mobilization etc) workout land suitability classification of each land unit for specific utilization design & activate to minimize the barriers of livestock production within the sub basin Describe and analyze the various socio-economic conditions and come up with sound and feasible recommendations to bring a gradual transformation of the communitys nomadic mode of life to semi-pastoral

4.2 Soil survey

4.2.1 Objectives

The main objective of the survey is to provide detailed information on the potential of the land and soils of the project area for different land use options. The results of the soil investigation combined with the results of socio-economic analysis, agro-climatic and hydrologic analysis, and water resources and land cover assessment will be used to evaluate the potential use of the land resource in Teru Sub-basin. 4.2.2 Scope of the work
Identify the type of soils , show their spatial distribution and their extent over the entire project site or /of the sub basin Verification of the soil units and delineation of the newly identified units using free survey. Describing the morphological characteristics of the soil conduct Soil profile descriptions in major land mapping units. Analyzing and interpreting the chemical and physical lab. analyticl results

4.2.3 Methods to be employed The soil survey specification is provided on Table below:
Table 4-29 Soil

survey specifications

No. 1 2

Item Map scale Base map used 1:50,000 (semi-detailed)

Specification

1:50,000 scale topographic map and geomorphology map of the area of scale of 1:50,000
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3 4 5 6 7

Coverage Soil description Soil classification Mapping unit Laboratory analysis

Teru sub-basin According to FAO, WRB, soil survey manual 1990, 1998 FAO/WRB guideline1998 /FAO 2006 fourth edition/ Doing Classification of the SMU on the bsis of major soil mapping criteria. Analysis of the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil samples collected from the representative profiles.

The soil survey activities are divided into the following three stages:
I. II. III. Pre-field work preparations (office work) Field work (verification of the mapping units, close investigations, delineation of soil boundaries, profile descriptions and collecting samples) Post fieldwork stage (interpret laboratory analytical results, producing maps and reporting).

I.

Pre-field work preparations (office activities)

Office works mainly consist of the collection of secondary data on the survey area including geomorphological, topographical and climatic information about Lower awash sub-basin. Some of the materials collected and reviewed at this stage are topographic maps at a scale of 1:50,000, reports and maps on previous soil studies, digital and/or hard copies of land use/cover data, geomorphology and soils and data on climate and satellite image interpretation. Particularly, previous soil survey (at reconnaissance level) information are very useful to delineate the soil/landscape units. A preliminary delineation of approximate land unit boundaries will be made based on geomorphic unit and using GIS system for location of auger holes and profile pits. The base map to be used for this purpose is the 1: 50,000 scale topographic map with 50 m contours interval. Moreover, field soil survey guidelines (based on FAO, WRB) and field data collection formats for soil auger and profile description would be prepared. II. Fieldwork The field survey will be conducted using free survey method,at scale of (1:50,000), where the number of field observation is determined based on the distribution of soil units and judgment of the surveyors. The main purpose of field observation will be to establish and verify the landscape/soil unit boundaries
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delineated at office as well as to characterize the various soil types in the field. Observations of soils will mostly be carried out by auguring to a depth of 1.2m shall be made on every accessible sites and mapping units along representative traverses. This is done to deliniate and check the soil unit boundaries. Data will be recorded on standard soil auger description sheet giving particular emphasis to those characteristics, which affect present or potential land use. Soil profile pits will be dug at the representative sites, from which soil samples for full laboratory analysis will be collected and be sent to the laboratory for further required analysis. In addition, soil profiles will be carefully studied wherever exposures example road cuts, gullies walls etc are observed. The results of this analysis will serve as a basis for soil classification and land evaluation. The density of auger observation is usually 1 auger observation per 50 hectares. But, fewer observations can be taken based on the uniformity of the landscape units and the experience of the surveyor to map the soil units with fewer observations. The density of profile pit is determined by the aerial extent, uniformity and/or variability of the soil-mapping unit. More intensive sampling density could be taken as required depending on the variability of soils in the area. General site information, registration and location, soil description, Genetic and systematic interpretation (Soil classification) will be done based on Guidelines for soil description, fourth edition FAO, 2006. III. Post fieldwork Soil samples from every representative pits will be collected and sent to the laboratory for further chemical and physical soil analysis. The results of this analysis will serve as a basis for soil classification, soil fertility and land evaluation by combining the previous study results discussed above. Soil chemical and physical analysis required:

OC content %

Cation exchange capacity (CEC Cmol(+)/Kg)

Available Phosphorus/ P2O5 PH (H2O) 1:2.5 PH KCl Electrical (conductivity) of saturated extract (mmhos/cm )

Exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, Na, K) Total nitrogen

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CaCo3 and gypsum %

Texture (percentage of sand, clay and silt) Bulk density PWP (permanent wilting point) F.C (Field capacity) Permeability total porosity

After the completion of field work and laboratory analysis, the preparation of the soil map will continue in the office in order to adjust the soil unit boundaries to the field condition. All data to be collected during the fieldwork and laboratory results will be entered into a database. Finally, soil map with selfcontained legend at the scale of 1:50,000 will be produced using GIS for the study sub-basin.

4.3 Land use land cover assessment and environmental change detection
4.3.1 General Objectives

The overall objective of this study is to get information on existing land use/cover as well as the dynamics of the land-use/cover resulting out of both human induced forces and forces of nature acting to shape the landscape. 4.3.2 Specific Objectives

To determine the trend, nature, rate, location and magnitude of land use/cover change,

To produce Environmental quality maps and hazard maps To undertake environmental appraisal of the land use plan, and To recommend possible solutions for the future sustainable utilization of resources in the subbasin from environmental point of view. 4.3.3 Scope of the work

The scope of the study will include major aspects related to the environmental conditions of the area to be studied .The study will primarily focus on strategic environmental assessment of the land use planning of the Teru sub-basin.
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4.3.4 Methodology of the Study

(a)Land-use/cover Detection This study will use a combination of remote sensing data, field observations and information from local people to analyze the patterns and dynamics of land-use/cover changes for 20 years from 1990 to 2010 in the Teru sub-basin. Landsat TM(Thematic Mapper) acquired on ,1989,Landsat ETM+(Enhanced Thematic Mapper plus ) acquired on,2000, Landsat ETM+2005 and 2010 Landsat ETM+will be used for this study. These data are selected on the basis of availability of satellite images. A pixel based supervised image classification with maximum likelihood classification algorithm will be used to map the land- use /cover classes. Ground truth points will be collected from the field and will be used for 2010 image classification and validation. Then, the land use/cover changes between the three periods i.e1990,2000,2005 and 2010 will be quantified and a change detection matrix of from-to change will be derived to show land cover class conversion transition during the 20 year period by overlaying the 1990 and 2010 images. Image processing and mapping will be undertaken using ILWIS open 3.7Remote Sensing and GIS software. To further understand the dynamics of land-use/cover change, possible major drivers for land use/cover dynamics and consequences of the changes will be explored using different informants and group discussions. (b)Produce Environmental Quality and Other Thematic Maps (i)Environmental Quality Map Environmental Quality Maps (water and soil quality maps) will be produced using point data spatial analysis of GIS.As it is difficult to measure each point in a study area for water and soil analysis, selected surface and ground water sampling, and soil sampling locations will be entered into a GIS as point coverage through digitization and transformed into a GIS as point coverage. These will be used as input for interpolation process. Based on sampled data values, an estimated value will be assigned to all other locations using surface creation functions in GIS. Ordinary Kriging interpolation techniques will be used since it can minimize error variance.
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(ii)Flood Hazard Mapping Determination of discharges of different return periods Generation of Terrain model and incorporation of stream features to Terrain model. Hydrodynamic modeling Flood hazard mapping, and restrictive zoning i.e., the land that could be inundated often by twenty five years flood, perhaps will best be restricted to land uses such as for livestock grazing pastures, parks or other recreational purposes rather for settlement purpose will be prohibited. Analysis of the result will be made and necessary recommendations will be given based on the assessment results obtained together with the specific mitigation measures. (iii)Seismic Hazard Mapping Collect local seismicities and micro-seismic data from Catalogue of Earthquake events from Geophysical observatory. Identify areas of widely recognized risk and potential problem areas, and map the geographic (spatial) and temporal distribution of seismic risk sites using available local seismicities and micro-seismic data. Then integrating this environmental issues in to the Awash sub-basin land use planning. Necessary recommendations will be given based on the assessment results obtained together with the specific mitigation measures. (iv)Volcanic Eruption Mapping Collect data from geological survey of Ethiopia and Land sat Satellite images of Afar region showing major volcanic peaks. Identifying areas of widely recognized risk and potentially exposed for volcanic eruption areas, and then prepare volcanic Eruption map. (c)Environmental appraisal of Land Use Plan of Teru sub-basin

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Environmental appraisal of the land use will be undertaken based on the method of multi-criteria analysis. The spatial, physical, biological and socio-cultural environmental issues will be considered as the criterion to weight land use plans in terms of their impact on environmental components. This will be done using a matrix table made of environmental impacts in one versus the selected land use types (LUTs) on the other, for each land mapping units.

4.4 Agroclimatic resource assessment

4.4.1 Objectives

The major objectives of assessing the agro-climatic resources are:

To define and characterize the climatic resource potentials and constraints. To classify the study area in to different agro climatic zones for the purpose of land evaluation. To separate areas with similar sets of potentials and constraints for development to rural land-use planning.

4.4.2 The scope of the investigation

The scope of the work is to describe and analyse the climatic suitability conditions of the area and to do description and mapping of the agro-climatic zones. 4.4.3 Methods for Agro-ecological Zoning Selection of LUTs: A range of LUTs will be selected to reflect current land use and/or land cover under a projected improved situation. All subsequent assessments of land suitability and potential productivity will carried out as part of the AEZ study. Compile Land Resources Inventory: This compound activity will comprise the following steps: Length of growing period (LGP) will be analyse; Thermal zones will be define; Climatic resource inventory will be compile; Soil and landform resource inventory will be compile; Present land use inventory will be compile;

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All the above will combine to make land resources inventory based on agro-ecological zones or agro-ecological cells. This inventory will also normally include information on administrative boundaries.

