I

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

,';i::::
-.r,..-'-;;,r&.

--1t.

Mqon H. Jowod
Nooter Corporation St. Louis, M issouri

Jomes R. Fqrr Babcock & Wilco.r Company

Barberton, Ohio

A Wiley-lnterscience Publicqtion

JOHN WILEY & SONS

.r/C*

N*w York

Chichester

Brisbone Toronto

Singopore

To Our Wives, Dixie and Barbara

Copyright

1984 by

hhn Wilev & Sons, Inc

Canada

All righis reserve{]. Publishcd simultaneously in

Reproduction or transiation ()f any part oi this work hcyond that permitted by Secton 107 or 108 of ihe It)?6 linited States Copyrighl Act wrthout lhe permrssron ,,1 rlr .i't)\rfi!hl owner is unl.rwlul Requests iot | ,"' ,1,,, !,, lrrrhcr infomati,)n sbould be addrcssed lo L , , I'1 t,.,rlrjitrrl. John Wil'v & Sons, lnc '! |

', ,

| ,r,, ..,

.r

, , ,'r', , (

nitrl.'riins in l\rhlication Data:

',|,l \ \\
|
'1,

,r'' 'l '!!!

1,,

\ Lil'rrl)r"crl

r I i, |

1",1, l,rl,lr,,fr,r|l'r., .rrrl rirtl.\ ', I ( lrcr)rcrl t,hnts lilLrrl)rrrcrn :trrl s(ri)l)lr(5 l)esirn

', 'r,

'

I lr,.rlr"rr

arrl conslroction

L Farr. James R
x

ll. lrllc

'tPr55.5.J.14
lslJN (,

lq8l 660.2'83

83 12475

.171 (lt).)07

l,riIl.rl

r!r

rln | "rr,al \rlrr'\ lrl America

|

l09lJ/r)'il1

PREFACE
We wrote this book to serve three purposes. The first purpose is to provide structural and mechanical engineers associated with the petrochemical industry a reference book for the analysis and design of process equipment. The second is to give graduate engineering students a concise introduction to the theory of plates and shells and its industrial applications, The third purpose is to aid process engineers in understanding the background of some of the design equations in the ASME Boiler and hessure Vessel Code. Section VIII. The topics presented are separated into four parts. Part 1 is intended to familiarize the designer with some of the common "tools of the hade." Chapter I details the history ofpressure vessels and various applicable codes from around the world. Chapter 2 discusses design specifications furnished in purchasing process equipment as well as in various applicable codes. Chapter 3 establishes the strength criteria used in different codes and the theoretical background needed in developing design equations in subsequent chapters. Chapter 4 includes different materials of construction and toughness considerations. Part 2 is divided into three chapters outlining the basic theory of plates and shells. Chapter 5 develops the membrane and bending theories of cylindrical
shells. Chapter 6 discusses various approximate theories for analyzing heads and transition sections, and Chapter 7 derives the equations for circular and rectangular plates subjected to various loading and support conditions. These three chapters form the basis from which most of the design equations are derived in the other chapters. Part 3, which consists of flve chapters, details the design and analysis of components. Chapters 8 and 9 derive the design equations established by the ASME Code, VI[-l and -2, for cylindrical shells as well as heads and transition sections. Chapter 10 discusses gaskets, bolts, and flange design. Chapter ll presents openings and their reinforcement; Chapter l2 develops design equations

tor support systems.

Part 4 outlines the design and analysisof some specialized process equipment. Chapter 13 describes the design of flat bottom tanks; Chapter 14 derives the

ftitAct
cquations for analyzing hest transfer equipment. Chapter l5 describes the theory of thick cylindrical shells in high-pressure applications. Chapter l6 discusses the stress analysis of tall vessels. Chapter 17 outlines the procedure of the ASME Code, VI[-l, for designing rectangular presswe vessels. To simplify the use of this book as a reference, each chapter is written so that it stands on its own as much as possible. Thus, each chapter with design or other mathematical equations is written using terminology frequently used in industry for that particular type of equipment or component discussed in the pertinent chapter. Accordingly, a summary of nomenclature appears at the end of most of the chapters in which mathematical expressions are given. In using this book as a textbook for plates and shells, Chapters 3, 5,6 md7 form the basis for establishing the basic theory. Instructors can select other chapters to supplement the theory according to the background and needs of the graduate engineer.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are indebted to many people and organizations for their help in preparing this

In deriving the background of some of the equations given in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, attention was focused on Section VIII, Divisions
1 and

2. Although these same equations do occur in other sections of the

ASME Code, such as the Power and Heating Boilers, no consideration is given in this book regarding other sections unless specifically stated'
MAAN JAWAD
JAMES FARR
Saint Louit, Missouri

Barberton, Ohio
September 1983

book. A special thanks is given to the Nooter Corporation for generous support rluring the preparation of the manuscript. Also a special thanks is given to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers for supplying many of the illustrations used in this book and also to the American Petroleum Institute and the Tubular Exchangers Manufacturers Association. We also give thanks to Messrs. W. D. Doty, G. Hays, G. G. Karcher, T. W. [,odes, H. S. Olinger, and R. F. O'Neill for reviewing the manuscript, and to Mr. W. H. Schawacker for supplying many of the photographs. We would also like to extend our appreciation to Mrs' Y. Batteast for typing portions of the manuscript.

M. J.

CONTENTS
PART I BACKGROUND AND BASIC CONSIDERATIONS Hisiory ond Orgonizotion of Codes
Use of Process Vessels and Equipment United History of Pressure Vessel Codes in the
States Pressure Organization of the ASME Boiler and

Chopter I

3 4

l.l
1.2 1.3

Vessel Code

1.4 1.5 1.6

for Pressure Organization of the ANSI B31 Code Piping Standards Some Other Pressure Vessel Codes and in tie United States Worldwide Pressure Vessel Codes
References

9 'r0

BibliograPhY

ll
l3
14 14

Chopter 2
2.1

Selection of Vessel, Specificotions' Reports, ond Allowoble Slresses Selection of Vessel

Which Pressure Vessel Code Is Used Design Specifications and Purchase Orders Special Design Requlrements Design RePons and Calculatjons Materials' SPecifi cations

2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

l5 l5 t6
16

CONTINT!

CONTENTS Dcsign Data tbr Ncw Materials

Factors of Safety

xlll

2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10

't7
17

Allowable Tensile Stresses in the ASME Code Allowable Extemal Pressure Stress and Axial Compressive Stress in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

t7

4.5.2 4.5.3 4.5.4

4.6 4.7

l9
22 22

'l'heory ol' Brittle Fracture Hydrostatic Testing Factors Influencing Brittle Fracture Hydrogen Embrittlement Nonmetallic Vessels
References

Allowable Stresses in the ASME Code for Pressure Piping B31 2.12 Allowable Stress in Other Codes of the World
2.11
References

Bibliography

70 74 75 76 77 78 79

26

PART 2

ANAIYSIS OF COMPONENTS
Slress in Cylindricol Shells

8l
83
84 92 96 lO7
I 14

Chopter 3
3.1

Strength Theories, Design Criierio, ond Design Equotions

Strength Theories

Chopfer 5 29
30
5.1

5.2

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

Design Criteria Design Equations Stress-Strain Relationships Strain-Defl ection Equations

Force-Stress Expressions References

3l
33 33 35 39 42

5.3

Pressure Discontinuity Analysis 5.2.1 Long Cylinders 5.2.2 Short Cylinders Buckling of Cylindrical Shells
Stress Due to Intemal

5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3

5.4

Bibliography

43

Uniform Pressure Applied to Sides Only 114 Uniform Pressure Applied to Sides and Ends 116 Pressure on Ends Only lr8
119

Thermal Stress

Chopter 4
4.1

Moteriqls of Construction
Material Selection 4,l.l Corrosion

45
46 46 49 52 53 53 3J 56 56 60

5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3

4.1.2
4.
1

Uniform Change in Temperature Gradient in Axial Direchon Gradient in Radial Direction Nomenclature
References

124 127 r30

137

Strength

4.2

Material Cost Nonferrous Alloys 4.2.1 Aluminum Alloys

.3

r38
139

Bibliography

4.3 4.4 4.5

4.2.2 Copper and Copper Alloys 4.2.3 Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys 4.2,4 Titanfum and Zirconium Alloys
Ferrous Alloys Heat Treating of Steels

Chopter
6.

6
I

Anolysis of Formed Heods ond Tronsition

Sections
Hemispherical Heads 6.1 . Various Loading Conditions 6.1.2 Discontinuity Analysis 6.1.3 Thermal Stress

141
142 146

6l
63 68

r52
158

Brittle Fracture 4.5. I ASME Presssure Vessel Criteria

6.1.4

Buckling Strength

159

xiv

CONTENTS
CONTENTS

xv

6.2 6.3 6.4

Ellipsoidal Heads Torispherical Heads Conical Heads

163

Chopier 9
9.1

167

Design of Formed Heods ond Tronsifion Seclions

Introduction

243
244
247 249

r68
169
172

6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3

Unbalanced Forces at Cone{o-Cylinder

9.2 9.3

Junction

Discontinuity Analysis Cones Under Extemal Pressure Nomenclature

References

175 178 'r80

Bibliography

t8t
183
184
184 193

9.4

Chopter 7
7.1

Stress in Flot Plotes

Introduction

7.2 7.3 7.4

Circular Plates
Rectangular Plates

ASME Equations for Hemispherical Head Design ASME Design Equations for Ellipsoidal and Flanged and Dished Heads 9.3.1 Ellipsoidal and Torispherical Heads under External Pressure ASME Equations for Conical Head Design 9.4.1 ASME Simplification of Discontinuity Analysis due to Intemal Pressure 9.4.2 Conical Shells under External Pressure 9.4.3 ASME Simplification of Discontinuity Analysis due to External Pressure
Nomenclature
References

255 256 256 26r

261

Circular Plates on Elastic Foundation Nomenclature

References

197

Bibliography

200 201 201

Bibliography

265 266 267

Chopter

l0

Bfind Flonges, Cover Ploles, ond Flonges 269

l0.l
PART 3 Chopter DESIGN OF COMPONENTS
Design of Cylindricol Shells
ASME Design Equations Evaluation of Discontinuity Stresses ASME hocedure for Extemal Pressure Design Design of Stiffening Rings Allowable Gaps in Stiffening Rings Out-of-Roundness of Cylindrical Shells under External Pressure Design for Axial Compression Nomenclature
References

Introduction
Circular Flat Plates and Heads with Uniform
Loading

270
274 276

203
205
206 208 218 226 23r 235 238 240 240
241

ro.2 r0.3

ASME Code Formula for Circular Flat Heads

and Covers

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7

10,4 10,5 10.6

1O.7

Comparison of Theory and ASME Code Formula

for Circular Flat Heads and Covers without Bolting

Bolted Flanged Connections Contact Facings
Gaskets

278 278 279

281

Bibliography

10.7.1 Rubber O-Rings 10.7.2 Metallic O- and C-Rings 10.7.3 Compressed Asbestos Gaskets 10.7.4 Flat Metal Gaskets 10.7.5 Spiral-Wound Gaskets

281
281

282 283 285

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

xvii

1O.7.6 10.7.7 10.7.8

Jacketed Gaskets

Metal Ring Gaskets

High-Pressure Gaskets

10.7.9

Lens Ring Gaskets '10.7. Delta Gaskets 10.7.1I Double-Cone Gaskets

I0

I0.7. l2 Gasket Design 10.8 Bolting Design 10.9 Blind Flanges 10. 10 Bolted Flanged Connections with Ring-Type
Gaskets

285 285 285 286 287 288 290

292

I I.5 I 1.6

Ligament Efficiency of Openings in Fatieue Evaluation of Nozzles under Internal

Pressure

Shells

387

1t.7

Extemal Loadings

Local Stresses in the Shell or Head I 1.7.2 Stresses in the Nozzle Nomenclature
11

.7.1

392 394 394

407 415 416 417

References

294 298 307 310

317

Bibliography

Chopter

l2

Vessel Supports
Introduction

421
422 423 434 438 442 443 449 456 456 457

I 10. l2 10. l3 10, l4

l0.l

Reverse Flanges

12.1

Full-Face Gasket Flange Flange Calculation Sheets

12.2

FlatFace Flange with Metal-to-Metal Contact Outside of the Bolt Circle 10.15 Spherically Dished Covers
Nomenclature References

Bibliography

317 324 330 332 332

12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6

Skirt and Base Ring Design 12.2.1 Anchor Chair Design Design of Support Legs Lug-SupportedVessels Ring Girders
Saddle Supports

Nomenclature
References

Bibliography

Chopter I I

Openings, Nozzles, ond Externol [oodings

General
Stresses and Loadings at Openings

335
336 338 343 346 349 359 368 379
383

ll.l
I 1.2 I 1.3
'|

PART

4 l3

THEORY

AND DESIGN OF

SPECIAL

EQUIPMENT

459
461
462 462 462 470 476 482 487 490 496 496

1.4

Theory of Reinforced Openings Reinforcement Limits I I .4. Reinforcement Rules for ASME.

Chopter

Flot Bottom Tonks

Introduction

Section Section

I
VIII, Division I

13.1 13.2

I I .4.2 Reinforcement Rules for ASME,

API 650 Tanks 13.2.1 Roof Design

l.4.3
.4.4

II I

L4.5

Reinforcement Rules for ASME, Section VIII, Division 2 Reinforcement Rules for ANSUASME 831. I Reinforcement Rules for ANSI/ASME
83 t.3

13.2.2 13.2.3

Shell Design Annular Plates

13.3 13.4

API 620 Tanks 13.3. I Allowable Stress Criteria

I

3.3.2

Compression Rings

ANSI 896.1 Aluminum Tanks

13.4.

Design Rules

xviii

CONTENTS

coNTENrs

13.5

AWWA Standard D100

References BibliograPhY

498 499 499

16.4 16.5

Dynamic Analysis from Wind Effects Vessel Under Intemal Pressure Only
I

6.3.2

577
581

Vessel Under Internal Pressure and Extemal

Loading

Chopter

14

Heql Tronsfer Equipmeni

TYPes

501
502 505 508 514 519 523 523 527 533
537

16,6 Vessel Under External Pressure Only 16.7 Vessel Under External Pressure and External
Loading
References

585 588
591

l4.l
14.2

of Heat Exchangers TEMA Design of Tubesheets in U-Tube

Exchangers

14.3
14.4

in U-Tube Theoretical Analysis of Tubesheets

Exchangers Equations for Background of the ASME Design Tubesheets in U-Tube Exchangers Theoretical Analysis of Fixed Tubesheets

Bibliography

593 593

Chopter

17

Vessels

of Noncirculor Cross Section

595
596
601 601

14.5 14.6

TEMA Fixed Tubesheet Design l4'6'l Local Equivalent Pressure

17,1 17.2 17.3 17.4

17.5

Types of Vessels Rules in Codes

Openings

Section

in

Vessels with Noncircular Cross

l4'6'2
14'6'3

General Equivalent Pressure

Ligament Efficiency

Relationship Between Local and Equivalent Pressure

Openings

for

Constant Diameter
601

14.7

ExPansion Joints

Nomenclature
References BibliograPhY

537

17,6
17.7 17.8 17.9

538 539 Pressure

Chopfer

15

Vessels

for High

541
541

t7.to

15.l
15.2 15.3 15.4

Basic Equations
Pres$essing of Solid Wall Vessels Layered Vessels Prestressing of Layered Vessels

543
547

Ligament Efficiency for Multidiameter Openings Subject to Membrane Stress Ligament Efficiency for Multidiameter Openings Subject to Bending Stress Design Methods and Allowable Stresses Basic Equations Equations in the ASME Code, VIII-I Design of Noncircular Vessels in Other Codes I 7. 10. I Method in Swedish Pressure Vessel

603 606 610 612 619 626 627 630 633 633

Code

Nomenclature

Biblio$aphY

558 562 563

Rules References Bibliography

APPENDICES

I 7.

10.2

Design by Lloyd's Register of Shipping

Chopter

16

Toll Vessels
DesignConsiderations Earthquake Loading

565
566
567

635

l6.l
16.2 16.3

Wind Loading 16.3'1 Bxternal Forces from Wind Loading

573 573

A B Appendix C
Appendix Appendix

Guide to Various Sample of Heat Exchanger Speciflcation Sample of an API Specification

Codes

636

Sheet Sheet

U6
648

II

CONIENTS

D E Appendix F
Appendix Appendix Appendix

Sample of a Pressure Vessel Design Data Sheet Sample of Various Materials for Process Equipment

652 668

Required Data
Section

for Material Approval in the ASME

675

VIII

Code

Procedure for Providing Data for Code Charts for Extemal Pressure Design

Appendix Appendix Appendix

H I J Appendix K
Appendix

Corrosion Charts Various ASME Design Equations Joint Efficiency Factors Simplified Curves for Extemal Loading on Cylindrical
Shells

678 683 686 689 698

PART

Conversion Tables

BACKGROUND

INDEX

AND BASIC
CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER

HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION OF CODES

-OtD 2

TIMERS [(lop) Courtesy Bobcock & Witcox Compony, (bol|or,) (

iuroly

,",r,,, , ,"r,,,,r,,,1

-Y

HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION OF CODES

I.I

USE OF PROCESS VESSELS AND EQUIPMENT

'I'hroughout the world, the use of process equipment has expanded considerably. ln the petroleum industry, process vessels are used at all stages of processing oil. At the beginning of the cycle, they are used to store crude oil Many different types of these vessels process the crude oil into oil and gasoline for the consurner. The vessels store petroleum at tank farms after processing and, finally, scrvc to hold the gasoline in service stations fol the consumer's use. The use of Droccss vessels in the chemical business is equally extensive. Process vessels are uscd everywhere. Prcssure vessels are made in all sizes and shapes. The smaller ones may be no larger than a fraction of an inch in diameter, whereas the larger vessels may be 150 ft or more in diameter. Some are buried in the ground or deep in the occan; most are positioned on the ground or supported on platforms; and some lctually are found in storage tanks and hydraulic units in aircraft The internal pressure to which process equipment is designed is as varied as thc size and shape. Intemal pressure may be as low as I in water gage pressure to as high as 300,000 psi or more. The usual range of pressure for monoblock

construction is about 15 to about 5000 psi, although there are many vessels designed for pressures below and above that range. The ASME Boiler and Itcssure Code, Section VIII, Division t*, specifies a range of intemal pressure liom 15 psi at the bottom to no upper limit; however, at an intemal pressure abovc 3000 psi, the ASME Code, VIII-I, requires that special design considcrations may be necessary.r However, any pressure vessel that meets all the rrquircrncnts of the ASME Codc. regardless of the intemal or external design prcssuro. rnay slill bc acccptcd by thc authorized inspector and stamped by the nrlrnrllclurcr with thc ASMI'l ('rxlc syrttbol. Some other pressure equlpment, srrch as Al'l'' sl(nagc t Dks. rrriry bc dcsigned and contain no more intemal pf('ssur( llriur lhitl gcncrirlc(l l)y lllc sllllic hcird of fluid contained in the tank.

I,2

HISIORY OF PRISSURE VESSET CODES IN THT UNITED STATES

llrt(,rt1lr llr( lrlr' lS(X):, ;rrrrl lrrtlv ltX)O\. (\l)losiotls in boilers and pressure vcsscls rlcrc lr({tr{nt /\ lrrctrllx lrorlt t trplosiott tlrr thc Mississippi River :,1{rlrlx);rt .\rtlt,ttt,t.t '\1rrrl .'/ lStr5. rcsttllctl itt thc boat's sinking within 20 r,l r rrtrr,,tr,rlrlrl r.trltttttr'rl un,rl)irl( (l rrrlo tlrc clrr'ly 1900s. In 1905, a destructive , rlrl,,.r,,rr (,1 .r lr, lrlr( l!,rl(-r rrr ir sllrr'' lltellrly in Brockton, Massachusetts (Fig. I l r. l rlllrl ''Il rr ,'r'l( . rrrlrrr, rl l l / otlrcls. and did Xi400,000 in property damage

nrnrt(.\,rr,l tlrrr|..rtlr,,l |')l)ilr,(,llr(r\JtoittlllrotrtcaliertheCivilWar.Thistype

'1,' rlL, r,\r \'.Alt r,rl, \'lll l,rrrrl VIII .'. rsrrrie(l lo (lcscribc thc ASME Boilcr and I'rcsstrrc Vi....tl(,trit ,, l',," \'ftl ffl\, r'r l. /,,,'r.vt( V, rfry'.r, and l)ivisitttl2, Alk'r'ttttiK |tttll li'r /!,11r,, l,
\

\, /,

l.l Firerub boiler explosion in sho focrory in Brockron, Md!3ochuseits in 1905. (Courlesy Horrford St@m Boiler Inrpection ond Insurdn.e Co., Horrford, Cr.)
Fisure

6
irr dcalh,

HISIORY AND ORGANT/N rION Of CODTS

].4

ORGANIZATION OF THT ANSI 83

CODI] IOR PRISST'RE

PIPINO

the ANSI/ASME Boiler and pressure Vessel Code have been established as the legal requirements in 47 of the 50 states in the United Str,", ,,",f in all the prwinces of Canada. Also, in many other countries of the worlti, the ASME

2, Alternatiye Rules for pressure Vessels. The ANSUASME Boiler and pressure Vessel Code is issued by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers with approval by the American'National Stan_ dards lnshtute (ANSI) as an ANSI/ASME document. One or morc sections

, sure Vessels, and another new part was issued, which was Seciion VI II, Division

Unfired Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII. This continued until the 196g edition. At that time, the original code became Section VIII, Oivislon I pres_

vessel codes existed. In 1951, the last API_ASME Code ;as issued as a separare document.a In 1952, the two codes were consolidated into one code_the ASME

In 1911, Colonel E. D. Meier, the president of-the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, established a committee to write a set of rules tbr the design and construction of boilers and pressure vessels. On February 13, 1915, the first ASME Boiler Code was issuid. It was entitled ,,Boiler Construction Code, 1914 Edition." This was the beginning of the various sechons of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, which ultimately became Section 1, Power Boilers.3 The first ASME Code for pressure vessels was issued as ,,Rules fbr the ^ construction ofUnfired Pressure Vessels,', Section VIII, 1925 edition. The rules applied to vessels over 6 in. in diameter, voiume ove. 1.5 ft3, and pressure over 30 psi. In December 1931, a Joint API_ASME Committee wis ibrmed to develop an unfired pressure vessel code for the petroleum indusiry. .l.he first edition was issued in 1934. For the next 17 years,iwo separate unfiied pre;sure

clrusctt$ governor directed the fbrmation of a Board of Boiler Rules. The first set of rules for the design and construction of boilers was approved in Massachusetts on August 30, l9O7 . This code was three pages long-!-

Irr l(X)(r, l'r.llre'cx;rkrsi.rr irr . rlrr)c llrel.ry i'l,yrrrr. Massirclrrtsc.s, r.cs.ltcd injrlry, a|ld cxtcnsivc propcrty darragc. Aticr this accidcnr, the Massa_

cqUipl c|l{ irrrtl ir;lrlielrliorr; olllcrs fctalc lo sl)ccilic Illillcliltls all(l tlrclll{xls l()f ()l applicatiOn rn(l cot)trol ol cclt'tiprnctrt; lnd tlthcrs rclate ttt care !lnd inspoctioll 'l'hc tirllowing sections specifically relate to boiler and installed cquipnrctrt.
pressure vessel design and constructlon:

Section Section

I.

Power Boilers (one volume)

III

Division Division
Code

N-47 Section IV,

Section

Case

1. 2.

Nuclear Power Plant Components (7 volumes)

Concrete Reactor Vessels dnd Containment (one volume) Class I Components in Elevated Temperature Service (tn Nuclear Code Case book) Heating Boilers (one volume) Pressure Vessels (one volume) Alternative Rules for Pressure Vessels (one volume) Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels (one volume)

VIII

Division Division
Section

1. 2.

X.

of

Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is used to construct boilcrs arrc pressure
vessels.

In the United States most piping systems are built to the ANSI/ASME Code P.ressure Piping B3l . There are a number of different piping couc sectrons for different types of systems. The piping section that i" ,ir".i tiu. boiiers in combination with Section I of the ASME Boiler and pressure Vcsscl (ixle is the fo1!-o1er Piping, 831.1.5 The piping secrion thar is olicn uscrt with !o09 -Cheniical Section VIII, Division I , is the code for piant and lretnricLrrrr t{clinery Piping, 831.3.6 for

A new edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is issued on July I every three years and new addenda are issued every six months on January I and July l. A new edition incorporates all the changes made by the addenda to the previous edition; it does not incorporate, however, anything new beyond that coniained in the previous addenda except for some editorial corections or a change in the numbering system. The new edition of the code becomes mandatory when it appears. The addenda are permissive at the date of issuance and become mandatory six months after that date. Code CasesT are also issued periodically after each code meeting They contain permissive rules for materials and special constructions that have not been sufficiently developed to place them in the code itself. Finally, there are the Code Interpretations8 which are issued every six months These are in the form of questions and replies that further explain items in the code that have been
misunderstood.

I.4

ORGANIZATION OF THE ANSI

83I

CODE TOR

PRESSURE PIPING

I,3

VESSET CODE

ORGANIZATION OF THE ASME BOILER AND

PRESSURE

The ASME Boiler ancl pressure Vessel Code is clivided into many sectrons, divisions, parts, and subparts. Some ofthese sections relat",u ro"lrti. tina of

"

In the United States the most frequently used design rules for pressure piping are the ANSI 83l Code for Pressure Piping. This code is divided into many sections for different kinds of piping applications Some sections are related to specific sections of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code as follows:

HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION OF CODES

I.6

WORLDWIDE PRESSURE VESSEI

CODES

R!1.1.

Power Piping (which is related to Section I) F.31.2. Fuet Gas Piping (which may be related to Section VIII) 831.3. Chemical Plant an(l Petoleum Refnery Piping (which may be related to Section VIII) R31.4. Liquitl Petroleum Transporting Prping (which may be related to Section VIII) 831.5. Refrigeration Piping (which may be related to Section VIII) 831.7, Nuclear Power Piping (which has been discontinued and incorporated into Section III) B31,8. Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems (which may be
related to Section

bular Exchanger Manufacturer's Association, New york. Standnrds of the Expqnsion Joint Manufacturers Associ(ltion, 4th ed. , Exoan_ sion Joint Manufacturer's Association, New york.

Stanlarh of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th ed.,

Tu_

I.6

WORI-DWIDE PRESSURE VESSEL CODES

VIII)

The ANSI B31 Piping Code Committee prepares and issues new editions and addenda with addenda dates that correspond with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and addenda. However, the issue dates and mandatory dates do not always correspond with each other.

Pressure Vessel Code, which is used worldwide, many other pressure vessel codes have been legally adopted in various countries. Difficulty often occurs when vessels are designed in one colntry, built in another country, and installed in still a different country. With this worldwide construction this is often the case. The following list is a partial summary of some of the various codes used in

In addition to the ASME Boiler and

different countries:

Australia.
SOME OTHER PRESSURE VESSEL CODES AND STANDARDS IN THE UNITED STATES

I.5

Australian Code for Boilers and Pressure Vessels, SAA Boiler Code (Series AS 1200): AS 1210, Unf.red Pressure Vessels and Class 1 H, pressare Vessels of Advanced Design and Constuction, Standards Association of Australia. Belgium.
Code

In addition to the ANSVASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and the ANSI B31 Code for Pressure Piping, many other codes and standards are commonly used for the design of process vessels in the United States. Some of them are:
ANSUAPI Standard 620. "Recommended Rules for Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks," American Petroleum Institute (API), Washington, D.C. ANSVAPI Standard 650. "Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage," American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. ANSI-AWWA Standard D100. "Water Steel Tanks for Water Storage"' American Water Works Association (AWWA), Denver, Colorado'

Standard Institute (IBN), Brussels, Belgium,

for

Good Practice

for

the Construction of Pressure Vessels, Belgian

France.
Constructton Code Calculation Rules for Unfred pressure Vessels, Syndicat National de la Chaudronnerie et de la Tuyauterie Industrie e (SNCT), paris, France. Germany.

ANSVAWWA Standard D101. "Inspecting and Repairing Steel Water Tanks, Standpipes, Reservoirs, and Elevated Tanks, for Water Storage," American Water Works Association, Denver, Colorado. ANSI 896.1. "specification for Welded Aluminum-Alloy Field Erected Storagc Tanks," American National Standards Institute, New York' lll, (A4. Standartl for Conk ner Assemblies.lor I'P-Gas, 4th ed, Underwlitcrs Laboratories. Nolthbrook, Illinois.

A.D. Merkblatt Code, Carl Heymanns Verlag KG, Koln/Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany.
haly. Itqlian Pressure Vessel Code, National Association for Combustion Control (ANCC), Milan, Iraly.

t0

HISTORY AND ORGANTZATION OF CODES

BIBTIOGRAPHY

,ltpun.
Japan Associution. Tokyo, Japan. Juyuu'ts-t' Standarrl, Construction of pressure Vessels,JIS B g24j, published "- - e' 'J' Y' by the Jupan Srandards Association. Tokyo, Japan. Jap,ayle High pressure Gas Control Law, Ministry of International

ll
pressure

,lqnnt'st' l)tt,.t,rurt Vt,l;scl Code. Ministry of Labor, published by lJoilcr

8.

ASME Boiler and Vessel Code, _fu terpretations, (isstred every six months), Amedcan Society of Mechanial Engineers, New york.

BIBTIOGMPHY
' Steel Tanks for

1i1,1,".t":,ry.Jibtished by rhe rnstitution for tngtneering, Tokyo, Japan.

Netherlands.

sffi

riigi;;Jrr*" c", "r

Trade

Liquid Stoege', in Steel plate Engifieerin| Data, Vol. and Sreel lnslirute, Washingron, D.C.

l,

1976 ed., American

Iron

f,:|;:#i:"*-e
Sweden.

vessets. Dienst voor het stoomwezen, The Hague, the

Swedish Pressure Vessel Code,-Tryckkarls kommissioner, the Swedish pres-

sure Vessel Commission, Stockholm, Sweden.

United Kingdom.

British Code 85.5500, British Standards Institution, London, England. More complete details. discussions of factors of safety. and applications the codes mentioned are given in Section 2.7. e summ,lry

which.ar.e appticable for ihe various,.reqrl;il around the world is given in Appendix

A.

;'r#J

of of iti. p_ug.upt, # ,ti .o0., ur.o

REFERENCES

f. 2.

l. ASME Boiler and pressure Vesset Code, Section_|, power Boileru, ANSTASME BPV_I, nlll*,*n Sociery of Mechanicat Engrneers. New york, 1983. _ Liq.uids and Gases, 5th ed., " lilHy3,::ff '.{iX::#l#f#*y:::k-!y
1951.
gmeers and American petroleum Institute, ^Pa'r:teu! New york,

"R""",*";;;'R';:"i."iiirT"firi,"ffilffi;TiJi:i,*Li.;, j::::"[iJ:** tanks," ANsr,/Apr srd. 620,;.;;;";-;;;;;; i,i.tr"iot", wu,r,ing_ .;:

Apr srandard 620,

ASME Boiler and pressure Uo*] ANSVASME BpV-Vm_1, Americar

"aT.:

,:".,,:n. Unr, Division

l,

pressure Vessets,

S, 6. 7'

ol

ASME Code for hessure pipinq BJl.

Mechanicar Engineers,

Socicty

ASME Code for hessure pioins B3l, g!t:m:cal. ptant and petroleunt Refinery piping, 83t.3. American Siciety of Mechanical ;;C;;, ;u;;"lo.k,r,,*0. ^NSvASME A_SME Boije-r and hessure vesser code, cases, Boirers antr pre,rrrre y$dh, American

Niw-york, 73l;;"'0"'ANSL/ASME

B31

l'

American societv

of lvlechanicaj En8incers, Ncw -cod? york,

19g3.

CHAPTE

SELECTION OF VESSEL, SPECI FICATIONS, REPORTS,

AND ALLOWABLE STRESSES

l3

l4

SttECTlON OF VESSIL, SPECIFICAIl()N".

rtlr",lrr'., nND

ALLOWABLE STRESSES

2.4

SPECIAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

l5

2.1

SELECTION OF VTSSI

2.3

DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS AND PURCHASE ORDERS

Although nrlrrly lttr l t. ,,'rrlrl,rt, 1,, llr( \( lL'clion of pressure vessels, the two basic r.r;rrirr.rrfrrt,, tlr,rt ,rll,, t tlr, ,( [.r lion are safety and economics. Many it(.Drs i||r. r rr,,rrI r,,l rr,tr,r', rrrrrtcrials' availability, corrosion resistance, lrltllrrl,, rrr, rrl,tlr r11, . .rr,l rrrrrgnitudes of loadings, location of installation rr, lr,lprl, ( rnl I,r.r,l'rt' ,"r,t r.rrr'(lrquake loading, location of fabrication_(shoD "r 1., l,lr t", rrr,,r ,,t \i.,,s(.1 installation, and availability of labor supply at the
rrt, rrr, r, ,r'.rrr1' rrsc of special pressure vessel in the petrochemical and other rl, , rtr. ;rvrilability of the proper materials is fast becomrng a maJor 1,r,,t,1,,,' I lr(. nrost usual material for vessels is carbon steel. Many other special_ r,,, l r r,rr{ rlls iLre also being used for corrosion resistance or the abilily ro conmln rrr,lrr

\l

field.

wrthout degradation of the material's properties. Substitution of materials lent and cladding and coatings are used extensively. The design engineer rrrrrst lrc in communication with the process engineer in order that all materials rrsctl will contribute to the overall integrity of the vessel. For those vessels that rctluire field assentbly in contrast to those that can be built in the shop, proper (luality assurancc must be established for acceptable welding regardless;f ihe adverse condilions under which the vessel is made_ provisions must be estab_ lished for ftrrliography, stress relieving, and other operations required in the
.r tlrrrr I
r'. I x (.vl

For thost. vcssels that will operate in climates where low temperatures are encounlcr((l r)f contain fluids operating irt low temperatures, special care must be takc rr Ir crrsure impact resistance of the materials at low timperatures. To
ohlirirr tlrs l,r()l)crty, the vessel may require a special high-alloy steel, nonferrous rrrirlcrirrl, rrr some special heat treatment.

2.?

WHICH PRESSURE VESSEL CODE IS USED?

'l lrc lrrst consideration must be whether or not there is a pressute vessel law at llrc lo( irt ion of the installation. If there is, the applicable iodes are stated in the l:rw. ll thc jurisdiction has adopted the ASME Code, Section VIII, the decision rrrly bc narowed down to selecting whether Division I or Division 2 is used. I'here are many opinions regarding the use of Division I versus Division 2, but the "bottom line" is economics. In the article ,.ASME pressure_Vessel Code: Which Division to Choose?",r the authors have listed a number of factors for consideration. Division uses approximate formulas, charts, and graphs in simple calculations. Division 2, on the other hand, uses a complex methocl of fbrmulas, charts, and design-by-analysis which must be describcd in ir stress report. Sometimes so many additional requirements are addcd lo tltc rriuirnum specifications of a Division I vessel that it might bc rnorc ccorrorrrir.rrl to supply lu I)ivision 2 vcssel and lake advantage of thc highcr itlL)rvrl)l(. strrsscs.

Currently, the only pressure vessel code, exclusive of the ASME Code, III-lNB, Nuclear Vessels, which specifically requires formal design specifications as part of the code requirements is the ASME Code, VIII-2, Alternative Rules for Pressure Vessels. This code requires a User's Design Specification to be prepared and certified by a registered professional engineer experienced in pressure vessel design. This certification by the professional engineer is given on the ASME Manufacturer's Data Report, Form A- 1. The manufacturer is responsible for retaining the User's Design Specification for five years. For other codes and standards, design specifications and design requirements are not well defined. For the ASME Code, VIII-1, there is no specific statement that any design specifications are required. The only indication of some sort of design specifications is the list of minimum loadings in UG-22 that is considered for all construction . Sectron l, Power Eoilers, is less definitive on what loadings are necessary to consider and what shall be included in a design specification or purchase order. PG-22 of Section I states that loadings that cause stresses to go higher than 107o above those stresses caused by internal design pressure shall be considered. The Manufacturer's Data Report, Form U-1 for the ASME Code, V I-1, requires many items to be listed, which means that most of the basic design information must be given in a design specification or purchase order. Although some codes help the purchaser regarding what data are needed for inclusion in the design specifications, this is usually done by mutual agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer. "For those process vessels that do not have a "suggested" list of items in design requirements and specifications as part of code requirements, it is necessary to establish them in the purchase order or contract agreement. The contract information is supplied by the purchaser or user with the manufacturer's help as to what is needed and what shall be considered. Some design standards help the user and manufacturer by offering fill-in forms that specifically list the requirements for designing a process vessel. Design specification forms for a heat exchanger built to the standards of the Tubular Manufacturers Associationz are given in Appendix B and lor an API Srandard 650 Storage Tanki are given in Appendix C. It is always necessary to maintain a document containing design speciflcations so that a permanent record is kept for reference. Often on a large process vessel, some loadings from attached or supported equipment are not known until after the job has started.

2.4

SPECIAL DESIGN REOUIREMENTS

In addition to the standard information required on all units, such as design

pressure, design temperature, geometry, and size, many other items of infbrmation are necessary and must be recorded. The (xrrrosion and erosion amounts arc

16
l,

sfl,tcTtoN Ot Vtssll, st,tctt tcaTtoNs, RfpoRTs, AND AU-OWABLE

rrrrrl rr srrrtirlrlt.

STRTSSES

2.9

ATLOWABLE TENSITE STRESSES IN THE

ASMI

CODE

17

lyl)c (,l lllrirl tlrrrl

lx' *,u,.,,

will

rcqltitc(l slx\.ili(.rk.sigrr tlctaiis. Supported position, vertical or honzontat, and s[pl)oll lor.rrtiorrs rlusl bc listed as well as any iocal loads from supported crltip,rc,t rrrrtl piping. Site locatiorr is given so that wind, *o*, una lcquircntcots ctrn lre determined. Impact loads and cyclic "u.tnquut" requirements are also
inclurlcd.

r'irlcri.l uld method of protection are to be noted. The lrc t,0|llainctl, such as lethal, must be noted because ofthe

may be recertified to an SA or SB specification for an ASME certified vessel. Depending upon the contract specifications, permissible materials for construction are given in lists such as that shown in Appendix E.

2.7

DESIGN DATA FOR NEW MATERIALS

allowable stresses vary with the type of loadinls.

spccilications state whether or not certain loadings

thc ASME Code, VIII-2, a statement as to whether or not a tatigue according.to AD_160 is given. rf u rutilu" analysis is :::'.r,:::'.-"111r'llo cycles and rc(lurrc(t. lhe specitlc loadings will be given. In addiiion, the design

lirr

ire

sustained or transrent. The

2.5

DESIGN REPORTS AND CATCULATIONS

(raclutl

U-2(g) or other design formulas. The pressure vessel design sheets should contain basic design and materials data and at least the basic calculations of pressure parts as given in the design formulas and procedures in the applicable onT.nd1d_fg. a simple vessel, an example of calculation sheets rs given :_od^. depicts only those calculations that are required ll ilp"yiT D. This example and for construction. for the Authorized Inspector Other vessels may requre rnuch more extensive calculations depending upon the complexity and con_
greements.

lations. These calculaiions are prepared and certified by a registered professional engrneer experienced in pressure vessel design. As with the Usir,s Design Specification, the Manufacturer's Design Report is mandatory and the certification reported on the Manufactu.".i Datu Repo.t. This is kept on file by the manufacturer for five years. - For vessels not requidng design reports, the manufacturer has available for the- Authorized Inspector's review those necessary calculations for satisfying

T:,1YE ,C"1.. .VII.2. requires a formal design report with rhe assumptions rn.the User's Design Specification incorporated in the stress analysis calcu_

When design data, such as allowable stresses, are requested for a new material, that is, one not presently in the code, extensive information must be supplied to the Code Committee for evaluation. The ASME Code Committee lists this information to develop allowable stresses, strength data, and other required properties for accepting a new material into the code. Each section of the code contains an appendix listing these requirements such as the one for the ASME Code, VIII-I, in Appendix F. The code also provides data to establish extemal pressure charts for new materials; this is given to those who want to establish new external pressure charts. The required information is given in Appendix G. It is the person's responsibility requesting the addirion to supply all the data needed to establish those properties required in the code.

2.8

FACTORS OF SAFETY

In order to provide a margin of safety between exact formulas, which are based on complex theories and various modes of failure , and the actual design formulas used for setting the minimum required thicknesses and the stress levels, a factor of safety (FS) is applied to various materials' properties that are used to set the allowable stress values. The factors of safety are directly related to the theories and modes of failure, the specific design criteria of each code, and the extent to x.hich various levels of actual stresses are determined and evaluated.

2.9

ALLOWABTE TENSILE STRESSES IN THE ASME CODE

2.6

MATTRIALS' SPECIFICATIONS

As previously discussed, the basis for setting the allowable stress values or the design stress intensity values is directly related to many different factors depending upon the section of the code used. The criteria for setting allowable tensile stresses for each section of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
are as follows: For Section I, Power Boilers, the ASME Code, YIll-l , Pressure Vessels, and Section III, Division 1, Subsections NC, ND, and NE, except for bolting whose strength has been enhanced by heat treatment, the factors used to set the allowable tensile stresses are summarized below. At temperatures in the tensile strength and yield strength range, the least of:

All crxles itnd standards have materials, specifications and requirements de_ sclibirrg whirl rrralcrials are permissible. Those material, tirut *"i"r_rtt"O *itt ir sp(.( rli( ((xlc arc cither listed or limited to the ones that have aliowable stress vrrlrrts liivcrr. l)upcnding upon the code or standard, permitted rnatenas tor a pirrtit rrliu plxt.ss vcsscl are limited. For instan"., Jin ljll (lcsif nirrior crr bc uscd in ASME Boiler and piersir" V"rr"i-Cot an se or "rnr,_"_ SI) specifications are the same B specifi:]:lil...Y:::,:t flltlotl rr lltc ASIM ::l',t Stirrrtlirltls a On specific instances, certain materiais that Itttvc lrt'rr rr.rlrril( r'r'r(r to sonrc other spccification, such as the DIN standard..

o;i.;";;,

l:,lf

u';;;,

1. j of the specified minimum tensile strength. 2. j of the tensile strength at remperarure. 3. ! of the specified minimum yield strength.

I8

SEI.TCTION
r{

OI

VESSEL, SPECITICATIONS, REPORTS,

AND AttOWABtE

STRESSES

2.IO

ALLOWABLE EXTERNAI PRESSURE STRESS AND AXIAI.

STRESS

I9

4.

ol thc yicld strength at temperature (except as noted below where 90Zo is uscd).

following: (1) | of the specified minimum yield strength and (2) j of the yield
strength at temperature.
stresses is much more simple:

At temperatures ip the creep and rupture strength range, the least of:

For Section IV, Heating Boilers, the criterion for setting the allowable (1) I /5 of the specified minimum tensile strength.

l, 2. 3.
,_

hours.

l00qa of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.0l per l000 hours (l7o in 105 hour). 67Ea of the average stress to produce rupture at the end of 100,000 hours. 80Vo of the rninimum stress to produce rupture at the end of 100,000

ALTOWABLE EXTERNAL PRESSURE STRESS AND AXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE

2.IO

allowable stresses, higher allowable stresses are permitted for austenitic stainless steels and nickel-alloy materi-als where gleater deformation is not objectionable.

In the temperature range in which tensile strength or yield shength sets the
may be increased to

spicified minimum yield strength is still maintained. For the ASME Code, VIII-I, bolting material whose slrength has been en_ hanced by heat treatment or strain hardening have the addition; criteria of (l) j of the specified minimum tensile strength and (2) t of the specified minimum yield strength. For the ASME Code, VIII-2, and Section III, Division 1, Subsection NB and NC-3200 of Subsection NC, the factor used to set the design stress intensity values for all materials except bolting is the least of:

!9h:l*,the criterion of I yield strength at lemperature 9oVo,yield strength

at temperature. However, the factor

Within the ASME Boiler Code, simplified methods are given to determine the maximum allowable external pressure and the maximum allowable axial compressive stress on a cylindrical shell without having to resort to complex analytical solutions. Various geometric values are contained in the geometry chart, whereas materials' properties are used to develop the materials charts. Allowable stresses in the materials charts are based on the followine criteria For cylindrical shells under external pressure, the least of:

l. 2, 3. 4.

33Vo 33Va 67Vo

of the critical buckling stress with a factor of 807o for tolerance. of the specified minimum yield strength and yield strength at tem-

perature.

of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1000 hours (17ol 100,000 hours).

1. i of the specified minimum tensile strength. 2. ] of the tensile strength at remperarure. 3. of the specified minimum yield strength. 4. J of the yielded strength at temperature except as noted in the tbllowing
.2

OI:

IOOVo of the allowable stress in tension. For spheres and spherical portions of heads under extemal pressure, the least

paragraph.

l. 2. 3. 4. l. 2. 3. 4.

of the critical buckling stress with a factor of 607o for tolerance. 25Va of the specified minimum yield strength and yield strength at tem25Eo

perature.

design by Appendix 4 of the ASMII (ixlc. VIII_2, and by Division -l , Slbsdition NB ancl NC-32(X) ot' Sutiscc.riirn IrtC. the crilcria lirr setting bolting design stress intcnsity vitlucs urc thc lesscr of the
Sectirrn

maintained. There are two criteria for setting bolting design stress intensity values in the ASME Code, VIII-2. For design by Appendix 3, the criteria are the same as for the ASME Code, VI -1, because these values are used for the tlcsign of bolts

Higher design stress intensity values are permitted for austenitic stainless steels and nickel-alloy materils where greater deformation is not objectionable. In this_ case, the criterion of J yield strength at temperature may be increased to as high as 90Vo yield strength at temperature or any value beiween and gOVo ! yield strength at temperatue depending upon the acceptable amount of deformation. However, the factor of j specified minimum yield strength is still

507o of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.017o/1000 hours

(17ol100,000 hours). IOOVo of the allowable stress in tension.

