CHAPTER 2: CELLS

I. Cell Theory a. Cell Theory i. All organisms are composed of one or more cells ii. Cells are the smallest units of life iii. All cells come from pre-existing cells iv. Functions of Life 1. Metabolism involves all chemical reactions in an organism 2. Growth limited but always evident 3. Reproduction involve hereditary molecules that can be passed to offspring 4. Response imperative to the survival of the organism 5. Homeostasis maintaining a constant internal environment 6. Nutrition providing a source of compounds with many chemical bonds which can be broken down to provide organism with energy and nutrients necessary to maintain life b. Cells and Sizes i. Cells > organelles > bacteria > viruses > membranes > molecules c. Limiting Cell Size i. Rate of heat and waste production and the rate of resource consumptions are functions of its volume ii. Cells with more surface area per unit volume are able to move more materials in and out of the cell, for each unit volume of the cell iii. Width of objects increases, surface area also increases but at a much slower rate large cells have relatively less surface area to bring in needed material and get rid of wastes. d. Cell reproduction and Differentiation i. Differentiation the result of the expression of certain specific genes but not others ii. Start out as a single cell after some type of reproduction, that cell has the ability to reproduce at a very rapid rate, then goes through a differentiation process iii. Some cells have greatly/ completely diminished ability to reproduce after specialization e. Stem Cells population of cells within organisms that retain their ability to divide and differentiate into various type of cells i. When stem cells divide to form a specific type of tissue, they also produce some more cells that remain as stem cells ii. Stem Cell Treatment and Research 1. Research directed towards growing large numbers of embryonic stem cells to replace differentiated cells lost due to injury and disease (involves therapeutic cloning) 2. There are also tissue related stem cells. They reside in certain tissue types and can only produce ne cells of that particular tissue 3. Ethical and controversial issues stem cells often obtained from embryos, and the process of gathering stem cells often results in death of embryo.

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Prokaryotic Cells living organism of relatively simple structure characterized by a cytoplasm containing dispersed DNA not delimited in a nucleus. a. Features of a Prokaryotic Cell i. Cell Wall 1. Protects and maintains the shape of the cell, composed of a carbohydrateprotein complex called peptidoglycan. 2. Some have additional layer of polysaccharide outside the cell wall ii. Capsule 1. Outer thick layer of complex sugars to increase chances of survival iii. Plasma Membrane 1. Controls movement of materials in and out of the cell iv. Flagella and Pili 1. Hair like growth on the outside of cell wall. 2. Pili are used for attachment 3. Flagella for cell motility v. Ribosomes 1. Site of protein synthesis 2. Occurs in large numbers in cells with high protein production vi. Nucleoid Region 1. Non compartmentalized contains single long continuous circular DNA 2. Involved with cell control and reproduction vii. Plasmid 1. May help cell adapt to unusual circumstances viii. Binary Fission (prokaryotic cell reproduction/division) 1. DNA copied, 2 daughter chromosomes become attached to different regions on membrane 2. Elongation of cell, partition of newly produced DNA by fibers made of protein called FtsZ Eukaryotic Cells cell containing membrane bound nucleus and membrane bound structures a. Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells i. Endoplasmic Reticulum extensive network of tubules or channels that extends almost everywhere in the cell from the nucleus to the plasma membrane. Structure enables it to transport material through internal region of the cell 1. Rough ER 1. Associated with protein synthesis and transport 2. Ribosomes embedded on surface 2. Smooth ER 1. Many unique enzymes embedded on surface 2. Production of membrane phospholipids / cellular lipids 3. Production of sex hormones such as testosterone and estrogen 4. Detoxification of drugs in liver 5. Storage of calcium ions 6. Transportation of lipid-based compounds 7. Aid liver in releasing glucose into bloodstream ii. Cytoplasm 1. Organelles occur here 2. Fluid portion of cytoplasm is cytosol iii. Ribosome