The land resources inventory is based on combining different layers of information to define agroecological cells (AECs) with a unique combination of climate, soil and other related land attributes. Such overlay techniques will be carried out in a GIS environment. Climatic data requirements: The following climatic data will be collected; coordinates, elevation, Precipitation, Max daily temp, Min daily temp, PET, Climatic hazard & Relative humidity. Finally description and analysis of the climatic conditions of the area and description and mapping of the agro-climatic zones will be made. Analyse length of growing period: LGP will be assessed for all valid rainfall stations in the study area with a minimum of 20 years of complete records. Where the synoptic data required for PET calculation are not available, PET will be assessed through locally validated correlations with altitude (e.g. De Pauw, 1987) or in flatter areas by linear interpolation from surrounding stations (e.g. Schalk, 1990; Radcliffe, Tersteeg and De Wit, 1992). The approach based on historical data is highly recommended particularly in semi-arid areas where interannual variations in rainfall and resulting LGP are often extreme (FAO, 1993a; Radcliffe, 1993). Compile climatic resources inventory: The inventory of climatic resources is prepared as follows: The individual station data of temperature, LGP-pattern and mean total dominant LGP derived as described above onto a map will be plotted. Boundaries of thermal zones, LGP pattern zones, growing period zones and isolines of mean total dominant LGPs will be constructed. In addition to normal extrapolation techniques, extensive use is usually made of Landsat images, climatic maps, vegetation maps, land-use maps, topographic maps, and soil maps to guide the delineation of boundaries and isolines. If a GIS is used, the inventory maps would be subsequently digitized. Given the necessary base maps, point data and knowledge on the interpolation of climatic variables between these points, we will prepare climatic maps in the GIS environment. Compile soil resources inventory:

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Information on soil type and landform is normally derived from existing soil maps, legends and reports. National soil maps at a scale of 1:1 000,000 or larger are excellent sources from which the required input data can be derived.

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Soil data requirements: Maps Topographic/geologic/terrain maps Soil/landform maps + legend + report For each soil/landform mapping unit Composition of the mapping unit to terms of dominant sod associated soils and inclusions; Percentage of occurrence of each associated soil within the mapping unit; rootable depth and effective water holding capacity, quantity and quality of the organic matter, CEC clay, base saturation, structural stability, stoniness and rockiness, for each identified soil unit groupings in the study area Total area extent of individual mapping units; Dominant slope class; Texture class of the rooting zone for each associated soil; Soil phase if any. indicating a mechanical hindrance or limitation Rocky, bouldery, stony, gravelly; indicating an effective soil depth limitation Lithic, paralithic, petrocalcic, petroferric; indicating a physico-chemical limitation Saline, sodic. For the overlay of such large amounts of information a GIS is strongly recommended. Agro-climatic constraints: will be rearranged into a set of four as follows: Constraints resulting from moisture stress during the growing period (e.g. unreliability of rainfall). Constraints due to pests, diseases and weeds, directly affecting the physical growth of the crop (e.g. stem-borers, leaf blights and virus diseases). Constraints due to various factors affecting yield formation and quality (e.g. cotton stainers, pod borers and silk drying). Constraints arising from difficulties of workability and produce handling (e.g. excessive wetness of the land or the produce).

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4.5 Agronomy
4.5.1 The objectives of the investigation

Main objective: Identify, delineate and map crop production potential areas with their constraints and propose LUTs for the production of food and market crops cultivated under irrigated and/or rain fed agriculture in the study area. Specific objectives

To identify major crop types(varieties) that are growing and can grow under rain-fed and irrigated areas with their production and productivity at household and sub-basin level.

To know the type and level of agricultural inputs and equipments utilization; To identify and recommend farm practices like appropriate cropping pattern, cropping systems, crop intensity and cropping calendar in both rain fed and irrigation agriculture

To identify major weeds, crop pests and diseases with their mitigation measures To prepare post-harvest handling techniques for crops To produce a benchmark data

4.5.2 Scope of the study The scope of the semi detail study covers 6 woredas with total area of 1.01 million hectare of land, takes several months and focuses on primary data collection on the following selected agronomic issues at Woreda, kebelle, focused group of communities, house hold and land unit levels in the study area. Assess and identify the land, water and climate resource potential with their crop suitability for small and large scale irrigation agriculture in the study area.

annual and perennial crop suitability for rain fed agriculture in the area identify the need, willingness and preferences of the communities for large and small scale irrigation development and recommend adaptive crops with their yield projections in the area

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Design strategies that promotes the use of improved crop production technological packages such as improved seeds, pesticides, cultural packages such as improved seeds, pesticides, cultural practices, water harvesting structure, tieridger, water motor pump, motorized cultivator, pedal pump etc.

4.5.3 Methodology of the Study The methodology and data analysis employed in this study should focus on agronomic issues that will facilitate effective crop production intervention, rather than just indulge into it for the sake of mere analysis. The necessary data should also be collected within a limited time period. On the other hand, triangulation approach that combines several approaches in order to increase the effectiveness and reliability of data will be used in the study. Major types of data to be collected Secondary data: In this aspect, secondary data sources (available and relevant studies, reports and other documents) will be reviewed as much as possible. Primary data: In this regard various data collection methods will be used, which include the following: Interview: structured interview will be designed and be filled in by selected sample community members in the sample districts and kebeles. Questionnaires (formats) will be prepared to obtain relevant baseline from Pastoral Agriculture Development office. Focus Group Discussion (FGD): This will be conducted to obtain the necessary data on general issues and problems in the study area. To conduct the FGD session and to obtain reliable information checklist questions will be prepared to guide the discussion. Elders, clan and/or esteemed leaders, and other community representatives, including the youth and women will be involved in the FGD. There will be different groups for FGD session. Pertinent government sector offices, NGOs and CBOs operating in the area will be also included to generate complementary necessary information for the study. Key informants will be interviewed by using unstructured questions. Sampling method and sample size: Sampling Method: a stratified sampling design will be adopted based on agro-ecological classification, i.e., comprising farming system (pastoralists, agro-pastoralists and sedentary farming) Woreda and kebele administration, household by gender and wealth category. Purposive sampling method will also be
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combined with stratified sampling to conduct the study. In general this is a multistage sampling g considering Woreda, kebele and different composition of households. The sampling method will take in to account and use the agro-ecological zones to determine the number and distribution of sample kebeles. At least 10 % of the total number of kebeles in a woreda will be taken as a sample. There will be at least one sample kebele in all the identified agro-ecological zones. Sample Size: formal sample size determination technique or 3- 5 % of the households in a sample kebele will be taken to conduct the data collection process and undertake the study. This figure will be proportionally distributed across the different wealth category and sex. For a focus group discussion 25% of the group will be females, 25% Youth and the remaining 50% will be the share of elder group from different religious and ethnic groups. For household survey 5 10 % of the respondents shall be female headed households. Woreda and kebele administrators and leaders in each sample Woreda and kebele will make detailed list of households by sex and wealth category. Locally defined criteria will be used to identify each household by wealth category. Finally the respondents will be randomly selected to fill the questionnaire designed for data collection. Data collection process: Available and relevant secondary data sources (such as books, study documents, reports, etc.) will be reviewed to enrich the study. Different types of data collection instruments (questionnaires, checklist questions, etc.) will be developed and designed before the commencement of the fieldwork. To fill in the questionnaires in the field, in particular, enumerators should be hired/recruited and trained for the purpose of effective data collection activity. After the completion of the data collection process (fieldwork) the data processing activities will be executed in office.

4.6 Watershed Management and conservation

4.6.1 Objective of the Study Watershed management is an approach of area planning of natural resources, especially land, water and vegetation. The major objectives of watershed study are: 1. To investigate the extent soil erosion and sediment yield. 2. To promote protection, conservation and improvement of land resources for the efficient and sustained production

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3. To reduce siltation land pollution of rivers 4. To improve the socio-economic conditions of the local people

4.6.2

Scope of the Survey

Watershed delineation which includes: Nomination Size determination

Preparing watershed maps which includes: Base map Land form map Land use Map Development map

Verification of watershed morphology biophysical survey Socio economist survey Classifying watersheds using Shape factors Size factors Stability factors

Assessment of Erosion Hazards, includes: Identifying the types of erosion agents

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o Water erosion Forms of soil erosion Cause of soil erosion

o Wind erosion Cause of wind erosion

Predicting soil loss o Water erosion o Wind erosion

Water erosion Wind erosion

Preparing soil erosion hazard maps

Assessment of sediment yield of watersheds Assessment of runoff yield of watersheds Recommend soil and water conservation both quantitatively and qualitatively Water erosion o physical o Biological o Biophysical Wind Erosion Biological

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 Estimating the labour requirement to achieve implementation

4.6.3

Methods

The methods to be applied to undertake the study include the following: 1. field investigation on the biophysical features, extent of soil erosion through extensive field observation of the area 2. Review of available literatures 3. discussion with different level of organizations 4. Discussion with community groups

4.7 Forestry and wild life

4.7.1 Objectives To identify and list out major constraints and potentials for forest development by assessing the present vegetation cover, species type, composition and uses. To identifies and prioritize need of the community for forestry and agro forestry products and benefits; to assess the approximate importance of the products. To make selection of the most promising forest and agro forestry LUTs(land use types) by comparing the LUTs and objectives initially set by the client with potential LUTs observed during survey and the present need of the local communities (stake holders) To identifies sites, if there is any new of interests in the project area; development of sanctuary, Wildlife reserve area, Recreational sites and others by assessing the presence or occurrences of habitat and wildlife resource diversity.

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4.7.2 Scope of the work Identifying and analyzing the present vegetation/forest cover, type; forestry and agro forestry practices, constraints and needs of the community and finally selecting and deciding the best land use types/ LUTs/ and lands. 4.7.3 Methods Based on interpretation of satellite image identifying vegetation cover and types ;verification for delineating Riveraine forest, Bush lands, Shrub lands, Woodlands and others using basic characteristics and different colors that represent different vegetation types cover. Reviewing past and present forest development and assessment documents. Field observation of all potential areas with Woreda counter parts to identify species type and locale name and their uses. Using questionnaires identifying list out major constraints, potentials and prioritize needs of the local communities through interviewing and holding discussion with officials, community members or elders and forest experts at various level.