For cylindrical shells under axial compression, the least

259o
50Vo

ol

of the critical buckling stress with a factor of 5OVo for tolerance. of the specified minimum yield strength and yield strength at temof the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.017o/1000 hrs

perature.
1007o
(

for flangjs.

III,

Ior

l7ol 100,000 hours).

ljQVo of the allowable stress in tension.

t)

;
ta

rrtt|tl
a\o cr \o

;6 ;5 ;6 -iA-i-l

Ed

0rt5

tItl tt||l ttltl

.oP.ocoto
NONa{:

.9

o
o
@

ltltitll

t-. F- a\o \o \o tr \o -i -i .l ^'

g -g F
q,

eq

rl||tl
s3ss5ss
ii>;h\>
.o..).o.i66+

.i "i -; .-'

' =
x

tF

6E <q c!o
F:

r sgss
I

'\-j'\'\'\

(-)

.E6 !ao

o o .-o

o o

.:9

:
(/)F

-{
.\..\-\.\
|

*s
*9. d': ov.
:
.9-

3Eq

Z. a
,. i .:Y

->
.g
oo

5d 3.! az

.=9

.\.\.\.\

?!: ;i\:' >'< ri 6

O.

. o6;

.;T tE

i; =<
E;
t-.
20

:, .o

z
"

..'\fra\ot\ooo1
ao

=g+ ;.:!do0EEEE .Eo,; 4t4il 'H; i.g i-oi.lR4 H Eoo+ I.g PF i.=.=.r
E(aG6.6*d-EG?q<<<. d---o
=P E

P-+tstE333E,
!, a

:EH3;E6EE6. :E!l-.r'!55::- o o o E-= O

Eg Et5;;'

.9ir^l$;c===-

E E= aEe

ir

eEeEg,:EiEEfEEEE
inEG*rj F3trF ctrEEEE2CCCq E I CCE E E

oo n= do

120

F>

E .i E gv v) u)

g? g :is - d* la .0 .0.q.i 9 c3 I ."4 o F -;

5oN bo '-i-

,5

qO

;d

'

CJ

,5

=r5===S=55-E=g=3
21

22
2.I

STI.TCIION

Ot

VTSSTI-, SPTCIFICATIONS, REPORTS,

AND ALLOWABIE

STRESSES

2.12

ATLOWABTE STREss IN OTHER CODES OF THE WORI.D

23

PIPING 83I

ALLOWABLE STRESSTS IN THE ASME CODE FOR PRESSURE

Australia
The rules used for the design of boilers ald pressure vessels set by the Standards

'I'hc ullowrrblc sircsscs given in various sections of the ASME 831 Code for l\'csnulc I'ipirrg urc sinrilar to the corresponding sections of the ASME Boiler nrtl l\'cssurc Vcssel Code; however, in some sections, the basis is different. In thc (lxlc lirf Power Piping B31.l, the allowable tensile stresses are set by the srrrrrc crilcria as used for ASME Code, Section I. In the Code for Chemical plant rn(l llctrolcum Refinery Piping B31.3, the allowable tensile stresses for other th n bolting are set on a similar basis as used for ASME Section VIII, Division l, sxcept a factor of i is substituted for j on the tensile strength. The factor of i on yield strength is used in both codes. This makes 831.3 in the tensile and yield strength range is similar to Division 2 and in the creep and rupture strength range similar to Division 1.

Association of Australia are called the SAA Standards Series AS 1200. The factors of safety used to set the allowable stresses for the various sections are:

UTS

rs
1.6*
1.5
1.5

AS 1210_1977
Pressure Vessels 4

Class lH-1979 AS 1228-1980 Boilers

2.4
2.7

1.6 na
1.5

n n

2.12

Belgium
ALLOWABLE STRESS IN OTHER CODES OF THE WORLD

Throughout the world, various factors of safety are applied to materials' data to establish allowable shesses for the design of boilers, pressure vessels, and piping. For the temperature range to that temperature where creep or rupture sets the allowable stresses, the universal factor for setting allowable stresses is based on yield strength. In some countries, a factor is applied to sets of data that have been established from many tests; in others, the data are determined by the low yield point or the high yield point. In still other countries, the actual data for the component being designed have its yield strength determined by tests . The actual data of the part are then factored into the design formulas. Not all countries choose to use the ultimate tensile strength as a criterion for setting allowable stresses. When they do, the factor of safety between various countries rs sometimes very different. In order to show these differences, a discussion follows regarding the allowable stress basis of several different countries. The ierms, symbols, and definitions used are as follows:

The Belgian rules issued by The Belgian Standards Institute (IBN) permir a mixture of code rules from various other countries. The allowable stresses
depend usually upon the codes used. However, the basic allowable smesses are
set as follows:

UTS

ys
1.6 1.6
1.5

'

Boilers

Liquid gas Air receivers

Pressure vessels

3.2 2.7

n n n

1.8

Various factors at designer's choice

UTS

Czechoslavakia ultimate tensile strength (either specified minimum or data at design

temperature)

y5 = yield strength (either specified minimum or data at design temperature)

R= C:
na

stress to cause rupture

in

100,000 hours

: n:

stress to cause total creep or creep rate

in

Czechoslovakian rules are extensively detailed for all types of vessels with different allowable stresses used for intemal pressure as compared with extemal pressure. For the design of boilers and pressure vessels, the allowable stresses are established by the least of:

100,000 hours

not applicable none or not used

*l.5

at temDerature.

24

SELECTION OF VESSEt, SPECITICATIONS. REPORTS, AND ATIOWABTE STRESSES

2.I2

ALTOWABLE STRESS IN OTHER CODES OF THE WORID

UTS

UTS 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.0 1.0 1.25 1.35

1.7

ys

Intemal pressure----cylinders

2.0 Extemal pressure-cylinders without stiffening rings All walls 2.0 2.0 Castings 2.5 2.5

wall wall Castings

Heated Unheated

n n

Cast Steel

l.)

2.0

1 Tested
DIN2or
DIN

DIN

n n n n n n

2.0 2.5

n
n n n n

1.5

l.) J.f 4.0

2.5

1.5
1.5

n n

Aluminum and seamless copper

I Tested
DIN2or
Italy

1.5 1.5

F rance

The French rules for pressure vessel design establish the allowable shesses depending upon the inspection and the compliance with the SNCT (Syndicat National de la Chaudronnerie et de la Tuyauterie Industrielle) rules. The allowable stresses are established by the least of:
v,5

The Italian rules for boilers and pressure vessels establish the allowable stresses by the least of the following: UTS

SNCT w/insp. SNCT w/insp.

and analysis

1.6

1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6

1.0 1.0 1.0

Pressure

Boilers vessels

2.7
n

1.6

1.5*
1.6

1.6 1.5

1.0 1.0

2.7 2.4

1.6
1.5

Not SNCT
w/insp. Not SNCT w/o insp. Gennany The three types of pressure vessels recognized by the regulatory agencies in Germany are fixed pressure vessels, mobile pressure vessels, and boilers. The allowable stresses are established according to a specific DIN (German Industrial Standard) certificate or by testing. The allowable stresses are set by various factors of safety on the yield strength with a constant factor of safety on rupture
as

Japan
1.9 1.0

The Japanese government does not have one group to develop their design codes. Rather have several different rules for designing boilerJ and pressure vessels. Although they are published by different groups and generally written by the different groups, all codes are under the control of the Japanese government. The basis for setting allowable stresses is the least of:
UTS

rs

Boilers
Pressure vessels

follows:
UTS Steel (not cast)

1.6
2/(1.6

1.67 av.

ys
Altemative
pressure

- jI

1.0 1.0

25 min.

1.5 av.
I .25 min.

DIN

DIN2orl
Tested

n
n n

I .:)

1.5

n
n
n

vessels
<
O.7.

1.5

1.8

1.5
1.5

Ll

*1.5 used when YS/IS > 0.85.

'whcrcT:

YS/TS

26

SETECTION OF VTSSEI, SPTCIFICATIONS, REPORTS,

AND ATTOWABI.E

STRESSES

REFERENCES

27

Sweden

ANSUAPI Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, 7th ed., American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 1980.
1982 AnnuaL Book of ASTM Standards,

Afieican Society for Testing and Materials, PhiladelHerausgegeben vom Deutschen Normeruusschu

The Swedish rules for the design of boilers and pressure vessels set the allowable stresses using only the yield strength and the rupture strength as follows:

phia, Pa., 1982.

DIN Standa (Deutsche Normen (D,VA), Berlin, Gemany.

Dll,lr,

UTS

ys
1.5 1.5

All

Unilctl Kingdom
The British rules for the design of boilers and pressure vessels are collectively called British Standards. The basis for settine the allowable stresses is the least

of:

UTS

ys

BoilersBS 1113
Pressure vessels

2.7

1.5

I _.'

BS 5500
Carbon steel
Stainless steel

2.35

2.5*

1.5 1.5

I _J

l.J

RTTTR.ENCES

l.

Srrrrlcn, A. M., and J. R. Mase, "ASME Pressure-Vessel Code: Which Division to Choose?", ('hrt\k\tl lit|ineering, January 1982.

ll,

lnrthorlt

oJ

luhular Exchanger Manufacturers.Asroc., 6th ed., Tubular Exchanger Manu-

lrrllrrrr

As$oci0lbn, White Plains, N.Y., 1978.

rl,JJ [l lcnr|t(rrlrtrr.

'Fxy

2f

l+u)

CHAPTER

STRENGTH THEORIES, DESIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN EQUATIONS

i,=#n(*
r1

.,&*)

"

= -q.C-/afu*razn1 ,,'I i 2 (l -p'J \ayz

L.
i

^J

t"

a_w

211*u;

a*aY

Th6ori6s, riter;o, ond bosic equorions.

29

30

sTRINGTH THEORIES, DESIGN CRITERIA, AND DISIGN TQUATIONS

3.2

DESIGN

CRITERIA

3I

3.I

STRENGTH THEORIES

3.2

DESIGN CRITERIA

ln the design of process vessels and pressure equipment, two basic modes of failure may be assumed: elastic failure based on the theory of elasticity and plastic failure based on the theory of plasticity. Except for thick-walled vessels, elastic failure is usually assumed for the design of pressure vessels. It is considered to occur when the elastic limit of the material is reached. Beyond this limit, excessive deformation or rupture is expected. These limits are usually measured in terms of tensile strength, yield strength, and, to some degree, rupture
strength.

Of the many theories developed to predict elastic failure, the three most commonly used are the maximum principal stress theory, the maximum shear stress theory, and the distortion energy theory. The maximum (principal) stress theory considers failure to occur when any one of the three principal stresses has reached a stress equal to the elastic limit as determined from a uniaxial tension or compression test. The maximum shear stress theory (also called the Tresca criterion) considers failure to occur when the maximum shear stress equals the shear stress at the elastic limit as determined from a pure shear test. The maximum shear stress is defined as one-halfthe algebraic difference between the largest and smallest of the three principal stresses. The distortion energy theory (also called the maximum strain energy theory, the octahedral shear theory, and the von Mises criterion) considers failure to have occurred when the distortion energy accumulated in the pad under stress reaches the elastic limit as determined by the distortion energy in a uniaxial tension or compression test. Engineers have known for some time that the maximum shear stress theory and the distortion energy theory predict yielding and fatigue failure in ductile materials better than does the maximum stress theory.r However. the maximum stress theory is easier to apply, and with an adequate safety factor it gives satisfactory designs. But where a more exact analysis is desired, the maximum shear stress theory is used. Two basic theories of strength are used in the ASME Boiler and hessure Vessel Code. Section I,2 Section IV,3 the ASME Code, VI[-1, and Section III, Division 1, Subsections NC,4 ND,5 and NE6 use the maximum stress theory. Section III, Division l, Subsection NB7 and the optional part of NC, and the ASME Code, VtrI-2, use the maximum shear stress theory. In the two sections of the ASME/ANSI Code for Pressure Piping 83l that are used primarily with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, both ANSI 83 l. l6 and 83 1. 3e use the maximum stress theory. 83 1.3 is unique in that it uses the maximum stress theory but permits allowable stresses to be established on the same basis as the ASME Code, VIII-2, which requires use of the maximum shear stress theory. The other sections of 831 also use the maximum stress theory. They require that in addition to the stresses caused by intemal and cxternal pressures, tiose stresses caused by thermal expansion of the piping are to he considered.

The design criteria for both Sections I and IV basically call for determining the minimum wall thickness that will keep the basic circumferential stress below an allowable stress level. Additional rules and charts are included for determining the minimum thickness of various components. However, in general, a detailed stress analysis is required only for special designs. Sections I and IV recognize that local and secondary stresses may exist in some areas of pressure vessels; design details, however, have been established to keep these stresses at a safe level with a minimum of stress analysis investigation. The design criteria of the ASME Code, VI -1, and Section III, Division l, Subsections NC except NC-3200, ND, and NE, are similar to those for Sections I and IV except that the ASME Code, VI[-I, and Section III, Division l, Subsections NC, ND, and NE require cylindrical shell thickness calculations based on both the circumferential and the longitudinal directions. The minimum required thickness may be set by stresses in either direction. In addition, the ASME Code, VIII-1, permits the combination of primary membrane stress and primary bending stress to go as high as 1.5 S at temperatures where tensile and yield strength control and 1.25 S at temperatures where creep and rupture control, where S is the allowable tensile stress values. The design criteria for the ASME Code, VIII-2, provide formulas and rules for thd?nore common configurations of shells and formed heads for temperatures when the allowable stress criteria do not exceed the yield strength and tensile strength range. Requirements include detailed evaluations of actual stresses in complex geometries and with unusual loadings, especially if a cyclic loading condition exists. These calculated stresses are assigned various categories and subcategories that have different allowable stress values as multipliers of the basic allowable stress intensity value. The various categories and subcategories
are:

Primary stresses, including general primary membrane stress, local primary membrane stress, and primary bending stress
Secondary stresses Peak stresses

Primary stress is caused by loadings that are necessary to satisfy the laws of

equilibrium between applied forces and moments. Primary stesses are not
self-limiting
.

by self-constraint of the structure. Its basic chamcteristic is that it is selfJimiting. That is, rotation and deformation or deflection take place until the forces and moments are balanced even though some pennanent geometric changes may have taken place. Lastly, peak stress is the highest stress condition in a structure and is usually
Secondary stress is developed

32

STRTNGTH THEORIIS, DESIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN EQUATIONS

3.4

STRESS-STMIN REIATIONSHIPS

due to a stress concentration caused by an abrupt change in geometry. This stress is important in considering a fatigue failure because of cyclic load application. In general, thermal stresses are considered only in the secondary and peak categories. Thermal stresses that cause a distortion of the structure are categorized as secondary stresses; thermal stresses caused by suppression of thermal expansion, but may not cause distortion, are categorized as peak stresses. Potential failure modes and the various stress limits categories are related. Limits on primary stresses are set to prevent deformation and ductile burst. The primary plus secondary limits are set to prevent plastic deformation leading to incremental collapse and to validate using an elastic analysis to make a fatigue analysis. Finally, peak stress limits are set to prevent fatigue failure due to cyclic

3.3

DESIGN EQUATIONS

Once the allowable stresses are set, the basic design equations must be devef oped. The design of process equipment is based on the assumption that the material generally behaves elastically at the design pressure and design tem-

perature. Accordingly, most of the equations are derived from the theory of elasticity and shength of materials basis.

3.4

STRESS-STRAIN RETATIONSHIPS

loadings. The basic stress iniensity limits for various categories relating to an analysis according to the ASME Code, VIII-2, and Section III, Division 1, Subsection NB, and optional Part NC-3200 of Subsection NC are: Factor Based on

The stress-strain relationship at any point within a homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic body that is subjected to a system of forces is obtained from the theory of elasticity. Referring to Fig. 3.1, the stress-strain relationship is given

by

Factor
Based on

e,:
er

1.
ELo,-

p(oy + ozl)

Allowable
Stress Intensity Category

Yield
Strength*

Value

Tensile Strength* -!c +s"

t.
ELor-

ploz 'r

o^)J

General primary membrane

(P,)

ks,

3s,

Local primary membrane (P")

UKS^

himary membrane plus

primary bending (PM Primary plus secondary

Pd liks.
1(

s) s,
25,

e, -

I : ;lo,I1-

tt(o, 2(1

I o)l
1t)

(3.1)

rs ,DGE
^lv

+s,

(PM+PB+Q)

2(l + ---V- 1t) rn

2(1

S.t/,- =

In the ASME Code, VIII-2, and Section III, Division 1, optional Part NC3200 of Subsection NC, a factor of ft is applied to various loading combinations somewhat related to whether or not the loading is sustained or transient. The laotors are k = 1.0 for sustained loads including dead loads and pressure; k - 1.2 for sustained load plus wind or earthquake loads; t = 1.25 for hydro$tiltic tcsts; and k - 1.15 for pneumatic tests. 'I'hc dcsign criteria for Section III, Division l, Subsection NB, are very sinrillr lo thoso for the ASME Code, VIII-2, except there is less use of design lirrrrrrrlrrs, culvcs, tnd tables, and greater use of design by analysis in Section IIL 'l'h(. cfllcgorics ol slrcsses and stress intensity limits are the same in both secliorrs.

+
L

1t)

i--

Or, in a different form.

(r+

tt)(1

-zp.)

[e,(l

pc)

+ p,(e, + e,)]
p.(e"

(1,+p.)(1

-2tt) [e,(1 LIL)

p) +

e")l

(l + p)(1 I
| .O.

+AiiurriflI lhrt

,\,,,

Nll, n[(l thc | i',nrl pIr I {rl S (plri). url ,\,'t{ ultirrxrtc k nsil(. slfrJrgth (psi)

(lcsiSn strcss intensity valuc fbr Section III, Division l, Subsection hsr(.li()n NC, and thc ASMts Codc, VIII-2 (psi), S" = yicld strength

T,

2(l +

Ii^, " ltl

[,(1

- pr,)+p(e.+er)]

(3.2)

1.t)

34

STRENGTH THIORIES, DTSIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN EQUATIONS

3.5

STRAIN-DEFTECTION EQUATIONS

35

t2

equations reduce to

'

f1--->

@
I t4
(b)

<-f3

e,:

1. E\ox

psr) Po')
(3.3)

t"l

t. q= i\ar-

,: Elo' + stl 2(1 + tt) r"t f"y = --EOr, in a different form,

o,

---! L-p-

,1u"

* *rs
+
p'es (3.4)

I
I

o,:;\1e, tc,:0
E

lL-

Figure

3.1 Slrcls rerulianr ot o point wirhin o F.,

homogeneous, isotropi<, ond linorly eldsri. body.

',=76+ iil*
3.5
STRAIN-DEFLECTION EQUATIONS Figure 3.2 is cross section of a pressure vessel wall. It undergoes an extension in the niddle surface of o due to stretching plus extension due to bending. The original length lr at a distance z from the middle surface is given by

r, = zG;

tL)

Tn : ;:;---,----.._

EvL\r t trL)
axial strain in the.r, y, and z-directions, respectively axial stress in the .r, y, and z-directions, respeptively
shearing strain in the -r, y, and z-directions, respectively shearing stress in the.r, y, and z -directions, respectively

where

eb ey

e,:
oz

= "y,!, yr,, y- =
re,
T

oo

o,

t,=adr-1\
The final length l2 after extension is

: rz, rp :

E = modulus of elasticity of material (psi) G = shear modulus of material (psi)

1,c

tz:
whereas strain is given by

dstt +

.*r(r - 4) \ r./
lrl,

poisson's ratio

In most pressure vessel applications, the values of o,, rr,, and r,, are relatively small compared with o, and or. Hence, they are normally ignored and the

,":

lt

36

STRENGTH THEORIES, DESIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN TQUATIONS

3.5

STRAIN.DEFTECTION

EQUATIONS

37

However, because the quantity dw fdx is smal! compared with unity, the expression above becomes

X': 77
Hence, Eq. 3.5 may be written
as

d2w

. a;to Xt =

d2w

7F

(3.6)

*=T+1^+
*.leb

peo,-,(#. - *fu)l

E ldzw, drr\'l ot: T7 I + Pew - '\dy, - It dr') l

(3.7)

The shearing strain-displacement relationship can be obtained from Fig. 3 3. The quantity 7," is shown in Fig. 3'34 and can be expressed as
Fisure

3.2

Cross sction

of o shll woll subieted to strrchine ond bendins lodds'

"l'Y:"loq+a+P
is the shearing stress due to in-place forces and d and B are due to twisting moments. Also, from the figure, where
7qry

Substituting the values of lr and lz into the above and deleting all small terms
results in

.:

or

(t _ ,\,:_ l\ : e0,_

i)

z. x\

(d/ d\'ldv . d-srna -__6-:

du dy 0a

where 1, is change in curvature. Similarly,

n

ou

-,\4- i)

r l\

IJ-srnP= es - z' xt
and

(dD/?x)dx

d,

=A

Substitution of the above two equations into Eq. 3.4 gives

o,: ,-:--Lr" + t-lt-

peo!

z(y"

trt'yt)

du f,t: Ioq, dy(3.5)

0a

a,

(3.8)

q- ,--lvt t- lL-

ti

l"r*-

z(Xr+

PX')

Nolr llrirl llr(' cx|)tcssirttt f, is related to the deflection by the expression

/ x'=tt+kt"4'hffn dzw

From Fig. 3.30, which represents the middle surface, the rotation is given by -@w I Ai. The minus sign indicates counterclockwise rotation. As a result of this rotation, any point at a distance z from the middle surface will have a deflection of
dw dx

dx2

38

STRENGTH THEORIES, DESIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN EQUATIONS

3.6

FORCE-STRESS EXPRESSIONS

39

^,

$y :^'^ rvt - )2-:----:-b -- dx

And Eq. 3.4 becomes

",=c("*
3.6
FORCLSTRESSEXPRESSIONS

-*#)

(3.9)

The force-stress relationship for the cross section shown in Fig' 3 4a can be
exDressed as

t,--'-,..'7 t _----,-

u..-..

-z

-\ ,/./,?| t

*,= f',,",(r - z\a, N,= [n( - )a"

n"=[,"(t-i)a"
u,=1,,,\t-z)a'
(3. 10)

|_-, l-_
z
Figura

tD,

u.=

z)a" [".'lt -

3.3

Shor dolormdliom of

o unit cro$ .ection.

u,= J",'lr - i)a,

,, = -[ ,,'lt - 1)a"
Similarly,
D

u*=
= -Z-dy
dte

[,,",(t-4;,

Hence Eq. 3.8 becomes

In the majority of cases, the quantity z/r is small with respect to unity and can thus be dlsregarded. Also, substituting Eqs. 3.7 and 3.9 into 8q 3 10 gives

40

STRENGTH THEORITS, DESIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN EQUATIONS

3.6

FORCE.STRESSEXPRESSIONS

4l
(3.1 r)

,.:&(#.#)
u,=ffi\(*tu.
,.
Eilt l2ll tL) drw lt2t ax dy

,*tu)

Example 3.1 Stresses are to be determined at the inside comer of an opening in a cylindrical shell by applying strain gages at the location. The cylindrical
shell is carbon steel with

: 29.9 x 106 psi and p : 0.3. The strain readings o from the three gages are ,: +360 x 10-6; ): +180 x l0 and e' = -230 x 10-6. What are the stresses in the three principal directions at the
E
opening?

Solutian.
AS

Using the equations given under Eq. 3.2, the stresses are determined

,/

o,: ;#1Q60X0.7) ( r.Jrw.+.,

' ",:

,oq
,qq

+ +

0.3(180 0.3(360

230)l
230t1

:
=

13'630 psi
9499 O.;

-*l(180)(0.7) t r.JJ(u.+,

?qo "'' tr-?10rr0.7) = (1.3x0.4)" --""' + 0.3(360 + 180)l :

60

psi

Exanple

3.2.

What are the stresses in the two principal directions of the

cylindrical shell with the o,

= gt

Solution.
N. = r r-lJ' r(0r+
N, :
N,}

Using the simplified equations given under Eq. 3.4, the stresses are
as

Et

determined

/,q,

.--------t (0) + p0r.)

Ft

l-

lL'

1'u,Et

2(l

', =ffioso o, =ffi{rto

+ 0.3 x + 0.3 x

180)

13,6oo psi

360)

9460

psi

1t)

42
Problems

SIRTNOTH THEORIS, DTSIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN EQUATIONS

BIELIOGRAPHY
BIBTIOGRAPHY

43

3.1

Strain gages are attached to the surface of a tube subiected to internal pressure. The gages lie along the circumferential and l,ongitudinal axes. The tube is carbon steel with = 29.9 106psi, 1.r, 0.3, and the stress at the surface in the circumferential direction is 17,500 psi. What are the strain gage readings in the two directions?

Brownell, L. E., and E. H. Yoi{Irlg, Process Equipment Design, John Wiley, New york, 1959. FattWI, J, H., Engineering Design, John Wiley, New York, l9&.

Ha0ey, J. F., Theory and Design of Modern Pressure Vessels,2nd ed., Van Nostrand-Reinhold,
Princeton, N.J.
Seely, F.

B. and J. O. Smith, Advanced Mecfuinics of Makriak,2nded., John Wiley, New york,

Answer:

e,: i:

*498
+117

x 10-6 x 10-6

1952.

3.2

In the tube of Problem 3.1, what is the strain in the z -direction? Usins that answer and the other answers in Problem 3.1, what are the calcrilated stresses in the three directions?

Anst'er: a" =

17,500 psi

o" = 8,750 psi

o"=o
REFERENCES Criteria of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for Design by At],',ltsis in Sections and VIII, Division 2, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New york, 1969.

III

I, Power Boilers, ANSVASME BPV-I, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New york, 1983. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sectionly, Heating BoiIeB, ANSVASME BPV-IV, American Society of Mechanical Enginers, New York, 1983.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, Division l, Subsection NC, Class 2 Components, ANSUASME BPV-m-I-NC, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section

York, 1983.

York. 1983. ASMII Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, Division l, Subsection NE, Class MC (i)tnpt,nt',ttr, ANSTASME BPV- I-l-NE, American Society ofMechanical Engineers, New
7. Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, Division 1, Subsecrion NB, CIaJJ 1 ( t'ntt\'tl' t.t, ANSI/ASME BPV- I-l-NB, American Society ofMechanical Engineers, New
Y(n

III, Division Subsection ND, Crllrr.i Components, ANSL?ASME BPV-III-1-ND, American Society ofMechanical Engineers, New

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section

l,

Y,nk, 1983. ASMIj lllrilcr and

(.

l()8l

83l.1, Amedcan Society ol Mrrhfiri(nl li[8inccrs, New York, 1980. ASMf (irtfc lix Prcssure Piping B3l, Chemical plant and petroleum Rertnery pipin|, ANSI/AliMll ll I I L Amcr'can Soc'ety of Mechanical Engineers, New york, 19g0.

ASMf i ( \nk. li,r I'rcssurc PipingB3l, Power Prping, ANSLIASME

CHAPTE R

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Top: Metologroph of titanium wetd. Boltom: Tonrolum_ctdd veset (Courtesy of rhe Nooter Corp., Sr. l"ouis,

44

46

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

4.I

MATERIAL SETECTION

The vast majoriry of vessels are constructed of ferrous and nonferrous alloys' used Ferrous alloys are defined as those having more than 50Vo iron They are 2, and include carbon and low-alloy steels' in the eSME Code, VI[-l and steels' stainless steels, cast iron, wrought iron, and quenched and tempered copper, nickel, titanium, and zirconium Nonfenous alloys include aluminum, The ASTM designates all ferrous alloys by the letter A and all nonferrous alloys the ASME by B. ASME uses the prefixes SA and SB, respectively ln most cases are identical. However, vessels built to the ASME unO eSfV specifications Code usually refer to the ASME specifications' Nonmetilic pressure vessels may also be constructed to the ASME Code' plasRecently, ASME Section X was published to include fiberglass-reinforced of construction are given in Section 46' Concrete tic (FRij vessels. Details rules are vessels are also being considered by the ASME However, no specific available at this time. and Selecting materials that are adequate for a given process is complicated factors such as corrosion, strength, and cost' depends on many

4.1.1

Corrosion
Fisure

Corrosion,whichisdefinedasthedeteriorationofmetalsbychemicalaction' A is probably the single most important consideration in selecting materials can sigstigtrt ctrange in the chemical composition of a given -environment in nifi'cantly cilange the corrosive behavior of a given metal This is illustrated on different epp""Oi* H, i,trich lists various environments and their effect
ferrous and nonferrous alloYs. In a new chemical process, it is prudent to determine the factors that affect the most the corrosion and then run tests on various materials in order to select "city suitable one. Figure 4.1 shows an example of a heat exchanger.used in and the unwater" service. The corroded tubesheet is made of carbon steel a corroded tubes are made of copper' Another example shown in Fig 4'2 is titanium lubesheet after exhibiling crevice corroslon' fn nighty corrosive environments, every phase of the pressure. vessel fabri.ution pio""r, rnurt be evaluated for corrosion' Items such as buming' forming' weldini, stress relieving, and polishing must be.considered Figure 4 3 illuswere left on trates a"Hastelloy C chu-te with corrosion in which marking Points of high stress along the break rnu,"tlut Ou.ing h"ut treatment. Conosion at points attack lines can also 6e seen. In Figure 4.4, a Carpenter 20 tube shows knifeline used in hydrofluoric acid at a plug weld (shown by arrow) in a bayonet tube
service. its The cleanliness and finish of the inside surface of a pressure vessel before in service' subsequent opcrltion ilrc vsry imPortant in preventing .c.onoslon to lts Many uscrs tcquirc spccial clcaning proccdutcs ol'the insitlc surlace Prior

4.1

Cotroded corbon sleel lubesheet. (Courl$y of the Nooter Corp., St. touis, Mo.)

Frrruro

4.2

Corroded rirqnaum tubesheet. (Courlesy

ol the Nooler CorP, Sr' touis, Mo

insl;rllaliott.

4.I

MATERIAT SITECTION

49

4.1.2

Strenglh

The strength level of a material has a significant influence on its selection for a given application. This is especially true at elevated temperatures where the yield and ultimate strength are relatively low and the creep and rupture behavior may control the allowable stress values. In the ASME Code, VIII-l, the criteria for allowable stress at elevated temperatures take into account both the creep and rupture behavior as discussed in Section 2.4. In applying the ASME criteria for allowable stress as given there, the following procedures are used.
Specified Minimum Yield Stress

In obtaining the minimum yield shess of a given material, test data are plotted at vadous temperatures as shown in Fig . 4 . 5 . A smooth trend curve is then drawn though the averages of the data for individual test temperatures. The specified minimum yield stress curve is obtained by applying to the yield trend curve the ratio of the specified minimum value, as given in the material specification, to
the trend value of 80"F.

Fisure

4.3

Hosrelloy C chure. (Courtesy o{ the Nooter Corp., Sr. rouk, Mo.)

o
Fisure

200

400
Figure

600 4.5

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

4.4

temperature,"F Crock in

o Corpenter 20 lube weld. (Court6y of Nooier Corp., Sr. toui., Mo

Tensile ond yield 3irengrh.

48

!0
Sptcllled Mlnlnum 'l'ensile Siress

MATERIATS

OI

CONSTRUCTION

4.I

MATTRIAI. SETECTION

5l

Rupture Slrength
Test data are normally plotted as shown in Fig. 4.7. In some cases the data need to be extended to 100,000 hours and must be done with extreme care to extraD-

'fhe tensilc trend curve is determined by the same method as the yield trend curve
including_ th-e,.ratio factor. The specified minimum tensile striss is arbitrarily taken as I l07o of the tensile trend curve, as illustrated in Example 4. 1

olate accurately.

Creep Rate

In order to establish the creep rate of lVo /lffi,O}} hours, data are plotted as shown in Fig. 4.6. Interpolation and extrapolation may be needed to establish the creep rate for various temperature levels.

Example 4.1. A user is requesting code approval for a new material that has a minimum specified tensile stress of 120 ksi and a minimum specified yield stress of 60 ksi at room temperature. Tensile and yield values for various heats
and temperatures are shown in Fig. 4.5. Creep and rupture data are given in Figs. 4.6 and 4.7, respectively. What are the allowable stress values at 300 and 1200'F

based on criteria siven

in Section 2.4?

.0001

1,000

Llle llrs.
Figur

,{.6

Crep strengrh.

Figur

4.7

Rupture strengrh.

52

MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION

4.2

NONFERROUS ATLOYS

Solution

TqblE 4.1 Approximote Cost of Mqteriqls Used in Pressure Vesser

Conslruction
Cost in

Allowable Stress at 300'F

l.

2. 3. 4.

From Fig. 4.5, average tensile stress = 130 ksi. Tensile stress reduced to minimum : l3O x 120/140: 111 ksi. Specified minimum tensile stress : 111 x 1.10 : 122 kst. Maximum stress to be used cannot exceed 120 ksi. Allowable stress based on tensile stress : 120/4 = 30 ksi. From Fig. 4.5, average yield sffess : 60 ksi. Yield stress reduced to minimum : 60 x 60/75: 48 ksi. Allowable stress based on yield stress : 48 x 6 = 32 ksi. From Figs. 4.6 and 4.7 it is apparent that creep and rupture are not a consideration at 300'F. Therefore, maximum allowable stress at 300"F = 30 ksi

Type
Carbon steel

Dollars/lb
0.30
0.7 5

Low-alloy steel
Stainless steel

0.90-2.50
1.50
t.'7 5

Aluminum
Copper, bronze

Incoloy
Monel Inconel Hastelloys

4.00 5.00 6.00

15.00 15.00

Allowable Stess at 1200"F

Titanium Zirconium
Tantalum

20.00 250.00

1.

2. 3. 4. 5.
4. I

From Fig. 4.5, average tensile saess : 112 ksi. Tensile stress reduced to minimum : lI2 x 120/1,4O: 96 ksi. Specified minimum tensile stress = 96 x 1.1 : 106 ksi, which is less than maximum allowed of 120 ksi. Allowable stress based on tensile stress = 106/4 : 26.5 ksr. From Fig. 4.5, average yield shess = 54 ksi. Yield stress reduced to minimum = 52 x 6O/7t: 42 ksi. Allowable stress based on yield stress = 42 x 6 = 28 ksi. From Fig. 4.6, creep stress for 0.O1Vo rn 1000 hours = 15 ksi. Allowable stress based on creep = 15 ksi. From Fig. 4.7. stress to cause rupture at 105 hours = 22 ksi. Allowable stress based on rupture = 0.67 x 22: 14.7 ksi. Therefore, maximum allowable stress at 1200"F = 14.7 ksi. I

'As of

January 1983.

4.2

NONFERROUS ATLOYS

The 1983 ASME Section VIII Code, VI[-1, lists five nonfenous alloys for code construction: aluminum, copper, nickel, titanium, and zirconium. These alloys are normally used in corrosive environment or elevated temperatures where ferrous alloys are unsuitable. Nonferrous alloys are nonmagnetic except for commercially pure nickel which is slightly magnetic.

4.2.1 Aluminum Alloys

Aluminurn alloys have a unique combination of properties that make them usable in process equipment applications. They are nonmagnetic, light in weight, have good formability, and have an excellent weight-strength ratio. Aluminum surfaces exposed to the atmosphere form an invisible oxide skin that protects the rnetal from further oxidation. This characteristic gives aluminum a high resislance lo corroslon. Aluminum alloys have a systematic numbering system as shown in Table 4.2. 'l he specification number also designates the various product forms. For examplc, SB 209 applies to plate products, and SB 210 applies to drawn seamless tube lxrtlucts. The first digit of the alloy designation number indicates its major rllloying element as shown in Table 4.2. All aluminum alloys are categorized by ASME specification number, alloy

.3

Moteriol Cost

llt'r'rrrrsc costs of materials vary significantly, the designer must evaluate materiirl (osl vcrsus other facton such as corrosion, expected life of equipment, Ivrrilirl'ility ol material, replacement cost, and code restrictions on fabrication rrrrl rr'1ririrs. n summary of the cost of some frequently used materials is given rn l irlrlt ,l. | . With the large difference in cost, the designer should consider the lrx l(xs ltfior' 11r sclccting a given material.

54

MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION

NONIERROUS ATTOYS

Jf

Tqble

4.2

Aluminum Alloy Designotion

Toble

4.3

Temper Clossificotion For Aluminum Alloys

EXAMPLE+
C ST'TG
FLITES

(n^|?{ sElra-Ess

NE fr-Ttta

DEGREE

TE]FER OR TO IENTIFY STECIAL s,ET G MECH-

C@,ITF|OL OF

F4t5, A4AS a $aPEli

cErE EF a |,/17 E(U{A'GF ltE

ffiffi6nE
Fffi'TS
DIE

TUTO

,.ffi"ffi#*EffidFJfit<,6lLlfY.

2- nLUT TO.J HT TI]EN At'tt.ALm

3569-

"'ffi,#P.*,fffr4ffi..ffisffi*
5.
fFEATAa-E ILLOY.

t' ffi.,,ffi*.ffi.ffi";^318H:" ,oPt-tcar td '' H&.,ffi'#^E lH,ffia'.nn

5. tAtN ADV$J'AA IS fl,.l tT ls t^I-lnElr a-E. 7, TLTRA HIgl S'FE 7H FFCENTTE!'' M)' USED IN ffi.

"-

fi? ,HEN NATLTRALLY #?,'ffifsTAfuE COI'IDIT ION AGED TO

ARTIFICIALLY AGED o/v-Y SLUT lc',l HT TIIEN ART]FICIALLY AGED
SOLUT

a.ffiiig,rri;p:::ffi!*r
O- ARTIFICTALLY
COLD V@KEO

AoEO. T'/FN COLD IItrT<ED

IO'I HT, ARTIFICIALLY

AGED TTEN

designation, and temper designation as shown in Tables 4.2 and 4.3. Some of the terms in the tables are defined as follows: Annealing. Consists of heating the material to a given temperature and then slowly cooling it down. The purpose is to soften the material in order to remove cold

Stain Hardening. Modification of metal structure by cold working resulting in an increase in strength with a loss in ductility.
Thermal Treating.
Temperature treatment of an alloy to produce a stable temper.

working stress.
Norm.alizing. Consists of heating rnaterial to a temperature slightly higher than the annealing temperatue and then cooling at a rate that is faster than annealing.
S o lution

4.2.2

Copper ond Copper Alloys

H eat Tr eatin g.

Heat heating at a temperature high enough for the alloys to be randomly

dispersed.

Stahilizing.

A low temperature heating to stabilize the property of an alkry

Most copper alloys are used because of their good corrosion resistance and machinability. They are also homogeneous as compared with steel or aluminum and thus not susceptible to heat treatment' Their strength, generally speaking, may be altered only by cold working. The alioy designation system serves to identify the type of material as shown in Table 4.4. Alloys 101-199 are normally a high grade copper with very few alloys added. Alloys 201-299 normally refer b brass products that are mainly copper and zinc. Alloys 501-665 are bronze products composed of copper and elements other than zinc. Other properties of copper alkrys are also sbown in the Table.

56

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Tqble

4.4

EE ra ra
A A

Eo

\o

Copper AlloYs

di\J U)

d - a': a T 5 co of co cD rq

\o-

\D \o

\O

\O @

oO

U) tan

U) u)

ca a

I I

Alloy Designation of

CoPPers

l0l-199 20tJ99
301-399 401-499
501-599

Coppers

Copper-zinc alloys (brass)

Copper-zinc-lead alloys (leaded brass) Copper-zinc-tin alloy (tin brass) Copper-tin alloy (phosphor bronze) Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronze) Copper-silicon (silicon brcnze) Miscellaneous copper alloys Copper-nickel alloys Cold-Worked TemPer Designations Approximate 9o Reduction
bY Cold Working E

HFr" .3;o .t2 ax

EoS E g,.E$
dicc a\)a
\o \o

\o

5 ca u1 v u) rh e a rq...j Ecco a

601-645 64s-665 666-699

z
U'

\o

\or I I r I IQCQ .J1 U) rr \oi ir) aa

I
|

701J30

B;= a. ,B t:

\o
ta)

\o
tt)

\o

+ + + a

a@ : t4

C-+ O-r) <f av)

Qua(er Hard

0.9

Half hard
Three-quarte$ hard Hard Extra hard Spring Extra spring

20.7 29.4
31

\o vt(hu)l lv)aa

sf

\o

.l
>doF
IIi

50.0 60.5 68.7

<AE

v v>

ao ! Q n v 6 G

88

'r,

Most copper alloys are distinguishable by their color except for Cu-Ni alloys that tend to lose their color as the amount of Ni is increased

4.2.3

Nickel ond High-Nickel Alloys

Nickel and high-nickel alloys have excellent corrosion and oxidation resistance that makes thJm ideal for high temperature applications with corrosive environments. Products are normally called by their commercial names rather than their ASME designation number as shown in Table 4 5'

Y < 6=aa-.i,:,i,9

4.2,4

Titonium ond Zirconium Alloys

2222222222 I ; r'i XEE i 9-B n^:i^ l= I -zF da 2e 2a2^::;. F v6 Vo zz z 23888A838:E;8t F z zcz44aa3z4 Z\J ZY >v
=e

JVCq9vY-ii

flSd
ccg,,-56

Titanium and zirconium alloys are used in process equipment subjected to severe environment. In the ASME Code, VIII-1, unalloyed titanium is listed for grades grades also I , 2, and 3, and alloyed titanium is listed for grade 7. Two zirconium and alloyed alloy 705' given in the Code are unalloyed alloy 702 The modulus of elasticity for both titanium and zirconium is about half that ol stccl. Also the coefficient of thermal expansion of both is about half that of stccl. I'hc dcnsity o1'zirconium is slightly less than stcel' whereas the density of lilrr|lirrrr is irlrottt 0.5ti lirttcs thltt ol stccl.

$na*$qfi ra33383nltsa
s?
&
(./t

qq

Yq rarartl
u)all

-aEP 3-EE z
E)

$na$$qqqqq t3,38nA3nn3F^
qq s q s$3$$$$$ t83 AAEn'-n3333a3383

H5 g
al
ao

AA

n | 3
| |
|
|

I'i |:SX -ii tr ocq ttt ca u)

-tY

F-

o- q =- *A

$ $ 3 e 3 g ? q qq| A A e n E 3 a lnl

q 3

ra) v-' l(ha

a-

\o

* EEU

q-

s$$nHfiH$$+q nAaeBSaaSSa
r.) c.r <l iisiotidooozx .J i\ ^r
to

; g nE H
El
CJ

e&"

nl

al

R=

x ><> )<

i{

5
C)

gg
O

a^r'i=-=

EEEEtt giss!ig$gqB
622t2322222

U
O
II.

26
U

n*i
.i +t-

z
o

t!

1
!

zzz

,9,

,9

; i

.rrrr{a

ln

/\/tx X XE AH O:'

EuEt sc ig ig I5 ic kc ic Ig Ig

;Qo;FQ;Fe36g.S JJ.o i6\ d)i dliH C:F

3g5Eg6s9lsd

59

MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION

4.4

HEAI TREATING OF

STEETS

6I

4.3

FERROUS ALTOYS

steels. lhese elements enhance the steel for high temperature applications and

in hydrrigen service. High-Alloy Steels.

These are commonly refened to as stainless steels. They have mainly chromium (over lOVo), nickel, and molybdendm alloys. The basically three types of stainless steel used in process equipment are as follows: M artensitic Stainless Steels.

Iron alloys with carbon content of less than 2qo arc known as steels and those
with more than 27o are known as cast iron. Steels are further divided into those with carbon content of more than 0.87o, called hypereutectoid steels, and those with carbon content of less than 0.87o, known as hypoeutectoid steels. Most steels used in pressure vessel applications have a carbon content of less than 0.47o. Steels with carbon content of over O.4Eo are very brittle and hard to weld. Cast iron used in pressure vessels dates back to the nineteenth century. However, because cast iron is very brittle and because it cannot be rolled, drawn, or welded, its use in pressure vessels presently is limited to complicated components and configurations. The ASME Code, VIII-I, also imposes limitations on the pressure and temperature ranges and the repair methods. Steel alloys can be produced with a wide variety of alloying elements. Some of the common elements and their effect on steel products are shown in Table 4.6. The ASME Code, VIII-1, divides steel alloys into the following categories: Carbon Steels.
These are widely used in pressure vessels. They have mainly silicon and manganese as the main alloying elements and are limited in temperature

This group includes type 410, which has a low chromium content of slightly above lTEo. They behave like steel, are magnetic, heat heatable, and difficult to fabricate.

Feffitic Stainless Steels. This group includes types 405 and 430. They are magnetic but not heat
treatable. Aust enitic Staink s s
Ste e ls.

This group includes all 200 and 300 series and are chromium-nickel and chromium-nickel-manganese steels. They arc nonmagnetic and not heat
heatable.

applications to about 1000'F.

Low-Allny Steels.
These are essentially cbromium (up

to l07o), Molybdenum, and nickel-alloy

4.4

HEAT TREATING OF STEELS

Tqble

4.6 Effecl of Alloying Elements in Sfeel Element Advantases Element

Restricts grain growth Incrcases resistalca to corrosion and oxidation Increases hardenability Adds strength at high
temperature
steels

Advantages Strengtheqs annealed Toughens steels

Aluminum
Chromium

The lattice structure of steel varies from one form to another as the temperature changes. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.8. Between room temperature and 1333"F, the steel consists of what is known as "ferrite and pearlite." Ferrite is a solid solution of a small amount of carbon dissolved in iron. Pearlite, which is shown in Fig. 4.9, is a mixture of ferrite and iron carbide. The carbide is very hard and

Improves oxidation
reslstance Increases hardenability Strengthens steel

MirrUlocsc

Molylrk

rrrrrrr

Counteracts sulfur brittleness I ncrcases hardenability l{ iscs grain-coarsening

Titanium

Prevents formation austenite in high

of

l('l|ll)crilturc
(

illrrlcrircls tcndency

t(,wirr(l lcnrpcr brittleness Iinllnrl(cs corrosion

l( sislirtlec

chromium steels Prevents localized depletion of chomium in stainless steel during

britde. In Fig. 4.8 between lines A1 Qower critical ternperature) and A3 (upper critical temperature) the carbide dissolves more readily into the lattice that is now called "ferrite and austenite." Austenite is a solid solution of carbon and iron that is denser than ferrite. Above line 43 the lattice is uniform in property, with the austenite the main structure. The actual temperature for this austenite range is a function of the carbon content of the steel as shown in Fig. 4.8. With this brief description, we can now discuss various heat treatments of
carbon steel.