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1. No exterior membrane 2. Carry out protein synthesis 3. Found free in cytoplasm or attached to endoplasmic reticulum Lysosomes (not usually in plant cells) 1. Intracellular digestive centers that come from Golgi apparatus 2. Lacks internal structures 3. Sacs bound by single membrane that contains different enzymes hydrolytic and breaks down protein, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates 4. Lysosome fuse with old or damaged organelles from within cell to break them down 5. Interior of lysosome are acidic Golgi Apparatus 1. Consist of flattened sacs called cisternae 2. Collection, packaging, modification, distribution of materials synthesized in the cell 3. Receives products from the ER the side near the ER is called the cis, products move in from that side. Products are discharged on the trans side. Small sacs called vesicles can be seen coming off the trans side Mitochondria 1. Produce ATP 2. Have their own DNA and a double membrane. 3. Smooth outer membrane with inner membrane folded into cristae. 4. Inside inner membrane is semi-fluid substance called matrix 5. Cristae provide huge internal surface area for chemical reactions to occur 6. Produces and contains own ribosomes Nucleus 1. Region where DNA is bordered by double membrane 2. DNA of eukaryotic ells often occurs in the form of chromosomes 3. When not in dividing phase, chromosomes are not present as visible structures theyre present in the form of chromatin : formed strands of DNA and proteins called histones 4. Nucleosome consists of 8 histones with a strand of DNA wrapped around them and secured with a ninth histone 5. Often located centrally in cytoplasm 6. Molecules of cell ribosomes are manufactured in the nucleolus Chloroplasts (plant and algal) 1. Double membrane, own DNA (forms a ring), and 70S ribosomes 2. Consists of thylakoids, stroma, and granum (numerous stacked thylakoids) 3. Thylakoids are necessary for absorption of light 4. Stroma contain enzymes and chemicals to complete process of photosynthesis Centrioles 1. Consists of pair of centrioles at right angles to one another 2. Involved in assembling microtubules provides structure and allowing movement, as well as aiding cell division 3. Located at one end close to the nucleus Vacuoles 1. Storage organelles usually formed from Golgi apparatus

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Membrane bound Stores a number of different substances including potential food, metabolic wastes, toxins, and water Membranes consist of phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins a. Membrane Structure i. Phospholipids 1. Each phospholipid consists of a 3 carbon compound called glycerol. Two of the glycerol has fatty acids attached; the third carbon is attached to a highly polar organic alcohol that includes a bond to a phosphate group. 2. Hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions cause phospholipids to always align as a bilayer if there is water and a large number of phospholipid present. ii. Cholesterol 1. Various locations in the hydrophobic region there are cholesterol molecules. Cholesterol molecules allow effective membrane function at a wider range

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of temperatures than if they were not present. Determine membrane fluidity changes with temperature Plant cells dont have cholesterol molecules, they use saturated or unsaturated fatty acids to maintain proper membrane fluidity iii. Proteins various proteins are embedded into fluid matrix of the phospholipid bilayer 1. Integral Protein 1. Both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions 2. Peripheral Protein 1. Do not protrude into middle hydrophobic regions, just the surface of the membrane Membrane Protein Functions 2. 3.

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i. Hormone Binding Sites have specific shapes exposed to the exterior that fits the shape of specific hormones. This causes a change in shape in the protein and results in message being relayed into the cell. ii. Enzymatic Action catalyze many chemical reactions iii. Cell Adhesion proteins hook together in various ways to prevent cells or us from falling apart iv. Cell-to-Cell Communication provide identification label representing cells of different types or species v. Channels for Passive Transport self-explanatory or look below vi. Pumps for Active Transport self-explanatory or look below c. Passive/Active Transport i. Passive Transport requires no energy 1. Diffusion - movements of molecules from one of higher concentration to one of lower concentration (passive) 1. Facilitated Diffusion use of channel molecules embedded in the membrane. Carrier change shape to allow the molecules through (passive) 2. Osmosis movement of water molecules across semi-permeable membranes, such as nuclear membrane using theory of diffusion. Osmosis occurs until there is an equilibrium in concentration of substance in both areas involved ii. Active Transport requires energy as substance is moved against a concentration gradient, therefore energy expenditure must occur 1. Sodium-Potassium Pump 1. Protein in phospholipid bilayer opens to the intracellular side and attaches 3 sodium ions 2. ATP attaches to protein 3. Carrier opens on the extracellular side and releases the sodium ions, ADP released leaving one phosphate group attached to the protein 4. 2 extracellular potassium ions bind to the protein 5. Protein opens to the interior and releases potassium ions iii. Endocytosis (depend on fluidity of the plasma membrane) 1. Involves the pinching off of a portion of the plasma membrane, and forms a vesicle to enclose a macromolecules or particulates. iv. Exocytosis(depend on fluidity of the plasma membrane) 1. Reverse of endocytosis 2. Begins in ribosomes of the rough ER, usually. 1. Protein produced by ribosomes enter lumen of the ER 2. Protein exist ER and enters Golgi apparatus cis side 3. Protein modified and exist trans side 4. Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane and spits out objects. Cell Division