4.8 Livestock production and range land management

4.8.1 Objectives The general objective of livestock production and range land management in the sub basin is to ensure effective and efficient utilization of land for sustainable socioeconomic development and to optimize returns or products to meet social needs as well as conserving natural resources. The followings are the specific objectives of the detail study; To asses major constraints & opportunities of livestock production and estimate dominant livestock population. To identify range land types and asses range land conditions such as; range trend analyses, plant succession & plant composition analyses, rate of bush encroachment etc. To identify grazing management practices such as;, grazing season, grazing periods, range readiness, carrying capacity, stocking density and stocking rate .
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4.8.2 Scope of the Study The scope of the study concerning to livestock and range land conditions in the detail level of study is to assess the general situations of livestock production and range land conditions so as to identify the best forage and livestock development land use types and thereby to formulate development and management plan. 4.8.3 Methodology of the Study The methodologies to be applied during detail study include pre field activities like formulating questionnaires, working guidelines, and manual preparations will be completed. Primary socio economic data including livestock production system and range land conditions will be collected by using questionnaires, focus group discussion, individuals and key informants will be interviewed. Then data will be collected and analyzed with regard to biophysical aspects that comprised livestock body condition, range land condition which includes range trend analyses, plant succession & plant composition analyses, rate of bush encroachment ,etc and also grazing management practices(grazing season, grazing periods, carrying capacity, stocking density & stocking rate) . The survey will be conducted at farmers (Kebele) level to collect primary data by giving more emphasis on the main factors that affect social and economical activities like feed, water and livestock production and management with special emphasis on livestock potentials and range land conditions. Stratified sampling method will be used to determine the sampled farmers and LMU based on ACZ in the study area. In both socio-economic and bio-physical survey, primary and secondary data will be collected for livestock and range land conditions from the same kebeles, Woredas, institutions and land mapping unities. 4.9 4.9.1 Animal Health Genera Objectives

to provide detailed information on animal disease and associatead animal health problems of the project area for different land use options.
To investigat animal health problems combined with the results of management of animals,

feeding type, soil type, agro-climatic analysis, hydrologic analaysis, enviromental hazard analysis,
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socia-economic analysis and water resources and land cover assement To promote land resources development and utilization for further sustainable development in the area. Specific Objective

To assess the veterinary clinic service type and animal disease problems and possible solutions in the study area. To identify the prevention and control of different types of diseases. To formulate post veterinary clinics building plan including maps at 1:250000 scale Scope of the Study

4.9.2

The scope of the study concerning to identification of the commen animale diseases and mechanical injuries in species level and classifying of the diseases and mechanical injuries according to their severity, behavior and the time when the diseases usually occurred and based on this characterization of diseases and mechanical injuries and finally setting of prevention control methods in the land map unit. The scope also concerns identification of other associated animale health problems such as institution,man power,and type and amount of treatments and vaccines used in the land map unit.
Limitation of the study:

Lack of previous works concerning animal health problems Absences of research results at particular areas like animale disease problems in each animals Range land productivity, livestock performance parameters. Lack of data at all levels with regard to animal diseases.

4.9.3 Methodologies To make the assessment effectively and efficiently pre field activities like formats, questioners, working guidelines, field programmes and manuals preparations were accomplished as well as equipment used in the felid such as :
Different Guidelines (FAOs); Scale bar1:1000000

Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Digital Camera

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 Laptop computer (GIS Software) Vehicles were made available.

Then after, field survey phase of the project is commenced and the following activities should be performed. To conduct the study for animal disease, mechanical injury and institutiongrazing, data should be collected from two surveys. The first part consistes of identification of common animal diseases, mechanical injuries, status of institutions and infrastructures. The second survey is designed to look into more detailed data with regarded to biophysical aspects that comprised body condition of animals, grazing land condition, manegenment system, and way of prevention and control of animal diseases. The surveys should be conducted at farmers (Kebele) level to collect primary data by giving more emphasis on the main factors those affect social and economical activities like common animale diseases, mechanical injuries, institution, types of treatments and vaccines used and managnment with special emphasis on animale health. Stratified sampling method is used to determine the sampled farmers and LMU based on ACZ in the study area. In both socio-economic and bio-physical survey, primary and secondary data should be collected for animale health conditions from the same kebeles, Woredas, institutions and land mapping unities.

4.10 Socio-economic survey

4.10.1 Objectives

The main objectives of the socioeconomic study are 1. To investigate the current socioeconomic conditions of the area and identify the potentials and major constraints and development intervention areas of the rural community in particular for the purpose of land evaluation. 2. To investigate and analyze various socioeconomic conditions and come up with sound conclusion and feasible recommendations which will guide prospective development interventions in the study area. 3. To examine the general attitudes of the community towards the current and prospective land use and the designing of appropriate land use plan for development interventions to be implemented in the study area.

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4.10.2

Scope of the Study

The scope of the study will include major aspects related to socioeconomic conditions of the area to be studied. The socioeconomic study will primarily focus on human resource and settlement pattern, infrastructure and institutions, social services, water resource, land tenure and land use, and farming system of the study area. The broad aspects of the study will comprise the following: Farming system and major forms of livelihood Describing major types of farming systems in the area Describing and quantifying sources of livelihood (income sources and level, household, etc) Livestock production:

Such as overgrazing, bush encroachment, agricultural land expansion and grazing land Conflict; prevalence of livestock diseases, access to veterinary service, and Livestock market accessibility, and traditional coping mechanisms Crop production: Main constraints that hinder effective crop production Type and scale of irrigation scheme in the area (if any) Identifying Important off-farm activities in the area Assessing and analyzing food security related issues in the area Identifying potential fishery resources areas Identifying and indicating major forest resources in the study areas.

Land tenure & land use pattern related issues: Communal ownership Average land holding in the area Land use conflict and its main causes Mechanism (traditional system) of resolving land use conflict in the area

Settlement Pattern Clustered Scattered

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 Bases for settlement (clan, kinship, economic, religious and/or social ties, administrative points or others) Type of housing Analyze tendency to retain, change or modify the current form of settlement and/or housing type in the area. Social Services Education Formal education Number of educational institutions Access to education and coverage Level of education Student enrollment at various educational levels Number and qualification of teachers Drop out and its major reasons Attitude of the community towards education in general and girls education in particular Availability of non-formal education and its focus /or targets Identifying the salient problems regarding education, which may include institutional, economic and socio-cultural constraints Health Number of health institutions and facilities/conditions Number and qualification of health professionals Major prevalent diseases in the area Sanitation Water supply and its quality in relation to health service

Water related issues Existing natural water points and their capacity Boreholes and other modern water points (functional and non-functional) Mapping of the distribution of water points
178

Assessing other Services and Infrastructures Road network and density Access to Telecommunication and postal services Access to electricity Access to financial institutions Cooperatives and credit schemes Marketing services and other rural development activities in the area Gender and related issues The situation of women in relation to the access to resources, control and decision making The situation of harmful traditional practices that affect women in the area
NGOs and their contribution to development in the study area.

4.10.3

Methodology of the Study

It is readily understood that there will be an integrated, holistic and multi-disciplinary approach to determine type and ways of study for any development intervention in an area. The methodology and data analysis employed in this study should focus on social and development issues that will facilitate effective development interventions, rather than just indulge into it for the sake of mere analysis. The necessary data should also be collected within a limited time period. On the other hand, triangulation approach that combines several approaches in order to increase the effectiveness and reliability of data will be used in the study. Major types of data to be collected Secondary data: In this aspect, secondary data sources (available and relevant studies, reports and other documents) will be reviewed as much as possible. Specifically Review of available ethnographic or sociological sources in relation to or done in the area; Review of relevant reports and studies will be conducted Various policies, laws and regulations will be reviewed in relation to land use and natural resources management.

Primary data: In this regard various data collection methods will be used, which include the following:
179

Interview: structured interview will be designed and be filled in by selected sample community members in the sample districts and kebeles and relevant government sector offices. Questionnaires (formats) will be prepared to obtain relevant baseline data from pertinent government sector offices.

Focus Group Discussion (FGD): This will be conducted to obtain the necessary data on general issues and problems in the study area. To conduct the FGD session and to obtain reliable information checklist questions will be prepared to guide the discussion. Elders, clan and/or esteemed leaders, and other community representatives, including the youth and women will be involved in the FGD. There will be different groups for FGD session. Pertinent government sector offices, NGOs and CBOs operating in the area will be also included to generate complementary necessary information for the study. Key informants will be interviewed by using unstructured questions. Sampling method and sample size: Sampling Method: a stratified sampling design will be adopted based on agro-ecological classification, i.e., comprising farming system (pastoralists, agro-pastoralists and sedentary farming) Woreda and kebele administration, household by gender and wealth category. Purposive sampling method will also be combined with stratified sampling to conduct the study. In general this is a multistage sampling g considering Woreda, kebele and different composition of households. The sampling method will take in to account and use the agro-ecological zones to determine the number and distribution of sample kebeles. At least 10 % of the total number of kebeles in a woreda will be taken as a sample. There will be at least one sample kebele in all the identified agro-ecological zones. Sample Size: formal sample size determination technique or 3- 5 % of the households in a sample kebele will be taken to conduct the data collection process and undertake the study. This figure will be proportionally distributed across the different wealth category and sex. For a focus group discussion 25% of the group will be females, 25% Youth and the remaining 50% will be the share of elder group from different religious and ethnic groups. For household survey 5 10 % of the respondents shall be female headed households. Woreda and kebele administrators and leaders in each sample Woreda and kebele will make detailed list of households by sex and wealth category. Locally defined criteria will be used to identify each household by wealth category. Finally the respondents will be randomly selected to fill the questionnaire designed for data collection.
180

Data collection process Available and relevant secondary data sources (such as books, study documents, reports, etc.) will be reviewed to enrich the socioeconomic study. Different types of data collection instruments (questionnaires, checklist questions, etc.) will be developed and designed before the commencement of the fieldwork. To fill in the questionnaires in the field, in particular, enumerators should be hired/recruited and trained for the purpose of effective data collection activity. After the completion of the data collection process (fieldwork) the data processing activities will be duly executed in office.

4.11 Watershed management and conservation

4.11.1 Objective of the Study

Watershed management is an approach of area planning of natural resources, especially land, water and vegetation. The major objectives of watershed study are: 5. To investigate the extent soil erosion and sediment yield. 6. To promote protection, conservation and improvement of land resources for the efficient and sustained production 7. To reduce siltation land pollution of rivers 8. To improve the socio-economic conditions of the local people 4.11.2

Scope of the Survey

Watershed delineation which includes: Nomination and Size determination Preparing watershed maps which includes: Base map, Land form map, Land use Map & Development map Verification of watershed morphology: biophysical and Socio economic survey Classifying watersheds using Shape factors Size factors Stability factors 181

 Assessment of Erosion Hazards, includes: Identifying the types of erosion agents o Water erosion o Forms of soil erosion Cause of soil erosion

Wind erosion Cause of wind erosion

Predicting soil loss o o Water erosion Wind erosion

Water erosion Wind erosion

Preparing soil erosion hazard maps

Assessment of sediment yield of watersheds Assessment of runoff yield of watersheds Recommend soil and water conservation both quantitatively and qualitatively Water erosion o o o Wind Erosion Biological physical Biological Biophysical

Estimating the labour requirement to achieve implementation

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4.11.3

Methods

The methods to be applied to undertake the study include the following: 5. field investigation on the biophysical features, extent of soil erosion through extensive field observation of the area 6. Review of available literatures 7. discussion with different level of organizations 8. Discussion with community groups

4.12 GIS and Remote Sensing Application

Majority of the GIS work comes during the detail survey of the land use planning. Starting from preparing base maps for the detail study of each discipline, a number of processing and analyzing tasks will run at this time. 4.12.1 Objectives

GIS & Remote Sensing application in the detail survey has the following objectives: To supply up-to-date digital and spatial information data for the members of the land use planning study group. To maintain acceptable standards accuracy. To minimize cost, wastage of time and manpower at the field. To integrate the whole land use planning studies so as to have a summarized land utilization strategy. o Production of maps. o Overlaying different analysis results. o Identification of potential areas for land utilization.