Normalizing. This consists of heating the steel to about 100"F above the upper critical line Ai and tben cooling in still air. The purpose is to homogenize the steel structurc and oroduce a harder steel than the annealed condition

long heating
Vanadium
Increases hardenability Rcsists tcmpcring

62

MATERIATS

Of

CONSTRUCTION

4.5

BRITTTE FMCTURE

63

Posweld Heat TreatingIt consists of heating to a temperature below the lower critical temperature -rJilf- rft" purp;se of reducing the fabrication and welding stress and softening the weld heat-affected zones'
'ri

Quenching. important in e-stablishing The rate of cooling of steel after heat treating is very SA-517 obtain most of their high ifr" ft.an"t. of st"eel Some steels such as manY.factors such as Uy qt"*fting. The rate of cooling.depends on ,t "ttgtft medium' and size and mass of tlmperature of quenching qu"nittlng the part.

-iAiu.,

Tempering. they are heat Ouenched steels are very brittle. In order to increase toughness'

;;;;

il"* ;.;d

then cooled to produce the desired propertv of high

strength and good toughness.

PERCENT CARAON OF WEIGHT

Fisure

4.8

lron-iron corbide equilibrium didsrom'

4.5

BRITTTE FRACTURE

Pressure vessel componenllconstructed of ferrous alloys

occasionalllfail:ht-

uy incorporati4g.ufg1e fracture -coriiiderations at the dsgn ffilrir;d .;Oiiticaiion requlreO vaiies from the simplest state-offfi ffirf il::* ;;d;dTi;,rt""t"iii.o.pri*tei mathematical analvses Both extremes ;; ;i;ii;,h;;i;isure uessel'designer, and their application ^depends on the

i*tir;at"d,=A;".-"p:.-Iormalopqr3tingtdlFPeratureatalnressurewell illiiffi=0.;-;ftJG d*-i i"ir'* $"Jutt! o'"u'' ut to* !;'i-{'n"'1r ioo

amountofinformationavailableandtherequiredreliabiljtyolaglvencomponent.

Charpy V-Notch Test (Cv)

ANNEALED PEARLITE
Figure

NORI'ALIZED
PEARLITE

The Cv test is the simplest and most popular method of qualitatively determining

4.9

Parlile 3tructure.

ffi'rrl."--i-Grl^cF*-T of 9-n:sl:dJp.j"r_Tglllg: lljS

llrrr r'orrrisls ol lreating the steel to about 50'F above the upper critical line ,4, lrrrl tlrlrr ltttttittt cortling slowly. The purpose is to refine the grain and rtrlttr'r srtllttr'ss

impact teslrn_g ASTM- A-370_-and consistf taken from a spbcifib location of a product lorm. l he speclmen ls srucK wlln a falling weighi(Fig.4.l}b) and the energy required to fracture it at various tempJratures is recorded. Figure 4.11 shows two typical plots of the temperature versus absorbed energy. The magnitude of measured energy, shape of energy curve, and appearance of the cross section of tested specimens are all significant in evaluating material toughness.

4.5

BRITTTE FRACTURE

ffil
|

fn',n | '-*nn
(b) resr ann*rormeu

(a) srnolno specruel

(c) pencert or sxeln rnlctune

AFTEB TESTII'IG.

--.r-o"ttgm;f"@Slt as sho_wnin_Curve,4 qf Fig. 4 1 l. @ -. as-sharu!_!J_ rfrrvx g-rn-\E:-.4.1t. This slight increase in toughness makes the Cv test impractical to use in high strength steels. The of dull and areas in the cross section of tested (Fig. 4.10c).
spc'men.

The magnitude of energy level at a given temperature varies with different steels, as shown in ASTM 4-593. An energy level of 15 ft-lb is considered adequate for 4-283 steel at room temperature. However, such a level is exceedingly low for .4-387 steels. Recognizing this fact is imperative in specifying energy requirements for various steels at different temperatures. The slope of the energy curve in Fig. 4.11 gives the rate of change of steel toughness with increasing temperature. At the bottom shelf of the curve, the steel is very brittle as indicated by the cleavage appearance of the tested speci men. Failure is normally abrupt. At the upper shelf, material fails in shear and the cross section has a dull area. Failure bicurs after excessive yielding. [ow] W,q sharp increase in toughness as the temperaiure increases,

Fig'rre

,1.10 Chorpy V-notch

nil ductility temperature. The nil ductility transition (NDT) temperature shown in Fig. 4.11 is of significant importance when considering low strength steels. This temperature is below which the fracture appearance of steel changes from part shear to complete cleavage. Thus, this temperature is below which vessels with low strength steel must not operate without a detailed fracture evaluation.
The Cv tests give a good qualitative indication of fracture hends. TlpylQlot, however. eive anv coffelation between enersv and stress levels. Such information G-neeh wriirJ i-strisianaiviii is ftooila. roitrti.-iJ*n. other methods were devised such as the drop weight test {DWT) established by the U.S. Naval
Research. Laboratory
.

=
I

s
z

Drup We@ht Test (DWT)

The DWT procedure is given in ASTM E-208 and consists of welding a brittle bead on a test specimen. The bead is then notched and the specimen impact l$ted at various temperatures. The NDT temperature is obtained when the specimen does not break upon impact. In testing the specimens, deflection can be limited such that the stress at failure does not exceed the yield value. Thus, a direct correlation is established between the NDT temperature and yield stress. Such information is used in constructing the fracture analysis diagram (FAD).
CURVE(s)
Fisure

cuRvi(A)

4.ll

Cv Enrgy tronlilion urye..

Fracture Analysis Diagratn (FAD)

The FAD is one of the earliest applications of brittle fracture rules to fail-safe designs. The results obtained from the curve are very conservative but require

64

-/

66

MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION

4.5

BRITTIT

FRACTURE

67

the minimum in engineering analysis. A simplified version of the diagram for low strength steels is shown in Fig. 4.12 and indicates the types of tests required to construct the diagram. Point A is obtained from the DWT and it establishes the location of the NDT temperature with respect to yield stress. The crack arrest temperature (CAT) curve, developed by the Naval Research Laboratory is obtained by running explosive tests on sample plates at various temperatures and observing the crack pattem. From such tests the fracture tear elastic (FTE) point is determined at the temperature at which the crack pattem changes from bulge and fracture to bulge and partial fracture, as shown in Fig. 4.12. The fracture tear plastic (FTP) point is obtained when the crack pattem changes from bulge and partial fracture to bulge and shear tears. The FTE point also locates the yield stress with respect to temperature, whereas the FTP point locates the ultimate stress. Below point A in Fig. 4.12, fracture does not propagate regardless of the temperatue as long as the stress is below 5-8 ksi. Between points A and other stress lines are drawn to correlate various stress levels. These lines are obtained from the Roberson test, which consists of impact testing a specimen that is

to a certain level and heated from one side to create a temperature gradient as shown in Fig. 4.13. Figure 4.14 shows the complete fracture analysis diagram. The range of flow sizes at various stress levels has been obtained from experiments as well as experience. The experiments consisted of using large spheres of good impact material and replacing portions of them with a notched brittle material. The spheres were then pressurized to a given stress level at the NDT temperature of the brittle material. The size of the notch was varied with different stress levels to obtain the range in the figure.
stressed

mpAcT

ERiP
Figure

4.13

Diosrom of specimen

urd

in Roberrson crock-drrBr bsr.

0{DT+60"F) (
TEMP+

DT+120'F)
YIELD

srnEss

"

FLAT"

M
BULGE

lKl
&

L_________J
,BULGE' & PARTIAL
FRACTURE

tet

lft\ tL)
"BuLGE"
&
SHEAR

ls lz T ll

FRACTIJRE

FRACTURE

TEABS

=
Fisuro

riloT
4.14

(NI'I+3o'F)
TEMe-.-

(NDT+60'F)

(NDT+r20'F)

Figurc

4.12

Frocluro onolFis diogrom.

Generdlizd frocture onolysis d,osrom.

MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION

4,5

BRITTLE FRACTURE

69

ln using Fig. 4-14, the following limitations must be considered:

1. 2.

It applies only to low carbon steels. It is valid for thicknesses of less than 2 in. Larger

thicknesses require special evaluation and it has been proposed that the FTE temperature for thicknesses over 6 in. should be taken as NDT + 120"F rather than 210"F instead of NDT + 60'F. The FfP temperature should be NDT NDT + 120'F. This indicates that for thick sections, Fig. 4.14 is on the unconservative side and the safe operating temperature should be greater than those indicated by the figure.

60 50

":l Cl
-l ul Ft

,4O
30 20
10

Example 4.2. A low-carbon steel material with NDT temperature of 15"F is used in a pressure vessel. What is the rninimum safe operating temperature for
such material?

El El 4l

o
-1o

-20 -30
_40

Solution.

Because no stress level is given, the minimum stress is assumed at yield. Entering Fig. 4.14 at yield stress, the CAT curve is intersected at the FTE point. Moving vertically, a temperature of NDT + 60"F is obtained. Thus, the minimum safe opemting temperature is 75'F. If stress concentrations are assumed in the vessel and the stress level is beyond yield at some areas, then a conservative design is at the FTP point. In this case, the safe operating temperature is NDT + 120'F, or 135'F.

-50 -60

or11+22+3
THICKNESS

GRoUP

A: 8:

Nonnallzed SA-442 over 1,0 ln. orinrl ized 5A-516 And sA-662
SA-442 over 1.0 In. I'lhen l{ot Nonnallzed 5A-516 Up To 1,5 In. Thick

GRoUP

Example 4.3. A low-carbon steel vessel with an NDT temperature of -20oF is to have a start-up temperature of 0'F and a stress level of one-half yield. Is
the start-up iemperature safe?

C: SA-442 Up To 1.0 In, Thlck GRoUP D: All Carbon And Loll Alloy Steels
GRoUP

Not Listed Above.

Figure,l.l5

lmpdci test exemption curvos for some corbon sreels. (Co'rrte.y of the Americon Society of

Mhonicol Ensineers.)

Solution. From the CAT curve in Fig. 4. 14 the minimum safe temperature is at NDT + 30" or 1ffF for a stress of one-half yield. Thus, start-up temperature is on the unsafe side because it is less than 10'F. If start-up temperature is critical, the shess will have to be decreased or a better impact material selected. I

The above approach, although different from the FAD concept, is a practical tool for preventing brittle fracture without requiring elaborate analysis; it is
based on test data.

4.5.1

ASME Pressure Vessel Criterio

The ASME Code, VIII, uses a different approach for preventing brittle fracture in pressure vessels with carbon steel construction. Division 1 prohibits the use of some carbon steels below -20'F and requires impact testing of all others that are subjected to temperatures below -20"F, with some minor exceptions. Division 2 uses a more refined approach that takes into account the effect of material type, thickness, and temperature. Figure 4.15 is a simplified version of the code approach. It exempts some tough materials of a given thickness from impact testing when the service temperature is above a specific value given in

The FAD and ASME criteria are applicable to low-carbon steels where the effect of temperature is prominent. Toughness of higher strength steels or materials such as stainless steels, aluminum, or titanium is independent of temperature. Thus, a different approach based on the mathematical theory of fracture toughness is used in establishing adequate toughness.

the filure.

4.4. A 3.O-in.-thick pressure vessel is made of SA-533 Gr. B material with an NDT temperature of 0'F. The design temperature is 50"F and the design membrane sffess is three-fourths of yield. What are the code fracture requirements of this vessel if it is constructed in accordance with (a) Division I of Section VIII, (b) Division 2 of Section VIIL
Example

MATTRIALS

Of

CONSTRUCTION

4.5

BRITTTE TRACTURE

7l

Solulian. (a)

tory. I 4.5.2

Because the temperature is over -20"F, Division I does not require any analysis. (b) From curveD ofFig. 4.15, the minimum temperature that exempts impact requirements for a 3.0-in.thick vessel is 120'F. Thus a Cy test is manda-

configuration of the body and crack. Thus K1 can be expressed by

&=oF
where F

(4.l)

crack shape factor.

Theory of Brittle Frocture

Basically the brittle fracture theory assumes that stress at the vicinity of a crack (Fig. 4. 16) due to a load applied perpendicular to the direction of crack is given by the following expressions:

#(*":)(' srn; .: #(*":)(' -i,a30\ "

".:
T4= ./^ |1.0 cos; cos r, Sln; z z/ vzTIT\ z

. 0 30\ '... . -... -stn-stn-l ,, I

-/
srn

Unstable crack propagation occurs when the value of K1 reaches a critical value K1c, which is a function of the properties of the material. Temperature variation could have a drastic effect on the value of K1c. as is the case with low strength carbon steels. Some published K/c values are given in Table 4.7. Experimental determination of the Krc factors is described in ASMT E-399 and is rather costly to
establish. Values for the crack shape factor F are normally obtained from the theory of elasticity. Because of the complexity of such analysis, only a few cases are suited for practical use. Some of them are shown in Table 4.8. Materials in general lose their toughness as the yield strength increases. One measure of toughness is the ratio K16 f or. Ratios larger than I .5 indicate tough materials, whereas lower ratios indicate more brittle materials. A study ofK16/o, and Eq. 4.1 reveals that the defect factor F has to be very small when o" is high and K1q is low. In other words, very small defects in high strength materials can lead to catastrophic failures.

,, -/

K,

3a\

where a,, o],

= r, 0 =
7ry

stress components at a point (ksi)

polar coordinates from tip of crack

Kt :

fracine toughness factor (ksiV-in)

The fracture toughness factor K1 is a function of applied load as well as the

tft

Fracture theory is one the most accurate methods presently available for evaluating maximum tolerable defect size. The main drawback is the difficult task of obtaining I</c factors for different materials. Economics might dictate a simplified approach like FAD or the ASME criteria with a small permissible defect size rather than a fracture theory approach that might allow a larger tolerable defect.

Relatiaiship Between

K1g

and Cy

Determination of K1c values is tedious and expensive especially for low strength Toble

4.7

Some Approximofe

K7a

Volues
JK/c

(ksi\-inJ

Material A302-Gr. B
,A.5l7-Gr. F

300"F
25 34 38 35
55

-200'F
34

100"F 48
7'7

44
50
83

A203 Gr. A norm. A203 Gr. A Q and T

Figure

4.16

Elostic srres, distribulion neor rhe

tip of

A.533 Gr. B

40

46

78

HV-80

Tqble

4.8

Shope Foclors for Common Configurolions

Tqble
Case

4.8

Shope Foctors for Comrnon Configurolions (Coniinued)

case

l:

Flovl

in a sheet of inf inlte vrldth.

4: Internal elliptic flow jn a thlck plate

l"
3t . If
F=V

ra
( Ref. 2, p. 49

E-'g_ E_ 6 E-

.a2

Rer' axl
s

l,ihere
La

u2a' is the ni nor axiis and " s "2c"

o
edge

is the maior

se 5 : Singl e

notcn.

I
I

Case 2:

terna

ci rcul

ar flow in a sheet of finite

wi dth

F=CVir.a

Itl lll

to

c=1i1'iF+o227+ roa(i)'-zasz(if

r F=Fr.L#
o
Clse 3:

tan @wl

l1'2

+4272

t+l

\4

\r /
(
XET

328

case

6: Elliptlcal surface flow.

( Ref. 2,
a

s0

Internal clrcular flow in

thick

pl

ate.
F=

F=zVT
where

where

o.ztzo2f or2
5

"a" is radlus'of

crack

Ref.

3, P. 39 )

"2c" is cra ck length' "a" is crack depth, o ls actual ( Ref. materlal stress, and oy ls yleld stress.

31

73

74

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

4.5

BRITTTE FRACTURE

75

steels. Various methods relating the,K/c factor to the relatively inexpensive Cy test have been suggested. One empirical method proposed by Rolfer and Barsom consisted of preparing two equations for correlation purposes. One equation relates the Cy and K1s values at the transition temperature region, whereas the other equation is applicable at the upper shelf region. Thus, for the hansition region,6

4.5.4

Foctors lnfluencing Britlle Froclure

Krc:155Cvtl2
whereas for the upper shelf range,

(4.2)

f&Y:4ofQ-o.r) \ov./ \sr /

4.5.3

(4.3)

Many factors such as torch cutting, arc strikes, and cold forming affect the britde fracture behavior of metals and should be considered in fabricating pressure vessels. Torch cutting or beveling of the plate edges may lead to hard and brittle areas. In cases where this condition is underdesirable the plate should be heated to minimize this effect. Grinding the edges eliminates the hard surfaces. Arc strikes can create failure by brittle fracture especially if the strike is made over a repaired area. It is desirable to grind and repair all arc strikes before hydrotesting, especially at low temperatures. Cold forming of thick plates may lead to fracture in areas with stress raisers or plate scratches. All stress raisers should be ground off to minimize their effect. Hot-forming substantially improves the situation because it increases the NDT temperature and thus prevents brittle fracture.

where Cv is in ft-lb, o" in ksi, and K1g in ksivG. Equations 4.2 and 4.3 are for medium strength steels such as 4.517 Gr. F and 4302 Gr. B.

Hydroslotic Testing

Hydrostatic testing of a pressure vessel is the best available method for determining maximum tolerable defect size. Thus, if a thick pressure vessel is
hydrotested at a pressure that is 50% greater than the design pressure, the critical
K1 is given by

4.5, A titanium pipe (ASTM 8265 Gr. 5) with a 2.375-in. outer diameter and a 0.154-in. wall thickness has an actual stress of 30 ksi. a vield stress of 120 ksi, and K1q 40 ksiVin at a given temperature. The pipe contains a flow of depth 0.05 in. and length 0.25 in., which is similar to case 6 of Table 4.8. What is the maximum internal pressure the pipe can hold?
Example

Eq. 4.1

as

Solutian. From a conventional strength of material analysis, the pressure

K1g

= oF

required to yield the pipe is given by Fig. 5.4 as

Assuming an intemal defect represented by case 3 of Table 4.8, the maximum K16 immediately after hydrotesting is

'^

a\Rl - Rl) Rl - Ri

120(1.88'z

r.88r

1.034':)

r.034,

Krc:
Maximum defect size

t.5

r.(r\/;J
(,

/ I;\

Using fracture toughness approach, maximum stress is

Krc

at the design pressure is given by

F
From case 6 in Table 4.8,

"',('fu)
or

"

-l 1f/

1.12\4;Xo.o5)

0.359

- - t t<^

Hence,

40/0.359

111.4 ksi

Hence, a crack that is discovered after hydrotesting can grow 2.25 times its original size before causing failure. This fact illustrates the importance ofhydrotesting and is based on a hydrostatic temperature that is the same as the lowest
operating temperature of the vessel.

^ maxr: tll.4(t.88)2- t.0341 : ll8' r l034':

'l'hcrclirre liacture toughness criteria control the

14Jl(sl

design.

76
Examnle

MATERIAIS OF CONSTRUCTION

NONMETATTIC VESSEIS

77

is to 4'6. An A302-B material with a yield stress of 50 ksiof the be used percent an examination The Cv value is 15 ftlb and irl ".!*"* "".r"1....,i* of tested specimens indicate a temperature in the #"i^il;; .rott

plarc uncovered an elliptical transition range. Ultrasomc examination of the long and 0 25 in deep How safe is il;;;;d. fit" surface that is 0.375 in the vessel if the operating stress is I yield?

Solution. From Eq 4'2'

K1g

15(15)0

= t9 ksiVin1C;-Yr Mo Stccl

From Table 4.8, case 4,

F=

;ts+l;ts,,oI25/orus" - "-"
o-: 19/0'46:

\/;ajzr

x So = r: 41 ksi Actual stress : 'l Therefore' operation of the vessel i.fl*fit"rt it l_es's,rtan the critical brittle stress is safe unless the defect grows in size l
Hence, from Eq' 4'1,

4.6
are:

HYDROGENEMBRITTLEMENT

can embrittle steels Essentially, the two different methods by which hydrogen

l.

penetrates the steel Hydrogen decarburization' In this case hydrogen (Fig' 4 8) to form methand combines with the carbides in the structure the original carbide and ane gas. This gas accumulates in the space of This process normally acceler;;il;t ;p p;";t" that leads to cracking' One ates with an increase rn temperature ind in operating -pressure' is by using Cr-Mo steels' Here method of minimizing hydrogen attack do not readily combine the carbides are in solution wiih ttre cr or Mo and to be used in a givn combination *ittt th" hyd.og"n. The type of steel the Nelson chart of te-perutu."hd p,"ttot" it normally determined by in Fig. 4.17.

Hydrogen
Fisure

,orliol pretlu?c, P.r. i

4.17

(Courtesy of the Americon Pelroleum lBrirute.)

2. -'

Hydrogen

Researchers have observed that hydrogen attacks of a pressure vessel at temperatures below 200'F when "Jatuin"r"gions hardniss zones in the range o1200 Brinelland higher' The they have-high believed that the hydroexact mechanism is not known exactly, but it is with higher stressed zones. Accordingly, een is attracted to hard regions soft h;-affected zones with a Brinell hardness below 200 to avoid hydrogen attacks at low temperatures'

attock.

4.7

iIONMETALLIC VESSETS

;;;;;;;q-t"

Rules for fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) pressure vessels are covered in Section X of the ASME pressure vessel code. Construction of FPR vessels is divided into four classes: the contact molding, bag molding, centrifugal casting,

MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION

BIBTIOGRAPHY

and fi lament-winding Processes. In the contact-mol,cling process reinforcements and resins are placed in a cast mold and cured at room temperature. Vessels constructed by this process are limited to a design pressure of 150 psi. In the bag-molding process a pressurized bag is used to compress Prerolled and heads preforms against an outer heated mold The fiberglass "!hnd".t by this process are also limited to 150 psi pressure' uessels conjtructed In the centrifugal casting process, the cylindrical sections are formed from chopped fiberglasi strands and a resin system in a mandrel, which is spun to oroduce a suitible laminate and heated to cure the resin system Pressure vessels constructed by this method are also limited to 150 psi design pressure' In the filamenrwinding process, filaments of glass and resin are wound in a systematic manner to form various components. The ASME code limits the pressure range to 1500 psi for filament-wound vessels with cut filaments and to i000 psi for filament-wound vessels with uncut filaments' FRi' vessels normally operate at low temperatres. The ASME Code, Section X, limits the temperature iange between a minimum of -65oF and a maximum of 150'F. Also, because the modulus of elasticity is about 1 103 ksi, special care must be exercised in designing various components Because of this and because different fabrication processes produce different strength vessels, the ASME Code states that in order for a given vessel to be adequate, a prototype must be cycled 100,000 times between zero and design pressure and then burst at a Dressure not less than six times the design pressure'

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aluminum Standards

aM Data, Alrmin'um Association, Washington, D.C., 19'19. Alner, S. H.,Introduction to Phlsical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.
t91l
.

Nichols, R. W -, Pressule Vessel Engineering TechnologJ, Applied Science Publisherc, England, Thielsch, H., Defects and Failures in Pressure Vessels akd PipinS, R. E. Krieger, New York,
1965.

REFERENCES

Pellini, W. S., "Principles of Fracture Safe Design-Part l" ln Pressure Vessels and Piping: New York' 1972 Design and A'',,lysis, Vol. l, American Society of Mechanical Engineers'
Tetelman.

A. S.,

and

A. J. McEvily, Jr' Fracture of Structural Materidlt, John Wiley ' New

Ba$om F/(r cture anal Fatig e Control in Structures' Prentice-Hall'
1977.

York,

1967.

Rolfe. S. T., and J.

Englewood Cliffs,

N.J.,

Water Reactor Riccardella, P. C., and T. R. Mager, "Farigue Crack Growth in hessunzed Society of Vessels" in Pressare ye ssels and Piping: Disigtl and Analysis, Vol l, American New York, 1972. Mechanical Engineers, Wessel, E. T., andT.

R Magel, "Fracture Mechanics Technology as Applied toThick-Walled Vessels" in Pressure vessels and PipitlS: DesiSn and Analysis' vol l' American Society of Mechanical Engineers' New York, 1972 Newton, "lnterpretive Repoft on Small-Scale-Test Conelations with f''

ttu"t"- pa".*,"
Roberts, R., and

DaA," Welling Rcs\rch Council' Bulletin 265, New York' | 981'

PART2
ANALYSIS OF COMPONENTS

8l

CHAPTER

STRESS IN CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

Atr'0|t|h,t|.otcy|lndr|co|lh!|hinochomicolP|on|'(cour|g,yofE.|.dUPontdaNomoursondco.)

83

11

3TR!IS IN CYTINDRICAI gHErrS

STRESS DUE

3,I

STRI3E DUE TO INTTRNAT PRESSURE

85

5.I

TO INTERNAL PRESSURE

Thc classic equation for determining stress in a thin cylindrical shell subjected to pressur-is obtained from Fig. 5.1. Summation of forces perpendicular to plane ABCD gives

PL.2r:ZoeLt
Figur 5,2

ot= Pr

(s.1)

Also,
dw

where p = gssure Z = length of cylinder o, = hoop stress r = radius I = thickness

The stain
ee

ar

(s.3)

cvllnoers

the.radj4 deflection of a cylindncal shell subjected to internal pressure is obtained by subsdrudng rhe quantity e6: osf E in6 Eq. 5.i. ilnce for thin

(s.4) is defined
as

where

final length - original length original length

and from Fig. 5.2,

E = modulus of elasticity
Equations 5.1 and 5.4 give accurate results when r/r 10. As r// decreases, however, a more accurate expression is needed because the stress distribution through the thickness is not uniform. Recourse is then made to the,.thick shell,, theory' first developed by Lame. The derived equations are based on the forces and stresses shown in Fig. 5.3. The theory assumes that all shearing stresses are zero due to symmetry and thal a plane section that is normal to thjongitudinal

>

0=

2t(rIw)-2rr
z1fr

---;w

(s.2)

pressure is applied remains plane after pressurization. In other -betore words, e1 is constant at any cross section. A relationship between oi and_o1 can be obtained by taking a free_body _. diagram of ring dr as shown in Fig. 5.30. Summing ior"", ii the vertical direction and neglecting higher-order tdrms, we then h-ave
axls

ae-

o,

= dr

do,

(5.5)

A second relationship is obtained from Eqs. 3.2, which is written

Flgor.5.l
Frc-body diogrom

as

ol d rylindricol $ell lubi.ctod to intarnol prerlure.

\.

o,

(l + rr)(1 - 2*rl+(t -

1t)

p,(e,

+ e)l

I
I

86

5.I
w

STRESS DUE

TO INTERNAT PRISSURE

87

-t . *n--t=A lr'(t - t, - ztt\(Er? - p,r|) + r?r1{o + D(n - p")l

.1

(5.8)

Once w is obtained, the values of o6 and d; are determined from Eqs. 5.2, and 5.3, and 5.6 and expressed for thick cylinders as

_ aa

_ pr? =

p,r? + (pt

----4rZ

4:i,-"

p")(r7r3/r2)
(5.9)

nrl + (n - n)blrl/rz)

la'
Fisuro

- ,l

tb) i.rion of o tfiick cylindricol :hell.

5.3

Cro5s

where o; = radial stress

od

hoop stress

o!

(l + p)(1
(1

[er(l-p)+pr(e,+e)]
.r.^ [r(l

(s.6)

p, = intemal pressure

+pXl-

p,

;r) + g.(e, + e)l of Eq. 5.6

and

: 4:

extemal pressure inside radius

outside radius

Substituting Eqs. 5.2 and 5.3 into the first two expressions substituting the result into Eq. 5.5 results in

r, = r=

radius at any point

dzw --- w --'-t -r -ldw - -- = v ar rar rA solution of this equation is

The distribution given by Eq. 5.9 of the shesses through the thickness of a cylinder due to iniernal and extemal pressues is shown in Figs. 5.4 and 5.5, respectively. A comparison between Eqs. 5.1 and 5.9 is shown in Fig. 5.6. The figure illustrates the adequacy of Eq. 5. I for r,/4 ratios of less than or equal to 1.1 (or, conversely, rt/t > lO). The longitudinal stress in a thick cylinder is obtained by substituting Eqs. 5.2, 5.3, and 5.8 into tle last expression of Eqs. 5.6 to give

.B

(s.7)

whcre A and B are constants of integration and are determined by first substituting Eq. 5.7 into the first one of Eq. 5.6 and then applying the boundary conditkrns

oI= EeI+2p(\? - !"31 r;- ri

This equation indicates that
o1 is constant throughout a cross section because r is constant and r does not appear in the second term. Thus, from Fig. 5.7 the expression ot can be obtained ftom statics as

o,: -Pi
rnd

at

r=

ri

o,

= _p,

4r?

,2_.?

P"r'z.

(5.10)

ljxorrulon 5.7 then becomes

With or known, Eq. 5.8 for the deflection of a cylinder can be expressed

as

6=tr,..t!id- I) - f;-Ji \ J'

"'=-++r(#)
Ar Inne.

surr.ce

+=t+
)=-t

Ourer

surraco

.Ai

+="#
ft=o
o rfiick cytirder du. to inrornol prcrlur.

Figurc

5.4

Slrca! dishibdion in

Fi9ur6

5.6

Comporison ot tornulor for hoop sire33 in

o cylindricol

5hcll.

,,=#e#)

At

fnnersurtace

"r=ffi
ft=o

aroorersurfaca

"r-#ifl
9=_r.o P"pr.3sur.

Figuro

5,5

Strls dithibt ion in

o thick cylin&r due l,o enornol

88

90

STRESS tN CYr"tNDRtCAt

SHtrrs
(5. 1 1)

5.I

STRESS DUE

TO INTTRNAI PRESSURT

9l

l(Ptri

P,,r!,)lt

+ (h - t',,)rlrl,(l Lr\r; - ri)

zr.t)

rt)

From Lame's equation (see Fig. 5.4)

ot

The deflection pattem for external and intemal pressures is shown in Fig. 5.8.

_rl+ P rl, = /l
"\ /

r?

r!
loe + p --------=

5.1. The inside radius of a hydraulic cylinder is 12.0 in. What is the 7500 psi and a6 = 20,000 psi? required thickness if P
Example

Solulinn.

From membrane Eq. 5.1

:
7500

5.80 in.

t=-:

Pr oo

12

20,000

Hence, the error of using Eq. 5.1 in this case is

22Eo.

I
1

= 4.50 in.

Example psi,

5.2. A cylinder
0.3, and E = 30

has an inside radius

of 72.0 in. and an internal

5

pressure of 50 psi . What is the required thickness if the allowable stress is

: 1.r

,000

10o Psi?

lnternal Pressur

Solution. From

membrane Eq. 5.1,

*=!"il+##tdl
From Eq. 5.4,

50x72 :
15,000

0.24 rn.

Max.!t At Inner Surlace

x 722 30x106x0.24
50

0.0360 in.
as

w.=E:tfl2:lll 'E(ro"-r;")

Using the thick shell theory, we obtain the required thickness from Fig. 5.4

External Pressure
and from Fig. 5.8,

:
*=-& . t 'tr'(r - zr) * r,"(r *,., )I e.r (r;- r,')

')
O.24 in.

':
=

| 2-0.3 \ 30 x rgu \tf* - rV1

(5q?2f
0.0305 in.

Max.q At Inner Surrace

Figure

w,=-B:dJiJ2:t)

EGTil

5.8

Rodiol deflftrion du

lo

inlernol ond exrernol prelsore.

Examples 5.1 and 5.2 indicate that Eq. 5.1 is adequate when the ratio sreater than 10.

rlft

is

3TRI3S IN CYIINDRICAI SHETIS

5.2

OISCONTINUITYANAIYSIS

93

Problcms

5,1 A cylinder with an inside diameter of 24 in. is subjected

pressure

to an intemal of 10,000 psi. Using an allowable stress of 25,000 psi, determine

dx

the required thickness.

+ 4!!.|i ax

Answer:

t:6.33

in.

dox -?t

dx

5.2

A cylinder has an inside diameter of 12 in. and an outside diameter of 18 in. Determine the maximum intemal pressure that can be applied if the
maxirnum allowable stress is 20.000 psi.

Answer: p1 =

7690 psi

5.3

A cylinder is subjected to an external pressure of 5000 psi and an internal If 11 = 15 in. and rz = 19 in., what is the maximum circumferential, longitudinal, and radial stresses? At what location do they
pressure of 2000 psi.

occur?

l{o

dx

Answer:

o6:
o,
at

-17,900 psi at inner surface

psi at outside surface
(b)
Figore 5.9

= -5000

-9960 psi uniform tkough thickness

5.2

DISCONTINUITY ANALYSIS

All the previous equations were based on the assumption that the cylinder is free to deform under pressure. In practical applications, the cylinder is attached to end closures that reshain its deformation. Other items such as stiffenirg rings and internal bulkheads affect the cylinder deformation and introduce local stesses. These local shesses can be evaluated by a dicontinuity-type analysis using the general bending theory of thin cylindrical shells. The theory assumes that the loads are symmetric around the circumference and that the thickness of the shell is small compared with its radius. It is also assumed that the in-plane shearing forces and moments are zero. The problem then reduces to that of solving the forces shown in Fig. 5.9. The relationship between these forces can be obtained from statics. Hence, from Fig. 5.9,

which indicates that N, must be a constant. Let

N,:0
Also,

>4=0
d?'+at=r
dxr
Similarly,
(s.12)

>4:0

ff*,ar=o

2M,=o

94

3TRE5S IN CYIINDRICAT SHETIS

5.2

DISCONTINUITYANAIYSIS

95

or

and the hoop strain as

*-a.=o
ax Deleting Q, from F4s. 5.12 and 5.13 gives

(s.l3)

ee=

-i

(5.18b)

Substituting expressions 5.18a and 5.18b into Eq. 3.11 gives (5.14)

N, + d2M, : r ---:--l -r ta-

y,=.Et ;1r,r p,e6)=o t' - ltdu: /w\ = lLl- | dx \r/

Also,

expressed This equation has two unknowns, N6 and M,' Both unknowns can be given by Eq' in t".-, of,h" O"flection w. The relationship between M' and w is

3.1I

as

",: -r(r,tt. - *t")

Mo=

-'(#..?)
Et'

Ns:7r-p- ,\es+
(s'15)

Et

Pe)

D,= rro=E
Because the rate of change of deflection in symmetry, the above two equations reduce to

the a-direction is zero due to

Substituting Eqs. 5.16 and 5.19 into Eq. 5.14 yields

(5.19)

".=
and

-r(**)

(s. 16)

u4*r(*\:-,
r'
\dx+

",:

_*(#)
= FM,
(s.17)

Defining

no:

".il - lL-) -Jlt r2t2 4r2D

Lt

(s.20)

Me

the differential equation becomes

'l'hc cxprcssion for No is derived from the axial and hoop strains' In refening to liil, 5.9, thc uxitl strain is given by

ffi*oon*=-+
where p is a function of .r.

(5.21)

du

(5.l8a)

ax

96

tTRlSt Long Cyllndorr

tN CYUNDRTCAT SHlrtg

5,2
and

DISCONTINUIIY ANAIYSIS

i7

5.2.1

One of the most practical applications of Bq. 5.21 is for long cylinders subjected io end shears and moments as shown in Fig. 5.10. The force and deformation distribution at any point r along the cylinder due to O0 and M0 can be obtained

a.l._,= n"=
Hence,

-,(#)1."

from Eq. 5.21 with P

= 0. Hence,

;i+4p.w:o
A solution of this equation can be expressed
as

aw

.'.'*-"".--",
-l ct=;;7i(Qo + ^ _
LP tl

Bmsli
;

'Ms
L-L.

'

'"-

= ::lg l -:1. **!.gz;it

p*t + -

y-tc-'-e$

9r-t* -ff)- _J-.gD

@6

a=, \L*--- ?E:p" - '""

cos F.r)

By observation we can conclude that the deffection due to

zero as .r aplnoaches infinity. and the solution becomes

and Me approaches Thus the constants C1 and C2 must be set to zero

Equation 5.22 then becomes

w=
Ca sin

]6rl?tvtobin

Bx

cos Fx].

;i = e-tu(q cos B, a

(s.22)
By defining

The constants C: and Ct can be evaluated from the boundary conditions

M.

.=o=

Mo=

-'e;1.="

= = Cs = Ds =

{* !*

e-e(cos Br e-&(cos Br

sin Br) sin

pr)

(s.23)

P "o" e-tu P "in

s-$t

the deflection and its derivatives can be expressed as

, :;fu<oro"*

+ escp)
S.AP)
(s.24)

#=

*1roU""ctu+

t:=$aor"os+zeoD,,)

#
Figur.5.l0 are represented by

jour,De'-

enBB,)

Values of Ap,, BB,, CB,, ar]d Dg, are given in Table 5.1. Using the terminology of Eqs . 5 .23 and 5 .24 , the expressions for M, arfi Q,

98

sTRtss tN CYUNDRtCAt SHEttS

5,2

DISCONTINUITYANATYSIS

99

Tqblr
B,

5.f

Vqfurr of functiqng Ap* Bp- Cp. Dp,

Bu,
1.0000

Toble
DB,

5.2

Vqrious Disconlinuity Funclions

Cp"
1.0000

0
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.80 l_00 1.20 1.40 1.60
1.80

1.0000 o.9025 0.8100 0.7224 0.6398 0.4888 0.3564

0.0000 0.0475 0.0903 0.1286 o.1627 0.2189 0.2610 0.2908 0.3016 0.3099 o.3223 0.3096 0.2807
qo
0 Qo t4^ e

0.9976
0.9907
0.9'19'7

0.9500 0.9003 0.8510

,F;
-

ilo

Qq
2

B3A 0
0

0.9651 0.926'7

0.8024
0.707'7

tlo ---F

2Bz,D
0

0.8784 0.8231

0.6174
0.5323

o.2415
0.1903 0.1431

zB2.o.to
Qo

28. D. eo
0

0.7934 0.7628
0.6354 0.5083 0.3899 0.2849 0.1959

o.4919
0.4530 0.3131 0.1988
0.1091

Ne

-2 oB2.t

26.

r.

E.t.Ao
46 3. 0, A0

-0.0093 -0.1108

282 .D.e o

-0. 1716 -0.201l

-o.2077 -0.1985

0.0419

0.2430
0.2018 0.1610 0.1231
0.0491
0

,F.o
E;r'-

-llo

8o"

""

0o
28'D

C-

Ao(2Cax-8Bx)

? ttu'-tu''
eo {ABr(
?$ D'ed

0.1234
0.0667

-0.0059 -0.0376
-0.0563 -0.0658 -0.0493 -0.0283

t4o C^ b"

2.00 2.50 3.00 3.5

-0.r794
-0.1149 -0.0563 -o.0177
0.0019 0.0084
0.0031

iPo
q9

-0o

^p,
DFX

z8do ( ABx

cBr)

2CBx)

-0.0166

-0.0423
-0.0389 -0.0258 -0.0045
0.0017 0.0013

0.0070

B
Ne

zB2.o,t4lrr -cr,

DB, -aB")

4.0 5.0 6.0

-0.0120
0.0019

0.0024
0.0007

-0.0106 -0.0139 -0.0065 -0.0007

0.0006

zlioB2.r.Br,
-26.
tito ,

28. r.

Qo. CBx

!1.

ao ( 2ce

" -8." :.t.00(c^ -8" F-3- p'

DBx)

Qx

DBx

Q6. Bgx

4B3D,aJ

B6x-

tB2. D.

oo ( 2DBr+B

B)(

't.o

'clockwise moments and lotation arc positive at point 0. Outward forces and deflections arc
positive at point 0. Me

0.0001

= tir|..

M"=

_r(+\ =
\ax-

fi<zou,ea

2eoDB,)

(5.25)

Fig. 5.11. From Table 5.1 the values of Bx at which M, is equal to

are about 2.00.

7Vo

of Mp

Q,=QBMnDy-QoB*)
The relationship between M,, tions is shown in Table 5.2.

M"

Q, N, w, and d for various boundary condi-

Bx or

2.00
2

Exarnple 5.3. A long cylindrical shell is subjected to end moment M0. Plot the value of M, from F, : 0 to p, : 4.0. Also, determine the distance .r at which thc moment is abort 7Vo of the original applied moment M0.

e
and

Solution. From Eq. 5.25, M,: MoAs. The values of Ak are obtained from Table

.r:
5. 1 and a

1.56\G

(l)
It shows

plot of M, is shown in

The significance of the quantity 1.56Vr . l is apparent from Fig. 5. I 1.

r00
=

3TR!35 lN CYllNORlCAL

Sl{llts

5.2

DISCONTINUITYANATYSIS

't0l

that 0 momcnt epplicd at thc cnd dissipatewery rapidly and reduces as much as l.56Vrt. This indicates that any other force 94% ofthe original momcnt atr applied ot that distance x can be analyzed without regard to the applied moment

To find the maximum moment M,, the above equation can be differentiated with respect to r and equated to zero. Hence,

Mo'

5.4. A long cylinder is subjected to end shear ps. Plot the value of M, as a function of C0 from Fx : 0 to Fx = 4.0 and derive the location of the maximum value of M,.
Example

*,

3.e-&

sinA
sin

Solutinn,

From Eq. 5.25,

ff

=o=

ftr-Ou*

Bx

Be-tu

cos Bx)

,'=*o^
Referring to Table 5. 1 for values of D p,, a plot of M,/ (Qo/B) can be constructed as shown in Fis. 5.11.
and maximum moment is given by

,
Example

_ o.34Qo

5.5. Determine the expression for the deflection of a long cylinder with end closures due to intemal pressure p.
Solutinn.
For intemal pressrre p, the axial force force is Ne = pr. Also from Eqs. 3.11 and 5.18,

it

7'1,

= pr/Z and the hoop

PrEtlw\
and

r/ z ==:- r-F-\"lexr lr-l

pr=,E' ,(Y* r - rr'\r

Solving for e, and w gives

ur,\

q
'ry
Figura

''Et2
and

Pr

(l -

2tt)

5.1I

'#('- t)

(l) I

t02

STNESS IN CYTINDRICAT SHELTS

5.2

DISCONTINUITYANATYSIS

still'cning ring is pllced anrund u cylinder at a distance rcmoved from the ends us shown in Fig. 5. 12. The cylinder has a radius of 50.0 in., a thickness of 0.25 in., and is subjected to an intemal pressure of 100 psi. Assuming E : 30 x 106 psi and & = 0.3, find trlxomple

5.6. A

-+rrtr
"I

r03

oo
oi poini 0,

{odo
clockwiss 0 ond i4"

(a) (b)

The discontinuity stress in the shell with the ring assumed to have infinite rigidity . The discontinuity stress in the shell and ring if the ring has a thickness of 0.375 in. and a depth of 4.0 in.

Figuro

5.13

Sign conv6ntion

ore + ,

outword w dnd Q.

oro -

From Eq. 5.15,

Solution.

D=
and from Eq. 5.20,

0.00143 E

A free-body diagram of the shell-to-ring junction is shown in Fig. 5.13. Because the ring is assumed to have infinite rigidity, the deflection due to pressure must be brought back to zero by a force pq. Also, because the slope at the shell-to-ring junction is zero (due to symmetry), a moment M0 must be
applied at the junction to reduce the slope created by force Qs to zero . From Fig
5. 13,
.

(a)

B=03636
Hence the deflection compatibility equation becomes

Modeflection due to P

2'75OQo= -321'39

(1)

deflection due to Qe

deflection due to Mo

g The second compatibility equation gives rotation due to O0

The deflection due to P is obtained from Eq. I in Example 5.5, whereas the deflections due to M0 and Qs are obtained from Eq. 5.24. Hence

tl(r-E\ -4 +!!=:o E.r \' 21 2B3D zB'D

4" x 3/8" ri
ng

rotation due to Me

Qo-ZBUo:g
Solving Eqs.

e)

and 2 gives

Mo

321'4 in.Jb/in'

The maximum longitudinal stress is given by

.=N.ry
=
40,900 psi
as

The maximum hoop moment is given by Eq. 5.17

tigure 5.12

Me

96.4 in.-lb/in.

l0.l
Tho hoop force Nc is glvcn by Eq. 5.19 as

tTRttt

tN cruNDRrcat

sHttls

!.2

DISCONTINUITY AI,IATYSIE

t0t

Due to 00,

-, "r
But because w

Etw

'= Due to Mo,

2Qor(r + 2)
bdE

0=0 w=0 d=0

The deflection comPatibilitY is

0, N6 is equal to zero and the maximum hooP stress is

*:T*,",
O)
The shell deformations are expressed as follows: Due to R

-1-', , - p,-'- ='#l'-

",
?Y'oo'

L'=o

*-*--

i)

wp

,i( - t) Sirnilarly,

wQo*

,*]"' - ,o + *roof^"

#. #=,*#!".'3e#2
Mo

- 4.0@o: -296'8
9al"t. = lflp + ilMo

(3)

f0, +
Due to Mo,

ilao-

0oJn*

':t9o
-Mo @
The ring deformations are expressed as follows: Due to p,
and

Mn

2BMs-20=g
Solving Eqs. 3 and 4 yields

(4)

n=-

pr(r + d/2\
dE

Mo
Oo

152'0 in-lb/in. 110.6 lb/in.

0=0

t06

STRESS tN CYUNDRTCAT.

SHfttS

5.2

DISCONTINUITYANATYsIS

t07

lloop stress in ring

is

whereas away tiom discontinuity 2Qor O,: -- r, ---:--aDa = 1250 + 7370

pr

oe:::20'000Psi
Problams

Pr

8620 psi

Maximum longitudinal stress in cylinder is

5.4

O'=

Pr . ---A6Mn
zt I2x

A long cylindrical shell is welded at one end to a rigid bulkhead such that the deflection and rotation due to applied pressure are zero. If r = 36 in., I = 0.5 in., p : 240 psi. lt: 0.3, and E = 29 x 10" psi, what is the maximum lonsitudinal stress?

_ 100x50 x6x t5? (0.25).