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4.12.2 Scope The scope of all analysis using GIS tools based the concept of the agreement. According to it, the study is semi-detail of 1:50,000. Therefore, maps will produce in 1:50,000 scale. But, the analysis of any factor follows the sub-basin standards of each project. The intensive use of GIS & Remote Sensing tools and data will start soon the end of the inception report and will goes up to finalizing the project. The spatial data gathered by experts should supported by GIS application. 4.12.3 Methodology

Much of the works to be done in GIS uses different software and computer. These tasks based the digital data collected during the reconnaissance survey, the ground truth will gathered and the information comes from experts. Data will used Digital data DEM/SRTM Landsat images of five years gap since 1985 till present. Shape files of Afar region, Zones, Woredas and Kebelle boundaries. Different existence maps like, soil, vegetation, crop, livestock, population, topography, watershed, climate, infrastructure, land use/land cover, hazard occurrences, geological, hydrology, etc. Books, manuals, guidelines and literatures. Scanned topo sheets. Hardcopy Topographic maps. Manuals and research works.
A. Procedure of Activities: 184

Surface B. Major activities: Analysis Project Area Delineatio Project n Area Delineatio Shapes Analysis Contou r Surface Analysis Hill shade Contour HillSlope shade DEM/SRTM

Base Maps Production Kebelle map Base Maps Catchment Production map Kebelle map Soil map Catchment Infrastructu map re map Shapes & Images Existing Land use/ Land Cover Map Existing Land Using use/ Land Cover FAO Map standard Results s Using FAO standards LGP map Landsat-2010 Thermal map Land Suitability map Soil map Vegetation map Soil erosion hazard map Environment al quality map AEZ map LUTs maps or LMU 185

Interpolation of Climatic data (RF, Thermal zone, etc.) LGP analysis Overlay analysis (ACZ, AEZ, etc.) Suitability analysis (LUTs) Change detection Site analysis (LUTs) Field verification Field verification

5 Expected Output
It is well known fact that the output of this integrated landuse planning approach is highly dependant on both the quality/quantity of credible field data findings. Planned systematic landuse leads to sustainable land resource utilization which ultimately ensures improvement of the livelihood of the residents without which, no development is expected. This basic principle or general truth is only attained through sustainable utilization of the resources on the basis of conducive socio-economic background. For the realization of best out put of the project, synchroizing the outputs of involved professions, be it natural or social assets of the findings would be mandatory, as a result of which a promissing output will be achieved. Bearing this point in mind ,detail description of social problems and socio economic assets of the society residing within the sub basin,reports and a soil map revealing the soil types showing their spatial distribution, agroclimatic zonation , livestock production barriers and potentials as well as animal disease identification and recommend prevention and control measures, existing crop production versus sustainable and scientific method of food and market crop production & protection, sustainable utilization, production, protection and management of forests, design environmental protection and management strategy, georeferenced water resource assessment findings along with wise & efficient resource exploitation technicques, erosion hazard assessments and effective cachment treatment and management strategies, land suitability classification of each land unit for specific utilization where potentials as well as limitations with their respective sound recommendations will thoroughlly be proposed. Hence, based on the findings land suitability map will be prepared to launch landuse planning in the form of spatial distribution at a scale of 1:50,000 and standard reports, which can be considered as a foundation for the commencement of the development activities within the sub-basin.

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6 Work plan
Lower Awash Sub- Basin Landuse Planning Study Project: Activity Activity Schedule

N o.

Activity

Months

activities

fe b

ma r

apr

m ay

jun

jul

aug

se p

oc t

no v

d e c

ja n

f e b

m A a r pr

Detail investigation Secondary data collection and analysis Investigation and survey Laboratory analysis Preparation of intrim report Report review by the client Presentation stakeholders Preparation draft final report Report review by the client Preparation of final report Submission of final report and review result by

7 Reporting
At the completion of the precceding (detail) study, consequetively 3 types of reports are expected to be submitted.
187

1) Intrim report:- This report is expected to be submitted just right after all the

necessary data are collected & compiled

2) Draft( final)report:-This report is going to be submitted to the client after

analysing the data for the purpose of gathering feedbacks . Feedbacks could be on: the quality and quantity of data collected overall applied methodology sequences/procedures
report compositions and other aspects are gathered for the inclusion

within the report.

3) Final report:- As the term itself implies, this report will contain views, comments and suggestions

and any amendments which can be forwarded by the client, and after their inclusions the report will be refined and it will be the final working document of the project.

8 Staffing
Lower Awash land use planning study required professinals and supporting staff deployment schedule

188

N o .
A

position
fe m b ar ap r m ju a y n j l u g p t

months
au se oc no de v c ja n fe b m ar Apr feb ma r apr

Proj.manager Team leader(2) Soil expert(4) Watershed expert GIS expert Land expert Agro-ecologist Agronomist Cartographer Livestock(range andvet)expert(2) Socio-economist (3) evaluation and RS

Forester Environmentalist Hydrologist B Supporting staff Field surveyors technicians(4) Data encoder(2) secretary Driver(6) Daily laborer(10) Enumerator(10) soil and

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9 Resource requirement for field work

Field equipments, Tools and materials for soil survey
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Field bags (back bag) 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Core sampler shovel Digging hoe (Gesso) Plastic sample bags (polyethelene 20cmx30cm) Wash bottles Topographic maps Geomorphology and soil map PH-meter (portable) EC-meter (portable) Set(kit) Pcs Pcs Kg Pcs Pcs Set Pcs Pcs 2 3 3 10 2 20 2 1 1 Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Already at hand MOARD Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Items Dutch Auger with extension Munsell color charts Clinometers Handlens Compass First aid kit 10% HCL Acid dropper( pippete) double ring infiltro meter Set Pcs Pcs Pcs Pcs Pcs Litres Pcs Set Pcs Units Quantity 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 3 3 Means/possible source Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase

190

No. 20 21 22 23

Items Hydraulic conductivity meter/ Guelph permeameter Broad-bladed knife or spatula Geological hammer Field umbrella(Large Garden type) Set Pcs Pcs Pcs

Units

Quantity 1 3 1 4

Means/possible source Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase

Common field and office materials

No. Items Note Book Field shoes (paratrooper boots) Digital Satellite imagery of the site(landsat) Spolt 5 image Markers Measuring tape (5m) Units Pcs pairs Scene Scene/mosaick ed/ Pac. Pcs Quant ity 40 20 30 1 2 2 Means/possible source Enterprise/purchase purchase Already at hand/will be downloaded Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Profession all all all all all soil

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Measuring tape(25m)

pcs

Enterprise/purchase

forestry,livestock,agro nomy, hydrology,watershed

8 9 10

Clip board

Pcs

Enterprise/purchase

all

GPS

Pcs

13

Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase

all

Laptop

pcs

13

all
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11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Flash disk (4GB) CD-R Tracing paper Grid squre Computer paper ruler CD-RW Hipso(height meter) Diameter tape Sony Digital camera > 7.5 mega pixel 21 22 23 Memmory stick for Pcs digital camera(2GB) battery Camera for digital pcs 4 4 1
Enterprise/purchase

pcs Pkt(pack of 50) roll pcs Pkt pcs pcs pcs pcs photo pcs

13 1 1 3 10 5 13 1 1 4

Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase

all Soil,watershed,lan d evaluation watershed evaluation all all all forestry forestry all land

Enterprise/purchase

Enterprise/purchase

Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase Enterprise/purchase

all all hydrology

Enterprise/purchase

Field water quality test pcs kit

Enterprise/purchase

softwares
30mx30m resolution DEM Global mapper 8 Sstat Arc Gis Extensions Arc SWAT,AGWA2, Arc hydro 9.0,KENIROS , Erdas imagine 9.1 Ethio-GIS,

192

Arc GIS 9.3 Arc view GIS ILWIS 3.3 acadamic SPSS Inc statistics 17.0 GPS QV4 Instat softwares Arc

Afar- GIS Loclim CropWat Hydroogic models pad,Touratech Base flow Separation, HBV ,WATBAL

10 references
AFAR NATION REGIONAL STATTE BoFED Regional Atlas 2, June, 2009, SEMERA Afar National Regional State Bureau of pastoral & agro pastoral rural development annual reports (1998-2001). Afar National Regional State, Range land and water development study (MCE, 2001) Afar Region Survey, Identified Agricultural Investment Areas, July 2009, Semera ANRS, A strategic Plan for Sustainable Development, Conservation and Management of the Woody Biomass Resource Rural socio-economic survey final report volume II, Dec. 2003, Addis Ababa Atlas of the Ethiopian Rural Economy, Ethiopian Strategy Support Program, 2004, Addis Ababa AWBSP (2004), A Strategic plan for the sustainable development, conservation And management of woody biomass Azen Bekele (1993), useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia hand book no 6 CHDEP consultant (1998), Forestry action program volume 1 ANRS,BoA