:
Hoop force at discontinuity is

0.25

. Pr 3Pr Answet: a= zt -:E- _ n'T tv3\t :

f,.f,

p2)

24,600 psi

40,015 psi

The shell in Problem 5.4 is welded to a thin bulkhead such that only the deflection is zero due to applied pressure. What is the maximum

discontinuity stress?
where

Answeri w=lt,p-wgo*wyo

0.966Pr o= Pr*;'Fyt z - u31

=P"(,-E\- 2B3D 2B2D E \' 21

_ M7,500
E

Q, *

uo

= 5.2.2
Short Cylinders

18,740 psi

It was shown in Eq. 1 of Example 5.3 that the applied edge forces in a long cylinder dissipate to a small value within a distance of l.56Vrr. This basic
behavior enables the designer to discard the interaction between applied loads when they are far apart. As the cylinder gets shorter, the assumption of long cylinders does not apply and constants C1 and C2 in Eq. 5.8 must be considered. Consequently, Eqs. 5.23 and 5.24 have to be modified to include the effect of all four constants. Equation 5.8 may be rewritten in a different form as

.. = E (0.25)(447 ,sOO/ E) 50 '", -=

2238 lb/in.
and hoop stress at discontinuitv is

No . 6Me oe=----1----rT T2238

w = Ar sin Bx sinh Bx * 42 sin Pt cosh Bx *A3 cos Bx sinh pt + A4 cos Br cosh B-r

6.26)

, 0.25

6(0.3

rsz)

0.252

13,300 psi

and a solution obtained for various boundary conditions. The most ftequent application of this solution is in the case of edge forces and deformations as shown in Table 5.3. Many practical problems can be solved with the aid of Table 5.3 by itself or in conjunction with Table 5.2

1.2

otscot{TtNutTY

ANALYS|S

t09

dld,-------, -,-----..-- dl6 Jr ulu v:{v UIU :9 dle | + r $16 +F

:s

5 ,Tlri

-:-

Example 5.7. Derive Np for the case of applied bending moment M6 at edge r = 0 for a short cylinder of length l.

Solution:
66aa ".A.E.E k k,al ,5 l+ri

At.r:0

The four boundary conditions are:

dld

5d

:E $16

_,(*\
\ax-,/

+<' <

t>. :s,1,
(a,

-i=._,

1. i<'F s

=,"
=
o

--:- --r

f- -i-.ir f-"i-clo dl6<ilr-, * r f , .. s tilri

>,' ;' s )J L-J (JlU _ ,u >" --.: dlu dlddlu F f - S

S .--- '=-,: .ir d|U } - ":" *

d.d.&&d.d{d e.eAP)'eAAe s.d.&6.{&ds.

-,(*\ / \dx'
atx:
I

iiifriEEE E5r!666a
ltltllllllllllll

'-i- dl6 r >' s ",- dlu + riltiril6 * + f, ru, i -i- ..i.. >- dld
lcq

5ss>":lss:s

-,(*\:/ \ax_,(*\:o
\ax'/

Ec:i

R $l* i

From Eq. 5.26, the second derivative is given by

=
I
0
o

's":ss)s dl6 dl6 dl6 dl6 -:| + + | u'16 ys:gvr dl6 sl6 dl6 dl6 ;s | + | | dl6 :ss)9;S+ dlu dlu dlu d'lu L--;-,!t,: s, , -l-F.ils o,l$ l-l$ 'dl.q P '"'", R d
r-li- r"-r
=
ca cc-

jj :

Z|tte,

cos Bx cosh Bx

42 cos p"r sinh Bx

- A3 sin pr cosh pr
(l)

ca
ac, ,1J

Aa sin Bx sinh

pr)

whereas the third derivative is expressed as

aa
+
|

u,

Z!3lAr(cos px sinh

pr

sin

pt

cosh Bx)

c
3

tI

----T
,rl

t_,Y
"--l

(t
-9 .o q F
108

s I s 6le --i dlu if | + -Hlu+9lri>-ss "i rJlr.r 51s | | dl.: s :g r---'J,v."T.. v, t l-. tTlri ' dt6, E s sls =;+slS-EI

S r--=-'1 t>-r-rS+

.-=-

.= .E aa cq ,,99

ail I = a
.' 'da6daa
ltlillllllll .: .l ,i .1 ,1 rt

. Substituting Eq.

-sin pr sinh pr) A(sin pr sinh pr + cos pt cosh pr) .A+(sin pr cosh Bx * cos F-r sinh pv)l
A2(cos Bx cosh Bx

(2)

into the first boundary condition gives

. q,

_M^
2D

B,

ht

Substituting Eq. 2 into the second boundary condition gives

Az: At
and from the third and fourth boundary conditions the relationships

il0
A3

3TRT33 IN CYIINDRICAI 9HEITS

I.2

DISCONTINUITY ANAI.YSIS

ltl

Dtr

Mo

\--GF7t:;tnT--M"
zaB,
/ sin2 61

lsin Pl cos Pl + sinhB/coshB/

and

e^ =
are obtained.

\.l"[tB,

-]t"t}

sinh'? B/

From Eq. 5.19,

N,

Et* r
Ft

= 1(Ar
+

sin

ft

sinh

ft * Az sin Fx cosh Fr
A+ cos

(
(3)

A3 cos
A3,

Br sinh Bx +

Fr cosh Fr)

Using the values of A1, A2, 5.3, Eq. 3 reduces to

Aa obtained above and the terminology of Table

"r

l_* t(b)
Figure 5.1,1

,,

N, =

"' ;i*; | -sin pr sinh p1 + ::1sin Lt r U)15'|

c, t'r f

C"

Bx cosh Bx

cos Pv sinh Fx)

or

C,

frcos

Fx cosh Pr
I

Cr = O.2028 Cz Ct = 1.5444 Cr
C5

1.1164
0.5481

n, =

ZrMoF'( -v, \

* !v, ct

!v,\ Lt
,/

0.4568 Ce = 0.6596 U=o.272r yl=0.4006 Vq = 1.4984 V: 0 8707 %=0.5986 V=0.949s

=

Example 5.8. Determine the maximum shess at point A of the thin cylinder in Fig. 5.lzla. I*t p' = 9.3.
free-body diagram of junction a is shown in Fig. 5.140. The deflection at point A in the thick cylinder due to P is obtained from Table 5.3 by letting Br equal to Bl. Hence,

Thus the expression for wo due to P is given by

Solution. A

w: toolrn
The deflection compatibility equation at point A is

-r lgtu *o: ifrEV-,"' _ Qu. - Qu\ c,u c,"u)

For B' = 0.7421, Dt = 0.01145 E, znd Bx = Bl' the following terms are
obtained:

=6,
or from Tables 5.2 and 5.3 with

r:

0,

tt2

STRESS IN CYI.INDRICAT SHEII.S

5.2

DISCONTINUITY ANALYSIS

t3

Hence, maximum axial stess is

and with B2

1.0495

nd

D2

0.00145 E, the equation becomes 436'59M0

"

=ry

=6Q-'?77:\ = 2s.e P psi

0.252

144'O2P

288'S2Qo

2983OQo

313 'O7Mo

Thb circumferential bending moment is given by Mo

or
5 '2O6Mo

= drI" =

0.08 P

4'M7Qo: -P
as

(1)

The circumferential force N6 is given by Eq. 5.19 as

The rotation at point A alue to P is obtained ftom Table 5.3

^ A= "P
or

a. p _l:!U//- ' + r' +;Vl \ L1 Lt / 2q1Dt\ct =u4

t,

-- Etw we= _T
=

4
r

{wo^ 'to

wroy

=*n';t'
OO

Et2l-o.og P -o.27 P\ R \ zBiDz 2giDz /

=

The rotation compatibility equation at point A is

lezt.tu u' -'

No.6Mo --:' -r ----;2.53 P

84.53)

2.53 P

-t:
_

t')=o =
Hence,

t'

0.25

.,

6(0.08_P)

0.25'

17.80 P

429.33P -{or
a1a aa P

Mo lrct\| - Qo (cs *co\ -Mo , Qo -, zp,o,\c, )'- zB?o'\cr' cr,/ = v6, E -9244
-l

Probbms

5.6

Find the discontinuity stess in the figure shown due to an inlemal pressure of 375 psi. I*t E 29 x lff psi and p = 9.3.

T
which reduces to

896.45M0

436.5980

= -657.r3Mo +

3l3.wQo

l2'58M0

Qo

-3J '48 P

(2)

Solvlng Eqs.

and 2 yields

Mo

-0.27 P
P
Probbm 5.6

0o

= -0.08

l4
BUCKTING OT CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

STRESS IN CYTINDRICAT

SHEtts

5,3

BUCKIING Of CYI.INDRICAL SHELTS

5.3

as dead Most cylindrical shells are subjected to various compressive forces such The behavior of cylindrical shells weight, wind loads, earthquakis, and vacuum. undlr ih"se compressive iorces is different from those under intemal pressure' In most instancei, the difference is due to the buckling phenomena that render cylindrical shells weaker in compression than in tension'

rvr6" +

aSoe

Sturm3 used the system of fbrces in Fig. 5.15 to establish the buckling forces' characteristics of cylindrical shells subjected to extemal comp-ressive between strains and deflections Using From the figure he derived a relationship relates this relatioiship and Eq. 3. 1 l, he obtained a system of equations .that

r"re

+affoo

re+affae

forces and moments to deflections. These equations together with the equilibrium equations determined from Fig. 5.15 result in the four basic differential
equations for the buckling of cylindrical shells' a
lrx +

*$oe
r.r"=+

So'

rvp"

+$ae

@o"

5.3.

Uniform Pressure Applied to Sides Only

Sox

For this case, the hoop force is

Ne=-Pr+f(x'0)
where/(x, g) is a function of
and 0, which expresses the variation ofN0 from tt" an".uge uutue. Wtten the deflection w of the shell is very small,/(x, d) is also u.ry ,-u- . Similarly, the axial and shear stresses are expressed by
.x

N,:0+g(ir'0)
Ne':O+h(x'0) N'p=0+i(x'0)
Substituting these expressions into the four basic differential equations for the buckling oi cylindrical shells, and using boundary conditions for simply supoorted J.rds. tire solution for the elastic buckling of a simply supported cylindrical shell due to uniform pressure applied to sides only is given by

Fisuro 5.15

n.

..2 :=:;---------;1r"'z[N2,\2 - prti - lt - l] - 3r \t - lt-) a * l.+ trlNz[l + (i t)(ztt)]- l}] AA

--n=
d-r1

c.: rB(!\
where P., = buckling
E
Pressure

6.27a) where N

L2

.,2 :

number of lobes as defined in Fig. 5.16

modulus of elasticitY

n'r' ,
N2

L2
,

/ = thickness D" = outside diameter

N2L2 E-r-

K=KtI

"'(?)

poisson's ratio

l6

STRISS IN CYLINDRICAT SHETLS

5.3

EUCKUNG OF CYUNDR|CA| SHttrS

tt7

$d \J/
,1,

fi"T

/nl

0r4

0.6

4610

20

40 60 100 m0
edses 3impry supporred;

Fisure

5.r7

corop,e

c..n"""" *

Symm.rd.ol Ahour C

Cdgor Sitnph Suppodd

c
Figur. 5.16

Symnrri.ol Aboul

Eds6

rird

-*o.il'Ji'i;

r,.",,,.".",,r.,.nry,

F=N2-r*l-t-----L d- Aa rlt
{N'?[l +

buckling of cylindrical shells, and using boundary conditions for simply supported ends, the solution for the elastic buckling of a simply supported cylindrical shell due to uniform pressure applied to sides and ends is given by
1tzlt)ta

-r)(2- p)]- 1] (l P,r\ '{(t - $}tctt - pl + (1 + ri\ Ltl t\

(^

n
I + a + 1 + p}
)

= ln, for side pressure

only)

E t

*1;r"u.tr | \u, tLL

r\
t

moment of inertia

: 4 12
where

A plot of the ( value in Eq. 5.27a based on the first two terms of expression F is shown in Fig. 5.17.

"=
": ",.
&(Dj)

*(;l

(s.27b)

5.3.2

Uniform Pressure Applied to Sides ond Ends

The values of No, N,e, and N6 are the same as those for pressure applied to sides

^::
'

^tF

ll7rl2L\
F

only. The value of N, is given bY

*^=+rge.ol
Substituting those expressions into the four basic differential equations for the

A4 : A?;---------;;--F

+ (n'r'/2Lt)

A plot of the K value in Eq. 5.27b using the first two terms of expression F is shown in Fig. 5.18.

l8

STRESS IN CYLINDRICAT

SHEtts

5.4

THERMAT STRESS

l9

From Fig. 5.18,

K-

16 and from Eq. 5.28,

P". P".

r6)(2e,ooo,r*,(q#)

= ll3 psi

5.4
If
r l-r

THERMAL STRESS

0* 06 I
of round

4610
vatues of

ttl

20 I

ttr

,10 60

r00

200

a cylinder is subjected to a uniform change in temperature and is allowed to deform freely, no thermal stress is produced. Any restraint that prevents free deformation produces thermal stress. The amount of restraint affects the stress level. Figure 5.19 illustrates bar restrained in one and then in two directions. In Fig. 5.19a the bar is fixed in the.r-direction only and is subjected to an increase in temperature. To determine thermal stress, the restraint is first removed and the bar allowed to deform due to change in temperature. A force F is then applied to produce the same but opposite deformation. The thermal stress in the bar can be calculated from the compatibility equation

Fisure 5.lS Collopse coefficienls supporred; p, : 0.3.1

cylinders wirh pr$3urs on sides ond ends, edges 3implv

5.3.3

Pressure on Ends OnlY

For this case,

&:5o
Ne=0+f(x'0) N" = -t' + g(x' 0)
No'=O+ h(x' 0) N'o = 0 +i(x' 0)
where 6r

: 6r :

deformation due to temperature deformation due to force F

values and the four differential equations are solved for the value of P", For small can be expressed as of tfr, the critical compressive longitudinal stress or

Substituting the values of

and

E7

in the compatibility equation gives for a uniaxial

o,:n': 't\r/
f,xample

o.6oE(t)

(5.28)

o=

-q LTE

case

(5.29a)

cntl.. il L :
Solttlirtlt

A cylindrical shell with r : 30 in is simply supported at the l0 ft and t : A315 in., find the critical buckling pressure for a : 29 x 10" psi' runilirlrr applictl pressure to sides and ends. Let E

5.9.

where o =

stress (positive values indicate tension)

: AI :
d

coefficient of thermal expansion

change of temperature (an increase is taken as positive)

tr

E = modulus of elasticity
q.o

2: t

roo

If the same bar is restrained in two directions as shown in Fig. 5.19, the (lcli)nnations due to 4 and 4, are calculated in the same manner as the uniaxial tlolirrmation. The two compatibility equations then become

t20

sTRESs IN CYTINDRICAT SHEttS

5.4

THERMAT STRESS

l2l

H .lN
+&r

\N

\F

\
T----l

il----------'1--1

ti
L-,,
(")

l--|

l.,l

\____J.i

'l*-'-l

]--t i { li-'

fI

= -l (o"" _,| a LT = -; (tr, aLT

from which the expression Ut

Lro)
p,rr,)

L,.

6t o.llE

: o' : --tl LTE ' t- p

l---lr lll-

is obtained.

'r t

rl+
llt
Figur.5.r9

L_J

l*1,*'

triaxial case, the thermal stress can be determined easily from the theory e: a LT in the first three expressions of Eq. 3.1 results in
a

In

of elasticity. Substituting

(b) d = coeff. ol .rp.hsjon dr- ch.nse 1n tenp. (positlve Hhen tenp. lncre.s.s) T = Polssot's rrtlo

o;- -

o,: ct =
Example

",

ATE = -a Zl" |_

for a triaxial case

(5.29c)

&-6r'+/'6"r=0 &+p8r,-6"r=0
where
= proisson's ratio 6i", = deformation due to force 4
g,
6p,

5.10. An intemal stainless steel rod is welded to the inside of a carbon steel vessel as shown in Fig. 5.20. If the coefficient of thermal expansion is9.5 10 6 in./in.'F for the rod and 6.7 10-6 in.iin."F for the vessel, what is the stress in weldA due to a temperature increase of400'F? Use E = 28 106

psr.

Solution. Weld A is essentially subjected to a uniaxial stress. Hence,

max

0:

E La AT
109(9.s

deformation due to force F,

= (28 x

Solving the above two simultaneous equations gives

:
(5.29b)

31,400

psi

6.7)(10 9(400)

a
A comparison between Eqs.

LTE
tL

1-

for a biaxial case

5.29b indicates that a higher stress level is obtained when the number of restraints are increased Hence, for a bar with r.r. - 0.3. a stress increase of 437o results when the number of restraints 5 29b incrcasus lirrrn one to two. Another interesting feature of Eqs' 5 '29a and of thickness and length' is tlrrl thc thormal stress is independent lirlualion 5.29b oan also be obtained from the theory of elasticity Hence, if c rv AT is substituted into the first two expressions ofEq (3'3), the fo owing
5 -29a

nd

tcsttlls:

Fisure 5.20

122
g.5

STRESS IN CYLINDRICAT SHELLS

5,4

THERMAL STRESS

l.)xumple5.ll.Anintcrnu|stuinlcsstrayiswcltlctllrrthcinsitlctr|.acarbtln stccl vcssel as shown in l'ig 5 2la. ll'the coeflicicnt ol'thermal exprnsion is

dellection of tray due to temperature

Fl

x l0 6 in./in."F for the tray and 6.7 x l0 r' in./in.'F fbr the vessel, what : 28 x 106 is the stress in the weld due to temperatunj increase of 400"F? Use E psi and pr : 0.3.
Solution. A conservative
answer can be obtained by assuming the tray attachment to be rigid. Because the weld is subjected to both hoop and axial stresses' it can be treited as a biaxial condition Hence, from Eq' 5 29b

:
(a,,)(AD(r)

deflection of shell due to temperature

-l 4

Mo

F,r +'#tt - p):

(a,,)(An(r)
as

rrn- tifi

F,

{t)

Equations (b), (c), and (d) can be written

Ft

Mo

(2)

-(28 o=@ x 106)(9.5 -

6.7X10-1(400)

:
If

_44.800 psi
From Eq. From Eq. From Eq.

Mo-n -I - BD: u 2PrD Ii+F +4:0

(3) (4)

a more accurate result is desired, then a discontinuity-type analysis can be performed. In referring nFig.5.2lb, and due to symmetry, the equations of compatibility and equilibrium can be written as

2, \:2FMo 3, n: 2BMo 4, 4: -4FMo

(a) ft=6r (b) 0r=0 (c) 0z=0 (d) )F=0

From the above four equations, the four unknowns
obtained.

and Eq. 1 becomes

4,

Fz, Ft' and Mo can be

^l#.
E

#]
or o: :

1a",

a,,)(Af(r)

(5)

Equation (a) can be written

as

Assuming the thickness of the cylinder is values, the value of { from Eq. 5 is

I=

0.1875 in. and using other given

-618 lb/in.

618 psi compression in weld

The value of618 psi is significantly lower than the conservative value of44,800 psi obtained from Eq. 5.29b because of the ffexibility of the cylinder. If the 3.0 in., then Eq. (5) gives thickness of the cylinder is r

ollMo fn 'l/-fr \_-/ .*F3

,h--Fz
I

n = Zl,20O lb/in. or o:21,2O0

psi compression in weld

This value indicates that as the cylinder gets thicker, the stress approaches that of Eq. 5.29b. In fact, if the cylinder is taken as infinitely rigid, then Eq. (1)
becomes

i,o

(a,,XAO(r)
and the equation yields

@l
(b)
Fisure 5.21

* H<t -

p.)

(a-XA?.)(r)

the weld, which is the same as that obtained from Eq.

4:

-44,800 lbiin. or o = 44,800 psi compression in

5.29b.

t24

STRESS IN CYIINDRICAI. SHELTS

5.4

THTRMAI. STRESS

t25

5.4.1

Uniform Chonge in Temperolure

M0 can be obtained tiom the second compatibility equation whereby the skrpc in F\g. 5.22a at the interface is equal to the slope in (b). Or

A unitbrm change of temPerature in a component usually results in a thermal stress both at and adjacent to the component. The magnitude of the stress is a
function of many factors such as geometry, degree of restriction and temperature variation. The stress can normally be determined from a free-body diagram of the various components. The following examples illustrates this point

_Mo, BD 296: pDMo

__!,

Hs

2B'D

0. and Mo The circumferential force in the pipe due to I1o is obtained from Eqs. 5. 19 and

5.24:

at 10'F is partly filled with liquid at 40"F and gas at 250"F as shown in Fig. 5.22a. What is the maximum thermal stress if a = 6.5 x 10 6in./in.'F, E = 30 x 106psi, and p = 0.3? Example

5.12. A pipe

H: t't':4' 2BtD c" "w r

Maximum value of Cp. is obtained from Table 5.1 as 1.0. Hence,

Solution. A solution can be obtained by taking a free-body diagram at the gas-liquid boundary as shown in Fig. 5.22b. Compatibility at the interface
requires that the deflection in (a) equals the deflection in (D). Hence' from Eq.

N.:
Also

2565

lb/in.

at interface

\)L

(axA7i)(r)
from which
Hn

ffi* ffi=

H"

M^

t")tAl'ttn *

rp'o* ,Bo
and

HN

Mo

M":

= @)(Lr1- AAX/)@)(D) (6.s x 10-6)(240 30)(6X1.4843f(5366)

Max

o:

t\6< = 20.500 o.rrr-

psi

The maximum bending moment due to I{0 was derived in Example 5.4

as

144

lb./in.

"":Y " B'=x

lri | fieas I "--{';"' '
lt Stress due to bending moment at Bx

= r/4

is psi

6M o':v:vx(o'34H0\ = l2,ooo p/
6 Deflection due to flq zt Bx

,=$

'|

i-li

( 2 )Liquid ll

--14t" ,--. { ' li

(b)

= n/4 is obtained
o.322Ho

from Eqs. 5.23 and 5.24

as

"o

2B"D
Hence,

Figwe 5.22

Ne

827

lblin.

t26
end circumfcrcntial $trcss is

sTxEss lN cYllNDRlcAt SHELl"S

5.4

THERAAAT

STRESS

127

ln the
^ 0.3

second compatibility equation the deflection due to temperature plus moment plus shear is equal to zero. Or

oo=

827 #+

12.000

10,200Psi

o.$s +

Thus maxrmum stress occurs al rnterface with magnitude of 20,500

psi. I

#_#:o
(42.e30)

and

Example 5.13. Determine the bending stress in a cylinder fixed at one edge (Fig. 5.23a) due to a uniform rise in temperature of 200"F.

Mo: (0.039)Qp2D) : (0.039)(2X0.46941

=
o=
738 in.-lb/in.

c = 6.5 x

10-6

in./in..F

E:30xl06psi p=o'3
Solution. Radial deflection of cylinder if
w
ends are free is

6M :+ = 70,800 psi I

5.4.2 Grsdient

in Axiol Direction

: :

(a)(Afl(r)
0.039 in.

The stress in a cylinder due to a thermal gradient f, in the axial direption can be obtained by first subdividing the cylinder into infinitesimal rings of length dr. Hence, the radial thermal expansion due to 4 in each ring is given by (c)(4)(r). This expansion can be eliminated by applying an external force such that

From Fig. 5.23a the rotation at the end is zero because the cylinder is fixed. Hence

deflection due to P,

deflection due to

M"

O^

BD
Qo

zB,D

E=
2PMo Hence

",r,

p, = Etan

/1\lMo

and

Hs

-Pr ae: -l
P, used

-taT.

(5.30a)

it, the extemal force to reduce the deflection to zero must be eliminated by applying an equal and opposite force in the cylinder. Hence, Eq. 5.21 becomes
Because the cylinder does not have any applied loads on

(b)
Fisur 5.23

{! * aB'*:EJ$ tlxfl,)

(5.30b)

Itt
Example

STRTSS rN CYIINDRICAL SHEttS

5.4

THIR

'tAt

STRISS

129

Thc total strcss in thc cylindcr is dctcrmincd from Eqs. 5.30a and 5.30b.

n-T r =rx
and the circumferential stress due to ring action obtained from Eq. 5.30a is

5.14. A vessel that operates at 800oF is supported by an insulated skirt. The thermal distribution in the skirt is shown in Fig.5.24a.Ifthe top and bottom of the skirt are assumed fixed with respect to rotation, what is the maximum stress due to temperature gradient? d = 7 x 10-o in./in.'F, p = 0.3,8= 30 x 106psi.
Solutian, The equation for linear
temperature gradient is

,,= -u"(T),
E4uation 5.30b gives

(l)

T,:4+4 iT*
The temperature change can be expressed as

onfu

* o.o* =";;(*),

A particular solution takes the form

.="u$(Lf),*",
aodF

t-

which upon substituting into the differential equation gives

t,=#
and w reduces to

and cr=9

w=rq.
Tb=

2odF
{a)

e").
(2)

From Eq. 5.19

T
x

'lr

A
t\

",=+:*(T)
Adding Eqs.

and 2 results in

t\
J_/
(d

rv=(EJ,

)x=-sx

oe= 0
which means that for a linear distribution the thermal stress along the skirt is zeto. The slope due to axial gradient is given by

Fhut. 5.21

- = dw rallT" - T,\ --:- = -----=; dx\r/

rt0
to reduce 0 to zero. From Eq. 5 24

gHEtts 3TRr93 lN CYI'INDRlCAt

I.4

THIRMAT 3TRI33

|lr
p do, t_*to,trdr-oo)
(s.35)

be applied at the ends Bccausc thc cnds arc fixcd against rotation, a momcnt mu$t

Substituting Eqs. 5.31 and 5.32 into 5.34 gives

/ do.\ o,: {rs* r\*)-

'"\ , )= B,

lr,

- r^

-Mo

. (r-J",' .

^,(#)
a

u,= -oolff)<n- n
Since B

In Section 5. I it was shown that the equilibrium of an element in 5.3) can be expressed by the equation

cylinder (Fig'

0.2142,

D=

2.74'1

x
=

106

'

",- ''='(*\
in'-lblin'
Solving Eqs. 5.35 and 5.36 for a gives

(5.36)

Mo
and

742

o=

,1450 psi

dlt d , .f -E ,, , rt,\i) ,kl;ftt,'",t|: T.;;"tr * ..,-(41\

o.

(s'37)

5.4.3 Grodient in Rodiol

Direciion

Solving the above differential equation and applying the boundary conditions

radial direction Thermal stress in a cylinder due to a temperature gradierrt in-the Hence, Eq' 3 can be written as can be obtaned from ttre theory of elasticity'

,,=!f",u=|b,^"iii" can be exPressed $truins

as

tL(oo+

c)f + ar

(5.31)

4l=0
gives

i="

*: jl", - P(at + o)f + uT

p(a,+ os)l+ ar

32)

(5.33)

Ea-l + P(r'z o. = -:-------'-- _-' | - tt' r' \16

Frorn Eq. 5.36

['" rra, - ri J.,

r?

[' - J,,rrar\ /

temperature is symwhere aT is the suain due to temPerature change' If the *i,tt respect to 0, all shearing stresses are zero and the radial and hoop

oa= t

E<x r +

- ttz I \rj-

u'

(rl! :j ['. r,a, r? J,,

""'

[' J,,"

rra,

- rr\ /

(s.38)

',=6 "=i
or

dww

and from Eq. 5.31 for a cylinder umestrained in the:-direction,

ot = -

Ea / _-_l_-;__2 ,l r,-, tl trar_ -\ L- p\ri-rih, /

e,:

ee

I de9\ r\a,

(5.34)

From these equations, some cases can be derived.

t32

STRTSS IN CYTINDRICAL SHTLLS

5.4

THERMAI STRESS

t33

Cav

Llnear'l'hcnnul l)islrihulion

[,irr thin vcssels, a stcady-state condition produces linear thermal dishibution through the thickness that can be expressed as

rwhere d

r'L-J

2r,, + r, l ov= o,- -EaT,f l, . .l | - pLJtr. -f ritl EaT f r"+ 2rt1 ue=u,=. | - p l-l -f riJ l LJtro

for inside surface

(s.40)

for outside surface

For thin wall vessels, Eq. 5.40 reduces to

Cfe

inside wall temperature relative to outside wall temperature.

- EaTt = C, = ,r,l _
!\r

for inside surface

(5.41)

Substituting
rt-:

tL)

into Eqs. 5.38 gives

EaT, f (r2 r\zrt + r.) 2(r3-rl)-3r"(r2-r!) ' r'(l - 1t\ | -6(ri'r r") 6(ri - r") EeT f (r2 + r?)(2rt + r") 2\r3 - rl) - 3r"(r'z - r!)l nr-

EaT ce: o,: Ltt ^- - lL)

Case
\J.J')

for outside surface

2.

Logarithmic Thermal Distribution

'

-l r-\t - pl L otrr r ro, LAIi I zrt+ ro r"-rl (l - pll3(r1 + r,) r"- r,l

^ o\r,

- ro)

In thick vessels, a steady-state thermal condition gives rise to a logarithmic

temperature distribution that can be expressed as

Figure 5.25 is a typical plot of o,, ae, and cz. The plot indicates that o, is relatively small compared with o6 and o,. For all practical purposes, o6 and o.
are equal.

l"') t: "/lu - ln r,/ \ln r"

and upon substitution of this expression in Eqs. 5.38 results in

The maximum values of op and ol occur at the inner and outer surfaces. From

8c.5.39.

2(l

#cr.l'-'^?
r1, - p,ntro/nL -

"/ffi

u?T:,,

*('.
\r, /

'(;)l
#)'(;)]
\/,/l
(s.42)

z(r

2Lnk-,t'i,,n/tr)l r ri-r;

Again disregarding or as being small compared with o6 and o", Eqs. 5.42
have a maximum value

of

2(r z(r

ErxT f,r 2rl lnt ,lr"\f - ---------ll

pJ tntro/ rJ

EaT I. /a\l -tt"lJ,)L' ;:'l' 'n\-/l - t"t

16

- ri 2,1 .

for inside surface

(s.43)

for outside surface

And for thin wall cylinders. Eq. 5.43 reduces to

t34

STRESS tN CYUNDRTCAL SHfl"t"S

5.4

THERMAI. STRTSS

t35

tft:
oe:

(r:

,zt<l

I')tt'li _ tl

lirr insidc surlace

lor outslde sunace

From Eq. 5.38 it can be seen that cr, can also be expressed by Eq. 5.46.

o,

= Z\l _ lD

EqT

which are the same as those for the linear case.

Case

5.15, A thin cylindrical vessel is heated by ajacket from the outside such that the temperature distribution is as shown in Fig. 5.26.1f E 27 106 psi, a 9.5 10-b in./in.'F, and p, 0.28, determine (a) maximum thermal stress using Eq. 5.40 and (b) maximum thermal stress using Eq. 5.41.
Example

3.

Solution. (a)
Complex Thermal Distribution

4:

ln many instances such as transient and upset conditions the temperature distribution through the wall of a vessel cannot be represented by a mathematical expression. In this case a graphical solution can be obtained from the thermal stress. From Eq. 5.38

- 700 = -300'F. Hence at inside surface -(27 x t01(9.5 x tO-ox-300)/2(lJ) - t0\ (t - 0.28) \3(13 - tO)i
400

55,800 psi

and at outside surface

oe: --

l- *l-rz, r, 1, -

eq lt-rr,lf.'t'z[,.rrar-!f ,ror-r] r-

J,,

u=

(27

106)(9.5

For a cylinder where the thickness is small compared to the radius, the first expression in the brackets can be expressed as

--

(l-028, ,1 _ 92s1

10 6)(-300)

lt3 + 2 x 10 \ :tr: _ rot \3(13-lo)

= -51,000 psi
(b) For inside surface

I r trilrt2 p IrAr 2r -----';-'------- | --,- :

r; - ri J,,
:

Ji: Trdr

ntr; - ril
temperature
(5.44)

mean value of the

'':
:
and

(-27 x

109(9.5

x l0 6)(-300)
or2s)

2(r
53,400 psi

distribution through the wall

for outside surface a

'l'he second expression can be expressed

= -53,400 psi. I

as

I trc-, -l J,, rror: r'

:

2n fiTrdr ---':
27Tr

5.16. A pressure vessel operating at 300'F is subjected to a short excursion temperature of 600'F. At a given time, the temperature distribution in
Example /5 45\

, -

one half the mean value of the temperature distribution from the axis of the vessel to r

However, because the temperature distribution from the axis to | 15 ZrO, cxpression 5.45 for all practical purposes can be neglected. Hence, oo can be
cxoressed as

.^ I) oo: --\1n I- IL
wncrc 4n

Ea

(5.46)

: f:

mean value of temperature distribution through the wall

bmDerature at desired location

Fisure 5.26

It6
Lct rr

3TR!!t

tN CYUNORICAI sHEtLs

NOMIIiICTATURI

t37

thc wall is shown ln Fic..3.27 . Find thc msximum thcrmal stress at that instance.

= 0.3, E = 3dx

106

psi, and

a = 6.0 x

10-6 in./in."F

Solutlon. This problem can be visualized as a biaxial case where the inner surfacs heats quickly while the rest of the wall remains at 300'F' Using Eq.
5.29b results in

(6 o:ffi x l0-6x600 - 300x30 x

106)

-77,100 psi

which is extremely high and is based on very limiting assumptions. A more realistic approach is that based on Eq. 5.46. The mean temperature is obtained from Fie. 5.27 and tabulated as follows:
Locations as Ratios of Thickness 0 0.1
Temperature

Area

600 460 400

0.2 0.3 0.4

0.5

370 340 320

310
305

53.0 43.0 38.5

35.5

tisur' 5.27
sness occurs at the surface only. Thus at one-tenth of the thickness inside the surface, the stress is

It is of interest to note that the high

_ t=_

0.6
0.7

33.0 31.5 30.8

JU.J

(30

0.8 0.9
1.0 And = 356"F. From Eq. 5.46, at inner surface,

300 300 300

10ux9I_!o-1res6 _ 460) \JJu 'uu'' r-o!3

30.0 30.0

= -26,700 psi
The high stress at the inner surface indicates that local yielding

>355.6

will occur.

I'

NOMENCTATURE

(30

106)(6.0

10-6)/?56

600)

l'l "

= -----=:l2(1 - tt2) of cylinder

Fl3

-62.700 psi

D, = outside diameter

ond Bt outcr surface

(30 ., _ "

196x6:0_x 10-6)(356

l-0.3

3oo)

E = modulus of elasticity K = constant L : length of cylinder

M, =
axial bending moment

14,2100 psi

rtt
Mp

ETRI'I

IN CYTINDRICAT SHTTT!

IIIIIOORAPHY

t39

'

hoop bcnding momcnt

2. 3.

p = pressure
P", = buckling pressure

American Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler ond Prcssure vessel Code, Sdct/.rn Rules for Constructiotr of Pressure Vessels, Division 1, ANSI/ASME BVP-VI -l,NewYork,
1980 Edition.

yrrl-

Strum, R. G.,

"A Study of lhe Collapsing Pressue of Thin-Walled Cylinde$," University of

Illinois Bulletin, Vol. XXXIX, No. 12, 1941.

P/ = internal pressure
Po = extemal pressure
BIBI-IOGRAPHY
The Amedcan Society of Mechanical Engineers, Ptessure Vessel and PipinS DesiSn-Colkcted Papers 197-1959, New York, 1960. Baker, E. H., L. Kovalevsky, F. L. Rich, Stn ctarulAnalysis ofShells, Mccraw-Hill, New York, 1912.

O, =

shearing force

r : 4 :

radius of cylinder inside radius

radius

ro = outside

, = thickness of cylinder T = temperature

AT = iemperature change

W., Stesses in Shells, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1960. Gibron, J. E., Linear Elasrtc Theory oJ Thin SherrJ, Pergamon hess, New York, 1965. Hefey,I. F -, Theory and Design of Moder PresJrt? y?JtetJ, Van Nostrand-Reinhold, Princton,
Flugge,

N.J.,
1959.

1974.
4r1d Shelrs,

Timosheoko, S., S. woitrowskey-Krieger, frreory of Plates

Mccraw-Hitl, New York,

p = deflection c = coefficient
B
6
t t
e0

of thermal expansion

= =

deflection due !o temperature change

longitudinal strain radial strain

0
lL

= hoop strain = rotauon = proisson's ratio

o
Ot

:
= =

stress

longitudinal stess
radial shess hoop sftess

or
Oe

REFERENCES

l.

Murphy, G.,

ll4-t2t.

'anced

Mechanics of Materials, McGEw-Hill, New York, 1946, pp.

CHAPTER

ANALYSIS OF FORMED HEADS AND TRANSITION

sEcTtoNs

Con|co|hrodconsistingof|woeccgn|liccones.(co',rtesyoftheNoolrcorPorgtion,sr.LoUi!,Mlo.)

t4l
r40

142 6,I

ANAI.YSIS OT TORMTD HEADS ANO TRANSITION SICTIONS

6.I
eo:
1...
ELt

HEMISPHERICATHIADS

t43

HEMISPHERICALHEADS

t-

lL)1o4,

pa,)

(6.3)

The required thickness of hemispherical heads is determined from a free-body diagram as shown in Fig. 6.1. Hence

Pm2 = Zmo

The strain displacement relationship is the same as that derived from cylindrical shells: w
'f

',
where

-2t

Pri

(6.1)

and

dw

a= P:
r= t=

membrane stress
pressure

Hence, expressions 6.2 and 6.3 become

radius thickness

(t

QfrQo6)

- vfiWS -

o,

21t'o6

-- o

(6.4)

This equation which assumes uniform stress distribution through the thickness, is adequate for relatively thin heads. As the thickness increases with respect to the radius, this assumption becomes invalid. Hence, a more accurate formulation is needed, which is obtained from the "thick head" equations. From symmetry, it can be demonstrated that at any point in a hemihead subjected to uniform pressure,

Figure 6.2 shows an inflnitesimal segment of a spherical head Summation forces in the radial direction gives

of

,",= -l(fi)<,'"t
Solving Eqs. 6.4 and 6.5, we obtain

(6.s)

From Eqs. 3.1,

e,

= E\ot

I.

, ld\l' +(rro,) 'r| : rl; /ll+ qr I \dr Lrzlto,)

(t6.2)

Its solution is expressed as

i12

5rThe boundary conditions are given by

(6.6)

o,= -n al r:
and

ri

a,: -n at r:ro
FisiJr 6.1

Solving the boundary conditions forA and B and substituting into Eqs. 6.5 and 6.6, we obtain

l.l{

Al'lAtYlll Ol lOR illD H!AD3 AND TnANSl?lON

SICTIONS

6.I

HIMISPHERICATI{TAD3

[6.-dor \ '
\ ' d. /

Figure 6.2

Jo/f
I

06:

",:f+('-*)-*('-*/ rl\
r?P' oo= -:ll r; - ri

fisurs 6,3

-l zr'/

r3P -;l=lt\ r; - /i

't\ +:+l 2r./

(6.7a\

A comparison between Eqs. 6.1 and 6.7 is shown in Fig. 6.3.

Example 6.1. A hemispherical head with r = 15.0 in is subjected to an internal pressure of 4000 psi. If the allowable stress is 23,000 psi, find the required thickness from Eqs. 6.1 and 6.7.

Equation 6.7a can be simplified for the following cases:

Case

1.

Internal Pressure Only

max

Soltttion.

From Eq. 6.1,

o.=
=

_e or:

atr=ri
| :?.'?r* Lzlr; -

,:+
at

max oo Case 2,

')r,]n ri)l

r = ri

(6.7b)

=
From Eq. 6.7,

(4000x1s)
2(23,000) 1.30 in.

Exlernal Pressure Only

maxot= rnrxa6=

-P. at r:r ot= - 3 rlk ZE:;,

atr=ri

(6.7c)

,11 o.: _-i_-1 | I _r : I " ri,- riL zril

rln

l.

ANAIYSIS OT TORMED HTADS AND TRANSITION STCTIONS

6.I

I{EMISPHERICAIHEADS

147

2(15t(4000) + 2(23.000X l5 )3 2(23,000) - 4000

f :re SrN0 cls:f1 d0 dr - ds .Cos P

16.31

1.31 in.

6.1.1

Vorious Looding Conditions

Occasionally, hemispherical heads are subjected to a variety of loadings such as wind forces, snow and dead loads, and agitator and equipment reactions. The membrane stresses induced by such loads usually are obtained from "thin shell" membrane theory that assumes that the loads are carried by membrane action rather than bending moments. When referring to Fig. 6.4a, the middle surface of a shell is taken as a surface of revolution. This is generated by the rotation of a plane curve about an axis in its plane. This generating curve is called a meridian. An arbitrary point on the middle surface of the shell is specified by the particular meridian on which it is found and by giving the value of a second coordinate that varies along the meridian and is constant on a circle around the shell's axis. Because these circles are parallel to one another, they are called the "paralled circles." The definition of r, n, 12, and @ are shown in Fig. 6 4a. The radius 11 is mcasuretl from point 0, which is the center of curvature of the meridian; 12 is mcasurctl fiom the z-axis and is normal to the meridian. The parallel circle is dolincd by r. lirrrrr lrig. 6.4a,

r'r6e+

ffi
de

dQ

N@+tl
Noo +

do

*F

++
Figure 6.4

do

Summation of forces in the direction of parallel circles gives

j6<,N*l

-,,(#*

rlNep cos

* r,',) :0

(6.9)

r= ds =

12 sin

r, d.6

lrigruc (r.4/r is a free-body diagram of a section of a surface of revolution. Srrrrrrrrirrg lirrces parallel to the tangent at the meridian and simplifying by th.lctirg lt:rrns of higher order, we obtain -!, gN,pt t4l,

For the majority of pressure vessel applications, the loads are symmetric with respect to the axis of revolution. Hence, all derivatives with respect to 0 in expression 6.8 and 6.9 can be deleted. Shearing stresses due to torsion are small comDared with other stresses. Thus expression 6.9 can be deleted completely' Tire last equation of equilibrium is obtained by summing the forces in Fig' 6.4b perpendicular to the middle surface:

- r,(q# \ do

-r,Npcos d +

16',) = g
/

(6.8)

,i \12rt

a:*Ut=n

(6.10)

I4g

ANAI.YSIS OT TORMTD HTADS AND TRANSITION SICTIONS

6,I
'fhc change in r,, is given by

HEMISPHERICAT

HEADS

I49

Substituting oxprcssi()n 6.

l0 into 6.tl

givcs

I fr No: 12 sln- , I I r, r2(P, cos {. -,,, @ LJ

Pasin Q)s\nQdQ

Cl I

(6.11)

Ar' =
and the strain is expressed as

Dcos A

-:= @ srn

The right-hand side of Eq. 6.11 is equal to the sum of all the N6 forces around a circle of angle d. Therefore we can solve Nd at any given location { by summing all forces in the {-direction. Once N6 is obtained, Nd can be determined from expression 6. 10. For a spherical shell, 11 = 12 = r. Hence, expressions 6.10 and 6.11 can be

,r=!1ucos@-wsin@)
Substituting ro

(6.14)

simplified as follows: N5

12 sin

and Eqs. 3.3 into expressions 6.13 and 6.14 gives

N6= P,r
No

" .l t.ltP, ^,-, @ LJ cos @ sln -

P6 sin @) sln

$ d$ + C I

I I

(6 12)

(6.15)

lt:ucotO6 .5 .

h.__

The displacement for various loading conditions is derived from Fig .

The

EtlNe

f"Na)

total change in length AB is

u:4ra6 - w d6t aQ
The strain is therefore

Equations 6.15 can be solved for the deflections once N, and Nc are established from Eqs. 6. 12. Table 6.1 shows the solution of Eqs. 6. 12 and 6. 15 for various loading conditions.

Example

6.2.

Determine the forces in a spherical shell due to snow load.

1/do ea=-l-;--l \ \aQ

w\
rr./

(6.13)

Solutian.

From Fig. 6.6,

P,

-- -P"

cos2 Q

P:P,cosdsind
From Eq. 6.12

N^ = '

)(-

+-l q)LJ "os' S - P" sin2@ cos @) sin A dQ + Cl f(-p, slnI I -p"rf r =,.'i' ;l l(cos' d + sin'z d) sin 6 cos 0 dO + C
qlJ -a -P", lt. ",1 ^l :rtt}Lts'n-@l+c.l
sm-

rl

./vr :

id0
Fisurs 6.5

-P.r2
-

4rC
sin 0

As 4 approaches zero, the second expression of Nd approaches infinity unless C is set to zero.

!l a oo-l

!l dl

;.t'
e
o
o.

r-;-1
-l '1

-l +

!l

*il
! '6
o

.lN '.t

.
+

!l
!te .tr f---l

rl

.t
q.

r^r
le

c
o
o o o! o
+

.f;|*
+ +

-i, +

! + |= |
<f

,9,/
--,{

..l+

+k!

-lc

\j/

{t

.trrr

I
o
-o

NI

@e

l5l
r50

152

ANAI.YSI! OI TO|.MTD H!ADs AND TRANSITION SICTIONS

6.1

HtMllpHlRlcAt

l'llAol ltl

complicated numbr the comDatibility equations are taken into consideration, a equations result' The solution of these equations is Oifierential symmetric P. imoracticat. however, withouisome simplifications. By assuming only, the differential equations for a spherical shell reduce to

"i.i*oii-*ut
forces

#r.#*rQand

o(cotz

O+

tD=

-#

(6.16)

#**Affi-o<""eQ-

rt)=Eto

(6.17)

Figor 6.6

Thus, for C

-P.;
From Eq. 6.12,

rle: -r.r

cos'

q+

\
L)

EilBRAI{E

FORCES

Yr=

-P.r(cos2 Q

= -4cosz|
6,

L2

DiscontinuitY AnolYsis

'l'hc rnctnbrane analysis discussed in the previous section fails to Sive adequate is attached rcrult$ whon the loais are localized or when the hemispherical section loads' In these cases the to lnothcr shell that acts differently under certain that hcnding moments must be considered in the analysis' In Figure 6'7 it is seen and the bending moments can be lix u givcn krading condition, the membrane

EIIDI NG FORCES Fig'.rre

con$id;rcd us shoin. Proceeding as before where both the free-body forces and

6.7

lla

Af{Al,Ygl

ot fotMrD

HIADI AND TRANIITION SlCrlONS

6.t
0
(6.18)

HEITATSPHERICAI

HIADI ll!

whcrc 0 is thc anglc of rotation and is given by

slope

^ a ldw r raQ

| /d'zo\ EVG)
w

:
I

radial deflection

By a rigorous analysis Gibsont has shown that in Eqs. 6' 16 and 6.17 only the higher-order terms are significant in most usual pressure vessel applications. Accordingly, the equations reduce to

F;lt\

r .., e

luYA)

do'

d2

The solution of Eq. 6.23 for various common loading conditions is given in

_ -Qrz
D

(6.1e)

Table 6.2.