193

CSA , Population Census Result, 2007, Addis Ababa Dubale, A. (2008). Invasive plants and food security: the case of Prosopis Juliflora in the Afar Region of Ethiopia. Finance and Economic Development Bureau of Afar National Regional State, 2006. Regional Atlas of Afar Region, Semera. Gebru Bonger (2001), Vegetation assessment for the proposd regional land use plan METAFERIA CONSULTING ENG. PLC, 2001. Rangelands and Water Development Study, Volume III, Part II, Annex 3E: SOILS. Metaferia Consulting Engineering plc. 2003G.C. Teruu Depression Reconnaissance Survey Study. Addis Ababa PDPA (2005), Compendium of notes on wild life conservation and management Training manual (unpublished) Reddy, T.Y.and G.H.S.Reddi. 1993G.C.principles of Agronomy.Kalyani pub.India WARC-APARI, Assessment Made on the Potential, Constraints and Opportunity on the Production System of Afar Regional State; Case study on selected woredas of Zone 1, 4 & 5, Oct.2007, Semera Werer Agriculture Research Center and Afar Pastoral Agriculture Research Institute. 2009G.C. Assessment on potential, constraint, and opportunity on production system of Afar National Regional State; Case study on selected woredas of zone 1, 4 and 5. 1. Wondimu Asfaw (2001), Forestry development assessment for the proposed regional land use plan FAO (1978-81). Report on the Agro-ecological Zones Project. World Soil Resources Report 48, FAO, Rome. [First systematic agro-ecological assessment of land resources and agricultural crop potentials of all developing countries]. FAO (1995). Digital Soil Map of the World and Derived Soil Properties (Version 3.5). CD-ROM, FAO, Rome. Wilson, R.T., Traore, A., Peacock, C.P., Smack, S. and Agyemang, K., 1985. Early mortality of lambs in African traditional livestock production systems. Vet. Res. Commun. 9, 295301. NMSA (National Meteorology Service Agency), 1996. Climatic and Agroclimatic Resources of Ethiopia. Vol. 1, No. 1. National Meteorology Service Agency of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa.137 pp. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 1978. Report on the Agro-Ecological Zones Project, Vol. 1, Methodology and results for Africa. World Soil Resources Report No. 48. FAO, Rome. FAO (1998): Crop evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements - FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56, Rome. IPCC Technical Summary, 2001. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Technical Summary of the Working Group I Report [Houghton, J.T., Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, and C.A. Johnson (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 94pp. 194

11 Annex
11.1 Annex 1: Questionnaires and Formats
1.

Soil Survey Format for Soil Profile Description

Author_____________ Date_______________ E: ____________ Status_________

Field No. _______________ Project site_______________

Observation site location _________ GPS N: _________ Surface crust__________ Cracking ____________ Elevation____________ Erosion A) At site__________ B) At surrounding_____

Land use ___________ Crop grown_______ Crop grown since when__ Range Land Over grazing__________ Bush encroachment____

Drainage Class/Ext_______ Micro topography______ Land Form__________ Flooding F/D__________ Position______________ GWTD (cm) _________ Permeability_________ Seepage______________ SMU________________ Slope Class___________

Slope aspect/direction_____ Vegetation type_________ Rock out crop___________ Dominant species______

195

Parent material________ Human Influence__________ Horizon symbol Depth(cm) Boundary Moisture Status Color D/T Dry Moist Mottles

Surface Stone/gravels ``______ Invasive species_______

Abundance Size Contrast

Texture Coarse Fragment Abundance Size Structure Grade Size Type Crack Consistency Dry Moist Wet Cutans Abundance Size Nature Cementation Mineral nodules Grade Abundance Color

196

Hardiness Nature Kind Root Abundance Size Pores Abundance Size Carbonate Sample Diagnostic horizon (surface) ______________ Diagnostic property _____________________ FAO field classification___________________ Diagram________________ Sub surface _________________ Depth to paraliltic contact_____ Final Classification____ Remark/Comment,

2. Soil Survey Format for Soil auger observation

Field No. _______________ Project site_______________ Author_____________ Date_______________ E: ____________ Status_________

Observation site location _________ GPS N: _________ Surface crust__________ Cracking ____________ Elevation____________ Erosion A) At site__________ B) At surrounding_____

Land use ___________ Crop grown_______ Crop grown since when__ -Range Land Over grazing__________ Bush encroachment____

Drainage Class/Ext_______ Micro topography______ Land Form__________ _ Flooding F/D__________ Position______________ GWTD (cm) _________ Permeability_________ Parent material________ Seepage______________ SMU________________ Slope Class___________

Slope aspect/direction_____ -Vegetation type_________ Rock out crop___________ Surface Stone/gravel______ Dominant species______ Invasive species_______

197

Human Influence__________ Depth(cm) Moisture Status Color D/T Dry Moist Mottles Abundance Size Contrast Texture Coarse Fragment Abundance Size Top Soil Structure Grade Size Type Consistency Dry Moist Wet Cementation Mineral nodules Grade Abundance Color Hardiness Nature Kind Carbonate Field PH Field EC Diagram and/or comment of the site Diagram and/or comments between sites

198

PART1. Household Level Data Collection Format 1. Identification 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. Name of the respondent _______________________________________ Age ________________ Sex ________________

2. Address 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. Zone ____________________ Woreda _______________________________ kebele _________________________________ Gote__________________________________ AEZ _______ GPS reading N__________ E___________ elevation _______

3. Marital status of the respondent _______________ (Single =1 Married =2 Divorced =3 Widowed = 4 4. Household Characteristics 4.1. household size by age group and sex Separated=5)

Age group Male Female Total Less than 5 years 5 - 14 years 15-29 years 30-64 years Above 64 years Total 4.2. Ethnic origin of the household ______ Amhara = 1 Oromo = 2 Afar = 3 Agew = 4 others = 5 specify _____________ 4.3. Religion _____Orthodox = 1 Pagan = 5 Catholic = 2 Atheist = 6 Protestant = 3

Islam = 4 5. Education 5.1.

Level of education attained by the respondent _____________

(Illiterate = 1 Reading and writing = 2, 1 4 grade = 3 5 8 grade = 4, th 9 10 grade =5 11 12th grade = 6 above 12th grade =7) 5.2. Number of HH members Attending formal education 199

HH members

Male Level

No

Female Level

No

The household head Spouse Other household members Age of 7 14 Age of 15- 24 5.3. Distance of the education systems from your home in walking hrs for a single trip Walking distance in hrs for single trip from your home Below 1 hr = 1 1 2 hrs = 2 2 3 hrs = 3

> 3 hrs = 4 Level of schools First cycle (1-4) Second cycle (5-8), Full primary (1 -8) High School, 9-10, Preparatory, 11-12 TVET, Higher education 5.4. What are the major problems regarding education for your household members? _____ Absence of school in the nearby area =1 Unable to cover school expense = 2 Household demand for child labor =3 Drought and transhumance = 4 Ethnic or clan conflict =5 If Other specify _____________________ 5.5. Is there any family member who has dropped out from school in 2001(E.C)-5.6. Yes = 1 No = 2 What was the reason for the dropout _______________________________

6. Health 6.1. What are the common diseases affecting the health of your household members _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________ 6.2. 6.2.1. 6.3. Have you ever faced malarial problem in the last two-three years? Yes = 1 No = 2

If yes, what is the cause of malaria?_____________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ How far is the nearest health service to your household Walking distance in hrs for single trip Below 1 hr = 1 1 2 hrs = 2

Type health service Hospital

2 3 hrs = 3

> 3 hrs = 4

200

Health center Health post Private clinic 6.4. Means of transportation to get access to health service? Type of transport Pack animals Vehicles

on foot Type of health service Hospital Health center Health post Private clinic 7. Water supply and sanitation 7.1.

Others (specify

Main sources of water for drinking and cooking;_______________ River =1 Pond = 2 Lake = 3 Hand dug well =4 Developed spring =5 Piped water = 6) No =2

7.2. 7.3. 7.4.

Do you pay for your domestic water? _______ Yes =1

If your answer is yes, how much do you pay per month (In birr)____________ Who among your household members usually collect water for domestic use? ____ Wife =1 Female children =2 Male children = 3 Husband = 4 All = 5 No =2

7.5. 7.6. 7.7. 7.8. 7.9. 7.10.

Do you have Water Users Association for domestic water supply? ____ Yes =1

What are the major problems you usually encounter in relation to water supply? ______ Distance = 1 Scarcity = 2 Not protected = 3 Is there any traditional copying mechanism of water problems in the area? Yes = 1 No= 2 If yes to the above, please indicate them ___________________________ Do you have toilet? ______ Yes = 1 Do your watering points have cattle traph? No =2

8. Household expenses 8.1. estimated average Monthly expense of your household for home consumption in 2001 E.C ________Birr Volume of expense in birr

List of expenditure household consumptions (salt, coffee, soap ,food oil, kerosene, charcoal others) Education expense

201

Medical or health expense Others (specify) Total 8.2. Social and other obligatory expenses please show the detail using the following table List of expenses item Tax Membership fee Expenses for religious purpose Traditional/ritual ceremony loan repayment Bank interest Interest for money lenders Aid delivered for relatives/friends Other expenses Total Volume of expense in birr Remarks

Part 2: Focus Group Discussion Address:Zone________________Woreda_____________________ _________________ AEZ _________________ Group type A. household heads B. women C. youth D. Kebele meeting Kebele

1. What are the main development problems in the area and their possible solutions? S.No Main development problems Possible solutions?

2. What are the major development opportunities in your area? S.No Major development opportunities of the area

Ranking order

202

3.

What are the major social problems, regarding, health; education; water; and sanitation, access to road etc. in the area? Health Education Water supply Sanitation Access to roads

S.No

4. What are types of livestock feed resources in the area S.No Types of feed sources Rank Remarks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Grazes Browses Crop residues Fresh lives, weeds Cut and carry (Zero Grazing) Stubble Brazes Others

5. Do the amount of feeds and numbers of animals are matching in the area? What solution measures should be taken? S.No measures should be taken Rank REASONS 1 2 3 4 Forage Development Destocking Infrastructure improvement Market improvement

203

5 6

Breeds improvement Others specify

6. Is the grazing land and livestock population increasing or decreasing? Why ? A. Grazindland_________________________________________________________________ B. Livestock _______________________________________________________________ C. population________________________________________________________________ 7. Do you agree with the following Land utilization type for these areas? S.No LUTs Acceptance or rejection 1 Sedentary Grazing Land REASONS

Communal Grazing land Individual Grazing land

2 3 4 5 6 Stubble Grazing land Enclosure areas pasture cultivation Improver irrigation pasture cultivation Offices site pasture cultivation Transhumance Grazing Land

8. Which types of livestock production is more preferred by community in the area S.No Type of livestock Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Small Scale dairy Production Meat Production (Fattening, oxen, sheep and goat) Small Ruminant Production Bee keeping Poultry Production Fishery production Small Scale Integrated Livestock production Camel Production

Reasons

204

Equine Production Small Scale dairy Production

10 11

Meat Production (Fattening, oxen sheep and goat) Small Ruminant Production

9. What are types of crops community prefer to grow? Why S.No Types of crops Rank Reasons for preference

Remark

10. Do you agree with the introduction of the following crops S.No Crop type Sweet potato Cassava Enset Mung bean Apple Plum cotton Acceptance or rejection Reason/s

11. What is attitude and knowledge of community about improved varieties, technologies, and other practices in the area?

205

a. Improved seeds ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ b. Fertilizers ( natural and artificial) natural fertilizer( compost, manure, etc) ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Artificial fertilizers ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________

c. Chemicals (insecticides, Herbicides, fungicides etc) ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ d. Farm tools and equipments( tieridger, BBM, planter, etc) ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ e. Water harvesting technologies( Geo membrane, Motor pumps, pedal and tridle pumps etc) ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________
12. Is irrigation the priority for the community of your kebele? Why? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________ 13.Which type of irrigation method is common in your community? Why? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________ 206

14. Are there any problems in relation to irrigation activities, schemes etc in the area? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________ 15. Who plays decisive role in making decisions regarding land use in the area? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 16. What is the role of women regarding resource allocation, administration and community development? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________ 17. Is there any land use conflicts in the area? If so, what are the main causes of the problems and conflict resolving mechanism? If there is any S.No Types of land use conflict Source of conflict Mechanism of resolution

18. How conflict of land use resolving mechanism is applied? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________ 19. What are the coping mechanisms of landless farmers in the area? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________ 20. What are local land resource administrations and management practices on communal lands? 207

____________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ 21. In what types of activities do the community members participate together and what motivate them to the participation? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________ 22. Which types of soil and water conservation activities do communities prefer to practice?