Example 6.3, Calculate the head discontinuity forces of the head-to-shell junction shown in Fig. 6.8a. Let p : 3gg psi and /, = 0.3.
(6.20)

(e: dE'

Solutian. From Fig. 6.8b and Table 6.1 the

pressure rs

deflection in the head due to

",,

Eliminating 0 from Eqs. 6.19 and 6.20 gives

6o

:
_

P12

=(l

,r) sin

ffi++*o=o
where

(6.2r)

(300x50)'?rl

E(0.50)

'-

_o?l

1,050,000

,\a=3(l-r1l;/
The solution of Eq. 6.21 can be expressed as

,\2

(6.22)

Tqble

6.2

Approximote Force qnd Deflection funcfions for Sphericol Segments

g:

g^o(c1cos A0

+ c, sin,\@ +

e-^o(ct cos,\d

c4 sin

ld)
a

Hoftflff)--xo '<l"L/
-f
e-rYsln4ocos
(

,//-r-\
I

rr+"/+)no

?I

"-rtrtn(rr)ru
"-^t"o,
(

Once the value of O is determined for a given loading and boundary conditbns, the other quantities can be obtained from

lO

2re-r1sln{o(cosr.r)tio Vi*e-rYst nqrotocos { ry+nllltto

z16.f.

rr*nrl)no
ry)ro

-?1 e-11cotosi

n (

Nr- -Qcot0
N"

= --9 -do

lr
6

L-rYsi to

n0osi

(ry

) Ho

y6-"- r'r" i n1r1*nll

,ao

lto
ry+r/a)

M^:2(+\ r \dQ/
Mo

f""-rt"t tT(

no" [zr"t no"o"rv

lzre-

ry

I-,6- rs tiocos{

-+ucos0sinrYl,l

-rF*""o"""t rv*r+l]J 1; t-z'F^2u-tt"

(6.23)
rnro"i n (r.r+r/a)l

pMo

ro rT

/-1r,3

\--

"-rt.o"rr\ /

It6

AltlAtYlll Of iotlillo HIAD! At'lD ltAilllTloN slcTloN3

6.r

HlMrsPHtRtcat

HtADs lt7

6,"=s#6 ,rr: -3#ro

Similarly, the deflection in the shell due to pressure is obtained from Eq. Examnle 5.5 as

I of

tt\ ,='#(' _;,

:ffi,,-0.,r,
_
637,500

B=
=
0.1818 E/

D=-ij:j_=0.0916E ra\t - u.J-)

and from Table 6.2.

n\3

u,":,--#4r"
Figirr 6.8

eo"
8nd

aEEm

6rr=yM,
12.038

O.3)(lqoJ

0,"=gfMo
total deflection of head

From Table 6.2,

6,:Wl^
ouo=-2f4

r.r+4pq *
OT

q# Tr" Y*"
*
=

total deflection of shell

ryH"

Yr,
(1)

8Ho+Mo=-995.17

I58

ANAI.YSIS

OI

FORMED HTADS AND TRANSITION SICTIONS

6.I
symrnetry, expressed
as

HEMISPHIRICAIHEADS

159

Sirnilurly, rotation of head

rotation of shell

-579.65.. ._-t uo -

2t9.tt

.. E *o: - -E-nrt
= -0
818 Mo

165.15..

60.05..

--iwo

ZEa r,.^,, f -,,\ tt - p)r'\r; - ri ,, ,, / r"-,, 06: ao: tt- Eu l2r3+rl I Tr.dr + f,^,, - r.Tl .. | Tr.dr ,-\ ^l p)r- \r;-ri J,, J\ / lr'-r| O,:-l-ltr-Ar-ltr-Arl
Example

(6.24a)

\6.24b)

rlo
and from Eq. 1,

6.4. Determine the circumferential thermal stress on the inside surface of a hemispherical head subjected to an inside temperature of 600'F and varying linearly to a temperature of 400"F at the outside surface. Let 11 :30in., 12 40 in.,E 30 106psi, o 7.0 10-6in./in.'F, and g, 6.3.

Mo
and

179'4 lb-in'/in

Solution. The temperature distribution

AS

across the thickness can be expressed

Ilo =

146.8 lb/in. or

r=6oo_

Lg_rs

From Table 6.2, N0 at discontinuity is

N.:

2tH" +':::-M^ +

)A2

pr

-2

T=1200-2Or

z(r2.o3s)(-146."

?g?qg@-' !9P

The first integral in Eq. 24b gives

Ne= -3534 + 1040 + No = 5006 lb/in'

and

7500

f;

r,,a, =
=

J*

trzoor,

- zor3tdr

6.O50.000

The second integral is zero because the limits of integration at the inner surface are both ri. Hence Eq. 6.24b gives

y^=A=7500
Mo
and

lb/in.

(30

x
(1

106)(7

x l0 6)

: :

179.4

lb-in'lin.

0.3X30t

Me

53

'8

lb/in'

I
6.1.4

= -32,800 psi
Buckling Strength

tffi

[2(3ot + (30t.. ^-^ ro'o5o'ooo)

^^^. (3ofll2oo - ^^ .l 2o(rnj I

6.1,3

Thermol Sfress

'l'hc dcrivation of thermal stress in a spherical segment due to radial distribution ol ternpcrature can be derived similarly to cylindrical shells (see Section 5.4.3). Thc meridional and circumferential stresses in a sphere are the same due to

The buckling equations developed by Von Karman and Tsien2 are the basis of the design equations developed by ASME. Von Karman's equations, which are substantiated by tests, give a more accurate prediction of buckling strength of

160

ANAI.YSIS OT FORMTD HTADS ANO TRANSITION SICTIONS

6.I

HTMISPHERICAI.HEADS

t6l

splrcricul sccli(nls tlurl thosc dcvclopcd carlicr by l.luggc, Timoshenko, and others. Von Karrnan antl 'l'sicn took the out-ot-roundness imperfections into consideration. 'l'hey also used the energy equations as a basis for derivation.

Refering to Fig. 6.9, it can be shown that the strain energy due to the extension of the sphere is given by

u,: Er'(!\o Jo fYJ^- r)'sin d/d f \cos a / ' \r/

Similarly, the strain energy due to bending is expressed
as

(6.2s)

,, _ -_,/,\ (p -., ,fcos0 _ ,\') U7: Lr"l-l; T I srn Ql--- d0-ll+l , /sin 0 \r/ tz Jo @d@
lcos

\srn A --tlld6 /

.\,1 .,
|

6.26)
Such an expression can be written as

Figure 6.9

The potential energy of the external pressure

p is given by

U1: Prit I JO

-rB

P sin'?dcan 0

tan O) cos Q

dg

(6.27)

o:alr-c,1"-4)l L \ p'/l
where 0 is the slope and is related to the deflection by

(6.30)

The total energy of the system is the sum of Eqs. 6.25, 6.26, and 6.27 . Hence

U=Ut+U2+Ur

a: , fu @ - o) dO
JO

(6.31)

(6.28)

From Eqs. 6.30 and 6.31 the value of C, can be determined to be

of higher order and expanding the sine and cosine functions in a power series, liq. 6.28 becomes

Equation 6.28 can be simplified by assuming B to be small. By neglecting terms

^46 wt -;F
Substituting Eq. 6.30 into 6.29, the energy expression becomes

(6.32)

U E(t/rt rp (0. | ,^, - 6'\6d6 -:-# Tr" 4 Jo

It / 14\ / Ci Et, ^,^, pBo _-: l+186lCl _ ir-alCi\ - "" B2ct _,_L c in' \bur/ \ 7-i) l8tP-ci-pc'
This expression can be minimized by taking its derivative with respect to Cr and equating the derivative to zero. This gives

.ry rUffi-'l . G- 'flaoo

+PrQz@-Q)dQ
cxprcssion of the deflection that satisfies the boundary condition

(6.29)
where

or= 4 /a\f-. 63\i)F /.^6,* _^\trlr),] - ..ls\t/r - lot7 a ros \;/L'zr 'o)'p-l
o:'
and D is obtained from Eq. 6.32.

(6'33)

'l'hc solution of Eq. 6.29 is obtained by the Raleigh-Ritz method by finding an

Pr

0:0 s:B

at 4:0 at Q=B

I62

ANAI,YSIS

Of fORMTD HEADS AND TRANSITION

SICTIONS

6.2

ETTIPSOIDAL HTADS

r63

A plot ol l!. 6..|.1 is shown in lrig. 6. l(). 'l'hc nrinirnum value ol ljq. 6.33 crn bc lirund by taking thc derivittivc with respect to B and equating the result
(o zero:

dil'lerentiation results in an expression whose minimum value is

or 4/D\l Et 5\r/l

+ (3/280)t6/r), + t24/3st(6/tP

fi = o.rtt
(6.34)
Experimental values have shown that the minimum value obtained is of the order

which is shown as a dashed line in Fig. 6.10. This figure illushates the effect of 6/t on the buckling shength of spherical sections. The minimum value of buckling strength is obtained from the figure as

of

ff:
Solution.
From Eq. 6.35, with o",

o.tzs

(6.35)

!=o.z+ tt

at 9:9.35 t

The value of 0-24 can be reduced if the strain energy due to membrane stress before buckling is considered. Therefore, if Eq. 6.25 is modified to include this strain energy and if the revised expression is substituted into Eq. 6.29, the

Dxample 6.5. What is the required thickness of a hemispherical head subjected to an external pressure of 15 psi? Let r : 96 in., E : 27 x l0o psi, and factor of safety (FS) = 10.

(FS)o and

o:

Pr/Zt

1.2
1.1

\l
--\

(,t)'"''(;) : ' '*

t.o

\
t,
,l

o9
o.8 o.7
o.6

t,
,7

'#;*
I
.15

20

(15X96)110)

0.25(27

106)

,r
5\

0.45 in.

('R Et

o.5 o.4
o.3

6.2
(\
El tve op,i

EttIPSOIDAt HTADS

The governing equations for the design of ellipsoidal and torispherical heads are obtained from expressions 6. l0 and 6. I l. For internal pressure, P. P, P6 O, and the two equations give4

o.2
o.1

,ro:
14 18

.o

64.rc
%
Fisure 6.10

(6.36)

Ne: +Prz=j;We can write Eqs. 6.36 in terms of the major and minor radii a and b. Using

l6tl

ANAl,Ytlt Ol lOt,UlD HtADt AND TRANSII|ON SICTIONS

where

6.2

rruPsotDAt

HEADS

{|,(tl -, - * ,1'"(i. -y, - *,(t)

G=
I

ffi''r)"
,j
{
can be obtained

\/l

[(a/ br2

1] cos2 7

At any given point on the ellipse given by.re and y6, the angle Irom

fisure

6.ll

Ellipsoi&l heod.

"i"Q=ffi
A plot of Eq. 6.37 in Fig. 6. 12 shows that for ellipsoidal heads with a/, rarios over 1.4, the hoop stress at d = 90'is in compression. The curves indicate that this compressive force increases as the head gets shallower. Design of heads based on these high compressive membrane forces iends to give ulhaconservative answers. This is because discontinuity forces tend to lower the maximum compressive sFess which results in more realistic desims. The ASME Code uses such an approach in the design of elliptic and torisfherical heads.

the notations of Fig. 6.11, we then obtain a2b2

(az

sin2 Q

b2 cosz E1zlz

''

n2
1a2 5i1z Q

b2 cos2 qlrlz

Example
100 psi.

Expressions 6.36 then become

at6=9A'.

6.6. A2; I ellipsoidal head is subjected to an intemal pressure of If a = 48 in. and r = 0.5 in., detemine the hoop and meridional stress :
90', Eq. 6.37 becomes

I ^, -Po' ^6- 2 @rJfI? AT brrxf, O,7t

Sol.ntion. With d
(6.37)

,, _ Po' b' -

- b2) sin2 E (a2 sin2 6 i b2 cos2 q1r/z 2b2

(a2

nr=t
=
and

The radial deflection rll and meridional deflection ll due to intemal Dressure
are given by

Pa'
D^2

,l n;t

ryEq

24oo lb/in.

GIu'- ulc'- l]

n W'(Fcosv)

%=r#

48oo psi

166

ANATYSIS OF TORMED HEADS AND TRANSITION STCTIONS

6.3

TORISPHTRICAI.

HEADS

167

6.3

TORISPHERICALHEADS

elo zlq

In formulating the discontinuity equations for torispherical heads at the cylinder junction, two assumptions must be made. First, the ratio a// must be over 30. Second, all deflections dissipate rapidly away from the junction. With these two assumptions (known as Geckeler's approximations), the discontinuity analysis of a torispherical head near a cylinder junction is similar to that for a cylindrical shell. Hence, the governing equations are (see Section 5.2.1)

-!
where

4Baw

(6.38)

B=
Equation 6.38 is similar to Eq. 5.21 for cylindrical shells except that in Eq. 6.38 the quantity p is a function of 12 that is variable along the meridian. This requires numerical integration of all moment, force, deflection, and slope expressions at angles less than @ : 9g'. If a discontinuity force is applied at the edge as shown in Fig. 6. 13, Eq. 6.3g yields the following values.3

.:#rru,n,-FoB^Md.
u,
h/.
Fis'rr 6.12

n = Gr"^n, + zBoDe,Mi
7,
z1,f;c
FoBp,Mo)

^oo

(6 3e)

*r=ffi<-oupo+
Similarly, Me

Ap"Mo)

t&10

No=+(2br-ar) zo=

:
and

-ffitz

/lno.|r4Rl

24,

482)

-4800 lb/in.
4Rfn

o' = -(rf = -9600

psi

Fisuro 6.13

I6E

ANATYIIT OI IORMTD HTADS AND TRANSITION STCTIONS

6.4
conditions are shown in Table 6.3.

CON|CAT

HEADS

t69

whcrc AA = ., rr'(cos ps + Be, = e &(cos Bs Cs = s-8" t.,t P Dp" = a-Fs rin B"

sin Bs) sin Bs)

The forces and deflections obtained from Eq. 6.40 due to some typical loading

Exampfe

6.7. A conical

subjected to an intemal pressure

shell with d : 45" and base diamerer of g P Find the expressions for N6 and N".

ft

is

rh=
p=

.Rt - u\ \l--apoisson's ratio

Solutinn. For intemal

6.40,

pressure, N"

and lr'e

= p. Therefore, from

Eq.

Ne

Ps tan

6r

6.4

CONICAL HEADS

The sfress distribution in a conical head can be obtained from Eqs. 6. 6.11. From Fig. 6.14 with d constant,

l0

and

pcos a Also (1)

r=ssind
/t=o

12= stard
Redefining N4 as N, and p4 as p", Eq. 6.10 becomes Na and Eq. at

N"=;*d,;+c s=0
Hence

.2

p,s tan d

N"=0

6.l1

becomes

rv"

+ I ,0,- o,tan d)r dr

(6.40)

c= 0
Ps tan

a'

and

lV":;-: zcosa
6,4,1

Pr

Unbolonced Forces ot Cone-to-Cylinder Junction

Thejunction of cones-to-cylinders must always be considered as part of the cone design because of the large stresses that occur there. By referring to Fig. 6.15, the force 1{, at point 0 was found in Example 6.7 to be PR
Fisure 6.1,{

2 cos

c!

6.4

CONICAT HEADS

t7l

+
od
I
I

d d . o A

-o o 6t , Fr AI
(J NI

I .t. olsr AI
:+!

\nP at4 Etr

r--:---r
ilN

t
d.

!
R

o
o

'I
v;
itl E -

-l

Ol

lo

o o
lt

*"

l6 old IE ;lo ol

t
;l olN

N I .l olq

a,
f'

olp 'l'

""1drN

o o o o p
-o
d c a

| I I N | old (JI tF . lo) of

-o ld (/lla .1.^ alN I ilo |

-3 "i
d o u o E N le 6 | .

(b)

r:J - ot-o ltld olN OIF Qti Ull , tP

Figure 6.15

Sumrnation of vertical forces at point 0 gives 2zrRV

(i
rlt

^" |
?
Fo

".li

PnR2

or

o F

z@@

=PR 2
A, it follows
that 11 is an inward

Since V is the resultant of components N" and

force with magnitude

.. ,=
170

PR t^n d
2

172

ANALYSI3

O'

TORM!O HIAOS AND TRANSITION SCCTIONS

This tbrce H must bc resisted by ring action at the junction The required area of the ring is given by

.HR
(f

=
PR2 tairr

o==
ts

=
I

a'

2o

(6.41)
Nl @l Nl l-l ttN

9cl

.-l ,4 ol @ ol
61

.._:x x

where A :
P

required ring area intemal pressure

. IE lo ' o,lN N l@ tl.{

->l
NI

R = radius at base of cone

*'l *

e-

-l!

o' =
o:
Example

one-half the apex angle allowable compressive stress of ring

i-:-r

What is the required area of the compression ring at the conejunction in Example 6.7? Let P : 20 psi and the allowable stress in to-cylinder
the ring 10,000 psi.

6.8.

Solution. From Eq. 6.41,

F^

Fl+

I .\r l-->
+

20x48'?x1.00
2

10,000
.

2.3O in2

I
.ol
t o
I

o o

6.4.2

Discontinuity AnolYsis

@l .l

tN -->

The derivation of the discontinuity expressions for conical shells is similar to that for cylinders. The resulting moment and force equations for conical shells are

N|

!l

NIS'

0,

qI

IN -_>

expressed in the more complicated Bessel function terms. However, approximate solutions for various edge loading conditions can be expressed in simple form as shown in Table 6.4. In this table,

cg

6:

^t IJ='-, ' srn 4)

.o *. =11

173

6.4
t74
ANAIYSIS Of
fORMEO HEADS AND TRANSITION STCTIONS

CONICAT HEAD5

t/5

exprcssrons:

f:Hu
F:H(1 -U) /r\ M: HIiIVZ
\p/
where
Figure 6.16

H:

Pr lan d'
2

circumferential ExamDle 6.9. Calcuiate the maximum longitudinal and pressure P i" the cylinder shown in Fig 6' 16 due to intemal

*"r...

_.u vz=o*"o"2"';

c') i + cos'zc'(6 + cos2 a')

cos2

o'(3 *

cos2

Solution. From Fig' 6.16

f+F:H
where from Section 6.4.1,

(1)

The maximum longitudinal stress due to M and pressure is expressed

as

Pr tan a'

* : ?(t t - 4 sss v,,,4 "" "')

whereasthemaximumcircumferentialstressduetoMandpressureisgivenby

'l'he deflection compatibility between the cylinder and cone is given by dclloction of cylinder at junction due to M and

/ F
(2)

:
Sirrrilutly,

deflection of cone at junction due to M and

6.4.3

Cones under Exlernol Pressure

to external hydrostatic The solution of the buckling of a conical section subjected The resultant equation is very oressure is normally obtained by energy methods s the iterativi prociis needed for lhe solution Experimental

ffi;;#ili;
,"."-"ft

r()trti()n ol cylinder at junction due to M

and/

= llsirrl
f

rotation of cone at junction due to M and

(3)

rrlrlcs

5.2and6.4 and solving Eqs 1,2, and3 result in the following

of cylindrical "o-paring .iro*oiftut tfti, U*lling of a conicai shell is similar to the buckling of the cone and a radius equal to r-n"fi.-*ift length eq-ual to the slant length shown that the ,h" un"aog" "radiris of curvature of the cone Research has also influence on the buckling of a cone' qr""tiiy O - Dr/Dr) has a significant

shells has the buckling equations of conical and cylindrrcal

176

ANAI.YSIS OF fORMtD HTADS AND TRANSITION SICTIONS

as

6,4

CONTCAT

HEADS

177

Accortlingly, thc buckling oquitti(n ol a cono citrl bc cxpresscd

*,:"('-';)
buckling equation of a cylindrical shell and of Drf Dz. f(l - DtlD) is a function A simplified equation for the buckling of a cylindrical shell" is
where

'Ihc magnitude ofthe tunctionl(l - Dtf D) canbe deternrined thetlrctically Based on this plus the "scatter" band of experimental data, a value of l 0 was used for the function at Dr/D2 of 1.0 (cylinder). The function changes linearly to a value of 0.8 for DtfDz of zero (full cone). Thus the buckling equation
becomes

p is the modified

ti
The second bracketed expression can be approximated by the quantity
2

=6_EfnlL/r,-o.4sen84

2.42E

(t

/2r)25

(6.42)

For most applications, the second quantity in the bracketed denominator is small compared with the first one and can thus be neglected' Based on this, the

r+ND,
Using a factor of safety (FS), the allowable external pressure on a cone is given by

buckling equation of a cone (Fig. 6.17). may be wrinen

as

P,

E-

2.6(t"/D2)25

(FS)(Le/Dz)

(6.43)

P.

allowable external pressure modulus of elasticity

4, _

2.6(cos

a')25(r)15./, _ 4\ tl1,Dt-rDtl21'5rU or/

t"=tcosd
7"=11/2)(t + Dt/D2) Dl : diameter at small end of cone
D2

!V"'

diameter at large end of cone

Example 6.10, Design the cone shown in Fig. 6.18 for an extemal pressure of 15 osi. Let FS = 4.0 and E = 30 x 166 psi.

Solutinn. a' =

30.96" and cos

a' :

0.858.

Fisure 6.17

,. : T (' *

noq)

= 24

3't5 in.

I70

ANATYSIS OT FORMED HEAOS ANO TRANSITION SICTIONS

NOMENCI.ATURE

179

/)z = diameter at large

end of cone

Dr

=60"

C : modulus of elasticity L = axial length of cylinder L":(h/2)(1 +Dt/D2) / = axial length of cone l' : slanted length of cone M = bending moment in hoop direction M = bending moment in meridional direction
N, = N= N=
axial force in cone force in hoop direction force in meridional direction
pressure
pressure

Fisur 6.1S

P :

From Eq. 6.43,

,": o,(wo-1a,ly'

P" = allowable extemal 4 = intemal pressure P, : external pressure

=,,(u?,#i:,'*i"l'
:
and

P, = radial pressure P" = axial pressure in cone P = meridional pressure

0.20 in.

Q : shearing force in head r : radius rr = radius of curvature as deflned in Fig. 6.4

U.zJ ln.

I : """""""': : cos a'

12 = radius of curvature measured from axis of symmetry

NOMENCTATURE

a : major radius of ellipse b : minor radius of ellipse lt:Et3/12(l-ttz) /)r : diameter at small end of cone

4 r, s ? t t" v w

inside radius
outside radius distance along the slanted length of cone, measured from apex temperature thickness

:
= =

= tcos a' = axial deformation

radial deformation

I8O a *

ANATYSIS OT IORMED HEADS ANO TRANSITION STCTIONS

BIBTIOGRAPHY I8I BIELIOGRAPHY

Bilfington, D. P., Thin Shell Conctete Structures, Mcclaw-Hill, New York, 1965. Flugge, W,, Stresses in Shells, Springer-Verlag. New York, 1967. Timoshenko, S., and S. Woinowsky-Kieger, Theory of Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill, New

coellicient ol thcfl)lal oxpansion

a = one-half the apex angle of a cone

e=w

for cylinders

Yo*, for cones

1959.

7 =7r/2-Q 6 = deflection measured perpendicular to axis of symmetry A : rotation

^ =\yto=-6i/F p = poisson's ratio

o = stress
o- = critical buckling stress o, : radial stress .r, = longitudinal stess in cone od = hoop stress
od

meridional sfess

S = angle as defined in Fig. 6.4

R,EFERENCES

t.

Gibson, L E., Linear Elastic Theory of Thin SherrJ, Pergamon Press, New York, 1965. von Kaman, T. and Hsue-Shen Tsien, "The Buckling of Spherical Shells by Extemal P.essue" in Ptessure Vessel and Piping Detign: Collected Papers 197-1959, Afieican Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1960. Coates. W. M., '"The Stale of Shess in Full Heads of Pressure Vessels" in PressureVessel anl

Piping Design: Collected Papers 1927-1959, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York. 1960
Baker, E. H. et al., Srell Arnlysis Manual, NASA CR-912, National Aelonautics and Space Adminisb"ation. Washingto!, D.C., 1968. Jawad, M. H., "Design of Conical Shells Under Extemal Loads," Jounal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. lO2, 1979. R^etz, R. Y., An Experimental Investigarton of the Strength of Small-Scale Conical Reducer Sections Between Cylindrical Shells under Extenal Hydrostatic Pressure, V. S. Department of the Navy, David Taylor Model Basin, Report 1187, February 1959.

CHAPTE

R7

STRESS

IN FLAT PLATES

V'nnn^ flot plote3. (Court$y of lhe Nooier CorPorotion, Sr' Louis, Mo

t83

l8.l 7.1

3TR!SS lN fLAT ptATrS

7.2

CIRCUI.AR PI.ATES

t85

INTRODUCTION

very lli:4gl * nozzlecommon in grgcesl .quiq-"nt.Qiqrgql ru\,rr .ucas .ts such areas as rozztc covers, bulk heads, ani tuUesilOets, Ttrereas DulK neads, and tubesheets, rcefanCular

glles.are used as segnrylq! trays, baffles, and in

and rggjqggkUllates.

This chapter presenB-6rieTdescription of the theoretical iackground of circular The theory of symmetric bending of laterally loaded plates is generally based on the following assumptions:

rectangulir'p."rGffi;i;.

-whereas

l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Thickness of plates is significantly smaller than the least lateral dimension of the plate. Loads are applied perpendicular to the middle surface of the plate. No forces are imposed in the middle surface.

Lines perpendicular to the middle surface before deformatron remain perpendicular to the deformed middle surface. These lines are inexlensible. These lines remain straight lines.

Fisure 7.1

These assumptions form the basis for developing the bending theory of plates and apply to plales where buckiing is not a consideration.

downward deflections are positive, the relationship becomes

6
fr f

1dw

7.2

CIRCULAR PLATES

rdr

(7.2)

The relationship between the radius of curvature and the deflection of a circular plate is obtained from Eq. 3.6 as

The moment-curvature relationship is based on Eq. 3.11 and is given by

;= 77
or in terms of the terminology of Fig. 7.1,

1 1\ - -r p-l
Substituting Eqs. 7.1 and 7.2 into this expression gives

d,2w

! =d2w : rn dx,2

-dQ
dr

(7

.t)
Sinilarly,

M,: -D(+ * L+\ \4r- r dr./ = D(!+ * *9\ dr r/

\/

(7

.3a)

(7.3b)

m(lius of curvature r, of all points at a distance

'fhc second radius of curvature is also obtained from Fig. 7.1. Line,4g is the r forming a cone:

sind-at=I
Using the sign convention that clockwise angles and moments are positive and

M,: -D(!+ * ar
\r = -o(9

p+\ dr/
(7.4)

dd\ * p-, I ar/

t86

STRESS

tN r[AT ptAnS

7.2
Substituting Eqs. 7.3 and 7.4 into 7.6 gives

CIRCUTAR PTATES

187

For a unilorrnly bodcd platc, thc tbrces acting on an clement are shown in Fig. 1.2u. Taking moments uboul a-n gives

(M,r

d0)

- (". - ff*)<, + dr) d0 + z(u, a,.t) " / )n \ /,{.\ + 7 drl\r + dr) dol+l = o -lO 4r / \ \z/

*(i)
or
(7

d1w I d2w 1dw _--=: drr r dr2 12 dr

D
(7.7)

.s)
as

Ttle qvant\ty Mt dr d@/2 is the component of M, perpendicular to axis d to a shown in Fig. 7.2b. Disregarding higher-order terms, Eq. 7.5 can be reduced to

dlrdld,/,)\1 -:-|_-|r-||:= drlr dr\ dr / I

Similarly, substituting Eqs. 7.3 and 7.4 into Eq. 7.6 gives

M,+#r-M,'rQr:0
(o+5F dr)

(1

.6)

d20,ldo o -o a*-;ar-7: D
(7.8)

(Mr1!!r
Equations
7

l,lii,rr1= -g
circular plates due to symmetric loading. Equation 7.7 can also be written in term of the local load as

.7 and 7 -t are the basis differential equations for the bending of

I d [,d l! d (,a\.ll r drl drlr dr\ dr/l)

as

c
D

(7.e)

Once w is determined from Eqs. 7.7, then the moments are obtained from Eqs. 7 .3 arrd 7.4. The shearing force is determined from Eq. 7.6, and is exDressed

o: D(+.!+ - \+\ \ dr- r ar- r'ar/

Example

(7.10)

7.1. Derive the moment expression for a uniformly loaded, simply supported circular plate of radius a. For g, 0.3, plot the moment diagram and determine the maximum deflection. rotation. and stress values.

Solution.
or
(b)

From Fig.

.3, the sheat Q at any radius r is givenby 2mQ

nnz

Pr

tiswe 7.2

188

STRlSl lN rtAT PLATIS

7,2
Hence, the deflection as expressed by Eq. 2 becomes
r4':_

CIRCUI.AR PI.ATES

t89

sD 4\l+prl8D 64D\t+p_ll 'l

o w: -)-(az - ,tll'; :, * UD'- '15+u
.a2

Pra

r2

Pa2 Paa /6 + 13 + p\t_!_t

Zu

or
Fisure 7.3

\l+p

'\ - r2l

(3)

Therefore, from Eq. 7.7,

and

d,l;E(
Integrating both sides gives

dltdldw\l
d, )

): b

Pr

^ dw Pr(, - dr l6D\'

3+p,.\ l+p')
r = 0. Hence

(4)

The maximum deflection occurs in the middle where

Prl ^ dl dw\:5 - '" d,\' d,)

A second integration gives the expression for the slope that is given by

nj*, =_t

Paa /5 + p,\ _t 15 + u\ 12(l - ,42t Pa4 | | 64D\t + pl = 64 \r + p/ Et3

____________:_

andwithp=0.30
(1)

^ dw Pr3 Crr -drl6D2r

and the third integration gives the deflection w
as

Cz

,"'-""

o'696!aq
Et3

The maximum rotation occurs at the edge where

r = d. Hence,

w:_L+++C2lnr+,C, 64D4At the center of the plate,

Pr4

C,rz

-Pat ^ d'- = 8r,(r + p) : -3^, tP"'

and with /.r

(l -

rr)

-i

0.30

liom liq. l, f,2: Q. At r : a, moment M, = 0 and Eg. 7.3 gives

r = 0 and the slope is zero due to symmetry. Hence,

s^^=
7

-t.os

EtY

Paz /3 Cr: -8D\l+,,/ u\

The moment expression is obtained by substituting Eq. 3 into Eqs. 7.3 and

.4. Hence

At

a, thc deflection is zero and Eq. 2 gives

,,=*rt

1t)(a2

12)

(s)

,,=#(T#-')

u, = ftbt{z +

p.)

r2(1

3p.)l

(6)

r90 tliltt

rN trAT

PtATtt
and

7.2

CIRCUTAR PTATIS

t9l

A plot of Eqs. 5 and 6 for g.

= 0.3 is shown in Fig. 7.4. The plot indicats that the maximum moment occurs in the center and is given by

M*=3#
6M
TExample l.24Pa2

- Pr3 H=-+-+i -l6D2r

C,r

C,

(2)

At the center of the plate r = 0 and the slope is zero due to symmetry. Hence, from Eq. (2), C, = 0. At r = a, the slope is zero and from Eq. 2, I-

I
Also at

Cr= -Pa2
8D

Derive the moment expression for a uniformly loaded circular plate of radius a that is fixed at the edge. For trr, = 0.3 plot the moment diagam and determine the maximum deflection and stress values.

7,2.

r = a, the deflection

is zero and from Eq.

l,

Solution. From Example I,

Ct:6
-f L:

Pr4 Ctz ^ .:64D- -T-- Lz ,lll /

(l)

Hence, Eq. 1 becomes

The maximum

pra pa2r2 paa 64D 32D 64D = L1^z - 'z1z uD'" value of deflection occurs at / = 0.
w=- Paa '64D&
Pa4

(3)

2n

lt.
and for

l2(l -

tr-z)

{{'o
00

P = 0.3,

r,v.*=0.171r9)
\Lt"

The moment expression is obtained by substituting Eq. 3 into Eqs. 7.3 and

7.4. Hence,

u,: f,bT
and
I' h
Figoro

+ p)

r2(3

tL)l

(4)

7.4

Momeni diltriburion for simply

suppord plolo.

u, =

llt tt + tLt -

121t

3p))

(s)

tt2

$iltt

tlit

llaT ptATtt

7.3

RTCTANOUTAR

PrAlt3

t9g

^ Answeri mo( lr = # azMn zD\t + l.L) ^ max 0 =

max

at center

u\r 'f -_ft

aM"

p)

at edge

M, = Mo throughout plate

m^x

M, = Mo throughout

plate

.,.

ffi

16tl

A ctcular plate is fixed at the edge and is at an ambient temperature of 70T. What is the maximum stess if the top surface is heated to a lemperature of l70T and the bottom surface is cooled to a temperature of -30T?kta = 9 x 10-6 in./in. T,r:0.5in.,a:60in.,8:30 x

lffpsi,p=9.3.

. answer. o

=naLTE _ 1.,
=
38,600 psi

7.3

Determine the maximum moment in the circular plate shown in Fig. 7.6 if a = 4 ir., b = 2 in., p 0.3, and P 100 psi.

l.
flgure

Answerz M'
f,or

384.6 in.-lb/in.

7.5

,nomnt

didrihtion tor

ft(d plote.

A plot of Eqs. 4 and 5 for p = 0.3 is shown in Fig. 7.5. The plot indicates the maximum moment occurs at the edge and is given by

tlnt

M,*"= -Paz
Fieur. 7.6

and

6M -0.7 o*,=v_---vSPaz

7.3

RECTANGULAR PTATES

Problems

7.1

Determine the maximum deflection, slope, and bending moment for a simply supported plate subjected to edge moment Me.

In developing the differential equation for circular plaies, the shearing shess was ignore.d because the load was symmetric with respect to 0. In rectangular plates under uniform loads, the shearing stress interacts with the normal shesses in the .r- and y-directions and thus cannot be ignored. This results in a more complicated differential e4uation than that for circular plates. In addition, the solution of th differential equation of rectangular plates is more elaborate and involves the use of Fourier series. Because of this, only the case of a simply supported

Ifi

lnl$ il ftAT ftATtt

7.3

RKTANOUTAR

PIAT!3

19!

rrctangulsr plate loadcd throughout its surface is discussed here. Nonsymmetric loadings and boundary conditions other than simply supponed result in quite complicated solutions that are beyond the scope of this book. The examples given in this section are intended to give the reader a concept of the general behavior of rectangular plates and the difference between them and circular
plates.

W-+-Q'y=o
dQ"

(7.12)

an infinitesimal section is removed from a rectangular plate, the forces acting on it will occur as shown in Fig. 7.7. Summation of forces in the z-axis
srves

If

_ dy = dy-

d,g

atu,
dxdy

(7

.t3\

Similarly, summing moments around the y-axis and deleting all quantities of

q(x, y)dx dy

Q, dy

(a..

ff *)', -

higher order gives Qt dx

(a.

ft,,)*
=0
(7

#.ry-e"=o
do, d2M,
azM,, ar-: d* - atfr
Substituting Eqs. gives
7

(7.t4)

This equation can be reduced to

(7.15)

q(x,yt+#.#=,
gives

.1,r)

.13 andT .15

into7.1l

and using

M"t

= -MofromEq.3.1l
=
u

Summing mornents around the "r-axis and deleting all quantities of higher order

, q\x,

d,M, 2d2M* y,-r -;z - -;i +

ir,

a2M,

(7.16)

The differential equation relating deflections and applied loads is obtained by substituting Eq. 3.11 into 7.16 and obtaining

daw 2daw 1aw :-:---:--:-:-l-t : ak. v\

-

ax4 dx2dy2 dy4 -

(7

.17)

m,

*$$o'

which is the differential equation of the bending of a rectangular plate subjected to lateral loads. For any grven loading and boundary conditions, the deflection p can be obtained frorn Eq. 7.17. Tlie bending.moments can then be determined ftorn Eq.

3.1I

as

".:
Figwe 7.7

_,(#. _?)

(7.18a) (7.18b) (7.18c)

u* '

^: o
=

-'(#.,#)
!-'Y^

dxdy

Itc filttt tt{ il.tT tta?tl

and tho shcarfng forccs Q, and
a8

7.4
p,
arc determined from Eqs .7 ,12,7 .14,

CIRCUIAR PIATIS ON IIASTIC

IOUNDATION I97

and3.ll

n.-

-,*(#.?)
-,&(#.?)
= qssinTF*T)

comparison of the denominator in parentheses in the expressions for M, and M, indicates that M) will always give a larger value of M for the given values of a and b. Accordingly, the maximum value ofM is given by

(7. l9a)

M*=atrffitm@.*)
M^."==,?'o,==fq!*a\ 1r2(1/ffi2 + /25\2\602' 252f
|

Example 7.3. Detennine the maximum moment in a simply suppofied rectangular plate of length a and width D if the applied load is expressed as

"=
q

(7.19b)

145.1

in.lb/in.

The maximum value of M,o occurs when.r maximum valae of M, is given by

0 and

y=

0 or

r.

Hence, the

I*t a = 6O in., b :
Sohttian,
Assume

25

h.,

eo

3psi, and p = 0.3.

M,r

3.0(0.7) 12(1/602

+ r/25r,6q25)

to be of the form

= 40.2 in.lb/in.

txl w=C rr;\rr

7/

rrY\

This expression satisfies the boundary conditions of w = O and M edges. Substituting this expression into Eq. 7.17 gives

7.4
0 at all four

CIRCUIAR PLATES ON ETASTIC FOUNDATION

r-= " Dr4(1/

and the deflection expression becomes

4o

az

+ l/b\2

Many tubesheets of heat exchangers are designed as plates on elastic foundation as discussed in Chapter 14. The solution of the differential equation of a plate on elastic foundation involves Bessel functions. The four Bessel functions used in this section are

DFn# +Ilbry't # ('* ?)

Z@) =

6sr1r1

- t -l)ix4i = >. *,

Substituting this expression into Eqs. 7.18, gives

=t-E--+o.
Ll\xt = Det\x) = S.

?"7'[(2])ll' '(x/2\o (x/2\8

(-1\jx4j'

(x/2\t2

61,

-"'

,,=

aOffilnG,. *) sinr sin|

- F)
..,-

47W*
(x/2)2

,X
(r/2)'o -f?-- "'

M,:dffi"*Y"o"|
Thc maximum value of M, and M, occur when .r

Qo u : /.]|l '"" = }(FaI7FfV-j

-,^'- Tx srn n! -t \ sln

_ --l?---L, (x/2)6

23ft)

= _ ? *"r(,) =

t+ _

1lr,

r^i

a<.t]

= a/2

and

y = b/2. A

z1i = ar.,k) =z+

.1lr, * ,"5.t,<,t]

r9r ltiltt
whcrc

ll{ fLaT ptATll

7.4

C|RCUIAR PtAftS ON ltAgTrC

TOUNDATTON t99

- \z) " = /lY Q\n)=

"t

99/rY * 4(?1r\" - . . . 51'? \2) 31'z \2) ,, _ 4{z\ (x\ _ d(4) /.rY _r d(6) /r\u + . . . -?tr\r/ - " h:-';-\1)
.

d2z,k) Zzlx) -| EtG) - x ---j axa.x

.

--+r\1)

I I t*t*1-z l*.......*l
0.577216

"

1 dzz2\x) -----:--;-=-zt\x)-- fl,2@) axx ax lfi,l?) d'zA(x) ----=-- = L4\x) - - -'--:dx' x dx | d2z4@) -----:--t-=-23\r)--dZlx) axx ax
,

The limits of the Z functions as 'r --> 0 and as x :+ co are given in Table 7' 1' The table also shows the limits for the first derivatives of Zt tltroryh Zq. The relations between the various derivatives of the Z functions are as follows:

The force exerted by an elastic foundation on a ciruclar plate due to deflection

of the foundation is expressed

as

P=Kow

Toble

7.1

Limits of Zfunctions

Limit
Function

as

Limit

as

.r ---+ 0

where p = foundation load w = deflection of foundation Ko = stiffness of foundation

Z{x)
z2@)

1.0

cos K

:
K

modulus of elasticity of foundatior/depth of foundation.

--70.5

_x2

-f
r,

sin
rl,

The differential equation of a circular plate on an elastic foundation can be obtained by modifying Eq. 7 .7 as

h6)
h(x)

sin

2t^+
-x' -:7 lo

-z

cos

ry'

i,lli,(,#)l=ry
The solution of this equation is expressed as

(7.19)

&(x)
dx

1fu(cosr-sinr)
w=

il.(x)
dx

z
-Itr=
2

-x

Cfl(ar) 'f
^{EJD

C2Z2@r)

C3Z3(ar)

CaZa@r)

;!(cosr+sinr)
yx

&'(x)
dx E+(x) dx

x,
nx

ft@osi,-

sinrli

where ": 21 Za :
Ct Qa

Bessel functions constants of integration

1fu(cosg+sin0

Example

I.1x =:eXD""'= '

7.4.

Detemfne the maximum deflection in a circular plate on an

and Zz also

!2tx - !2 xn v86

elastic foundation subjected to a concentrated load F in the center of the plate.

j,t, = 'v26 +i

Solution. From Table 7.1 it is seen that as r approaches infinity, Z approach infinity. Therefore, Ct and C2 must be set to zero. Thus

w:CtZt(ar)iCaZa(ar\

100
and

tTmll

rt{

tuT ptaTtt

UEUOORAPHY

201

0= -dr

= Ct

Zi@r) +

Ca a

Zi@r)

As r atrrproaches zero, 0 must be zero due to symmetry. But from Table 7. l, Zi approaches infinity as r approaches zero. Hence, Ca must be set to zero. Thus

w = CzZz(ar)

Mt M, My M,r P O r T t w

= tangential moment in circular plates = moment in .r-direction of rectangular plates = moment in y-direction of rectangular plates = shearing moment = applied pressure = Shearing force
applied load

I jj=c*'lzo{or)--zi@nlI d3w ^"f I I 7j - Aa'zlozi@r\ -:zKar)]

Substituting these derivatives into Eq. 7.10 and equating this to F' gives

* = CtaZS@r) d2w ^.f

dw

= radius = temperature = thickness = deflection 21 to Za = Bessel functions = */EJD

poisson's ratio

^F
and

4azD

REFERENCE

l.

Tiomoohenko, S., and S. Woircwsky-l<liege\ Theory of phtes and Shelts, McGmw-Hill,

New Yort, 1959.

'=
and

'fi6t'<*>
F
8rr2D

BIBTIOGRAPHY
Hetenyr,M., Beams on Etastic Foandation, University of Michigan Prss. Atrn Arbor, Michigan,
1964.

E., Smith, B, L,, aDd Bernhan, W. D., Analyris of plates, Spaftan Books, New York, 1972. Szilard, R., Theory and Awlysis of Prorer, hedice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, {.J., 1974.
McFarland, D,

NOMENCI-ATURE Et3

;:;:----------;: E
Kq

tz\t - p-)'

M,

= = = =

modulus of elasticity stiffness of foundation modulus of elasticity of foundation/depth of foundation radial moment in circular plates

PART3
DESIGN OF COMPONENTS

203

CHAPTER

DESIGN OF CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

St tot,,is' Mo a,' ,'l,rrrr-n rower used by o ferlilizer monufocturer' (Courtesv of lhe Nooter CorPorolion'

205
2tJ4

206

DlgloN or cyuNDRrcAr. sHEr.rs

8.I

ASMI DESIGN EOUATIONS 207

Cylindricul vcsscls ure very liequently used in the petrochemical industry. They a.re easy to fabricate and install and economical to maintain. The required
thickness is generally controlled by intemal pressure, although in some instances applied loads and extemal pressure have control. Other factors such as thermal stress and discontinuity forces may also influence the required thickness.

As the pressure increases above 0.4 S, Division 2 uses plastic analysis (see Section 15.l) to obtain

r
Example

/R+r\ =ftn \Ri

(8.3)

8.I

ASME DESIGN EQUATIONS

A pressure vessel with an inside diameter of 50.0 in. is subjected to an intemal pressure of 100 psi. Using an allowable stress of 17,500 psi,
find the required thickness according to Section VIII, Division 1. Assume that all circumferential and longitudinal seams are double-welded butt joints and are
spot radiographed.

8.1.

equation was developed by the ASME Code, Vltr-l, for determining the required thickness of a cylinder subjected to intemal pressure. It is a simplification of Eq. 5.3 and gives accurate results over a wide range of r2/r1. This equation is expressed as
PR

A simplified

Solution. From Appendix J a value

t=-= - SE PR0.6p -

of, = 0.85 is obtained. From Eq. 8.1,

sE

0.6P

(8.1)

100 x 25 17,500x.85-0.6x100

where

t:

required thickness
pressure

r = 0.17

in.

I
shell with an outside diameter of 30.0 in.

P = inlemal
S

Exarnple8.2. A seamless cylindrical

R = inside radius

allowable stress

is butt-welded to seamless ellipsoidal heads. The circumferential seams are not x-rayed. Find the required shell thickness ifthe allowable stress is 15,000 psi and the intemal design pressure is 250 psi. Use Section XIII, Division 1 rules.

joint efficiency factor

A comparison of Eqs. 8.1 and 5.9 is shown in Fig. 5.6. It indicates the wide range of applicability of Eq. 8.1. The ASME Code, Vltr-l, has, however, limited the use of Eq. 8.1 to t less than or equal toR/2 and pressure less or equal to 0.0385 S. Various forms of Eq. 8.1 are shown in Appendix I together with
an altemate equation that expresses the thickness in terms of Re rather than R. The factor E in Eq. 8.1 is an efficiency factor and its magnitude depends on the extent of radio$aphy performed at the various seams of the cylinder. Appendix J illushates the effect of radiography of various seams on the values of E as established by the ASME Code, VI[-l. In Section VIII, Division 2, of the ASME Code, the equation for required thickness is based on the stress at an average radius. Hence,

Solutinn. From Appendix J, with a value ofE = 1.0 (seamless shell), allowable circumferential stress must be reduced to 8070 since the circumferential
seams are not x-rayed.