S.No Physical activities

Types of spp used for Biological conservation

Other activities

Remark

23. What is the attitude of community to physical and biological soil conservation campaign activities? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________ 24. What types of forestry activities do communities prefer? S.No Activities Rank Benefits and services

25. What are the legal or customary use and tenure rights of the existing forests?

208

_________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________ 26.Is there farmers willingness to plant and mange trees/shrubs on different land uses? What species do farmers prefer? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________

27. What future changes or amendments are required in forest development? _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ __
28.How do people in the area get together to discuss issues of community concerns? Is the discussion through, formal community organizations? Through iddir? Religious leaders? Through esteemed leaders? Through other ways? ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________ 29. How do you classify, the rich, medium and the poor in your community? And what is the interest of each of these in the community? S.No The Rich The medium The Poor Criteria 1 2 3 4 5 Interest Criteria Interest Criteria Interest

30.What is importance of NGOs and investors in the area and what is the level of participation of community? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ 209

_________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _____ 31. Do you think that the extension service is enough? Why? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________ 32. Do you have any other issues to mention in relation to land use in the area? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________

33. What is the experience of management and utilization of mountain area, degraded areas, communal grazing areas and closure areas? _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ ____
List of participants S.No Name sex age Remark

Part 3: Sectoral Offices Checklist Questionnaire

1.1 Location

210

A/ Distance

From zonal capital (in km)_____________________________ From Semera (in km)_____________________________

B/ Boundary

In the North__________ In the South__________ In the East___________ In the West _________

12. Topography and area coverage: A/ Topography___________ B/ Altitude______________ C/ Area coverage (in km2) ___________ D/Number of kebele Administrative units: Rural_______ Urban______ Total________ 1.3 Agro-ecology A/ Kola____________(in %) B/ Weina Dega_____________(in %) C/ Dega___________________(in %) 1.4 Climate A/ Temperature________________(in 0 C) B/ Mean annual rainfall____________ (in mm) 1.5 Water bodies (if any) A/ River____________________ B/ Stream___________________ C/ Lake____________________ D/ Others___________________ D/ Bereha __________________(in %)

a. Human Resources
1. Population -Total population____________ Male_____________ Female__________________ Female__________________

-Households________________ Male______________ -Average household size in the district____________ 2. Rural work force by age I. 0-14___________________ II. 15-60__________________ III. 61 and above_____________

Rural__________ Urban________

211

3. Describe the division of labor and the role of women in your district

____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________ b. Infrastructures 1. Describe the type and length of road in the district Asphalt in km_________________________ All weather road in km_________________ Dry weather road in km_________________ Total in km________________________________
2. Do you have access to telecommunication service in your woreda? 1. Yes ________ 2. No_________ If yes, list down the name of villages and town getting the service ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ___ 3. List down towns and villages that have access to electricity

____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________

Institutions 1.1Governmentalinstitutions_____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ __________ A. 1. 2. 3. 4. B. Community-based organizations Non-governmental institutions/ organizations _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________

1.______________________________________ 2.______________________________________

212

3._______________________________________

Do they participate in the local development, social welfare and service in the district?
1.Yes_____ 2. No_____ If yes, describe the type of activities and their scope of involvement? ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ________ 1.4. What are the financial institutions available in the district including rural credit and saving institutions? Bank__________________ Insurance_________________ Credit and saving institutions______________ Others____________ If there are rural credit and saving institutions, does the community of the areas have access to credit? on what basis?_____________________ 1.5 Settlement pattern: A/ Scattered_________________ C/ On what does the settlement pattern based? -(Clan, lineage or kinship)______________________ -Economic activity____________________________ -Religious places_____________________________ -Administrative centers________________________ D/ Is there any relationship between settlement pattern and livestock rearing and sheltering in Yes______ 2. No_______ the area? 1. B/ Clustered_________________

If yes, how? ______________________________________________________________________________ E/ Is there any tendency to change the current settlement pattern on the part of the community in particular? 1. Yes_______ 2. No_________ If Yes, why and how?______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________

213

Name of the District Administrator____________________________ Signature_________________________ Date_____________________________

__________________________________ Official stamp Part 4: Checklist questions for District Agricultural & Rural Development Office 1) What are the main land ownership types in the woreda? 1. _________________________ 2. _________________________ 3. _________________________ 4. _________________________ Describe the characteristic feature of each land use types (land use pattern) prevailing in the area (in ha)

____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________

2) What are the major farming systems in the woreda? N o 1 2 3 4 5 Farming system % in ha Total population engaged in

3) What are the major crops grown in the woreda 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. ________________, average yield in quintal/ha______ _________________, average yield in quintal/ha _____ ________________, average yield in quintal/ha _____ ________________, average yield in quintal/ha _____ ________________, average yield in quintal/ha ______ ________________, average yield in quintal/ha ______ ________________, average yield in quintal/ha _____ ________________, average yield in quintal/ha _____ 214

4) What is the average landholding of the district? _______________________________________________________ 5) Is there any Irrigation scheme? Improved 1. Yes_____2. No _____ Traditional 1. Yes_____2. No _____ 6) If yes describe its location, current status and beneficiaries. ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ________ 7) Are there any potential Irrigable water sources in the woreda? 1.Yes_____2.No ______

8) If yes, describe them ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________

9) What are the major problems/constraints that hinder agricultural development in the woreda?
__________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________

10) What are the possible solutions to overcome the problems? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________

11) Please list down the major types of livestock and its current population in the woreda.

No.

Types of animals

Number of animals

1
2 3 4 5

215

12) How many veterinary services are available in the woreda? Location and type? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ ________ Do they provide the required services? 1. Yes______ 2. No________ If No, why _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ ______ 13) How many vet. Service providers are there in the district? ______________________________________________ 14) Do you have livestock marketing places in your woreda? 1.Yes_______2.No_______ If yes, describe the locations and time of establishment ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____

15) Are the existing markets enough to provide the required services? 1.Yes_______2.No_______ If no, what are other alternative areas for livestock market (indicate the name of the market place) ______________? And what is its distance from your area (in km)? ______________ Km.

16) What are the main problems regarding livestock production in the woreda? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________

17) Describe development potentials related to livestock production in your woreda? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________

18) Are there any problems in relation to rangeland management (such as overgrazing, bush encroachment, agricultural land expansion and grazing land conflict)? ____________________________________________________________________________________
216

____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________

19) Are there any traditional land management practices in the area? Describe, if any ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________

20) Are there any land use conflicts in the area (such as conflicting interests between pastoralists and farmers)? Describe the source of conflicts. ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________ 21) Please describe the situation of extension service in the woreda; i.e., its availability, extent of implementation, and problems encountered. ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________
22) Are there any (livestock specific-trained) Development Agents (DAs) in the District? 1. Yes_______2. No________ 23) If your answer is no, have you encountered any problems regarding Development Agents assignments in the district? 1. yes_______2. No_________

If yes, please specify______________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

24. What are the major types of crops grown? No 1 Crops Rain fed agriculture 1999/2000 Area, ha 2000/01 Yield qt/ha 2001/2002 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/2002

217

Irrigated agriculture

25. Farming systems How many kebeles are engaged in the following farming systems (HH or %) No No of kebeles Mixed farming Pastorals Agropastoralist

Name of District Agricultural and Rural Development Office Head____________________________ Signature_________________________ Date____________________________

_______________________________________ Official stamp Part 5: Checklist questions for district Health Office A/ List the number of health institutions in the district. Number 1 2 3 4 5 Type of institutions Hospital Health center Clinic Health post Private clinic 218 Number Remark/status

6 7 8 Total

Rural drug vender NGO clinic Health post

B/ How many health professionals are there in the above institutions? Number Type of profession Male 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Physician Health officer Nurse Health assistant Pharmacist Lab.Techinician Sanitary X-ray tech. Health extension workers Others(specify) Number Female Total

C/ Describe the health coverage of the district ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ________ D/ What are the top ten diseases that are responsible for morbidity and mortality in the district? 1. 2. 3. 4. ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ 219

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

E/ What are the major health problems in the district? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________
Name of District Health Office Head____________________________ Signature_________________________ Date_____________________________ _______________________________________ Official stamp

Checklist questions for District Education Office 1. How many schools are there in the woreda? 1-4________________________ 9-10_______________________ 5-8________________________ 11-12______________________

Preparatoryschool____________TVT________________________ Colleges____________________ 2. How many students are attending in the above schools in 2002 E.C.? Table 1: Number of student and coverage Number of students and coverage Descriptions Male Female Total Coverage (%) 1-4 5-8 Share of female students (%)

220

9-1011-12 Preparatory TVT College Total

3. What is the total number of students drop out in2002 E.C.? Male_______ Female______ Total_______ 4. What are the reasons for the students drop out in the woreda? ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ________ 5. Is there non-formal education structure in the woreda? 1. Yes______2.No______ If yes, how many people are attending? Adult: Male______ Female_______ Total________ Children: Male______ Female_______ Total________ 6. Who established the non-formal schools? A/ Government___ B/ NGOs_______ C/ Government and NGOs__________ 7. Please, indicate: A/ Adult literacy level______________________ (in %) B/ School age children______________________ (in number and %) -Male___________ Female____________ Total_______________ C/ Education coverage of the district________________ (in %) 8. Describe the ratio of class to student and teacher to student in the district average by the year 2000 E.C (for formal education system). Table 2: Class and teacher to student ratio Description Class to student ratio Teacher to student ratio 221