From Appendix is given by

I,

the required thickness equation in terms of outside radius

PR

SE

O.4P

P(R + t/2)

(15,000

250 x 15 0.80)(1.0) + (0.4

250)

t
Probhms

0.31 in.

PR 0.5P

(8.2)

8.1

An ASME pressure vessel with an inside diameler of4 ft has a seamless shell. The head{o-shell seams are partially radiographed. Find the re-

206

DtStON Of CYt"tNORrCAt" SHE|TS

8.2

TVATUATION OF DISCONTINUITY STRISSIS

quircd thickness il'thc alkrwablc stress is 20,()00 psi and the design prcssure i$ 2900 psi.

STRESS

Answer:

t:

CATEGORIES

3.81 in.
PR

8.2

What is the maximum allowable pressure that can be applied to a cylinder shell with an outside diameter of 6 ft, thickness 1.25 in., and an allowable stress of 17,500 psi? Let E : 0.85.

II4ARY

SECON DARY

Answer: p = 524psi

A stress developed by the constraint

8.2

EVATUATION OF DISCONTINUIW STRESSES

In Chapter 5 we showed how stresses are evaluated at different locations due to thermal and mechanical conditions. The magnitude of these stresses must be kept below a given allowable shess. This allowable stress is established in the ASME Code, VIII-2. The designer has to establish first whether the stress is at a local or a gross shuctual discontinuity, as defined in Fig. 8.1. Next the stress

of a structure. Secondary stress is self-limiting, Local yieldinq and minor distortions can satisfy the
condltlons l'hich cause the stress to occur and failure fron one application of the stress is not to be expected, Examples of secondary stress are geheral
thermal stress and bendi ng stress

at

STRUCTURAL

gross structural discontinuity.

DISCONTINUITY

GROSS STRUCTURAL

LOCAL STRUCTURAL DISCONTINIJITY

DISCONTINUITY

A source of stress or stfain

A source

intensification which affects a relatively lafge portion of a s truc ture and has a slgnlficant effec t on the overall s tres s or strain pattern. Exahples of gross structural d I sconti n ui ti es are Icad-to-shel'l and flange-to!hcll junctlohs, nozzles, and .lunctions between shells of (llfferent d i ameters or
Flsuro

of stress or straln intenslf{cation which a ffec ts

relati vly small volune of matrial and does not have a significant effect on the overall stress 0r strain pattern or on the s truc ture as a l1lhole.

stress does not cause any noticeable distortion and is objectlonable only as a possibl source of a fatlgue crack or a brlttle fractufe. Examples of peak stress ar: I ) thernrl stress in austenitic steel cladding of carbon steel vessels, 2) thermal stress li the vrall of a vessel caused by a rigid change in teFperature of the contalned fluid. 3) the stress at a I ocal structural discontinuity.
Peak
Fisure

8.2

Str$s Colesories (Courr$y of rhe Americon So.iery of rvlehonicdl Ensineer3.)

is categorized as a primary, secondary, or a peak stress as shown in Figs. 8.2 and 8.3. In Fig. 8.4 is a description of the two categories of thermal stress. Once the stress categories are established, the stresses at a vessel's different locations can be classified as in Table 8. Table 8.2 shows the allowable stress for various stress caiegories. Application of Table 8.2 to various stress categories is given in the following example.

Example

8.1

Slrucrurol Dirconlinuities (Coortesy ot tho Ameri.on Socisiy

ol r.te.honicol

8.5. LetR
Engineers,)

Calculate the stress at points A, B, and C of the vessel in Fig. 60 in., L= 2.0625 in., 11, = 1.9313 in., P : 500 psi, .S. = 15,000 Psi, P = 0.3, Eo = 30 x 106 psi.

8.3.

2lo

DtslGN

of

cYLlNDRlCAt SHtLLS
tRlt4ARY STRtSS

8.2

EVAI.UATION OF DISCONTINUITY STRESSES 2I I

TIlE RI4AL STRESS

A stress developed by the lmposed loading |lhich is necessary to satisfy the la$s of

A self-balancing stress produced by a non-uniform distribution of tenperature or by differing thermal

equilibrium, The basic characteristic of a primary stress is that it is not self_

limiting.
exceed the

Primary stresses |,lhich considerably

yield strength l,lill result in failure or at least in gross dlstortlon. A therrial stress is not classlfied as a primary stress'
I'4E14BRANE

coefficients of expansion. Thermal stress is developed in a solid body whenever a volume of material is prevented from assu'ning the si2e and shaPe that it normally sho!ld under a chang in tefiperature.

General thermal stress

BENDING

is classified

Local thermal stress uhich

as secondary
An exanple

stress.

ExamPles of

ls the

bending

staess

ln the central portion of a flat head due

general thermal stress are: I ) stress produced bY an axial

tufe distribution in a cylindrical shell. 2) stress produced bY the tempe rature dIf ference
tempera

is associated wi th almost conpl ete suppression of the differential expansion and thus produces no significant distortion. ExanPl es of I ocal thefmal stresses a|"e: I ) stress in a snall hot sPo in a vessel v/al l. 2) the difference betl/leen th actual stress and the equlvalent I i near stress. 3) the thermal stress in a cladding material.
)

general prima rY

membaane

nn e*'ampte
membrane

of a local

PririarY

betqeen a nozzle and the

stress is one which is so distributed ln the structure that no fe-distributlon of 'load occurs as a result of

sttess is the menbrane stress in a Shell Produced bY external loadr dnd monent at a perFanent suppoft or at a
noz2le connection.

shell to

t,Jhich

it is

attached. stress

3) the equivalent linear

produced by the

radial tenperature distribution in a cylindrical shell

8.,{

yielding, An exaniPle is the stress in a circular cYlinder due to internal Pressure.

Figure

Figure

Ihermdl Stress Cotgori6 (Courr$y of lhe Aftericon Socierv of Mechdnicol Ensineers

8.3

Eneiners ) Primory Slre$ Cotosoria3 (Courtelv of lt'e Ahericon Socisiv of M3honicol

or

= | -71501 psi

Solution
Point

A.

From Fig. 8'6 and Eqs. 5.9 and 5' 10, oo

Hence, maximum stress = 14,300 psi. From Tables 8.1 and 8.2, the maximum stress for a general primary membrane sffess is

= 14,300 Psi o'=0Psi

or

S,
Point

15,000 psi

>

14,300

Psi

O.K

B.

Frcm Fig. 8.7 and Eqs. 5.3 and 5.4'

ae

7150 Psi
14,300 | psi

The stress differences are

: o., :
or

14,800 psi

-500 psi
7150 psi

-7150 | psi

Tobb

0.1

Clorrlflcotlon of

Slrun

(Rrforrncr l)

Tobb
Sirart

8.2

Slreu Cotrgorlrr qnd Llmltr of Strcrr Intrnrlfy (Rrf l)

Ee.dlns
!o Pnhe.y or eR0n6.

tt -I--,--.---t----*-1--1 | i tP. F{ s.) I I i T\-/ | | r-.+ - - -;i | I | | .-r- Hr.5 s,) I- --l/'\ llPr+PD+O+ rs. ) I P. -l- \__/ l---l\__/ L----T-------r
i r .- -r- /-\ lP(-PD H1,5 s-) L__---*f
\--'l I

i
: I

i
'
: ! :

----.t H s. ) ,

a ----

U*

&5iEn load3

Us op.aungloads

lPr +P. +Q +F

\-/

{av.

&dslull sclio.t

Fisure 8.5

212

213

2ta

Dltloltl Of CYtlNoRlCAt 3H!rr3

8.2

EVATUATION OF DISCONTINUIW STRESSES

215

r'" = +e)
Also,

500

x !'0-x-2 0625 =

7734 in

lb/in'

Mt=M,+N,e=M,+7734

.-....._"

r,
rh

:
=

60 +
60

'#:6l.olt3 +!
p') =

in.

60.5157 in.

B=
Fisur.8.6

3(1

,,1

h/

9.8465

o,

= ,^'.!o'1 ,, = o.so35E tz\t - p-)

=._"a

n,
Figur 8.2

oe

The stress differences are given by

r0_, = 115,3001 psi

4_r l_2650lpsi 6,_, = l-7650lpsi

Hence, the maximum shess able sffess of 15,000 psi.

15,300 psi, which is about 27o above the allow-

Point ngure,

The discontinuity forces at point c are shown in Fig .

g .g

From this
Fisure 8.8

216

Dt]Ot{ of cful{DflcAt

3H!U.3

8.2

EVATUATION OF DISCONTINUIW 5TRE55IS

217

Thc lirst cornputibility cquution is given by

deflction of shell

deflection of head

^ aw"= ^ ar, =

N,e 83,991 D,= h

r0.86M,
En

or
wo

wlsn

wy"

* wql^,"n"n:

wp

w9

wy1l6,

**

(l)
and for the head

where for the shell

o 0s: 2p'D -

47.3822Q
Eo

It'- =

"

Pr?
-

m2,987
Es

Et,

N,e _ 366,454 t*" = zB'o,= k

.""

47.3822M, ___Eo 4r3'4s69Q

Eo

E6t1r6 Es ^ O^=zA,Q 188.022Q E,) ' Eoh

4A3Mh 6l.t86lM, .

473,213
Es

Substituting these values into Eq. 3 gives

. zp"D, ''': 4- and for the head

M"+
Solving Eqs. 2 and 4 gives

1'.9521Q= -7733.99

(4)

Prl . we=EA\t - lt)= |,242.851 E"

*^ = '
2'QrA

Eoh-

1155.56650
Eo

= -262'55 lb/in' M' : -7221.47 in.-lblin. Mr: 512.53 in.lb/in.

Q

2Mhi2 .ur: -EJo = 188.o22M, t.454.162 E, r

-E-

totaly =

l$y

Substituting these values into Eq. 1 gives

The actual forces are shown in Fig. 8.9.

M' + r1.1563Q =

-10,150.55

(2)

The second compatibility equation is obtained from rotation in shell or

rotation in head

0N*+
where for the shell

0M"

0ol.*.u

: -Iun- Lal^rc"a

(3)
Fisurs 8.9

2ll

DlltoN of cYuNDRtcAt SHttts

noop sress ar point C

8.3

ASM PROCEDURE FOR EXTERNAL PRTSSURE DTSIGN

219

=!3y:35,000psi rs

cxpresses the basic relationship as

axial stress at point C axial bending stress at point C

circumferential bending stress at point C

: ff :

ZSOO

psi

,,: + = i*'(L)'
Defining

: Y = 720 pri
=
220 psi

A=

e""

^: a= ,1;"1
D",
the equation

oe x/ tY

(8.4)

These stresses are divided into two categories in accordance with Table g.2:

l.

Local membrane stress (Pr)

o6

Equation 8.4 is plotted as shown in Fig. 8.10. Hence, for any given value ofL, and, t, a value ofA can be determined from Fig. 8.10. The allowable compressive stress in the elastic region can be determined from

35,000 psi
7500 psi

o1 : a, =

-500 psi

-FS
35,500 psi where FS is factor
Dressure

AEo

maximum stress difference

of safety and E6 is modulus of elasticity. Or in terms of

,2AEg

From Tables 8.1 and 8.2 the maximum allowable local membrane stress

is equal to 1.5S,

22,599

<

35,500

psi
+

overstressed

(D,/'XFS)
In the plastic region, ASME uses quasi-stresFstrain curves similar to those in

2.

I-acal membrane plus secondary stress (pr a6

O)

= ot =

35,000
7500

Fig. 8.11 to determine plastic buckling. These curves are plotted on log-log
220

35,220 psi
8220 psi

+ 720

o;: -500+0
maximum stress difference

= :
=

graphs with a factor of safety of two for stress. Because the stress-strain curves differ for different temperatures, a number of curves for different temperatures
are plotted

in Fig. 8.11. Hence, allowable stress is given by

(factor o=T I

-500

psi

35,720 psi

from chart)(factor of safety of chart)

(8.s)

From Tables 8.1 and 8.2 the maximum allowable local membrane olus secondary stress is equal to

or

3S. = 45,000 psi

> 35,720 OK

I
If

8.3

o=FS
allowable pressure is needed, then

2"8

ASME PROCEDURE FOR EXTERNAL PRESSURE DESIGN

A comparison of Figs . 5 . 1 7 and 5 . I 8 indicates that the buckling due to pressure applied to sides and ends is more critical than the pressure applied to the ends only. Accordingly, the ASME code, VIII, uses Eq. 5.17 as the basis for design. This equation is modified to take into consideration nonelastic bucklins and

^ zto -D.

4tB
FS

(D,)

8lolgv:l

$ 33933 BssFF e ?3s

-6

tl

!""
I
.."

:l
5-

-8 -6

-6

jE
E
E

V 11 -'t
\
\ \ \
c

g;
a.>

JR

E.n
5:.

fq

fiA tt5 5c; .:.'

-a9

'6

E.E
q 9

- s 5F fl-

; f :('
\
j6
E

+Tet .:J I '= bt

da
oE
5g

i;+ ;bE
EE9 4
R

39PP9 :*
RFR

-Fo g9 'd aE 8. i; !a

220

221

olsloN oF

cYt"rNDRrcAL sHEtrs

8.3

ASME PROCEDURI FOR EXTERNAI" PRESSURE DTSIGN

223

l.l
P

\D./t)'
@"/t)FS

(E.lr )

The ASME procedure for the design of cylindrical shells under extemal
pressure is complicated because of the various parameters that must be considered. A summary ofthe procedure is shown in Fig. 8. 12 as an aid to the designer.

ASME uses a factor of safety of 3.0 for buckling of cylindrical shells subjected to lateral and end extemal pressures. Hence, for elastic region (D./t > l0),
2AEo

----!-

3(D,/t)
and for elastic or plastic region

(8.6)

(D./t ;P

Example 8.4. The length of a cylindrical shell is 15 ft, outside diameter l0 ft, and is constructed of carbon steel with minimum yield strength of 36,000 psi. The shell is subjected to an extemal pressure of 10 psi. Find (a) the required thickness using ASME factor of safety and (b) the required thickness using a factor of safety of 2.0.

lO),

.t4B,t = 3(D./t)

Solution.

(a) Assume

where A = factor

determined from Fig. 8.10 and is equal to e", Then

6 rn.

: D, :
B
Eq

factor determined from Fig. 8.11

outside diameter of cylinder

= P=
r

modulus of elasticity allowable extemal pressure thickness of cylinder

4:zzo t '-p_
(2x0.009_l-8..1!Z?

D.

L=1.2s

From Fig. 8.10, factor A = 0.00018. From Fig. 8.11, modulus of elasticity ar room temperature is 29,000,000 psi. Hence, from Eq. 8.6

D,/t values less than 10, ASME uses a variable factor of safety that ranges from 3.0 for values of D"/t = 10 to a factor of safety of 2.0 for values of D"/t = 4-O. This reduction occurs because for very thick cylinders, buckling
For
ceases to be a consideration and the allowable values in tension and comoression

106)

(3)(32u)

r0.9

psi o.K.

are about the same . Hence, for D"f

t<

10 the allowable value of P is tfie lower

of the quantities Pr and Pz given below.

For

D./t < lO,

A check is needed to ascertain that buckling is in the elastic rather than the plastic region. FromFig.8.ll with A = 0.0018, a value of B:2600 psi is obiained in the elastic region of the curve. Hence, the above solution ;f l0.g DSi is
adequate.

^:
^
stress

(T# - 00833)'
2ol. I \

(8.7)

ur.r:]in. 6
(b) For a factor of safety 2.0, assume

"= DJr\'- oJ,)

where o = two times the allowable
Note also that for values of

t=
Then

0.3125 in.

stress in tension or 0.9 times the yield

of the material, whichever is less.

D"/t < 4, the following

equation can be used:

4=38a
t

8.3
Cd

ASME PROCEDURE FOR EXTERNAI PRESSURE

DESION

223

loulot. Oo/t l..r Lhar 4

?

I.rom F'ig. 8. 10, factor

0.00014 and from Eq. 8.6

l. o
=

Oo./t,

idtrr"

zAEo ASME factor 'p : 3(D"/t) specified factorof safety of safety

_
2(0.000t_41_ll?9
10.6

Aanft.t L 4 oolculolar L lo l.
L./Do

106

gF.ot.r. thdr 50 ?
O.O5

3.0

l. L./Do 1... ttrar

=
"

psi
=

O.K.

Returning to Fig. 8.1 1 with A indicates an elastic behavior.

0.00014, it is seen that the value from the chart

Coloulot.! A ad u..
E

rt,r- not.rlol. ofi.r.i, vtLh

ur",:jin. lo
Ext

I. A lo r.lght off oa .c61. t. A to l.it, otfroO .col.

?
?

rrd eD..oi |ot. l.nE rtir-. I lfl tE lzchlol ls crd ..cd B

Example 8.5. A cylindrical shell with length 18 ft and an outside diameler 6 ft is constructed of carbon steel with a yield stress of 38,000 psi. Determine the thickness needed to resist an external pressure of 300 psi.

Solution. It r =
Ia
Oo./t ar

1.25 in.

.lO

O.l.rmln 2Sl |fl.|-. St l. ol lor. l. ll. .tr... fFon 9.$..c1| on C

L: z.o 4: D.t
From Fig. 8.10, factor

st.o

0.00095. From Eq. 8.6 with Eo

320 psi

:29 x

106

psi,

I. 2Sl,

< O.96U ?

2x0.00095x29x106 = 3 x 57.6

Now check for plastic region. From Fig. 8.11, factor B 12,000 psi in the plastic region. Hence, the first of Eq. 8.6 cannot be used. From the second of

Eq.8.6,

P-4x12'oon ,: 3x57n
Try I. Pol
Figure

278

psi

inadequare

r:

1.375 in. Then

< Poa ?

!=sr.o
From Fig. 8.11,

and A:o.oo11

8.12

The ASME method

for daerminins moximum ollowobte oxternot prssure on cvtinders.

224

226

Dl3tON Of CYUNDR|CAL SHEttS

lJ

12,400 psi

'P:
Use

dx It don '=^:" 316 psi O.K. 3 x 52.4 = I

r = 1.375 in.

Problems

8.3

l3-ft diameter reactor is 5.50 in. and its effective leneth is l8 ft. Ifthe design temperature is 900'F, what is the maximum allowa6le external pressure?
The thickness of a

Answer: P =

300 psi

A vessel has a 15-ft outside diameter and effective length of 6 ft. If it is

subjected to 15 psi extemal pressure, what is the required thickness (to the nearest l/ 16 in.) if the design iemperature is 300'F?
9

Answer: t = 7/16in.
A jacketed pressure vessel with an intemal diameter of 12 ft is subjectd to an interni pressure of 400 psi and a jacket pressure of 200 psi . The shell
thickness is controlled by the intemal pressure using an allowable tensile stress of 15,000 psi at 800T with an E factor of 1.0. Determine the required stiffener spacing from Figs. 8.10 and 8.11.
I

-F
.J
I
I

'6

Answer: L
8.6

16.2in.

+
I

A distillation tower is subjec0ed to a vacuum of 15 psi. lf D" = 9 ft, t = 0.75 in., and stiffener spacing = 8 ft, what is the maximum permissible lemperature?

-J

p
E E

+l'
J

Answer: T

900"F

+ ; +I

i5

a,

,r&
.og

e;

8.4

AF

DESIGN OF STIFFENING RINGS

In deriving Eq. 5.17 for the maximum strength of a cylindrical shell under cxternal pressure, it was assumed that the ends of the shell were simply supF)rted. For this to be true, stiffening rings, flanges, and so on (Fig. 8.13) are nccded as lines of supports. These supports are assurned to carry all the load that thc shell carries due !o external pressure. By refering to Figs. 8. 13 and 8.14, Iotal force in stiffener is
227

DESTON

Ot CYltNDRtCAt SHfl.tS

8,4

DESIGN TOR STIFFENING RINGS

,:4P
': FS PP" 2 2(t + A,/L)
With a factor of safety (FS) of 3.0 expression 8.5 becomes

-3PD" a:or,aatra
s

(8.8)

ti ffener

The stiffening ring must also be checked against buckling. The classical expression for the buckling of a ring due to external pressure is
I 2116

U;
E l1ti I

tf=-:

- A
o

Di,G

+ A,/L)L

The expression for strain is

Figure

8.I.t

12I
D')"A

PD.L = 2F

Es
With e", = A, the expression for

+ A'/L)L

becomes

PD"L

. I:

DzL\t + A,/L)A

(8.e)

The stress in the shaded area of Fie. 8.14 is

o-

I'L(t + A,/L)

PD.

2(t + A,/L)

In this equation it is assumed that the area A" of stiffening ring is ,,smeared', over the total length z. Using the terminology of Fig. 8.11 and expression 8.5,

This equation can be used in conjunction with Eq. 8.8 and Fig. 8.10. In doing so, a hial A, is normally selected and I is calculated from Eq. 8.8. Using the value ofB, which already incorporates a factor of safety of 3.0, a value ofA is obtained from Fig. 8.11. With this A, the required moment of inertia is calculaled from expression 8.9 Because the stability of the stiffening ring is essential in calculating the shell stability, a higher factor of safety is used by ASME in the stiffening ring calculations as compared with shell calculations. With a factor of safety of 3.5, exoression 8.9 becomes

'FS

28

. t:--

DZL(I + A"/L)A

A-

(8.10a)

230

DIS|ON Ot CYUNDRTCAT SHEItS

8,5
Hence,

ATIOWABI.E GAPS IN STITFENING

RINGS

23I

The svuilable / obtuined liom Eq. tt. lOa must be lower than the available tmoment of inertia of the stiffening ring. This inertia is calculated without considering the contribution of the adjacent cylinder. If the composite 1of the ring and the effective cylinder are considered, then a penalty of 28Zo is applied to Eq. 8.10 and a new expession given by

4 r=;t /4ooo\l: J\--.,,*

Use a shell thickness

l0.4psi

' must be used. The actual as shown in Fig. 8.15.

,, _ DzLa + A"/L)
lo.9

of3/16 in. and try a 3 x 3 x 3/16 angle stiffening ring.

(8. r0b)

A,

1.09

is calculated from the available rins and shell areas

"
From Fig. 8.11,

R = : ----------l4 (u187 5

: r :

in.2 and I = 0.9622 in.a

/t0x72)

+ l og/4a: z)/u PSr

8,6. A long cylindrical shell is constructed of carbon steel with a yield stress of 38,000 psi and a radius of 36 in. If the stiffeners are spaced at a 4-ft interval, calculate the required shell thickness and the size of stiffening rings for an external pressure of l0 psi at 100"F.
Example

0.00018.

, _722 x 48(0.18?5 + 1.09/48 x0.00018)

Solution.

l*t
r

: 0.67 in. a :
0.1857 in.

OK

a = 0.67
A=
0.00028

D--

= tt+

8,5

AITOWABLE GAPS IN STIFIENING RINGS

From Fig. 8.10,

Gaps in stiffening rings are normally provided to allow for drainage of vessel contents or permit piping and other internals to extend through the ring. Examples of various gap arrangements are shown in Fig. 8.16. The maximum allowable gap can be calculated by assuming the distance between points a and b of Fig. 8. 17 as a simply supported column of length l. The maximum buckling load that can be applied to this column is given by

From Fig. 8.11,

21000

psi

lf'I1ol I'

(8.1

la)

The strength of the column must be equal to or greater than the cylindrical shell. For large diameter shell the curvature is small and the buckling streneth of the shell approaches that of a simply supponed flat plate. The riinimuit critical buckling strength of the simply supported plate abcd (Fig. 8.17) loaded in the

circumferential direction is given by

I'c,
.ing..
Fisure 8.15

4i2Enl ----=4T2EJ =;r=_ = t' t-tr - lt-t

(8.1

lb)

By comparing expressions 8. 1la and 8. I lb, it can be concluded that in order for the column aD to be as strong as the plate, its length must be about one-half

8,5
Grp lnor

ATTOWABTE GAPS IN STIFFENING RINGS

233

th. hrckn.r. ot rh. $.lt ptlrd

to.tc..d I rtm.r

Thii.&iion rha h64 momsnt of i..ni! rqutrd tor.i^q unl.r rqunmns ot

S]
L.ngth

.r..sd

of.ny g.p in u6eppo.r.d .lt nor o l.ngrh ol .c ih*. in Fig. UG.29_2

Figure 8.17

that of the plate. Therefore, the maximum gap length must be one-half that of a buckling lobe length of a cylindrical shell. In referring to Fig. 5.16 the maximum gap length can be expressed as

Typ. ot onttrucrio.

_l

-_l

g_;_-;;

_ ttD.

(8.

l2)

^'; 1xa3ubiecd ro exrernor

preasure

_+

ASME has developed curves that are based on Eq. 8.12. These curves are shown in Fig. 8.18. A comparison, however, between Eq. 8.12 and Fig. 8.18 indicales some differences. These differences are due to the fact that Fig. 5.18, which is used with Eq. 8.12, is plotted using the first two terms of expression fl in Eq. 5.27a whereas Fig. 8.18 uses all terms. Therefore, the results of Fig. 8.18 are more accurate.
Example

Tht larion lhatt h!v. mfr@r ot

i...ri. r.qui4d to.

nng.

Figur' 8
(Ref. 2).

voriou

orrongrnenrs oI rrittuning ring. for cyrindri.or vessers

8.7.

with

D. =

7.O ft,

What is the maximum gap allowed in a stiffening ring of a shell L : 15.0 ft, and r : 1.0 in.?

Solution

'-: t
232

t+

L= r

a.zs

8.6
lrronr F'ig.

OUI-OF.ROUNDNESS OF CYTINDRICAT. 5HIItS

5.lll, N = 4 and fiom Eq.

G

tl.12,

::+ : o.2oD^ (4X4)

G

16.8 in.

"":#ii
3,6+Id

.s

8.6

OUT.OF-ROUNDNESS OF CYLINDRICAL SHELLS UNDER

*"""p;'L;
d;:;

"+r3

;
E3

EXTERNAL PRESSURC

";:

$-E

;a s! 5=
E

In the fabrication of cylindrical shells, slight out-of-roundness invariably results. This is due to forming, welding, or postweld heat-treating operations. Normally, intemal pressures tend to minimize out-of-roundness, whereas extemal pressures tend to increase it. Because of that, and to prevent failure, extra precautions must be taken in fabricating shells that are subjected to external pressures.

In Fig. 5. 16 it is assumed that the shell is approximated by a series of columns connected end to end. The length of each column is one-half a lobe length, or

-5 ;IJ

bet

,= -2N

nDo

=_@i o5

The slendemess of each column is expressed by the ratio //r where r is the radius of gyration. Since r is eqtal to t2/\/12 in a shell wall. the equation becomes

g gfig

r
F

t_

5.44

N(t/D.)

8I 889 S

rTog'reu1lq1 - neurrg epcrng

The eccentricity of each column in expressed by e. If it is assumed that the eccentricity ratio e/r affects the strength of a column in the same way as the shell, it can be concluded that

el rr
and

for columns

------ca-

t/y12
234

5.44

N(t/D.)

for cylinders

DESION OF CYI.INDRICAI. SHELLS

!: t
where C1

c'
N(t/D)

(8. r 3)

I I
V

I
u

I
/

@E oB

1.57.

Experiments have shown that

increases with an increase in

for constant tfD, ratios, the value of eft

tl

/ /

Lf D.ratios. This, however, applies only in the case of intermediate length shells. For this range, Eq. 8.13 was found to give adequate results. As the length gets longer, tests have shown than an increase in L/D"has no influence on ef t. On the other hand, tests have shown that as the length decreases, the value of e/l increases slightly. Thus, Eq. 8.13 needs modification to take into account the two extreme cases. Thus. disreeardins the increase in e/t as L/D. decreases. an empirical equation of the fo;

/,1 /
/ / / / /
I

"1

/t
I

4 ls il

I
f I
I I

9:

t N(Jf,j- "'"

Ct

*:1 t- .

q QE
E=
q 66 o o

..'-

is found satisfactory. In using the values of C1 and C2 as obtained from tests, the equation becomes

ct .0

P6

o,

o,'=8

N(t / D")

+ o.ol5N

(8.14)

dF
E

I
3{

Figure 8.19 is a plot of this equation.

'i

,9d
Example
Calculate the maximum out-of-roundness allowed in a cylinder subjected to extemal pressure with D, 5.0 ft, Z 14.0 ft, and t 0-75 inCompare the result with that obtained from Fig. 8.19.

8.8.

3.ssps F

tt3R8

rTog rcurralql; lraueqq epnrng

Solution

5.60

D= to t
237

2il

D|lrol{ o; cYuNDilcAr tH[t3

NOMINCIATURI 239
0.062510 o,: - n/t

From Fig, 5.18,

N = 3. From Eq. 8.14,

(8.1s)

f nnrr
e:
From Fig. 8.18,

-l

"=Lffi)+o'or5(3)J(o7s)
0.39 in.

For plastic range,

ot=
where B = is obtained from Fig.
O.53t

B
using

8.ll

e:

A = 0.125/(R,/t).

Example 8.9. A cylindrical tower is constructed of stainless steel 410 material. Its radius is 6 ft and thickness is 0.5 in. Determine the maximum allowable
compressive stress at room temperature.

0.40 in.

T
Solution

&=3=roo
,
u.)

8.7

DESIGN FOR AXIAT COMPRESSION

From Fig. 8. 11,

Eo

= 29 x

106

psi

For axial compression, Eq. 5.29 rnay be written as

For elastic region,

.".=*Lo
or

o,=fifo.oazs x

29

106)

:
For plastic region,

12,600 psi

A:lt :99 Eot RJt

The allowable strain can be expressed
as

A
and

=W:
psi

o.ooo87

FS(R,/r)

A
NOMENCTATURE

= Il,fiX)

<-

use

A large factor of safety is normally used in this expression because a slight out-of-roundness can significantly reduce the critical sfain. ASME uses an approximate factor of safety of 10.0. Hence, the expression for allowable compressive stress in the ASME is for elastic range,

A = shain obtained ftom extemal pressure charts

A" =
area

of stiffening ring

210
D, =

DtStON

Oi CyUNORtCAt

SHH"|"S

EIBTIOGRAPHY 241 BIBTIOGRAPHY

Windcnburg, D, F., "Vessels under Extemal Pressure," in Pressure Vessel and Piping Desiqtl: Collected Papers 1927-1959, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1960. tk)lt, M., "A Procedule for Determining the Allowable Out-of-Roundness for Vessels under External Pressure," in Pressure Vessel and Piping Desiqfi: Collected PaPers 1927-1959, American Society of Mechanical Engineering, New York, 1960.

I = stress magnitude in a cylinder due to external pressure

outside diameter of cylinder

6
E6

= joint efficiency

: modulus of elasticity F : peak stress as denned in Table 8.2 / = moment of inertia of stiffening ring
1' = combined moment of inertia
of stiffening ring and adjacent shell

L = effective length of shell P = intemal or extemal pressure

= primary bending stress as defined in Table 8.2 P1 = pnmary local membrane stress as defined in Table 8.2 P- : primary general membrane stress as defined in Table 8.2
P6

Q:
R, =

secondary membrane plus bending stress as defined in Table 8.2

R = inside radius of cylinder

outside radius of cylinder

S = allowable tensile shess in the ASME Code, VI[-1 & = alternating stress in the ASME Code, VIII-2 S, : allowable tensile stress in the ASME Code, Vm-2 t : thickness of cylindrical shell

REFERCNCES

ASME Boiler and Pressue Vessel Code, Section Vm, Division 2, Alrs rnative Rules-pressure Vessels, ANSVASME BPV-Vn-2, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New york,
1980.

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VItr, Division l, prcssure Vesrels, ANSUASME BPV-Vm-I, American Society of Meahanical EDgineers, New york, 1980.

CHAPTER

DESIGN OF FORMED HEADS AND TRANSITION SECTIONS

Inside surfoce

of o vessel hecd. (Courtosy of the Nooler Corp.. St. to'rir, Mo.)

243

2U 9.I

DISION OT IORMED HTADS AND TRANSITION SECTIONS

9.I

INTRODUCTION

245

INTRODUCTION

A large variety of end closures and transition sections are available to the desisn engineer. Using one configuration versus another depends on manv factors suih
as method of forrning, material cost, and space used heads are:

--r-.

."ihi"tionr.

Some frequently

].'
(a)
FLANGED

Flanged Heads. These heads (Fig. 9.1c) are normally found in vessels operating at low pressures such as gasoline tanks, and boilers. They are also used-in highpressure applications where the diameter is small. Various details for their design and construction are given by the ASME Code, VI[-l.

(b)

HEI.lISPHERICAL

Hemispheical Heads. Generally, the required thickness of hemispherical heads due to a grven temperature and pressure is one-half that of cylindrical shells with equivalent diameter and material. Hemiheads (Fig. 9.10) are very economical when construcied of expensive alloys such as nickel and titanium----either solid or

_1 _T
(c)
ELLIPTICAL

(d)

FLAIIGED

&

DISHED

(TORISPHERIcAL)

clad. In carbon steel, hemiheads are not as economical as flaneed and dished heads because of the high cost of fabricalion. Hemiheads are iormally fabricated from segmental "gore" sections or by spinning or pressing. Segmental gore hemiheads are economical in thin, large diameter equipment or thick,
small diameter reactors. Because hemispherical heads are thinner than cylin_

vm.

drical shells to which they are attached, the transition area between the head and shell must be contoured so as to minimize the effect of discontinuity stress. Figure 9.2 illustrates the hansition requirements in the ASME Code,

Elliptical and Torispherical (Flanged and Dished) Heads. These heads are very popular in pressure vessels (Fig. 9.lc and d). Their
thickness is usually the same as the cylinder to which they are attached. This reduces considerably the weld build-up shown in Fig. 9.2. Thus, because the required thickness in areas away from the knuckle region is less than the furnished thickness, the excess can be advantageously used in reinforcing nozzles in these areas. Many mills can fumish such heads in various di_ amelers and thicknesses that are competitive in price. In a true elliptical head the radii of curvature vary between a jacent points

(e)

C0NICAL

(f)

T0Rl c0lt IcAL

g)

IlISCEL!ANE0Us

Figure

9.1

commonly usad lormed closurc heods.

along a meridian. To simplify the calculations and fabrication, the ASME Code established the following various approximations. A 2: 1 elliptical head can be assumed to consist of a spherically dished head with a radius of 9OVo and a knuckle radius of 17go of the shell diameter to which thev are attached, as shown in Fig. 9.3. The smallest knuckle radius allowed for a
flanged and dished head is 67o of the shell diameter and a spherical radius 1007o of the shell diameter.

Conical and Toriconical Heads.

These heads shown in Fig. 9.1e and are used in hoppers and towers as bottom end closures or as transition sections between cylinders with different diameters. The cone-to-cylinder junction must be considered as part of the cone design due to the high unbalanced forces at the junction. Because of

of

I
I

li lc

r
b

9,2

ASME EQUATIONS fOR HEMISPHERICAI HIAD

DISIGN

247

l<1l2las-.hl taper./,

'".ca
<112k,-.hl
may inctude the width ol the weld-

thcse high fbrces, the ASME Code, Vlll-1, limits the apex anglc to a maximum of 30" when the cone is subjected to intemal pressure. Above 30'a discontinuity analysis is done or a toriconical head used to avoid the unbalanced forces at the junction.

Miscellaneous Heads. Many chemical processes require unusual vessel configurations. The heads of such vessels can have an infinite number of contours. One such contour is shown in Fig. 9. lg. The design of these heads is very complicated and there are no simple methods of analysis. Experience, proof testing, and sophisticated analyses are generally used to determine required thicknesses.

9.2

ASME EQUATIONS FOR HEMISPHERICAT HEAD DESIGN

The ASME Code,

VI[-l,

has combined Eqs. 6.1 and 6.7 for internal pressure

into one simplified equation:

PR

2SE

O.zP

(e.1)

where
{cl
Fisure (dl
Ensi'ieers) iunction. (Courrety of the Americon Societ}' of ldechonicol

t:
.lR

required thickness
pressure

P = intemal

9.2 Hod-to{hell

inside radius allowable stress

B = joint efficiency
This equation with E : 1.0 is plotted in Fig. 6.3 and it approximates the more complicated Eqs. 6.7 over a large range of r'fri- Othet forms of Eq. 9. 1 are shown in Appendix I. For external pressure, Eq. 6.35 is taken as the basis for the ASME Code equations. Defining e". : A, r : R,, and modulus of elasticity as Es, Eq. 6.35
can be written as

{a)

ASiIE

2:1

Head

Es

0.t25 R"/t

T
(b)
246
ASI.IE Flanged

. "
where

0.125

R"/t

(9.2a)

A = critical shain
R, = outside radius

and 0ished

Head

fisure 9.3

thickness

214

DISION Of FORMED HTADS AND TRANSITION STCTIONS

9,3
lixamplc
in

ASME DESION

EQUATIONS 249

The critical strcss in a sphcrical section is given by

9.1.

prcssure on a spherical shell with

a*:
or
P.,

P",R.

Fig.8.ll.

Using the ASME criteria, determine the allowable cxternrl R, = 60 in. and t : 0.5 in. Use the 300'F line

Zt

Solution, = 2%

From Eq. 9.2a,

R"/t=4+ R./t

n rs A:ffi=0.00r
l

(e.3) 0.001, a plastic behavior exists and Eq. 9.2c must be From Fig. 8. I 1, with A used. Hence, from Fig. 8.11 (e.4)
and

and the allowable pressure is expressed as

zAEo

11,000 psi

FS(R,/')
Using factor of safety (FS)

4.0 and substituting Eq. 9.2a into 9.4 gives

p -_

o.0625Eo (R./ t)'

(e.2b)

":*@
9.3

= nt o"

where P = Eq =

allowable extemal pressure modulus of elasticity

ASME DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR ELTIPSOIDAI AND FLANGED AND DISHED HEADS
The general solution of Eq. 6.39 is very cumbersome because 12 is a variable function. However, the stresses obtained from Eq. 6.39 are important because they can be added to the membrane stresses of Eq. 6.37 which results in significantly reducing the total stress at the vicinity of the junction. Therefore, this equation can be advantageously utilized by the designer in reducing the required head thickness. The ASME used this fact in developing design parameters for ellipsoidal and torispherical heads. A study was mader with ellipsoidal heads to determine the effect of the ratio a/b on the stress level at the head-to-shell junction for a constant ratio 32 of head thickness t to shell radius r. The study indicated that the point of maximum stress in the head changes with a change of afb.Forheads shallower than a/b of 2.5, the maximum stress is in the hoop direction at the outside surface of the knuckle region and is in compression as shown in Fig. 9.4. For ratios of a fb between 2.5 and 1.2, the maximum stress occurs at the junction and is a hoop tensile stress. The stiess magnitude for various ratios ofa/b is shown in Fig. 9.4. A simplified equation used by the ASME Code, VIII-I, approximates the theoretical stress ratios of Fig. 9.4 for values of af bbetween2.6, which is the maximum allowed by the code, and 1.0 for a spherical head:

The ASME procedure for determining the allowable external pressure for a spherical section is to detemine fust the A value from Eq. 9 .2a. The allowable pressure can then be obtained by referring to a stress-strain chart similar to the one shown in Fig. 8.11. IfA falls in the elastic region, then P is calculated from 84.9.2b. If ,4 falls in the plastic region, however, a value ofB is determined fust from the chart. The allowable pressure is then calculated from exoression

9.3

as:

P"
Substituting B

= FS(&/r)

20-

(e.5)

o",/2

inl.o Eq. 9.5 gives

p= B - R./t
where B = factor determined from Fig. 8.11.

(9.2c)

Equations 9.2 form the ASME basis for determining allowable external pressure for sDherical sections.

: il'. (-tl]

(e.6)

DISION

Oi TORMID HEADS AND TRANSIIION ___-_

SICTIONS e

Lh.or.t, loo I vo lLr.. tmot. votu.. etvon bU Eq.{9.O1 lle hooD etre6 of le nerldlonol EtroBs ot de eual'oc of knucklo o-eo
I
I

rxo0 -oxl( ;-F

tJ

-E, tt. o.- o -! ---.'i a *,-ti ", 6t o o.l

o*r

x- IE L_4

tl

q-6

i-;
;-3
l0^

lrc do d9

;t$

1 rffz,tf;r]
at6
Fisur

:sE
i

qo-

iE,6 \. -:Zt

6il-

i -l l
C.

ll
-l

;i
o o (.l-

9.4

l,{oximum ske5s

in ElliFoidol Heo&. (Ref. t, p. l3,t).

'o
.!

r
'l_
.oo

"P

-l t9

( to

:.{
6i
E5
g

I .a 't IO- li 't^ .,lJ { -_! .l ]a )to

A plot of this equation is also shown in Fig. 9.4. The ASME Code uses the K ing thickness of ellipsoidal heads. This is accomplished by multiplying the calculated thickness of a cylindrical shell with diameter D by'K valuis. Hince, for ellipsoidal heads,
(e.7)
values given by Eq. 9.6 to determine the required stress ratios needed in obtain_

t.
ttl

Li -j :L - lts )o
l
-l
I

,^=

//

6o do
q-: do
a
ct

zSE

0.2P

where t : thickness of ellipsoidal head P = internal pressure D = diameter of shell to which head is attached l< = sfiess intensity factor obtained from Eq. 9.6
S

ssJ1s ur\oJc 01 sseJ,ls

3*3533

rt
ur^rr
r

ci

xour

Jo o|1ou

allowable stress

6 = joint efficiency
For torispherical heads, tests conducted by H<ihnr and others have shown that the stress at the knuckle area due to internal pressure reaches the yield value long

before the spherical region does. Hrjhn plotted an empirical equation that cor_ relates well with available test data, as shown in Fig. 9.5. To ivaluate Hcihn's

empirical curve, Fig. 9.5 shows anotler curve that indicates the stress rn an

251

DIsION O? TORMID HTADS AND IRANSITION SICTIONS equivBlent ellipsoidal head whose thickness is equal to the shell thickness. This curve indicates that Hrihn's curve is liberal for small values of knuckle to crown radri r/L. Accordingly, the ASME Code, VIII-I, developed an empirical curve that parallels both Hdhn's curve for large values of rfL and the ellipsoid curve for small r/Z ratios, as shown in Fig. 9.5. The ASME curve can be expressed by the equation

9.3

ASMI DISIGN IOUATIONS

253

+ +

fo.oozw

z.z4,,os!) + rs.oszr(r)] r"

10 a -

(9.10)

|
10.26879

n =)(z

(e.8)

L where t : required torispherical thickness -L : spherical crown radius

0.442621;l +

/r\ \U/

'

"'-,(;i]l('";)]'

Thus the ASME equation for the torispherical heads is given by

r = knuckle radius D = diameter of shell to which head is attached

(9.e)

PLM
zSE

O.zP

: S:

intemal pressure
allowable stress

where r :

thickness of torispherical head

A plot of Eq. 9.10 is shown in Fig. 9.6.

Example

P = internal pressure Z = spherical crown radius M = stress intensity factor obtained from Eq. 9.9
S

P=

9,2.

100 psi,

S:

What is the required thickness of a 3

17,500 psi,

E:

:t

head

ifD =

144 in.,

1.0?

allowable stress

g = joint efficiency r = knuckle radius

In practical applications researchers noticed that Eq. 9.9 gave conservafive results for the majority of head designs but became unconsirvative for laree ratios of r/t. This ratio was not considered by the ASME in its derivation of E-q. 9.8 because Fig. 9.5 was based on a constant value of r/r. Accordingly, research was conducted to evaluate the buckling behavior of the knuckle region for heads with large ratios of //t. The plastic analysis concept was used arid shown2 that thefollowing equation can adequately predict the behavior of torispherical heads with large rf t rutios:

Solutian.

From Eq. 9.6, with

a/b =

3,

K:
=
From Eq. 9.7,

0.166712
1.83

+ (3.0f1

(100x144)(1.83)

2x
=
Example

17,500

1.0

0.2

100

0.75 in.

I
E=
if
1.0,
and

o"/FS

(0, *,,;);.,'(,

-,,;)(i) - o 0006

D=24O in., L=2AO in.,

P

9.3,

What is the required thickness of a flanged and dished head

S, the following approximate equarion obtained and used by the ASME Code, VIII-2:

: Sglving. for and _r fetting or/FS

r:

15 in., S:17.500 psi,

50 psi?

Solution.

nl=

-t.zent

4.ss246(; + 28.e3318G)

L ..
r

9.3
l;rrrn Eq.9.tl.

ASMT DESIGN EOUATIONS

M=zG+vr6) : 1.75
From Eq. 9.9,

l-

t:-

'-2xl7joox1.o-02x50
:
.17
l2:

50x240x1.75

0.60 in.

Etl,plo'dar h.d)

Because the thickness is obtained from Eq. 9.9 and because this thickness is small compared with the diameter of the head, the requirements of Eq. 9. l0 must be checked.

r15 D 240

:
P ; J

0.0625
50 17,500

=
and from Eq. 9.10,

0.002857

ln

/r\ l;l : \L/

-s.54851
o.oo38e

;=
t
,005

0.93 in.

.01
Formed Heods (Courre.y

.02
of lhe Ane.icon

.03
Sociery

.04

Hence, for this head a minimum thickness of 0.93 is to be

_05

used.

Figure

9.6

Required Thickne.s

of

of

9.3.1
/vtechonicol

Ellipsoidol ond Torisphericol Heods under Exlernol Pressure

Ensineers.)

For extemal pressure, the knuckle area is subjected to a tensile stress. Hence the critical area that is necessary for consideration under extemal pressure is the

I
254

spherical region. Thus the ASME criteria for all ellipsoidal and torispherical heads under extemal pressure are the same as those for spherical heads.

116 9.4
Code,

DIIIO}I O' IOTMID H!ADs AND TRANSITION

SGCTIONS

9.4

ASME EQUATIONS FOR CONICAT HEAD DESIGN

257

ASME EQUATIONS FOR CONICAL HEAD DESIGN

tion is given by

VI[-I, uses Eq. 1 of Example 6.7 as the basis for establishing the required thickness of a conical section subjected to intemal pressure. The Jqua_
PD 2 cos a(Str'

From Example 6.7 it is seen that the hoop force Np is twice as large as the longitudinal force N5 in conical heads subjected to internal pr"rr*".

Th" ASME

T]--+. l+ I

"\

I'
I
_t_

2raon6

0.6p)

(e.l l)

where P = internal pressure D = inside diameter of cone at the point of consideration

perpendicular to the longitudinal axis allowable stress
,S

+ilvl_t -nT
r
\l

,l

measured

___L
Fig'rr

9.7

Discontinuiiy iorcas dus ro internol preslur.

g = joint efficiency a = one-half the included

the cone

apex angle of the cone at the center line

of

where, in this chapter, a is used rather than

q'

and

X and Y are given by

What is the required thickness of a conical head attached to . a "I:TOr" cyllnder whose inside diameter is 40.0 in. if the intemal pressure is 450 psi, the allowable stress is 20,000 psi, E = 1.0, and a = 20.0?

9.4.

X=
Y
and

4.559U2 tan

d
2V) tan a

1.316(V

Solution. From Eq. 9.11,

(2X0.940X20,000

1.0

=
9.4.

0.49

in.

0.6 x 450)

I
of Discontinuity Anolysis due fo Iniernol

ASME Simplificotion

rressur

V and V2 are given as in Example 6.9. The longitudinal stress in Eq. 9.12 is in tension for all values of a and does not govem the design criteria. The f term in the circumferential stress expression in Eq. 9.12 is positive for all practical applications. Hence the quantity a" varies from a maximum tensile value of Prft to a compressive value that depends on the angle a. The ASME Code, VIII-I, limits the maximum compressive circumferential stress to a value of Pr/r. Using these criteria, the quintity yl|rt;n Eq. 9.12 must be limited to a value of 2.0. Values in excess of 2.0 must be supported by a ring added at the junction. The area of the ring is given by the
equatron

me longlrudlnal and hoop stresses in the shell:

The ASME Code, VtrI-1, uses the stress expressions obtained in Example 6.9 f9r inlernal pressu as the basis for establisiing simplified l.ite.iu fo, dir"on_ tinuity analysis at the cylinder-to-cone junction. At ihe large end of the cone (Fig,. 9.7) the discontinuity analysis results in the following i*o.*piessions fo,

tr2 tan q

(Y\EIt -

2)

Y\6rt

(e.13)

A plot of the quantity y shows that it can be approximated by the expression 0.005a as shown in Fig. 9.8. Substituting this value into Eq. 9.13 gives

,=!(o'+x{rz\
""=7(, - rrn
(9.12) The ASME Code,
1.5SE and thus

t2tanall , ['
VI[-l,

400

(9.14)

limits the comnressive circumferential stress to

258

DTSION OF fORMTO I{TADS AND TRANSITION SECTIONS

9,4

ASMT IQUATIONS FOR CONICAL HIAD

DISIGN

259

t.o
o.e
o
S
X=O.C

liquation 9. l5 is used by thc ASMB Cirde , Vl ll- I , as thc bitsis litr chccking lllc.ioint bctween the cylinder and the large end of cone due to internal prcssuro. At thc small end ofthe cone (Fig. 9.7) the circumferential and longitudinal stress cquations due to internal pressure are

/
t2

6-

\-7

'7Li

,: !(o '-',4)
""=?('- ",4)

(9.16)

=,r.5591 'z Lan o\

I

o.2

--2 <=-l---<ly,o.brri !Y= 1.3t6<,V | -zvz tLonc,.

tO' 30'
o<

40.

SO.

Because both expressions include a negative term, the equation for or controls because X is numerically larger than Z Limiting the maximum compressive stress to Pr/t, the term in parentheses in the equation for o1 is

Figure

9.8

X ond Y volues for externot prossurc.

<
l.sSE

1.5

:A
t

and a stiffening ring is needed for values of required area of the stiffening ring is

XYr/t

greater than 1.5. The

V7=
Equation 9.14 thus becomes

[ssz,
P

Prl l_=-=-tl

ran q

l-

zSE

I
,

_.:l

t.s

'l

xt/r,/tl

From Fig. 9.8, it is shown that the quantity X is approximated by 0.012a. Hence the required area can be expressed as

^,=G('_ -or for the large end of cone,

Prl

326.6\/F7SE\

"

1t^"
the expression

Prl

tan

af

2sE

L' d,rtl
Pr.

125

'l

(9.r7)

By assuming that the maximum allowable longitudinal stress is limited to ,St,

(9.15)

. P,1 /. o':2sE\'-i)A\ t"

where A, = required area of ring P = intemal pressure
12

SE

=;

can be substituted into Eq. 9.17 to give for the small end of cone,

= J=

radius of cylinder at large end of cone allowable stress

t :
a=

^':
where A =

#('

- *) "" "

(9.18)

joint efficiency

A = 326.6\/FEE
one-half the apex angle of cone

*G
radius of cvlinder at the small end of cone

r, =

-*"--"W*-ffiUfY6ffiU'iii,aibt

iio mmnror uapng

and the required area

9,.1

ASrvU IOUAT|ONS fOR CONICAI

HIAD DlllON

261

Exanple

9.5.

junctions. Lt S

Doslgn thc conc ehown in Fig. 9.9 and check the cone-to-shcll = 20 ksi, E = 1.0, and p = 150 psi.

Solutian. From Eq. 9.11,

,=ffi(t-1ff)<o.sttt
=
100)

3.70 in.2

9.4.2

Conicol Shells under Exlernol Pressure

For the large end,

The goveming equation for the design of cones subjected to extemal pressure is obtained from @. 6.43. Using a factor of safety 3.0, Eq. 6.43 becomes

A=

326.6\m

=28.28"

P.

0.87(t,/D)25

Es.

L"/D,

(9.19)

and from Eq. 9.15 the required area at the large end is

^=ffiffi(r-ff)<os,t
=
For small end

0.64 in.2

This equation that expresses the cone in tmrs of an equivalent cylinder of thickness r" and length tr, is analogous to 84. 6.42 for cylindrical shells. Thus the ASME Code, VI[-l, applies the same equations for the design of cylin&ical shells under extemal pressure for the design of cones with applicable values of t" urd L":

9.4.3

ASME Simplificotion Presgure

of Discontinuity Anolysis due to Externol

A=89

7.71

The discontinuity forces due to external lnessurea at the large end of cone are
shown in Fig. 9.10 and expressed as

{irtt*Fisurc 9.9

figur. 9.10 DLconrinulty for.e. dua lo cx|lrnol pr!!ure,

_:I_

262

DI3ION OI IORMTD HIADS AND NANSTTION STCTIONS

9.4

ASMI EQUATIONS TOR CONICAT HEAD DESIGN 263

u,__p_!t*r{^r, I I'''
(e.20)

lly limiting the axial stress to an allowable value of SE, the above equation can bc written for large end of the cone,

r\ t/ '--&1'-"2)
where X
Y

o'=*'#""1'-i(|*2.4):]
where

(9.2r)

:
=

9.34

Vz

tan

tt
2V2) tan

N,

: Q:

2.57 (Vy -

A:

104

P
SE

axial compressive force = Pr2f2t

+g

At the small end of the cone the stress is eiven bv o" =

axial force due to wind, dead load, etc.

maximum compressive stress is given by ar; a conservative maximum allowable compressive stress value is Pr2/f and thus

v-alues of X and I in Eq. 9.20 can be approximated by the expressions in Fig. 9.11. A comparison of o; and or given by Eq. 9.20 indicates that the

lhe

- Pr. r;N, 1"l/2 t I'' -

r:;l,t

-N-/ *

"v;/

/^

(9.22)

o.o27a

'V;=N*-l
area

Pr'

and the maximum compressive stress by 4. Limiting the allowable compressive strcss to -(P/r/r), the first of Eq. 9.22 reduces to

A stiffening ring is necessary if this quantity is exceeded. The required

the ring is given by

of

_r,,_r,ill.r.-

^t _P,,

A,: (N,tanr(;;)lt _ (Prz/N,) O

1f
t

.027

a\/

r2/

or N, s 0, which indicates that at the small end of the cone the axial force N, must be resisted by a ring with an area for the small end of the cone

z.o

tzn o " _ N,rr.sE a

(9.23)

t,e t.6
o
E J
la

In addition to providing the required arca at a cone-to-shell junction, it is

x=bs4vzrLno<
X:O.O27d
'.t' rrttt' -./.

1.1

.7

necessary to design the ring at the junction to prevent buckling due to external

t.2 t.o
o.8 o.6 o.+ o.2
o

pressure. The procedure is similar to that for the design of stiffening rings in cylindrical shells. A conservative approach used by the ASME Code, Vltr-l, in designing cylindrical shells under extemal pressure assumes that intermediate stiffening rings support all the load applied to the shell. Using the same criteria, the load on the cone in Fig. 9.10 due to extemal pressure can be proportioned at the large and small end stiffening rings as follows: pressure load at large end stiffening ring

4 o'
Figure

\to.
20.

f_le. SZ.y

=o. to6 - zvr,'Lonq^

Y

ZnP (r2

r)(r2

3sina

- r) cos a

9.ll

o(
X ond Y voluer for externol
pressure.

pressure load at small end stiffening

n"t: O!&i#

2U

DTSION Of TORMID HIAOS AND TRANSITION SECTIONS

NOMENCLATURI

'Ii)t l l()td itt lirrgc cnd duc ttl axial conrprcssitln, prcssurc on conc, an<I pressure
on cylinder is

Ily using

rr1

= E,A.

thc above equation reduces to

Ar2 A,

, = +tan q +,
or

tun

o+

!. eliffi*
+,
tan 0

(e.26)

which is the required moment of inertia of a cone-to-shell stiffening ring. For design purposes, the value of A in Eq. 9.26 is obtained from a stress-strain relationship. This is achieved by considering the stress in the ring (9.24)
as

F = P(M)
where

Fr

(9.27)

t,_r2tana, Lt

ri- rl
Applying a factor of safety of two in the foregoing equation and using the Extemal Pressure Charts in ASME (hat have a factor safety two), a design criteria can be established as follows:

Total load at small end due to axial compression, pressure on cone, and pressure on cylinder is

^ -=/"= Prttan c + PL,+ 14 - r? ^ z =-P d I br2 t0ll

F = P(N) + f2 tar, d.
where

-r f,

t?trr ct

1. 2.

Calculate
Establish

f. from Eqs. 9.24 or 9.25.

(9.2s)

3. 4.

Enter the Extemal Pressure Charts with

strain A.

a (factor B)

and calculate the

rv=?tun o+L:
L

+:3 l&Il (t lrl O/2

Use Eq. 9.26 to establish the minimum required moment of inertia. The ASME allows a 307o increase in value if the composite ring-shell moment of inertia is considered and the equation then becomes

ADZA, Equations 9.24 and,9.25 establish the maximum applied force at the cone_to_ cylinder junction. The critical buckling stress of a iircular ring is
15.6

o"

3Eol

nr,

NOMENCTATURE

where A, is the total effective area given by

Lj + e, + Lj A' = + + + e,
A' =

A: At :
,B =

strain as obtained from Fig. 8.10

area

of stiffening ring at cone-to-shell junction

Fig. 8.11

for large end of cone

stress factor as obtained from

for small end of cone

D: D1 :

diameter
base diameter at small end

of cone

26
l)r

OISION

O' IORMID

HTAO3 AND TRANSITION SICTIONS

Bf

sf.tooRAPHY

267

base diumeter at large end

of cone

.1.

= joint efficiency

Bourdtnun, l{, C., "Strc$scs al Junction ol Conc and Cylindcr in Tanks with Cono Bottuns or Ends" in Prc.rsare ye.rszl aul Piping Design: Colkcted papers 1927-,/9Jg, Amcrican Socicty of Mechanical Engineers, 1960. Jawad, M. H., "Design of Conical Shells under Extemal Loads,,' Technology, pp. 230-238. Vol. t02, 1980.

8s = modulus of elasticity

4.

Jounnl

of pressure Vessel

, = head depth I = moment of inertia lK : factor for ellipsoidal heads as determined from Eq. 9.6 Z = spherical crown radius of flanged and dished heads
Z' = effective
L"
length of cylindrical shell

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fliigg, W., Strcrrer ir, S,ells, Springer-Verlag, New

york,

1960.

:
=

effective length of conical section

70

+ Dt/D:.l

M=

factor for flanged and dished heads as obtained from Eq. 9.g

P = pressure
P" = allowable extemal
pressure

It = inside radius
R, =
outside radius

r = knuckle radius rr : base radius at small end of cone

/2 = base radius at large end of cone S = allowable stress r = thickness t" = effective thickness of conical section

tcos d

a = one-half the cone apex angle 4 : circumferential stress

(,r = longitudinal
REFERENCES

stress

L 2.

Brownell, L. E., and E.H.Yorlll.g, Process Equipment Design, lolmWiley, New york, 1959. Shield, R. T., and D. C. Drucker, "Design of Thin-Walled Torispherical and Toriconical Pressure-Vessel Head,s" in Pressure Vessels anl Pipirrg: Design atd Anatysis-A Decade of ProSleJr, Ameican Society of Mechaoical E4ineers, 1972.

CHAPTER

IO

BLIND FIANGES, COVER

PLATES,

AND FLANGES

Iypicolflons: r.ody for in.tollins. (Courlesy G+W Tdylor-Bonmy Div., lqylor Forse)

264

269

SIIND fLANOTS, COVTR PIATES, AND TLANGES

IO.I

INTRODUCTION

271

IO.I

INTRODUCTION

One of the more common types of closures for pressure vessels is the unstayed flat head or cover. This may be either integrally formed with the shell or welded to the shell, as shown in Fig. 10.1; or it may be attached by bolts or some quick-opening device as shown in Fig. 10.2. It may be circular, obround, square, rectangular, or some other shape. Those circular flat heads that are

Fetaining

i I ll'hl\ --ltll-llll "* -J- -t+-u-

I i--l

.--.i.nil

lhl/il

rhreaded

(d)

(a)

(b)
Fisur

10,2

Boltd or quick-opnins

flol ho&.

bolted into place utilizing a gasket are called blind flanges. Usually, the blind flange is bolted to a vessel flange with a gasket between two flanges as shown in Fig. 10.3. Although flat heads or blind flanges may be either circular or noncircular, they usually have uniform thickness. In addition to the flat head or blind flange+ype closures, many large vessels use a circular, spherically dished cover with a bolting flange, as shown in Fig. 10.4. In all cases, the bolts ofthe head attach either to a bolting flange on the end of the shell or to a thickened
shell.

't

T
(e)

|-..............

tI

In general, "failure" of a bolted flanged joint is due to excessive leakage at the gasket, with very few failures in the metallic pressure boundary. Occasionally, problems encountered with bolts result from excessive tightening in

T|-?\
I
Figoro

I Fi -)-"--w
l0,l
Int srol or wlldd tlct
hods.

tt

I I

reducing the leakage problem during hydrostatic testing of the assembly. Sometimes excessive stresses in the bolts cause them to break or to stretch until the closure leaks. The basic equations used for the design of flat plates and blind flanges in the

ASME Code, VI[-1, are based on a flat plate with uniform thickness and uniform loading over the entire surface due to pressure. Depending upon the

r0.t
l

tNTRoDUcTtoN 273

dc(ails of the corner construction shown in Fig. 10.5, various C-factors are used that require different minimum head thicknesses. The maximum deflection of the plate is assumed as not more tltan one-half the thickness and all the stresses are keDt within the elastic limit.

ffi:.,,,M .'.WZ M,.,,.:r:- i_4;" lt rn:-,^.'o.25,,'"' {ll $1"6;,: 14/4,.1,, l;

|', 1 ",+#' L",Jr{- |c-033D " "''^**' - -VA :J^H:" * c'o.r7o, c. o.r?
C.0.10 (rt
C

icmkor!!dd i-- L- _

. _- _^_ tth.^..2t, r,rf l:l'^ ,.. .,. '

'hnror75n

,,-,.,.i'i-'::l

jrr

m'n..

lb

ll

0.20 lb.2t

#l-r., c.o3o

C-o.20or0.13 l.)

Figur.

10.3

Elind flonsG-intesrol flonge conn.cnon.

r*

= ?

rr nr..

nor r.$ rh.n 1.25 rr

c' 013 ,0,

sk.rch.r{.llr)

lsl

i.,

"on-C',cur.r ir)

ctrclr..cov.d,c- 033n, cmin. Cov.^, C -033

o.2o
ror

lU ! '.1__{|I R.d,u' -\ca,rer

Loos
F1169.

Kiucrh \

ffiSt i t [.\
| firj'I
c-0,33
Gastel

Typ.

-l-1n

c::

tI

I
T
1t2

I I

|-1/2A-''--.------.1 + la 8l+ I F-l/a

---?, .#f,
,/-"),

) dllNni I ll\l
r{lf

@*4

ll

ll

rcKl
I
C

t
O.2S

1- h+
C.
o.33

t2c
tbt Figure
(d)

l0-4

Sphericolly dishd cove|'s with bolting flonses. (Courte.y Americon Socisry

[nsino6r', ftom Fig. l-6 of rhe ASr{E Code, V

of

Mechdn.col

I-i.)

Fis',r

10.5 Un3toyod flor heods dnd covers. (Court6y Americon Sociry of r{honicol Ensineerc, UG-3,1 of rhe ASME Codo, Vlll-I.)

tom Fis.

272

274 IO.2

BTIND FI,ANOTS, COVTR PTATTS, AND fIANGES

IO.2

CIRCUTAR

TIAT PI.ATTS AND HEADS WITH UNITORM

TOADING 275
(

CIRCULAR FI.AT PLATES AND HEADS WITH UNIFORM

TOADING
When an exact solution involving a discontinuity analysis at the shell-to-head juncture is not wanted, flat heads are generally calculated based on the assumption that the edges are simply supported or fully fixed. The true condition lies
somewhere between. Exact equations for circular plates were developed in Section 7. l. In using those equations as a basis, the equations below were developed using the head diameter d instead of the radius term a. The following nomenclature was also substituted in the equations of Section 7.1: Poisson's ratio (p = 9.3; p = pressure loading Qsi)

w^ = 0.0B6#
Tangential stress at edge equals

10.5)

o':

O'Ilrcf;

(10.6)

Radial and tangential stress at the center equals

^ . -_ P OI: OI = U'IJJ'i
When the circular flat plate is loaded under uniform pressure surface, simplified equations of stress are

(10.7)

p over the

entire

E' : modulus of elasticity (psi) d = diameter of head (in.) T = nominal thickness of head (in.) P : total presswe load (lb) = 6.7*t Ort
With the edges assumed to be simple-supported, Maximum stess is located at the center and equals

,:

o.3ose(xf
/

for simply supported edge for fixed edge

(10.8) (10.e)

o = o.r88P(;/

)\2

o^

o.zs+fi

(10.1)

In actual designs, neither of these edge conditions is likely to be realized. Fully fixed is very difficult to obtain in any constiruction.

Maximum deflection is located at the center and equals

w* = 0'0554#
Maximum rotation is located at the edge and equals

(10.2)

10.1. Determine the maximum stress in a flat head under internal of 1000 psi, diameter / = 48 in., and thickness r = 7 in. for both simple-supported and fixed-edge conditions. Assume carbon steel with fr = 0.3.
Example
presswe

Solutian.
(10.3)

Determine the total loading

o*

= o.s2s:L "'"-'E',Tj

0.785 pd2

0.785(1000)(48),

P = 1.809.000 lb
With the edges assumed to be fully-fixpd, Maximum stress is radial and located at the edge: For simple-supported edge use Eq. 10.1:
(10.4)

o*

= o.zto

f;

, : o.:l+!!.ffi :
For fixed edge use Eq. 10.4:

14.550 psi

Maximum deflection is located at the center and equals

276

0UND FTANOIS, COVfR ptAT[S, AND ftANOIS

IO.3

ASME CODT FORMUI.A FOR CTRCUTAR FIAT HEADS AND

COVTRS

277

,, =
Example

0.239

-1109-(xx)t !l--lj-:

tlttzopsi
l,

10.2. For the flat head in Example 10. the center for both edge conditions.
Solution, For simple-supported edge use Eq.
w=

head-to-shell juncture (see Fig. 10.5) and contains a factor to increase effectively the allowable stress to 1.5 S because the stress is predominandy a bending stress

determine the deflection at

10.2:

d = effective diameter of head (in.) (see Fig. 10.5) t = minimum required thickness of flat head (in.)
Example
Determine the minimum required thickness of an integral flat to 1000 psi, S = 15,000 psi, d = 48 in. with no corrosion, and no weld joints within the head (E = 1.0). The arrangement is the same as that given in Fig. 10.5, sketch , - 2, with m : l.O.
head with intemal pressurep equal

0.0554* x r.l toltzt' = u'uzrz

rr

R09,000x48f

10.3.

rn'

For fixed edge use Eq. 10.5:

Solation. From Fig. 10.5,

r0.)or24gx4l

sketch b

, = 0.0136#"
Problems

0.0057 in.

I
:
56

From Eq. (10.10),

2, C = 0.33

m:

0.33(l) = 0.j3.

t=48

0.33

1000

15,000

1.0

7.120 in.

10.1

What is the maximum shess in a simple-supporied flat head whenp psi, d 24 in., t 0.75 in., and p = 0.3t

Example

10.4. Determine the minimum corner radius to make Example 10.1 acceptable (valid) to be used.
r, must be calculated using Eq. UG-

Answer:

o^ :

15,840 psi

Soltrtion. The cylindrical shell thickness 27(c)(1) of the ASME Code, VII-1:

10.2

What is the maximum stress for the conditions in hoblem 10.1 usins the

simplified equation?

l::=---------: ' sE - o.6P Answer: c,,," =

15,820 psi

PR

1000

24

15,000x1

0.6x1000

1.667 in.

From Fig. 10.5, sketch b

2, the rule is for

IO.3

ASME CODE FORMUTA FOR CIRCULAR FLAT HEADS AND Problems

,,

>

1.5

in.

r.j"

0.25t,

0.25(1.667)

0.417

n.

ACl

COVERS In the ASME Code, Vm-1,1 and Section I,2 the minimum required thickness of circular, unstayed flat heads and covers without bolting are calculated by the lollowine:

10.3 A flat head

d

is constructed according to Fig. 10.5, sketch d. The diameter 12in., thickness r = l.25in.,E: l.0,andS = 15,000psi. What is the MAWP (maximum allowable working pressure)?

t=d
wnere

lsr

tcp

(10.10)

Ansyer.' MAWP =

1250 psi

E = butt-weld joint efficiency for a joint within the head

10.4 A large flat head is made

examined so that ,E

: p:
S

allowable tensile stress (psi)

design pressure (psi)

skerch/ with ltt = the internal pnessure p = 300 psi. What is the minimum required
thickness?

from pieces that are weldd together and spot 0.85. The corner details are similar to Fig. 10.5, 1.0. The diamet d = 60 in.,,S = 12,500 psi, and

C = 0.10 through 0.33 depending upon the construction details at the

Answer:

t6n

5.792

n.

278

0UND ftaNoEs,

cov[R plarts, AND fl.ANGtS

I0.6

CONTACT

FACING

279

IO.4 COMPARISON OF THEORY AND ASMT CODE FORMULA FOR CIRCUTAR FLAT HEADS AND COVERS WITHOUT BOLTING
As previously mentioned, the ASME Code formula contains a factor of 1.5 within the C factor to adjust for the permitted higher level of allowable stress because it is chiefly caused by primary bending stress. If the 1.5 value is removed from the values of C, the range of C values in the code adjusts to C = 0.15 to C = 0.5. Rearranging Eqs. 10.8 and 10.9 into the same form as Eq. 10.10, we see that C : 0.15 through C : 0.5 encompasses the two exhemes from fully fixed edges where C = 0.188 to simply supported edges where C = 0.309. The low value of C : 0.15 in the ASME Code is for a special head-to-shell configuration with an inside comer radius of at least three times the head thickness. The structural effect of this edge condition results in reducing the equivalent pressurized diameter on the circular flat head from the normal diameter d to a diameter of 0.893d such that the Eq. 10.9 becomes

provcd according to the code the dcsigner should recognizc th t s(nr1c calcu lltions can be avoided. If the flange is the type described in Appentlix 2 ol thc ASME Code, the code permits using flanges with recognized standards that cstablish items such as dimensional standards, materials, and pressure/temperature ratings. The code accepts flanges designed to ANSI 816.5 .,pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings,"6 API 605 "Large Diameter Carbon Steel Flanges",T and ANSI 816.24 "Bronze Flanges and Fittings, 150 and 300 lb,'.8 Several other standards are not included; however, when the flanges are selected by this method, no additional calculations are required to satisfy the ASME Code. When calculations are necessary according to Appendix 2 of the ASME Code, VIII-I, for a nonstandard design or when it is desired to upgrade a standard flange, similar design calculations are required for blind flanges (circular flat heads with bolts) and for regular bolted flanges. Although each item is discussed in geater detail in the following paragraphs, the basic steps in designing a flange are as follows:

o=orssp(o8e'il=r"(il
IO.5
BOLTED FTANGED CONNECTIONS

(10.11)

l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
10.6

Establish design pressure and design temperature. Select gasket material and dimensions and facing type. Calculate N
and b.

Calculate loads for both gasket seating and operating conditions. Determine bolting sizes and gasket width check.
Establish flange dimensions (usually using those from a standard flange). Using loads and dimensions, calculate moments for both qasket seatine and operating conditions.

The most usual type of joint for easy assembly and disassembly used in the
process vessels and piping system is the bolted flanged connection. A convenient method to design and calculate flanges with ring-type gaskets that are within the bolt circle was first published by Taylor Forge in 1 937 . 3 These rules were further

Determine required thickness of flange.

developeda and incorporated into the ASME Code,

VI[-l,

some years later.

These rules, which are still used to calculate this type of flange, are in Appendix 2 Of thE ASME COdC, VIII.1.

CONTACT FACINGS

Rules for calculating flat face flanges with metal-to-metal contact outside of the bolt circle are given in Appendix Y ofthe ASME Code, VI[-1. This design incorporates a self-energizing-type gasket such as the O-ring gasket. fhe original rules were restricted to analyzing identical pairs of flat face flanges. Current rules have been improved to permit analysis of both identical and nonidentical pairs of flanges. Further development of design rules in the ASME Code, VI[-1,5 came with the issuance of reverse flange rules that use a ring-type gasket with no additional contact of the faces. These rules were added to Appendix 2, ASME Code,

For ring+ype gasket design as given in the ASME Code, VI[-I, Appendix 2, several types of flange facings are used. Some of the more usual types are the
raised face, the tongue-and-groove, and the

the

full seal loading is taken by the gasket in contact with the adjacent face.

lapjoint. When these types are used, because no other part of the face is

VIII-I.

in which rules are not in the ASME Code. One common type is the full-face gasket flange. There are many others that may be designed for ASME Code approval by meeting the requirements of U-2(g) of the ASME Code, VIII_I. Before any flange design calculations are performed for a vessel to be ap_

In addition to these rules for flange design in the code, many designs are used

In addition to the types of facing where the gasket must carry the seating load, one type of closure and facing depends upon the adjacent faces to be in contact with each other, but it does not require a large seating load for initial sealing. This kind of closure is used on both the ring-type gasket design of Appendix 2 and the flat face flanges with metal-to-metal contact outside the bolt circle as described in Appendix Y ofthe ASME Code, VIII-1. This construction utilizes a self-energizing or pressure-actuated O-ring gasket that is internally pressurized to seal the gasket and does not depend upon initial gasket seating by the bolts that cause compression of the gasket (Fig. 10.6). There are also special types of gaskets and facing designs that become self-

ETIND TTANOES, COVTR PIATIS, AND IIANOES

FACING DETAILS
o. Sell

10.7 GASKETS

281

r0.7

GASKTTS
gaskets is needed

Energizing O.Rin9

A large variety of

in process equipment. The diverse pro-

cesses, temperatures, pressures, and corrosion environment require gaskets with different configurations, materials, and properties. Some of the frequently used gaskets are:

b.

/'' -) l\
Cold

tr.t.t

Finbi

l. t
3. 4.

Rubber O-rings

Metallic O- and C-rings

Asbestos

Delta

ing

4 \TRing Joint

Met.llic

I
6.

Flat metal Spiral wound

Jacketed

7.

Metal ring
High-pressure type

8.
10.7.

Rubber O-Rings

Ring & Bevel Cold Water Finish

These gaskets shown in Fig. 10.7a are used extensively in low-pressure applications such as storage tanks and air receivers. They are normally confined in a

Lap Joint

groove to prevent exhusion and their maximum temperature limit is about 250'F. Because the required seating stress is negligible, the number of bolts needed in the flange is kept to a minimum. A groove finish of 32 rms is usually
specified.

Groove

,,.-1.n o/y %F* b=, \ -\-l I \-1\__r/T;'l

Wirh Searing Nubbin

10.7.2 Metollic O- ond C-Rings

The metallic O- and C-Rings in Fig. 10.7b and c have a wide range of applications for both extemal and internal pressures. They have a good springback characteristic and a low seating stress. The gaskets may be manufactured from widely selected matbrials compatible with the flange. This eliminates the problem of thermal expansion between the gasket and the flange and increases their applicable temperatue range. O- and C-gaskets seals along a contact line. Accordingly, a finish of about 32 rms is needed in the flange seating surface to properly seal the gaskets. In critical applications a silver plating is specified to help sealing. The O-rings manufactured in ftree different styles shown in Fig. 10.7c are the unpressurized, pressurized, and vented types. The unpressurized one is used at high temperatures whereby the increased pressure from the sealed gas cornpensates for the loss of strength. The vented ring gasket is used at high pressures for better sealine.

Figur.

10.6

Typicol Gocing

d.roil..

sealing frorn the gaskets rotation and deflection that are caused by contact loading ftom a retaining ring and head closure. Some of these are called the delta gasket as used in Bridgeman closures, the double cone gasket, and the wedge gasket. In all these cases, the initial gasket seating load is low. As the pressure in the vessel is increased, the gasket rotates and deflects into a special facing in which the sealing load increases as the pressure increases. Care must be taken with this type of closure because the gasket often "seizes" and it may be difficult !o get the closure apart. In many instances, the gasket may be silver, gold, or platinum plated to help prevent the "seizing."

EtIND TTANOIS, COVER PIATES, AND TI.ANOES

r0.7

oAsKtTs

ITil ll
I

_)l
(a)

Rubber O-Ring

(t) sp iru

tressurized tessurized

)t
(d)

I7I Htr
)t
O- Ring

Asbestos

(e)

Flat Metal
Fisu..

figur. 10.7 lypo6 of oq.kcls.

lO.7 TyF

of solk6b (conrinu.d)

10.7.4
10.7.3
Compressed Asbestos Goskels

Flqt Melol Goskets

'fhese gaskets in Fig. lD.1d normally consist of 707o asbestos, 2O7o ntbber hinder, and l0% filler material and curative. They can be cut to fit various shapes und configurations such as heat exchangers with pass partitions and oval and square openings. Thicknesses are normally fumished beween fr and i in' and rcquire a seating surface finish of about 250 rms. Asbestos gaskets are normally

These gaskets (Fig. 10.7a) are made from a wide variety of materials that can be cut from sheet metal to any desired configuration and width. Some frequently used gasket materials and their temperature limit are:

Material

Max. Temp. ('F)

212 400 500 600

850T. A rule of thumb for determining the adequacy of Nbestos gaskets for a given temperature and pressure is to limit the product of temperature in T times the pressure in psi to about 300,000.
used for tempemtures up to

Ipad Aluminum
Brass

Copper

2t1

IUttlD

ttaNots, covER ptaTts, AND FtaNors

Materiul

r0.7 oASKETS

285

Max. Temp. ('F)

800 900
1000 1200 1200

10.7.5 Spirol-Wound Goskels

Spirul-wound gaskets (Fig. l0.1f) are very versatile and used in numerous npplications. They are especially suited for cyclic conditions where the excellent npringback makes them ideal for repetitive loading. They:ue manufactured to I rlcsired width by spiral winding a preshaped metal strip with a filler material bctween the strips that consists of asbestos or teflon composites. Asbestos-filled Iuskets are limited to temperatures of 850T, whereas teflon is limited to 500"F. For most applications spiral-wound gaskets are retained in a groove. In raised luce flanges, an outer ring is used to prevent the gasket from extruding and the t:hevrons from excessive deformation. Sometimes an inner ring is also used to rninimize erosion and to reduce temperature fluctuation in cyclic conditions. Many factors affect the performance of spiral-wound gaskets such as tightness of wraps, material of filler and strips, height of strips, diameter of opening, and surface finish. The gasket seating surface finish is about 125 rms.

Titanium and zirconium

Carbon steel

Monel
400 series stainless sieel

Nickel
Inconel 300 series stainless steel

1200
1500

Incoloy
Hastelloy

1500
1800

q".9,: need a high searing force for *l are best-suited for high-pressure applications proper seating. Accordingly, tney Tt1l
a finish of about 63 rms.
used
.

The seating stirface must have

Srated gaskets require a smaller seating force than flat gaskets and thus are in screwed flanges where friction forces are to be miiimized.

10.7.6 Jockeled Goskels

'these gaskets in Fig. 10.79 are normally used for pressures up to 500 psi in large diameter vessels where flange out-of-roundness and tregularities are large compared with small flanges . They may be purchased as plain or corrugated and they seal at the inner and outer laps. The outer metal jacket are made from a wide variety of metals. The filler material is normally made of asbestos, teflon, or metallic. The asbestos filler limits the temperature application to about 850'F, whereas the teflon is limited to 500'F. The metallic filler is used at the hish temperatures. The seating surface finish is about 63 rms.

10.7.7 Metol
Lens

Ring Goskets

The metal ring gaskets shown in Fig. l0.1h are used in high-pressure and temperature applications. Their small cross-sectional area makes them ideal for
compact flanges. The required high seating stress has the same magnitude as the pressure stress. The rings are made from many varied materials and are sometimes silver plated to improve sealing. The gasket groove finish is about 63 rms.
|

0.7.8

High-Pressure Goskets

Ins, delta, double-cone, and Bridgeman configurations shown in Fig. 10.7i comprise the majority of the pressure applications where the seating saess is
Double Cone
(i) High Pressure
Fisure

Bridgeman
(conrinud)

10.7 TyF! of golkei!

required to be low due to physical limitations of bolt spacing and flange width. They are used extensively in pressure vessels operating above 1000 psi and are made of softer materials than the seating surfaces to prevent damage to the flanges or covers. In general, these gaskets are expensive to fabricate and

216

IIIND

COVIR PIATES, AND TTANOES

'IANOIS, m1lchinc; rcquirc vcry tight k)lerunces; and need very smooth seating surfaces of 16 rms or better. . High-pressure gaskets have a large surface that is subjected to the vessor pr:r*t::. +ccordingly, a free-body diagram is no-ully n"""rrury ro ll,.e.rnall determlne the additional forces transmitted to the flanges and boltjresulting from pressure on the gasket. The individual design requirements for lens, delta, and double-cone gasketo are given in the next three sections.

10.7 oASKETS

287

l'hc outside thickness of the gasket is established to allow tbr an 0.25 in. clctrirnce plus 0.0625 in. for a centering ring, ifrequired. The pitch diameter lbr grskct seating reaction is established as

c=(rD)*1(oo-ro) 3
whcre G = diameier of
gasket reaction.
as

10.7.9

Lens Ring Goskets

'the spherical radius of the gasket surface is taken

through :f:r.-::"j^",:1T19j ttg rins.!o pyentpoints a to b, must be equal to or larger crushing of p: flanc: f:_T::i1t-Tl "fof the gasket and the required bolt the gasket. Thus knowing Ine nslde-dameler area, the outside diameter can be calculated from

The lens ring- gaskets in Fig. 10.8 are normally used in small flanges. Thc

p=G/z " sin 0

where R

: I:

spherical radius of gasket surface (in.) angle of friction (for mild steel,

it is 20")

oo

=llr,+

(D),]'/

l.'rom the geometry, the inside thickness of the flange is calculated from

where OD : outside diameter of ring gasket (in.) ID = inside diameter of ring gasket (in.)
Aa

't=:-+)l -l 16
where t = inside
thickness of gasket (in.). The width of gasket seating is normally

/ODYI

\, i I

actual bolt area of flange

(At(1.s)(design bolt stress)

z(GX3)(yield shength of gasket material)

Figure 10.8 shows the flange and cover surfaces at the vicinity of the gasket machined to have a slope of 20'.

where N =

gasket seating width (in.).

l"r
16

fc

5-

10.7.10 Delto

Goskets

The delta ring gaskets in Fig. 10.9 are extensively used in the United Staies for high-pressure applications. These gaskets rely on the inside pressure to wedge them in the gasket groove for sealing and thus do not requhe any initial seating or bolting shess. The general dimensions that are shown in Fig' 10.9 apply to

rings of all diameters. The pitch diameter G is normally taken

as

G=ID+0.125
Figur.

10.8 t.n.

so3k6t,

and tlle gasket seating width N is usually equal to 0.125 in.

IIINO II.ANOIS,

COVER PI.AT!S, AND FTANOES

10.7 oasKlts

Figur.

lO.9

Dclto go!k6t.

Figur6

'10.10

Doublo-cono gosk6t.

10.7.1|

The seating length N is determined from

Double-ConeGoskets
(cos 60)(aXc)(3)(yield strength of gasket material) and the pitch diametr G is expressed as

Double-cone gaskets are very popular in Europe and can be fabricated in various slzes. A typical detail is shown in Fig. 10.10. The required cross-sectional

is given by

area

OD

= l:A, + (rD), I L1r

1tl2

G=OD-0'5N
The height of the gasket is usually set so that the net pressure force does not exceed the seating force. Thus,

where OD

: ID :

outside diameter of gasket (in.) inside diameter of gasket (in.)

area

A, = actual bolt

of flange (in.r)

tzxrr(|)<,-

60)

(P)(,r)

290

ITIND IIANOIS, COVTR PI.ATES, AND TIANOES

r0.7 GASKETS

291

' - (rXN)(sin 6o) --P

where

'l'he operating condition exists when the hydrostatic end fbrce from the internal dcsign pressure tends to open the joint, for the gasket retains enough resiliency l() keep the joint tight. Loadings and stresses are determined at design pressure rund design temperature. The loading for the operating condition is

I = seating stress of gasket material (psi)

P = internal
design pressure (psi)

W.t: H + n,:f,C'zp + mGp(Zb)

(10.13)

10.7.12 Gcsket

Design

To avoid crushing the gasket in those bolted flanged connections where the
gasket is carrying all the loading, it is recommended that the initial loading does not exceed the gasket seating stress y. Once the actual bolting areaA, is selecied, a check may be made to determine the required minimum gasket width by the

cnaraderistics depend upon the material and the design of the m and, the minimum design seating sEess )l irre th: cTk"jjlry and the gasket marerial. flrhou;h-the rn and y P^l:':j:o,ro in the ASME Boiler and pressure tactors have been Vessel CodJsince the 194i edition, they are suggested values only and are not mandatory. The originat iesting and development of the m and y factors are described ln an articii Uy Rossheim and Markle that does not give the underlying background for the specific.values. V9ry changes have been made to ttiese faciors since they _fu* were originally published. the of many inquiries to the ASME Code Committee regarding the .A.s validity of-result and J factors, a large-scale investigation has been undertaken the m by the hessure Vessel Research Committeero of the frelding Research Councit.

!a1f1t.fei1e,_r gasKet rtself. -fhe gasket faclor

fbllowine formula:

N^"=ffi
Example

(10.14)

10.5. A

p=

250/U..

stainless steel gasket with an inside diameter of 13.75in. and widthN = l.0in. 10,000. Bolts are SA-325 Grade I with The gasket factors are m = 3.0 and y & = Sa 19,200 psi. Is the gasket width sufficiendy wide to keep from crush-

vessel has the following design data: design pressure psi; design temperature = 250'F; a spiral-wound metal, fiber-filled

t" many items not previously considered. There is a closJ corretation with the amount of tightening of the bolts, the gasket type, and the material, for thel are all related to the leakage rate of the j-oint. " the_gasket tlpe and material have bCen selected, the effective gasket .g.nc-e width for cabulation may be determined. For solid flat metal and for thJ ring_ type joints' the basic gasket seating width bs is found by the formuras rn column I of Table 7-5.2 of the ASME C;de, VI[_l, whereas for all other types of gaskets' ba is delermined by the formulas in column rI. The effective gasket seating width D is found by applying the following rules:
."J1t"9

As experimental tests progressed, it became obvious that thJrz and y factors are

ing out?

Sohttian. Determine the effective gasket seating width as follows: N = 1.0 in., b" : N/2 = 0.5 in., b = 0.5!bo = 0.3535 in., effective gasket diameter ls

= 13.75 + (2 x G = 15'M3 in.

G
Gasket loadings are

1)

(2 x 0.3535)

D=06 when

bo

iin.

b: O.slbo when De )|rn.

H
Wa

: :

o.785G2p: 0.785(15.043F(25N1 = 444,1ss

2brGmp = 2(0.3535)r(15.043X3X2500) = 250,600

With D deiermined the location of the line of gasket load reaction can be determined as well as the values of G and h6 for calculating flange moments. designing a flange, it is important to recognize that two'desiln conditions .ln cxrst-the gasket seating and the operating conditions. Gasket seattg condition cxlsts when an initial load is applied by the bolts to seat the gasket at ambient tcmperature with no intemal pressure. The minimum initial biolt loaO is
W"e

H,=

He

444,1A0

250'600

694'700

W^z: rbGy = z(0

Since

3535)(15.043X10'000)

167,100
as

fi = Sa :

19,200 psi, W.r sets the bolting arca A^

= tbGy

(10.12)

A^=Y#

36.182in.,

292
AD

IUND ftANOrS, COVIR plarrs, AND FtaNots

10.8 BotT|NG DESTGN 293

scnting and operating conditions must be examined. The minimum required bolting area A, is th greater
W.z

octuul bolt {reu

width is

36.ti in.2 lbr l6-2-in. diumeter bolts. Minimum gaskct

of

.. : fl^" = 36.8( 19.200) zlq000).(15.0a,

Pmblem

0 748

in

versus

I in'

actual

s,
where & :
= W.1 = 1Y.r =
S1

ot

W^r
Sa

One-inch wide gasket is sufficient to prevent crushing.

allowable bolting stress at room temperature (psi) allowable bolting stress at design temperature (psi) operating

10.5 A solid,

: 6.5 and y : 26,000 is used flat, stainless steel gasket with 'l2 in the vessel described in Example 10.5. The preliminary gasket inside diametef is 12 in. and the gasket width is 1.0 in. whai is the easket
seatine load?

load: H + H, (see Eq. 10.13)

gasket seating load

Answer:

W,,2

384,000 lb

From this minimum required bolting a;ea A. the actual bolting area A, is In order to obtain a bolt loading for calculating moment for gasket seating, the minimum required bolting area and the actual bolting area are averaeed as follows:
selected.

IO.8

w:0.5(A.+Ars"
BOTTING DESIGN

(10.16)

Iactor

materials that have a high tensile strength and requte a smaller cross-secdona'i area.- In addition, when high sFength material is used for the bolting, care must be taken not to rcduce the number of required bolts to such a small -number that excessive bolt spacing is developed. r I Wlren the bo_lt spacing exceeds (U + t), secondary flange bending is developed between the bolts to the extent that it affects the ;ormal flange bending . To account for this effect, the flange bending moment M0 must be iricreased by the

In designing bolting for flanges, the initial item is selecting the bolting matenal. It must be a malerial compatible with the flange material . ihat is there musr nor , be any chemical or galvanic action between the bolting and ffange material that would cause the bolts to seize in the tkeads. Under certiin circurn'stances, rt may be necessary to plate the bolts or to make them from special material to prot;t them from the environment. Although it is not neceisary to select a 6olting material with a tensile shength close to that of the flange material, one should carefully consider the effects of strain elongation and rehxation of bolting

Certain times during the operation of a process vessel the bolts in a bolted flanged connection are subjected to actual stresses in excess of the allowable design stresses. This may be especially true during hydrostatic testing. Care must be taken to enswe that during this testing, no permanent elongation ofthe bolting has occurred. If so, the bolting may have to be replaced before the vessel is put into service. Realizing this is especially important if each of two suppliers provides half of the bolted flanged assembly and one does not know what bolting

is supplied.

Example 10.6. A vessel flange uses 16-2-in. diameter bolts. Flange sfress calculations indicate that a flange thickness of t : 4.5 in. is adequate. The bolt circle diameter is C = 22.5 in. Will secondary bending stresses be developed?

Solutian. The maximum permissible bolt spacing without a penalty (2d + t1 = (2 x 2 + 4.5; = 3.5 in. The actual bolt spacing is

is

rd _ n(22.5\ 1V -]6- = +Az n.

Because the actual spacing is less than the rnaximum spacing without a penalty, no secondary bending shesses are developed.

actual bolt spacing

(10.l5)

where d = nominal diameter of bolts (in.) t : flange thickness (in.)

To detennine the total required cross-sectional area of bolting, both the gasket

Example 10.7. Suppose a vessel requires Z-2 j -in. diameter bolts on a flange that is 5.5 in. thick. What is the madmum bolt circle that will not cause secondary bending shesses? The minimum bolt spacing for 2 j -in. diameter bolts is 5i in.

294

lutito ftaNolg, covER ptATEs, AND frANOrS

spucing is

IO.9

BI.IND FTANGES

Solullon, Maximum
(2d

+ t) = (2

><

2i + 5.5; =

19.5 tn.

Diameter of bolt circle is

lo'5 x

24

n
based on maximum

80.2 in.

spacing.

I
H

Problems

10.6

Sixteen bolts at I l-in. diameter are io be located on a bolt circle of G = 32 in. The flange is 2+ in. rhick. What is the factor rhat is due to
secondary
fl

ange bending?

Anstrer: l.l2 10.7

The minimum spacing for the wrench to fit I |-in. diameter bolts is 3 | in. Twelve bolts are to be used on a bolt cide of 15l-in. diameter. What is the minimum flange thickness that does not cause secondary flange bendFisurg

)
lo.l I
loodings on blind flons.

iog?