1-4 5-8 9-10 11-12 Preparatory

9. What is the average educational coverage of the district by cycle and sex? ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ __ 10. What are the major problems regarding? A/ Formal education ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ B/ Non-formal education in the district? ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 11. Describe major problems and possible solutions regarding formal and non-formal education? Problems____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ Suggestedsolutions_____________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 12. Specify the number of teachers in the district by profession? Table: 3 Qualification of teachers in the District Type of profession Male Female Total

11.1.1.1.1.1 Degree
Diploma TTI

222

11.1.1.1.1.1.1 Total
Name of District Education Office Head____________________________ Signature_________________________ Date_____________________________

__________________________________ Official stamp Checklist questions for Womens Affairs Office

1. What is the situation of women and girls regarding:

A/ Access to resource ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ B/ Resource control ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ C/Decision-making roles ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ D/ Schooling (for girls) ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________
223

E/ Marriage and partner selection ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ F/ Women participation in administration and development activities in the district ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________

2. What are the major problems of women in the district in economic aspects? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________

3. What measures are being taken to bridge the widening gap between male and female in social and economic aspects? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________

4. Could you mention some obstacles pertaining to female education in the district? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________
224

5 Explain briefly the prevailing harmful traditional practices in the district? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________

6. What measures did your office take to prevent theses social problems? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________

7. Did your office make any progress in confronting theses problems? 1. Yes____2. No_____ If yes mention these improvements? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________

8. Mention some problems your office is currently facing? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ 9. What do you think should be done to stop these problems? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________
225

Name of District Womens Affairs Office, Head____________________________ Signature_________________________ Date___________________________

__________________________________ Official stamp

Food Security and DPPA Coordination Office of the district 1. How many food insecured kebeles are there in the district: A/ household Male____________ Female_______________Total___________________
B/Size of population: Male__________ Female____________ Total_________________

2. Type and amount of food items distributed (in Kg,liter,or any other measurement) in the district in : 2000 E.C____________2001 E.C_________ 2002 E.C____________ 3 .Is it decreasing or increasing?__________________ Why? ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. What are the eligibility criteria for screening the people for food aid? ____________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________ 5. What are the major causes that led to food shortage in the district? ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ___

6. Is the number of vulnerable people increasing or decreasing? ____________________________________________ Ifincreasingwhy? ______________________________________________________________________________ Ifdecreasing,whyandhow? ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

226

7. What is the attitude of the community towards food aid? ____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________

8. Do the people incline to be helped for unlimited time of period or not? ____________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________ 9. Is there any sign of dependency syndromes in the area regarding food aid? ____________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________ 10. If you have any other issue to raise regarding food insecurity and food aid in the district, please state;________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________ Name of District Food security and DPPA Coordination office head____________________________ Signature_________________________ Date_____________________________ __________________________________ Official stamp Cooperative Promotion office of the District 1. Total number of cooperatives in the district___________________ 2. Types of cooperatives in the district: A. B. C. D. E. ___________________________________ ___________________________________ ___________________________________ ___________________________________ ___________________________________

3. Total number of members of cooperatives: Male_________ Female__________ Total___________ 4. Please, indicate the achievements of each of the cooperatives so far: ____________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________

227

5. What is the attitude of the community in general and beneficiaries in particular towards cooperatives in the district? A/Community_________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________ B/ Beneficiaries ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ 6. What are the major problems you encountered regarding cooperative promotion in the district? ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________ Name of District Cooperative Promotion Office Head____________________________ Signature_________________________ Date_____________________________ _____________________________ Official stamp Agronomy

1.

Are you engaged in crop production? _____Yes=1, No=2, If yes a. what are the crops you produced in the last cropping seasons(Meher)

Type of crops Cereal 1 2 3 4 Cash crops 1 2 Oil Crops 1 2

Total production Area(ha) Yield(Qt)

For consumption (quintals)

For animal feed(qt)

For sale Volume sold Unit price

Remark

228

Others

b. What are the crops you produced in the last cropping seasons(Belg)
Type of crops Cereal 1 2 3 4 Cash crops 1 2 3 Oil Crops 1 2 3 Others Total production Area(ha) Yield(Qt) For consumption (quintals) For animal feed(qt) For sale Volume sold Unit price Remark

2.

How many times do you produce per annum on a given plot of land? _________
Once =1 Twice =2 Three times =3 More than three times=4

2.1. Do you practice small-scale irrigation? ________ Yes = 1 irrigation in ha;

No = 2

If the answer is yes to the above, how many (ha.) of land is allocated for each type of

1. Traditional (ha) _______2. Modern (ha) _______water harvesting ______ (ha)

What benefits you obtained from irrigation in the last 3 years? ___________
Better production = 1 Sustainable food supply = 3 Better incomes_= 2 other benefits = 4

What are the crops you produced in the last cropping seasons under irrigation?
Type of crops Cereal 1 2 3 4 229 Total production Area(ha ) Yield(Qt ) For consumptio n (quintals) For animal feed(qt) For sale Volume sold Unit price At which month Rema rk

Cash crops 1 2 3 Oil Crops 1 2 3 Others

3.

How far you are interested to adopt new variety of crop that are suitable to the area and more productive than the usual __________
Interested = 1 somewhat interested = 2, after testing = 3 Not interested = 4 other, specify = 5

_______ 4. Are you interested to cultivate the following crops? If yes, please show your interest in order of

your preference 1,2, 3/ No

Crop types (Rain fed) Sorghum (> Maize () Finger millet () Teff () Rice() Barley () Faba bean () Wheat () Soya bean ( ) Chickpea () Sesame () Niger seed () Cotton() Pepper() 5. Response, If yes 1, 2,3/No.) Crop types (Rain fed) Onion () Tomato () Potato () Haricot bean() Garlic ( ) Banana () Papaya () Mango () Apple () Sweet potato(/) Response, If yes 1, 2, 3 3/No)

Do you practice crop rotation? ________ Yes =1

No =2

a. if yes types of crops rotated

If the area is using Meher and Belg First Year Second Year 230

Type of crop in Meher .______________then .______________then .______________then .______________then .______________then

Type of crop grown in Belg ________________then ________________then ________________then ________________then ________________then

Type of crop in Meher _________________the n _________________the n _________________the n _________________the n _________________the n

Type of crop in Belg _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________

If the area is using only Meher o o o _____________then___________________then ___________________ _____________then___________________then ___________________ _____________then___________________then ___________________

If the area is using only Belg o o o _____________then___________________then ___________________ _____________then___________________then ___________________ _____________then___________________then ___________________

b. If no why _______________________________________________________________________
6.

Do you practice intercropping?__________ Yes =1

No =2

If yes to the above, what type of crops do you grow together? _________________ & _________________ & _________________ & __________________ ___________________ ____________________

7.

What Type of inputs and farm equipments you used for cropping activities in the last cropping season
Quantity For rain fed Unit cost in Total cost Quantity For irrigation Unit cost Total cost (birr) 231

Type of input Seeds

Type of input

For rain fed Birr (birr)

For irrigation in Birr

Fertilizers

Agro-chemicals

Farm tools/equipments

8.
S.No

What types of seeds and planting methods do you use?

Crop type Improved seed Planting method Area covered local seed Planting method Area covered

9.

How was utilization for last cropping season

Labor purchased/rented for 2008/09 crop production For Land preparation weeding Harvesting man-day oxen day man-day man-day F H Unit price F H Unit price F H Unit price F H Unit price Threshing and storing man-day F H Unit price

Crops grown Existing Crops Rain fed

Irrigation

N.B F= family labor H=haired labor

232

10. Are there problems regarding insect pest, disease and weeds?_____ Yes= 1 If yes what are the common pests, disease, and weeds Common insect pests Host crop Control measure

No =2

Common Weeds

Host crop

Control measure

Common Diseases

Host crop

Control measure

11. What are the farming tools you usually use for cultivation?
Farm equipments Activities performed Remark

12. What are the major problems you encounter on crop production and possible solutions Farming system
Under rain fed

Problems

Rank of severity

Suggested solutions

233

Under irrigation

Livestock (HH)

1. Do you have own livestock? (1=Yes, 2= no)________. 2. If yes, mention the types and number of livestock that you have with their purpose?
Total amoun t Purpose 1= for home meat, 2= for draught power, 3= for fattening, 4= for sale, 5= for Milk, 6= for Egg, 7= For Breeding, 8= others (specify) Amount for mentione d purpose Income earned (Birr) from sale of livestock, rent, products and byproducts

Type of animals

Uni t

Cattle Oxen Bulls Cow

Heifers

Local improved Local improved male female

Sheep/Goat

Calves

Sheep Goats

Equines Camels Horses Mule Donkey Beehives

Traditional Transitional
234

Type of animals

Poultry

Modern Local improved

Uni t

Total amoun t

Purpose 1= for home meat, 2= for draught power, 3= for fattening, 4= for sale, 5= for

Amount for mentione

Income earned (Birr) from sale of livestock, rent, products and byproducts

Fish 2. What are the main problems of livestock rearing? (Rank from highest to lowest) 2 .1 1st ____ 2nd ______3rd ________4th _________5th _________ 6th_________ 7th-------------------Shortage of feed = 1 shortage of capital = 2 Livestock diseases_= 3 scarcity of water supply= 4 management = 5, Luck of improved forage seed, cut and seedling 6 =.impact of chemicals application for apiculture = 7. If others, please specify-----------------------------------------------2.2. If the problem for (Q 2.1) is Shortage of feed what are/is the reasons? Expansion of farmlands = 1 Expansion of the size of grazing stock = 3, Erratic Rainfall = 2 Termite invasion = 4

Lack of improved seed, seedlings abs cuts=5, If others, Lack of awareness and = 7 specify----------------technical support=6 3. What is the dominant source of feed for your livestock at each season? (Put X sign) Type of feed sources At wet season Natural Grazing and browsing Crop residues Hay Industrial by products Improved forages If any Other, specify 4. What are the main grazing and browsing plant species in this area? At dry season

S.No Grasses Shrubs and bush Trees 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. Describe type of grazing system commonly practiced in your grazing land. S.No 1 Type of Grazing system Free Grazing 235 Rank (1st, 2nd .) At present Reasons In the future

2 3 4 5

Rotational Grazing Tethered Grazing Zero Grazing If any other; please specify-------------6. If the answer for Q. 5 is not, what measures should be taken to use properly the surplus feed resources? --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7. What strategy you practiced for developing improved forage? (Circle answer(s))
1= Backyard forage development system 2= Over saw forage development system 3= Closure area forage development system 4= Inter cropping 5= under sawing 6= Hedge system 7= others (mention) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8. What is the water source for your livestock that serve more than 3 months within a year?
1 = Lake 2 = River 3 = springs 4= Dam 5= piped water 6= Hand dug well 7= pond 8= taped water

9. Round trip distance to reach to each Q.8 water source for livestock? -------- Hrs. 10. What problems you encountered associated with water; circle answer(s)?
1= shortage, 2= remoteness, 3= water born diseases 4= others (specify) -----------------------------------------------------11. Have you got any veterinary services? (Yes/No)----------------------12. .Do you pay for the Vet clinic service? ______ Yes=1 No=2

13. If yes; how much did you pay in the last 1-year? _________ Below 20 birr = 1 20-50 birr =2, 60-80 birr= 3, 80-100 birr=4 above 100 birr=5

14. Are there any land use conflicts in the area (such as conflicting interests between pastoralists and farmers, transhumance and sedentary farmers)? Describe the source of conflicts.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15. Do you have a source of fish? (Yes=1, No=2)------------------16. If your answer is yes for question no. 15; what are your fish sources? (1= Lake, 2= River Dam 5= others (mention)__________________ 17. Do you agree with the following Land Utilization Types (LUT) for your locality? 4= pond 3=

236

Sr.no 1

LUTs Sedentary grazing land Communal grazing land Individual grazing land Stubble grazing land Enclosure areas pasture cultivation land Improve irrigation pasture cultivation land Offices site pasture cultivation land Transhumance grazing land Combined forage production with crop Combined forage production with forest Improved forage( seeds, seed lings and cuts) land

Rank (1st,2nd ---) At present In the future

Reason

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

18. Proposed land utilization types on livestock production and farmers interest on it. 18.1. LUTs
S.No . 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2 2.1 2.2 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 4 4.1 4.2 5 5.1 5.2 6 7 Proposed LUTs Fattening cattle sheep Goats Camel Dairy using Local variety Improved variety Apiculture using Traditional bee hives Transitional bee hives Modern bee hives Poultry production using Local variety Improved variety Fishery production using Communal water sources pond Camel production Integrated livestock production 237 Indicate the interest you are going to engaged in the activity in rank (1, 2, 3.)

18.2 If you are interested in Apicultural production, what will be the feed sources you are proposing? (1= Natural forest, 2= Artificial forest, 3= Improved forage)______ 1 Animal health 1.1 What are the most sever disease of cattle in the area.(rank)

1. CBPP-------

2. Bovine pastreulosis -------

3. Anthrax --------- 4. black leg------8. Internal parasite --------9.

5. Brucellosis --------- 6. T.B --------- 7. Trypanosomiasis --------External parasite --------1.2 What are the most sever disease of camel in the area.(rank)

1. Trypanosomiasis --------2. Unknown camel disease----------------- 4. External parasite --------1.3 What are the most sever disease of goat and sheep in the area.(rank)

3. Internal parasite

1. PPR --------- 2.CCPP ------- 3.ovine pastreulosis--------5. Internal parasite --------6. External parasite ---------.

4. Sheep and goat------

1.4. What are the most sever disease of donkeys in the area. (Rank)

1. African horse sickness--------3. Internal parasite--------1.5 Number of animals that are treated and vaccinated

2. Epizootic lymphngitis--------4. External parasite---------

Infectious diseases

Internal parasite

Anthrax

Shoat pox

Bovine Camel

CCPP

CBPP

AHS

PPR
238

BP

OP

BG

Type of animals

External parasite

trypanosomiasis

Out breaks

Goat and sheep Donkeys

1.6 Ho w you solve when your animal faces birth complexity (dystocia, still birth)

A. By local treatment

B. veterinary clinics C .others( specify)

1.7 Which is the most severe problem of mechanical injury in the area? 1. Branding --------- 2.bush torn--------bite--------3. Horn torn --------4. Heyna bite--------5.Fox

1.8 What is your nearest veterinary health service?

Veterinary institution veterinary clinic post veterinary clinic

Distance in (km)

Time in hour or day

1.9 have you ever received animal health education on diseases prevention and control? 1. Yes 2. No

If the answer is yes, please specify ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

11.2 Annex 2: Collected tabular data

239

Table 7: Afar Region Roads Network

Roads level All weather roads /km/ 365 Dry weather roads /km/ 172 Total in km 1827 625 54 40 15 198 123 235 85 40 71 169 95 77 769.5 11.5 74 35 100 102 7 8 11 35 45 24 60 120 38 33 50 16 795 33 50 46 27 30 71 60 35 10 102 70 60 75 35 61 30 3,391.5 Regional road coverage per 1000km2 17.37 Regional road coverage per 1000 people 1.17

s/n 4. 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 1.7. 1.8. 1.9. 1.10. 1.11. 1.12. 1.13. 5. 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 1.7. 1.8. 1.9. 1.10. 1.11 1.11. 1.12. 1.13. 1.14. 1.15. 1.16. 6. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7 3.8 3.9. 3.10. 3.11. 3.12. 3.13. 3.14. 3.15. 3.16.

Authors /controlled by/ Federal Roads Authority Awash Tabia- Eretria boundary geblayitu- Aysaiyta Main road/Dobi/- Galafi Awash Afar region boundary Serdo - Afdera MilleChifraAmhara region border Aballa- Erebti Afdera Mille Burqa Komame - Shewarobit Hida Yallo Semera -Didigsala-Yallo Aliyuamba -Dulecha-Awash Arba Aballa -Liele Regional Rural Roads Authority Semera Dubti Aysaita Dichoto Aysaita -Afambo Kasa mender - Dalifage Kasa mender Hida Main road Melka sedi Main road- Melka worer Melka sedi Melka worer Kuiha - Aballa Dessa Berahille Zoble Kelewan Markyu Muslle- Kori Dalifage Farssi- Semurobi Atsebi - Koneba Allele subla- Harra Sawni Ma awi-Adekuwa Melka worer- Dofin- Bolham Low quality community roads Dubti - Detbaheri Berahille-Ahimed ella Shaigubi - Berahille Koneba - Damayile Dameyil Berahille Awsh 7 kilo - Laburei Aballa Wolema Elide ar - Amino Main road - Debel Aballa- Berahille Berahille - Adekewa Mille Gure ella Aballa Erebti Aballa - Geliso Kalli Hurmu - Megalle Hanledebei Main roa Total

Asphalt /km/ 1290 625 54 40 15 198 123 235

Remark

85 40 71 169 95 77 413.5 11.5 35 35 100 102 7 8 11 35 45 24 356 39

Under constr Under constr Design revised 4.34 0.29

60 120 38 33 50 16 795 33 50 46 27 30 71 60 35 10 102 70 60 75 35 61 30 1,290 778.5 1,323

8.35

0.56

21.721

1.47

Source: Afar Region Rural Roads Authority weather condition roads

NB: - The road coverage is calculated only by all

240

GPS Points of field observations at randomly selected kebeles

Dubti woreda No . 1 2 3 4 5 Northing Easting Eleva tion (masl ) 375 372 372 357 370 Kebele Specific locality Bordering Aysaita woreda Bordering Aysaita woreda KURUB MEDA HYDRO FLUME TENDAHO SUGAR PLANTATION Descriptions

37P 0746890 37P 0730732 37P 0735923 37P 0730955 37P 0728752

1299554 1296659 1304028 1298280 1298525

BEBEDETA DEBELINA AYROLAFNA GEBELAYTU DEBELNA HELEBAYIRE DEBELNA HELEBAYIRE GEBELAYTU

Very vast levelland with silty soil texture exte texture (towards Aysaita )which is an extensi shallow soil depth, wind erosion is evident; Alluvial and aeolian deposits, sandy loam soi drained

37p 0719496

1303804

434

Level land devoid of vegetation with silt soil t alluvial depostion, seasonal ponding, shallow drained Almost level land with silty clay loam soil tex moderately well drained Gently slopping plain, to some extent fine tex silty clay loam to loam soil texture, flood plai moderatly well drained, very deep soil, seaso suitable for sugar cane plantation; Sandy surface adjoining by silty soil texture w crop coverage, open shrub land, seasonal po especially on the left side of the main road to shallow soil depth

Afambo woreda N o. 1 2 Northing Eastin g 12724 19 12749 71 Elevati on (masl) 340 352 Kebele Speci fic locali ty Descriptions

37P07844 89 37P07766 53

MEGO ALASABO LO

Level land, heavy clay , very deep fertile alluvial soil, good vegetation growth, extensive farm land;well drained soil. Level land, silty clay loam to sandy loam, extensive farm land, maize is the dominant crop followed by sisame, pepper, onion, date palm, well drained, very deep and fertile alluvial soil, highly suitable for horticultural crops; Descriptions

Mille woreda N o. 1 Northing Eastin g 12612 63 Elevati on (masl) 566 Kebel e GIGAN A BURTE LE Specifi c localit y

37P06865 06

Dry coarse sandy texture, Medium gradient hill with extensive rockout crop and surface coarse fragment

241

Ewa woreda N o. 1 Northin g Eastin g Elevati on (masl) 987 Kebel e BADUL E Specifi c locality Awra river dam Specific locality Descriptions Composite land form plain with undulating land feature, alluvial origin with medium soiltexture, very deep and well drained, better vegetation cover Descriptions

037p 13105 060593 36 3 Chifra woreda Northing Eastin g

No . 1

N o. 1 2 3

37p 12846 061214 54 2 2 37P 12836 061152 69 7 3 37P 12831 061151 43 Northing Easting 6 37P 0767744 37P 0769171 37P 0777028 127754 1 128109 9 127513 1

Elevati on (masl) 912 928 925 Elevat ion (masl) 350 350 357

Kebele CHIFRA

Fluvial soil type, Hilly and undulating, high risk of river bank erosion, gabion check dams are constructed for erosion controll. NEAR Level land form, alluvial soil with sity sandy texture CHIFRA and very deep, moderatly well drained, productive area but large active gullies. TINISH Very fertile soil of alluvial and colluvial origin with CHIFRA loam soil texture, shrub land with scatered Acacia Kebele Specific Descriptions species, good for crop production, severe gully locality erosion. BERGA Flat land, alluvial deposits, very deep sandy loam texture, moderatly well drained HINELE Level land, wood land trees, seasonally flooded area, Fine DEN textured hydromorphic soils (gleysols) in association with vertisols, trees are dried due to roots suffocation Bordering to Afambo woreda the land form is somewhat Gently slopping plain, crop land with silty clay soil texture of which partial area of land dominantly covered by exotic Prosopis juliflora with sporadic gravel and coarse soil fragment coverage.

MAMU LE

242

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