Solving Eq. 10.18 for r gives

Answer:

1.0 in.

,:oJgll\,

*t'n-LYl',

(10. r9)

IO.9

BTIND FTANGES

The minimum required thickness of a cicular, unstayed flat head or blind flange attachedty bolts and utilizing a ring-type gasket that causes an edge moment is derived from the assumption that the flat plate is simply suppofted; the gasket load line G and is loaded by a gasket seating load or a combination of easket loading and a uniform pressure loading . The combination of these loadingJat the gasket and at the bolt circle causes an edge moment ofMg/zrG, as shown-in Fig. 10.11. ff the edge moment is assumed to be equal ta Wh", tlre theoretical stress at the center of the flat plate is

This is identical with the equation in the ASME Code, VI[-l, except that the constants of 0.3 and 1.9 are used in the code instead of the exact constants of 0.31 and 1.91 and the gasket load G is substituted for d. The general ASME Code equation for circular flat-bolted heads is (10.20)
For the gasket seating condition, the internal pressure equals zero and the only load is the gasket seating load W" at ambient temperature with the allowable tensile stress of S.. The equation for gasket seating condition is

ffi

" "Sening
trc

_3(3 =

+ 1 /wrrc\ :z F)-"G\-F)
tt)p

(GY

(10'17)

t=G
(10.18)

(10.21)

0.3 and E

weld joint efficiency within the flat plate, For operating condition the intemal pressure p as well as the gasket loading are applied. For this condition, Wr : H + Il, at operating temperature with an allowable tensile stress of S1. The equation for operating condition is

sE:(*rye\-r..(W)

296

ITIND ?LANOI3, COVTR PLATIS, AND FTANOTS

| .9W,,1ha; t=G 0.3p -srEcls"E -

t0.9
(t0.22')

EUND FTANOES

Figure 10.12 shows a sample calculation of a blind flange.

10.E. Considering the pressure vessel described in Example 10.5, the vessel is to have one end closed by a blind flange. What is the minimum required thickness of the blind flange? Design data are the following:
E-xample_

x -crr/. -

41{,12
t. -,51c - d
l.
OO,

,-'12
C.|l.1-+6. 6 l4hlig '.{ft.d l, l.d.! '.i!lni
lo'

Design pressure Design

p = 2500 psi. temperature = 250'F.

l..iir

dillina.

2. Xc

.addj.el rfiktid. I

Flange material is SA-105. Bolting material is SA-325 Gr.

3, Ud{ or[.Rin rF..tjrd, l!.G .l $r'l 0..!.

Br b. d.ri..d .nt d.. .r-

No corrosion exists.

Allowable bolt stress

19,200 psi. 17,500 psi.

at

gasket seating and operating conditions =

Allowable flange sfress at gasket seating and operating conditions =

Gasket is spiral-wound metal, fiber diameter times width N = I in.

filled, stainless steel, 13.75 in. inside

Fisur

Solution. Following the information calculated in Example 10.5, once

10.12

Elind flonge romple colcolorion sh|. (Courrery

G+w roybFBonney

Div., Toylor Forge.)

actual bolt area A, is found, the design loading for the gasket seating condition W, can be determined as:

the

W:
%=

0.5(A^ + Ar)S,
700,800

0.5(36.2

36.8X19,200)

For operating condition,

The moment arm is determined from

t:G
15.043)

O.3p

-, srE-

|.9W.rhc

s"EGt

hc = 0.5(C
694,700.

G) = 0.5(22.5

3.729 in.

t = ls.(Ml. v

rF
17,500

x 1.0

(t7,500

1.0x15.043t

fJgt

Pxample 10.5, the design loading for operating condition

is lll.r =

Therefore, the minimum required flange thickness is Problcms

5.329

in. I

The minimum required thickness is determined as the greater thickness of that dctcrmined for gasket seating load according to Eq. 10.i1 or for operating load rrccording to Eq. 10.22. l.i)r gasket seating,

10.8

Suppose the flat head in Example 10.8 is made by butt-welding flat plates

,=

_ .__.. I t.9(700.800x3.729) :4.343in. uVll.gwhc ts.o+:{ffi s,uoi =

together. The welds are spot examined so that E minimum required head thickness?

0.85. What is the

Answer: t, n =

5.780 in.

298
10.9

IIIND IIANOIS,

COVER PLATES, AND TLANOES

IO,IO

sOTTED fI.ANGED CONNECTIONS WITH RING.TYPE GASKETS

operating conditions?

Suppose the bolt circle diametsr is incrcused ro C = 24 in. What is thc minimum required head thickness considering both gasket seating and

Answer:

tnn^

5.671 in.

IO.IO

BOTTED FTANGED CONNECTIONS WITH RING-TYPE GASKETS

|
(a)

lr

(l

(l

The design_rules for bolled flanged connections with a ring+ype gasket that is entirely within a circle enclosed by the bolt holes and with no iontact outside of

Moment Loadlng

are satisfactory. The trial-and-error method is essentially due to the complei theory used by Waters, Rossheim, Wesshom, and Williams to solve the problem in the original development. The WRWW method, which was ultimatelv incor_ porated into the ASME Code in 1940, is ar elastic analysis of the intiraction between the vessel or pipe, the hub, and the flange ring assembly. The shell and hub are resolved by a discontinuity analysis that was previously described in Chapter 5 and the flange ring is considered as a flat plate with ihe center Dart rcmoved (Fig. I0.13). Interactions of rotations and deflections are oermiited until lhe balance is obtained. . The basic assumptions in the analysis are that the flange materials are elastic, that is, no creep or_ plastic yield at lower temperature ocJurs, the bolt loading ii assumed or determined from the gasket factors, and the moments due to loadinss are essentially constant across the width ofthe flange. In addition, rotation of tie

dimensions such as the flange thickness are varied. Stresses in the flange and the hub are calculated. If any of these shesses exceeds the allowable tensile stresses, a "new" flange thickness is selected and the stresses are recalculated until they

to design a bolted flanged connection because no stan_ of the proper size is available, the standard pressure/lemDeraure ratings are not adequate, or sperial design factors are to be used for the gasket, the procedure in Appendix 2 of the ASME code is used. The design of nanges, bolting, and gaskets by the ASME Code rules is essentially a ftal_and-enor procedure where some dimensions are set and remain fixed, whereas other

, Whn it is necessary dard flange

(b) Direct

Loadlng

tt+ lrr,-ri'r'ro
f+.l

Illll. l-----v------J
'tt 0z

(c) Combined Loadlng

Figure

'10.13

Flongo loodin$ for alo:ric anolysii.

flat plate is assurned as linear with no dishing effect and superposition is acceptable. The solution of the complex problem is simplified for code use by cwves, formulas, and tables that contain constants depending upon the geometry of the flange assembly. Formulas for various coefficients are given in the code that permits cornputer programming of the basic equations for rapid solution. The code designates flanges with ring-type gaskets to be three types for

EIIND FTANOIS, COVER PLATES. AND FTANOTS

IO.IO

BOTTTD TTANGED CONNECTIONS WITH

RING.fiPE GASKETS

301

Bnalysis: intgrsl, loose, und optionul. lntegral means that the pipe, hub, and

ring are one continuous assembly from their original manufacture as eithcr forging or casting welded together by full penetration welds. lnose means no attachment of the assembly to the pipe or no ability of the juncture to carry sheafs and moments other than those required to seal against pressure. These types of flanges are called slip-on, lap joint, and threaded, and they may or may not havc
hubs. Optional means flange designs that, by construction, are integral, but thc analysis is permitted by the simpler method for loose-type flanges. Examples of these various types are depicted in Fig. 10.14. The calculation of a flange with a ring-typ gasket first involves selecting the material for the flange, bolts, and gasket in a manner very similar to the blind flange. Next, the facing and gasket details are set, the loads due to intemal presswe are determined, and the required bolting area and bolt sizes are selected. The bolt circle is then decided; and the loads, moment ams, and moments due to both gasket seating and operatihg conditions are determined as with the blind flange. By knowing these and the geometry used to determine K and other hub coefficients, stress calculations are made for both conditions. The longitudinal hub stress, the radial flange sness, the tangential flange stess, and their various combinations are comparcd with allowable stresses. The method of calculation is virtually identical for welding neck flanges and slip-on or lap-joint flanges except that the axial pressure load is applied at a slightly different location. For the ring flange design, the tangential flange stress

I
6

el

tr= -tr_r
(d)

\__

F E--*--'t
d 1+
(.)

IT
9t
12

l-T
{-..*,o
l9lt\ A 9 j 12
(s)
(h)

is the only one calculated. The minimum required thickness can be directly
determined from

tM*
,..I
Example

V s-B

(10.23)
Opii.nrl lYF. Fl.n96. Th6. M.y b. C.ldl.r..t.r Eirh.. Looro.or Inr.9..t.Typ.

10.9, What is the minimum required thickness of a welding neck flange as shown in Fig. 10.lzla with the following design data? (Nore.' These data are the same as those used for the blind flange in Example 10.8. In Fig. 10.15 is a sample calculation of a welding neck flange.
Design pressure, p. Design temperature

= 2,500 psi. = 25O"F.

(i)
Figur6

(i)
lo.l,t
Vlll-I.)

(k)

(1)

Bolt-up and gasket seating temperature = 70'F. Flange material is SA-105. Bolting material is SA-325 Grade 1. Gasket details are spiral-wound metal, fiber filled, stainless steel, inside diameter is 13,75 in. and width is 1.0 in. Solutinn

Typer of flonger. (Courl,ely Americon So.ieiy of Mechonicol Engin.rs, from Fig. 2-.1 of the

ASME Cod.,

2.

Allowable flange sfress at design and seating temporatures = S/ =

17,500 psi. Gasket dirnensions are

3.
Allowable bolt shess at design and seating temperatufes = S, =
19,200 psi.

1.

b.= N/2 = 0.5in. and b=0.5Vro=0.3535 G = 13.75 + (2 x l) - (2 x 0.3535) = 15.M3 in.

302

BTIND fI.ANOES, COVER PIATES, AND FLANGES

I 'r=
13.154

orrron coxorrronr

J7i.^l u."^L azl-1, l;ber fi//el,s u/eer tt"el rl t5 t.o. i t" ",tt /e'

Io-:".

ra't

I P;Pe s'ze

h= 6'at

B=

to.7t "

L. tza

I
c. 2t,5'

tr

ll

I
hT

Ac

=,5lc

-6r - cr

= t.1L

t6- 7"' eot::s Figure

rc =.5(c

- t71'65

lO.l,C(d)

Flons dimBions

ior Ex. 10.9.

4.

y=

Determine bolt loadings and sizing of bolts with 10,000; m=3.0. 444,323

= l; b = 0.3535;

.s(s, + srfq .5 {sr

srl =

, : Xo,, = 2|o5.o43)'z(zsoo) :
W^z

H, = 2btrGmp = 2(0.3535)zr( 15.043X3.0X2500) :250,591 Wa = H + Ho = @44323) + (250,591) = 694,914

.5lsi + s,lr.5lsx

+5rl =

13. oO

= 1/3t.+t =

Z.o

= nbGy : z(0.3535)(15.043X10,000) : 167,060 A. = the greater of W f Sbh : 694,914) /(19,200) = 36.2 in.'z or W,ef 56" = 067 ,0ffi) /(19,2C0) : 8.7 in.'z Aa = actual bolt area = 36.8 in.'z 16 bolts at 2-in. diameter W.: 0.5(A^ + Ar)Sr. = 0.5(36.2 + 36.8X19,200) : 700,800
Wo=Wa=694,914
Calculate total flange moment for the design condition.

a.115

'
lf Lh

t0.75 "

.il ..

i9oc., no..g ro + t .uttipt

lr

.6or au.rld

b,

Flange Loads

l6 - 2"toont

r. a41'

CdrvndCrxt.a-G+w

D.+ tt'i..
Tovlor-Bonnev Div

a,

XB'p !{ro.ts)'{zsn) = 226906 He = Hp:250,591 Hr : H - Ho : 1444,3231 - Q26906) = 2r7,4r7

Leaer Arms

Figuro

lo.l5

weldins neck flonse sdmple colculotion sheet (Courtesv

'

Tovlor

Fors..)

hp=R+'0.591 = (2.5) + 0.5(3.375) =

4.1875

303

Itll'lD flANOt!, COVIR p[Arr3, Al,tD frANOrs

nr;

O..J(C

IO.IO

BOLTID FTANGED CONNECTIONS WITH RING-fiPE

6) =

0..5(22.5

}r=0.5(R*g1 * ft6):0.5(2.5 +
Flange Moments

15.043)

GASKITS

305

j12BS

3.375

Lon g itudinal H ub Stre s s

3.7285)

4.9613

sx = fMn/ LglB

(t)(2,928,490) / (r.763)(3.37 ra(0.7 s)

sa:
s^=

x hD = (226,910)(4.1875) = g5g,17g Mo- Hox hc= Q5O,5g0)(3.7285) : g34,33g Mr = Hr x h, : (Zt7 ,420)(4.3018) = t,O43,gg}
Mo = Hp
Ma"
6.

!3,s70 q9!

Radial Flange Stress

Qte

r)Mo/LtzB = <z.uzaf,s:x:rrii;li:..763)(4.s),Oo.7s)

= Mo + Mc + Mr = 2,928,490

s" = lLsg-Q-pg
Tangential F lang e St e s s

Calculate total flange moment for bolt_up condition.

Flange Load

g7:
= Sr =

(YMs/t2B)

ZSa

He =

W:

700,800

(2.29)(2,928,490) / (4.
9140 psi

r,

00.7 5)

( 1.

39X 1 5,590)

Lever Arm

hc=0.5(C-G):3.7285
Flange Moment

10.

Allowable stresses

56
Sa

<

1.5Sy: (1.5X17,500)

26,250

>-11,10 pC)

Mon= He

ft6

(700,800)(3.7285)

2,612,930

< Sr: 17,500 > 15,590 psi < Sy: 17,500 > 9140 psi

E.

7.

K: = Q6.s)/(ro.7s) = 2.16s. i,e..-i 7 i, "s"Ju'i uro-,, r = 1.35 z = 1.3e y 2.2e ii : z.ii."*""^' ^F,-":" sr/ go = 3.375/1.0 :3.275

2,92g,490. q}11pe consrants from the ASME Code, VI[-I, Appendix 2: A/B

Use the greater of Md. or M6"g1/S); Ms

Example 10. 10. What is the minimum required thickness of a ring flange with the same design data as given in Exarnple 10.9? The inside diameter has been increased to fit over the outside of the shell to where,B = 12.75 in. The bolt loadings and bolt size are the same as in Example 10.9. A sample calculation sheet is shown in Figure 10.16. Solution

h=Vrry'=V@jr1D=3.27s
h/lro = 6.2s/3.2t9

1.906

1.

Calculate total flange moment for design condition. Flange Loads

VIII-I, I. = 0.57. WII_I, y = 0.04. From Fig. 2-7.6, Section WII-I;y = 1.g. e = F/ho= (.57) / (3.27s) = 0.1738
From Fig. 2-7.3, Section

From Fig. 2-7.2, Section

H, = !oB2p = X02l s),(zsn) = 31e,2oo

2g5.76

d=

(u /v)hoeT

e.s1 / .o4e.279)(t)2

= 250,600 Hr= H - HD= 444,300

Hp Lever Arms

He

319,200

125,100

9.

Calculate stresses. Assume a flange thickness

L=

(te

+ 1)/T + t3/d =

t = 4.5 in.

(1.320)

(0.443)

1.763

ho

= o.5(C - B) =

0.5(22.5

12.75)

4.875 in.

306

BTIND TI.ANOES, COVIR PTATES, AND FI.ANOCS

IO.I

REVERSE FTANGES

I E!"., r zfoo ftL

zrooF

cerrn raf.l,
Itl'lD
v f;rldr

ssir.l ..:."d
{itc
J(

iA- to5

stainl?r, jf.el

I r^o Korrcl foce

l'robhm

10,10

5A'tz6

GP.l

G. tr lt +QtD4r .'r<.A,B.ql roao AxD aott cltcuultoNS

l'dii<

tllapsi

rv.'

li

x,

117., a';,

J1t

wn-,r.+n- 6,j1,1t{ l.vlt

It
E.5t<

H -efr/!

- 5,cr E i6'Lo6o 25tc^r: ZE O,5

- 4t14,tt.

tc @1."9 w =,!l^. + Ats. - 100,oo

arra

^-

-a:j w-,/r q wi/s\-

9.1

tC.

Suppose a solid flat 2j chrome steel alloy gasket with 13.75 in. inside diameter and width N = Lin., m = 6.0, and y = 21,800 is used with the flange in Example 10.9. What are the gasket seating and the operating loads?

Answersz design condition is I7,' = 734,599

seating condition is W^,

tO

244,rOO ,O

q.-*.t-h- zto,tq I tt,-r -i/!- lZ5)132- loorSoo

tb

:.51 lD +
A.

- ct ri.l = {.iol6

150 = 3.1295

,ti = rolb = tt5t6,096

,14

-8fi - t1a.79t v. = 1,028,618

u'

= rdg

= 934,j21

IO.I

REVERSE FTANGES

=.rtc

6 tn^tr

N. - 2,ctz,1r1 - cl - 2,1285 cof.3r^Nri r:^/. rz.o'18 r-- L^z

lvr .!d
_b.h

p..hr .ro.c, 2. + ,.,Lnirtr /rdi;;Ec n h

'.qe.ri6r

5'|

\J

r" +-;-

,-,[x=r*
'={ *i.mi
Figure

adrd.d6.1.J-}lvib.r-

@
Dd.-

Rules for the design of reverse flanges are given in Appendix 2 of the ASME Code, VI[-1.5 This type of flange is often used to form a reducing joint. The solution of the reverse flange is similar to that for the raised-face standard flange with the ring-type gasket within the bolt circle except for some minor differences. Figure 10.17 shows some loads that are applied in the reverse direction'

10.16

Rins llonse lomple col.ulorion sheet. (Courtsy

c+W

Toytor-Bonney Div., Toytor Forge.)

= 3.729 in. hr = 0.5(ho + hd = g.514.gr1 + 3.729) = 4.302 n.

15.043) Flange Moments

hc = 0.5(C

G, = 0.5(22.5

Mo = Ho x h": (319,26)(4.575) = 1,556,000 Mc = He x h6 : Q5O,ffi)(3.729) = %a,5gg Mr = Hr x h, = (125,1N)(a.302) = 53g.26i

Ma"

= Mo + Mc +

Mr=

3,029,000

t
3.
4.

Bolt-up moment is the same as in Example 10.9, Muu = 2,613,000. Shape constants arc K = A/B = 26.5/12.75 = 2.078 From Fig. 2-7 .l of tlrc ASME Code, Ylfi-l, Y = 2.812. Required thickness is based on design condition as

': iE

M*Y _ (3.029,000x2.812) =

-1r21x1)@.n

5'8e8

in

Fisurs 10.17

Rwer$ flonge looding ond

dimen3ions.

308

IUND ftANoxs, covrR puTEs. aND rrANG[S

I
Drt|ox coxofioxt

'lhis muy cuuse sorns ol the moments t0 be applietl in thc opposite direction liom those loads on a regular flange. However, the analysis is the same after thc "new" total moment is determined. Again, the moments arc determined for both the gasket seating condition and the operating condition. In Figure l0.lg is a sample calculation sheet of a reverse flange. Additionally, a new term aa is introduced to convert some terms from reqular flanges io reverse flanges; fra and K are redefined and based on the reverse fl-anse inside diameter; and a new equation is added to calculate the tansential flanie
stress at the inside flange bore.

5/rr/ 'a.tat, fi l. r "t"-"/- ;ahs 4a/ {,t/el, t& ltde/r.75't0 '

/
'

Kai'ed {""e-

special precaution is noted. When K < 2, results are faidy satisfactory; however, when I( > 2, the results become increasingly conservative. For this reason the ASME Code procedure is limited to where I< 2. Derivation of the new equations for reverse flanges is similar to that for the regular flange except shears and moments are applied at the outer edge of the ring

IOAO

llwt lr|| t.=J(C+i'-23-t)=

r.r

l Or{t|.l

fi*r- x.t - t81,1o

-,r'r' - _ I,Orl,tq l - zz 1q f. y't f * - Z,trL'?V

K = A/B',

flange where discontinuities occur between the flange ana *re truU. Wittr the conversion term ca is determined for converting T, Il, and y to T,, U,, alrd If, which is obtained as

r(5r+ s.)rJ(s' +

e!)

816EO ?e\
=

"=*['.*.#*)
Example

r.ir.

rta. 9r

( ! a') =?

I't,|o'l

(1,0.24)

rtl
rr = r:-rj.jb.t

0.957

Substituting this expression into the regular equation for tangential shess (10.2s)

I=.ch/d
4sr +tn.t

3l +n= qt6rl

Z5r

loatr.+ l),,P=

r".9, rrg, sr t^r r') =

ff
t =./3r+ | =
l.

10.11. A reverse

to Ms = 2,613,W. The flange bore d, = 13.25 in.; the outside diameter A = 26.5.n.; and the flange thickness r = 5 in. What is the tangential flange
stress at the hub and at the inside bore?

to form a reducing connection . The total bolt-up momint ls coitroiting anA equit

flange is joined to a regular ring_type joint flange

Solutian,

The tangential flange stress 51 at the hub is

tr= *,zl+ " _Mol,, t,

=

zl.,z \j

i\l*

r*7i
--/] ] " s " o.r:r)l : 3
szzopsi
Fisurs

#*#f Lr.ut - fl(r* tj.zJ\zJ) 4.14\

Ji

10.18

Rwerse flonse somple colculotion she|. (Courtesy

G+W Toylor-Bonney Div.. Toylor Forge.)

'fhe tangential flange stress

s+

at the flange bore is

gof kly _zK'?(_t-+l)i l B'f L (K,

309

ll0

luND ftaNots, covln puTrs, AND ItANOES

.(,.

IO.I2

FUI.L.FACT GASKET FIANGE

3l

_ 2,6t3.(xx)L
r3.2s(25)

L-'"

oa

_ z(+Xl

+lx5

#*itti

= I6'o5opsi

Example 10.12. With the reverse flange given in Example 10.11, what is the minimum required thickness based on an allowable flange stress of 17,500 psi?
stress at the flange bore of 16,050 psi is controlling. Because / appears in several terms in a no;linear manner, the easiest way to select the proper thickness is by nial and error. For the initial trial, use a square relationship as follows:

Solutia3. The tangential flange

--tl-:
The term

16,050

17.500

l1z-

or t:48in.
.ti =
16,900 psi. By , : 4.6g in.

,\ is recalculated

as 3.855. Using this, the

which gives

successive recalculations, the approximately correct thickness is

Si:

17,500

psi. I

Pmhlcm
10.11 Using the details of the flange described in Example 10.11. what is the minimum required thickness if the material of the flange is changed to one with an allowable stress of 15,000 psi?

Answer t-i\ = 5 -26 in.

IO.I2
919

FULI-FACE GASKET FTANGE

in section strengtl at the bolt circle from the bolt holes must be considered when the radial stress at the bolt circle is determined. ..soft,, lmplolng this type of gasket is usually limited to designs where a gasket (with a low m and 1, factor) is used and the design prlssure is low. This is necessary to keep the loads and bolt size within reaso-n ti fit *ithin th" fl*n" geometry even though the countermoment usually results in a low flange mi_ ment and a minimum required flange thickness.

used but no design methods exist in the is the flange using a full-face gasket, as shown in Fig. 10.19. lfME "C:* is a sample Figure.10.20_ calculation sheet. This type of flange is designed according to the provisions of U-2(g) of the ASME Code, Sectiorivll, Division l. This code paragraph permits using good engineering design for those constructions where no rules exist in the code. Although the analysis is similar to that used for a raised-face , ring-type flange , a countermoment is introduced from that part of the gasket that is outside of the bolt circle. In addition, the decrease

gp" ot flange that is frequently

_tA

l-l
I

Figura I 0.19 full-foce gosket loodin$.

Several important design assumptions made in the analysis are uniform gasket pressure over the entire gasket, inner edge of flange assembly unrestrained, and no reduction in gasket pressure area due to bolt holes. Other restrictions and

limitations necessary for the raised-face, ring-type gasket flange, such as linear rotation about the centroid of the ring, prevail. Assuming a uniform gasket pressure, determinations are made of the dis

312

tNo ttANots, covrR p[ATrs, AND FtANOIS I

oraa.. corDmoxt
z

lrom the bolt circle to the ccntroid of the annulus from the bolt circle to the outside diameter and from the bolt circle to the insidc diameter. In solving for the distances, the angle is assumed to be small and thc arc lengths are evaluated as sfiaight lines. From Roarkr2 and using his terminology, the basic equation is

tonce$ or momcnt olTns

F'tt - F'.e ,/1eturtL.f 'be.

to9

- |ltt=7 w-Jt=

qrlE

sA-rzt cv.l
I
tlEoo
)qzoo

rlj= 6tor +

,=i(T#)
a-

(lO.26a)

lr
5

14

ftl trtD = t/tt.r1' = Fi E=cnr/.=

reL

ro^0 aro fori calcul lo|t ti'.r = l,tq,tqQ tt,=26ra6r = | 18,q86

4 t r' 5 t1 1t,168

wd/s. d ^- =ebcL'of

Horvever, converting to the terminology used in the ASME Code and as shown in Fig. 10.19a, the equation becomes

wr'=tt +lt.r+t|'r = 7At,1l3 I ltv ar

r.

\^.2 t(.- z"Q tJte ^,= w=tl .+^,1t.= 706,t16 tr'at=r./:. ttc,= 94a, 4q6
N.A

17.,

)c.1b

it - r)trl. - 1,'t,o4\ ,tt-E-ED- 1L,17-4

6=

- r+ .5r, - tl,t 1 |'-Jtr+.,+tEl - { Zt,

(.
*"

Pt-,d6&

tZt,r72

A_C
2

- rrir - l1{,,rO{ V. - ?t1,h.6

=
r.oz?2'

(10.26b) (10.26c) (10.26d) (rO.26e)

!!:!E!-*9=-

= 2.9915'
=

=bg.4Lgl=
o. 11

b=

,.o=\a

-l|.= LlAtSoa

"^err,J

h.L- =

f6

a.=8.t-t'=
x er,o sur

1C4

tozL

*(#)
hL Therefore, substituting Eqs. 10.26b, c, d, and e, into Eq. lO.26a,

t:*

3nls3 CIICULllDOT-4din, 16!, |kb, ti = nJIEI = 1tt 71 ?ta

rrcrort

r.rErFEgr: Pb/f r-r. tla 9=-.t/f -u.:-j.5(5r+ s.l'Jl3r +5'l

t1,71o ?,1 ?,95'

q' ToL,?r
L

t/iDrrt 5trE$ al tolt oto.t

..-:;iffi = n,qL4 ?,.

'-i
t\I'ti;-,.217

0 t118

.-lh&.'-20116
nr.3s torMuta tactott

r l.:5 . -r.+l t calak+r = l.4IO

,, -

(A-C'^)(U+Cl
6(A

(10.27)

-afi , -.tla

C)

r -t+a
-=rL,rt
t br rp.d..

t. ool l O,o.lo1

r,o1', H?.l6
2. +

o....'

r.*htrt l;E

I 2.+l

16- 2"uotst

t1.tt1"
C-r-ao.d.aFigurc

Od.L'r.+

lo.2o

Fvll-Goce flonge lomple colculorion 3ho6t

Fiour

10.19(0)

Full-foce gosket dimnsions.

3r3

3I4

II.IND ?U\NO!S, COVER PTATTS, AND TIANOTS

h1;

IO,I2

FUIL-FACE GASKET

TIANGI

3I5

is determined as

ln a similar munncr, the distance or moment &rnt k)w&rd the inside diameter

..
hb

(A

- c)(u + c) 6(C + A)

(26.5

22.5t(2 x 26.5 + 22.5) 6(22.5 + 26.5\

C_B

-0"=+('!:'\/ 5 \O + c
. a: C_B 2 ,
=

(r0.26f) (to.26s)
(10.26h) (10.26D

1.0272 in.

Determine the gasket dimensions:

.r(?*)

- 2hc:22.5 - 2 x 2.5915 = 17.317 in. (22.5-10.75) . t =-c-B\ = 2.93?5 in. -44

G= C

,= *(?;
And substituting Eqs. 10.269, h, and

y= l10O and m = 1.75

Determine the loads:

i into Eq.

10.26f gives

c-B
and solving for ft6 gives

n = Tc.p = +,r7.317)r(3z}) 4'4

Ho

75,368

= ZbtGmp =

2(2'937 5) n(17 .317)(r.7 5)(320)

178,986

HI
(r0.28)
gasket loadings and two moment arms are determined, the 9n9" analysis of the flange is the same as for other flanges. The method is equally applicable to integral flanges, loose flanges, reverse flanges, and any othei type of flange. It is important to remember to use a..soft,'gaiket that keeps tfre tott loading within acceptable limits.

/r,^\
\rt)H'

.? sqr

5)

@;^t'is,r8rl:
75'368

45r'55e

Wt= H + Hp+H; =
Hsn

178,986

451'559
'79o

705'913

t"_*9

Hb'=
W,a

= blrGy = / h^\

(2.9375)r(17 .317X1100)

175

\nHc'=

@rfi5rw=
=
175,799

/,

5015\

443'4e7

= Hay + Hb,

443,496

619,286

Example.10.9 except for the thickness is used with a full-facJ gasket. The design pressure is 320 psi and the "soft" gasket is vegetable fiber with m = 1.75 and y = 1100. What is the minimum required thickness?

Example_10.13. A welding-neck flange with the same geometry as that in

Determine bolting requirements:

A'

is the greater of Wa/S"ot W^z/S.

= 36.76 in.'z based on ffi At = 36.8 in.'z based on 16-2-in. diameter bolts W = 0.5(A^ + A) : s.5136.76 + 36.8)(19'200) = 706'176
A^
Determine flange moments at operating condition. Flange Loads

Solution

l.

Determine the lever arms of the inner and outer parts of the sasket:

h. = G '"
ha

- B)(28 + C\ _ (22.5 6(8 + C)

t0.75)\2 x 10.75 + zz.5) 6(10.75 6( 10.75 + 22.5) 22.5\

2.5915 in.

H, = loB2p = f,go.t s1,1szo) = 29,oM Hr = H - Ho = 75,368 - 29,444 : 46,324

316

ILANOIS, COVER PI.ATES, AND

FI.ANOES

'IIND Lever Arms

IO.I4

f LAT-TACE FTANGE

WITH MEIAI-TO-MTTAI CONTACT

3t7

Radial Flange Stess

[o=R * 0.59' = 2.5 + 0.5(3.375) = 4.t875 in. lr = 0.5(ft i g * h) : 0.5(2.5 + 3.375 + 2.Sgt5\ = 4.2333 n.
Flange Moments

^
Sn

tlte +

l\M" Lt2B
psi

(t.4'104)t4M,O22) (1.042Sx2.03)110.75)
17,500

14,77O

<

psi

allowable stress

Mp

Hphp

(29,044)(4.187 5)

= @6,324)(4.2333) M. = Mo + M, = 121,622 + 196,104 =

6.

M7 = H7h7

= 121,622 = 196JOq
317,726

Tan Be ntial F lange Stre s s

s,:
Sr

VM --+

t'B
3457

zs,

2.29(464,022)

(2.03f (10.75)

(1.39)(14,77 0)

Determine flange moment at gasket seating condition.

psi < 17,500

psi

allowable

stress

Problcm
Flange Load

He = W"

H=

10.12
706,176

75,368

630,808

Lever arm
h',_ "o = ho + hb- Q.915) +

Assume a flange with a flat-face gasket has an applied moment of Mo -- 464,000 with a bolt circle of C = 22.5 in. using 16-2-in. bolts. What is the required thickness of the flange if the allowable skess is
15,000 psi?

hahh

(2.5915X1.0272)

[onr)

0'7356 in'

Answer:

t,"q'd.

2.19 in.

IO.I3

FTANGE CATCULATION SHEETS

Fhnge moment

Calculation sheets are included for the following types of flange design:
Sheet 1. Welding neck flange with ring-type gasket Sheet 2. Slip-on or lap-joint flange design with ring+ype gasket Sheet 3. Ring flange with ring{ype gasket

Mr:
1

H6h'[ = (630,808X0.7356 = a6a,O22

All flange geometry

constants are the same as in Example 10.9. Calculate flange stresses. Assume flange thickness t = 2.03 in. This is set directly from the radial flange stress at the bolt circte which is

6(4u,022) sF=, M' Nd) (2.0j),(22.5t " t"(rc - - 16 x 2)

SF

4. Reverse welding neck flange with ring-type gasket Sheet 5. Slip-on flange with full-face gasket Sheet 6. Welding neck flange with full-face gasket
Sheet

= n,a@

psi

<

17,500

psi

allowable. stress

Inngitudinal Hub Stre ss

IO.14 FLAT.FACE FTANGE WITH METAT.TO-METAL CONTACT OUTSIDE OF THE BOIT CIRCLE'",'O,''
Rules for the design of flat-face flanges with metal-to-metal contact outside of the bolt circle are given in Appendix Y of the ASME Code, VIII-I. The rules are for circular, bolted flanged connections with identical and nonidentical pairs of flanges. The pairs of flanges that are in metal-to-metal contact across the whole face and the gasket load to compress the gasket are small. (see Fig. 10.21) The rules also apply to identical pairs of flanges with a metal spacer added at the outer edge between them.

L= te+l +a= T
Sr=
Sa

1.0021 +0.0407

1.0428

\4e,022)
L'?n
(1.0428X3.375f(10.7s)
3634 psi

<

26,250

psi

allowable stress

torrD afto aorY

calcut
'|or{S

It
ro/ro r
llvar /lr|r

rOAO

val

^rr

|rorlxl

,!lsr +

5r,.!

tsi + S,j

SlSr

+ trlo'.5(t, +

t'i =

lr

r .d i.

b.l iFdne d.od.2. +

h

r,'.hi?t .br .qd'or b', v /i"L,Da.r -;=;-

aEotr.

Csrea6.r., c+W

O.r.

|{Jih.'Shsor Forge.)

Sh6.r

l.

Welding neck flcng with ring-ryp g6kei. (Co,.rrresy

Toylor-Bonnoy Div., Toytor Forg.)

-----J@!! 2. Slip-on or lop-ioint

flonse v.irh rins-typ sd3ker.

Courre3y

G+W Toylor-Bonney Div,, Toylor

3t8

3r9

tl0
:-:-=-._.....Y-

ll.lND

.ANO!s, COV!n p[AtES, AND trANOls

.:...:.---

2olrr

---

1,-

prrr

la,;,.-=
trl
5

rv.r

brc,

^-=Zi w-,tt,- s-,,.c

to^o eno rotr cercur.r6ii

l*'

Lsc
"I.

^-,44

||-1/s.' w-tts,-

-e,r/.

I .Jlrb
+

r
ti=.5(c-G)

iD=J(C+r,-2$-tJ=

tavl| atr

rEl E
1."'.e

iiiiiiS,iiiidiii'fi iF,il,,i -""'!,iit,y,,,:,.^*,-,.".

rtttsS carculaiox-{rf, rolin,

^,=.r{.-F6
z

M.l

6 rxpt
7

L3,nfl;:r,,1*-;E;F,=J+l
1,

coxrr^'m l-t

I "',i,:.
r{e,

xAtD |lut t^cro$

xu5,

5r

=ti./I!r'

tat lt,
Shsi 3.

k_/,

trb

rltt 5:t

Co"ur.dG.*.d_

@
O.r.

tcie. tle.,

1:/ r rsr + sr,or J{s{ + s,, = r".".a,.s,o,r'r=+ [v-,xit(Jj

9 "?.::'

S'= tufr/t, -ZS,tO,6rt.+rt/B=

ili5.,--

ttr$t cllcutano|r- sdd..

.rub, g = Ircllo,r rod,crae.,sr = pn./lt r.^o fl!., S'= ^cfr/r' -Z',to.6rt.+n/R= .la, +sa- rrs, + s,r =

""+[+:!Ilr#rl t)rr

ning flonga yrith ring-iypo golkt. (Cou|.tosy G+W Toylor_Bonney Div., To),lor

Fo;

=+.a,

l;-------=_+
Ur=drU

llji r-, n,.. s" 1^l 11 = f,

contact at the outer.diameter or at some point between the b;ft circle th;i,r'te. oiam"te, at a distance llc from the boit circle. Ttre gasket is assurneJi. ti-rJrilr"o,ng u"a generaGs a negligibre load during operation and is located in rir,"iia tn" u"rr"t wall. The major difference uetrieen ttris ryp",f ;il'tr,"'Jrg_typ" o"_ scribed in Section 10.9 is the additional pryi'nl contact The.basic development assumes that the flanges are in tangential

;;

e-rrr:-i-------.'] lY El k_r'=

? x r_.. r-T*-+
[v
I

i::"

i i,' ] =

trrls3 Forr ui,a ;^cort

of the two flanges. To organize the calculations svsiemadcally, it is necessary !v !ru!. blies and to categorize each individual nann". -- "--veJqr to classify assem_
C hs s ifcation o! As s e mb ly

d;" ;fil;;;iliit;

II r-bJ il
aadl. <t_A:
Shl

't

| [.n'rV t--|r---T| | / h ]_-,_

r 4'"Ftt
+ --l,o l.-----r=
n*

,__<.

CmptrdChxr.dflonse wirh rins-fyp goskst. (Court$y

D.h.-*---N!ib.r=-Toylor-Sonney Div., Tdytor

Class l. This g'oove.

is a pair of flanges that are identical except for the

gasket

,a.

Rverc wldins

c+W

Fors.)

Class 2 . Ii consists of a pair of nonidentical flanges where the inside diameter of the reducing flange Jxceeds one_half the U.it Ou."to* "i."f" Class 3- This is a flange combined with a flat head or a reducing flange where the inside diameter is small and ao", oot on"_tlif" fieiort ctcte diameter. "*"""0321

o8rox cDaa!|no{t

2.

4 Ir
IOAO :
lavn rrr

^to w.r= bror + Nir =

loao

lott carcuraroxt
Ar =

rr..tr.t wd/s. d w.Jt =

li
|tot,Nt

Wn=fi+i!+fi'?=
I TIVlt
T

,r

""=-:rc+.ih,i= l'.1"., -

lA-Cll2A+Cl=

tc-tlra+o= -=-=iiT6-

"i*

ttatS CArqrlAnOx-Ot rato,

o
f

|lo nof

tac'ot

lttr|lr,h=nJr6r
r.aEt

tr-

r@. 6E

ar = sr

Jl!, + li'Jl$
t^Dur str!3s At

r = ..1/ I -l5l
+5rl

P*/If

'

|olr ot<ll

ttrg totnutt ttctotg

nra$ tourula tacloti

I Llr !Fd'! .s.i' 2. + I rlrirt

It

r.inlb.e!fu

!.lr D.d'. .B.dt 2. + t

!r!

dldrlr I t lr r.dr I 2.+l

C..'a.itr O.d.aSh.at

Dd.-

C6er.{-6rr.aShcet 6.

o.r.f&iL'-

5,

Slip-on flons6 with tulLlcce soska. (Courtsy

cfw

ToyloFBonney Div., Taytor Forss.)

322

323

321

II.INO FIANOIS, COVTR PTATES, AND FI"ANOTS

t0.15

sPHERtcattY orsHED covtRs

dished head and the flange ring. The flange thickness is set by the combination of the circumferential ring stress and the tangential bending stress. Figure 10.22 shows the head geometry and the loading applied to the ring flange resulting liom the reaction from the internal pressure against the dished head. It is derived thus. Using the geometry in Fig. 10.22, the following is set: adjacent side

:
=
adjacent side

cos B,

hypotenuse L'

_\/L'''' - (

\/4L'1Err-=E

(10.30a)

2L'

membrane force in head to due to oressure

: F' =pL 2T :pD

2t

(10.30b) (10.30c)

circurnferential ring stress

Flor-foce flonge wirh mebl_to-metol conto.r ouisid. of tfie bolt circle, Figur6

= 5" =

pR

10.21

Catagory of Flonges

9i*g.IV^ mtegral flange.

t.

This is an integral flange or an optional flange calculated as an

consists of a loose-type flange with a hub that is considercd to

ca'gory 2.It
add shength.

flange :l"g.y 3. A.loose-type type that is with or without a hub or an optional type calculated as a loose where no credit is taken for the hub in any case.

Once the class and category are established, the analysis is similar to that Appendix 2 flaige except for tt udaitionJrl"oings iuus"c uy ttr. i"9" prying effe{t where the contact near the ourcr " diameter occurs . iiis Jontact torce H3 and its_moment arm lk involve an interaction between tfr" Uoft anC flange deflection and the moments Me and Ms. "iongution The required bolt load for operating conditions is

fr:g

W:H+Hc+Hc
IO.I5
SPHERICALTY DISHED COVERS

(r0.29)

A ( outeide dianeter)

'Ihe ASME.Code contains special rules for designing spherically dished covers I-tll TntnC, "ng flange. The formulas given in the code are approximate Decause tney do not take into account the discontinuity existing between the

Fisuru

10.22

Sphcricolly-dirhed covcr.

t26

.tND

ttANO!!, COVIR puTrs, AND traNols

IO,I5

SPHERICATTY DISHED COVERS

Substituting

l, = tr', cos B,; D = B; and , = (/ _ B)/2 in Eq. 10.30c,

l)ividing by S and rearranging terms to form a quadratic,

^'

a-B)/22

F'cos B,

(r0.30d)

T2-27(F)-J=0
2p -r

(10.37) (10.38)

When the value of ./c, is substituted in Eq. 10.30d, the equation becomes

1/@ufi or T:F t-1/vta1

s" =

*2 ,,"o" 9,,, 212@-B)/2

(10.30e)

This equation is identical with the equation given in 1-6(9) of the ASME Code,

v[-1.

Whdn the value of cos B1 from Eq. 10.30a is substituted,

". - pn t/+Ld-=E 4T A_B

Code, Section

(10.31)

]anCeryia

gtrep] ring due to Me is as follows: VIII, the equation rs

from Eq. 9 of 2_51 of the ASME

Application of this equation is permitted for either internal or extemal presp is the absolute value for either the internal pressure or the external pressure. The value for ffi is determined by combining the moments from bolt loading and gasket loading with the moment caused by the pressure loading from the spherical head on the inside edge of the ring. When this total moment is determined, the absolute value is inserted for Mo in the equation. Figure 10.22 shows the loadings caused by the pressure. In Fig. 10.22, the loading shown is due to intemal pressure. However, if the loading were due to
sure. The term
extemal pressure, all directions of loadings would be reversed, but the effective stresses on the ring would be the same. If external pressure were applied to the head, it would have to be examined for compressive buckling that might set the thickness.

-'
butY = (A + B)/(A

vM"
T2B

(10.32)

B),so

"= c^;(*=)
s, = s" +

(10.33)

Combining the circumferential and the tangential stresses in the ring grves

10.14. A spherically dished head is to be bolted to the welding neck flange described in Example 10.9. The dished head is to b attached at the upper inside comer with the outside surface even with the ring's outside (see Fig. 10.23). What is the minimum required thickness of the flange ring when the spherical head is dished to a radius of = 28?
Example

r, = r4@-=F 4r e= n -

* ( u"\(e _,n\ - \f,ri1, * )

,_
Mo(A

(to.34\

It

r = PBldt=E -^^ 8S(A - 8)

Then

s8(A _ B)

+ B)

(10.3s)

s,=f<n * fiut

(10.36)

Fisure 10.23 Dimgnsioni of sphericolly-di.hed heod in Ex. 10.14.

329

tuND traNots, covtR phTrs, aND H.ANotS

the geometry

IO.I5
t-oad

SPHERICAI.I"Y DISHED COVERS

Solutlon. From A=

of Example 10.9,

Arm ho he

Moment

26.5;

a=

10.75; L=28=2(10.75\:21.5

IIp =

11,

8l,700

= 0.5(C - 8) = 0.5(C - G)

: 5.875 : 3.729
h6)

Mp

H6hp

480,000 934,000 1,614,000

Dtermine the minimum required head thickness as follows:

He

= Hp :250,600

Mc = H6h6 =
M7 = H7h7

=t#

=*ffii

2.560

in.;

Hr =
use2.625 in. Hn

336,100
336,1.0O

hr = 0.5(R'r

g'l t)

= -hn

4.8O2

From geometry calculations

Mo: Mp + MG + Mr + M, :

-0'5T +

-O.5(T

Ma = Hnhn

: -

1.313

168,050r +441,300

3,469,60

L'=L+l:r.r.t*?@
L' = 22.813
cos p1

168'050f

The minimum thickness at gasket seating condition is

in.

(10.75 22.8t3)z 2(22.813)

=0.972;

h=13.626"

(2,613,0W)1?!ll_!!JI)_ rt'orv F=u and r: (nJ:00xmj5)(26i - l0J5): ?,, Rsn = T: F + \/F' + J = *2-s5o = 5.732 in.
The minimum thickness at operating condition is

Membrane force in the head due io pressure is

-n- :2r,s" 'r':pL -(25mV2l'sl =lo'zolb

Horizontal force Vertical force

'" _
If we

(2s00x10.75)y'4f11.8 8(17,500x26.5

tP-:-(l0l75f = o 54o 10.75)

= F'

cos p1

GO,24O)(0.972\

9950 lb

assume

T = 5.75 and M0

2,503,000,

= F'

sin Br

O0,'2,40)(.236)

Total horizontal force Total vedical force

a(10.75)(9950)

?A2O

lb

336,000

r :32.8so

zr(10.75)(Z4ZO)

91,76

T = 0.540 +

'ffi;ffi

31.467 6.175 in.

+ (3r.467): = 6.25 and Mo =

Moment at gasket seating condition is

If

we assume T

2,419,000,

I=32.850"?*i:# =ro4tl
Load

furn

Moment

He = W. = 700,800 ho = 0.5(C

G)

T = 0.52+0 * y'1g5a0t + (30'4lD = 6.081 in.

3.729 Mo = H6h6: 2,613,000

The minimum thickness is approximately 6.108 in. Although exact thickness can be determined , T = 6.25 in. is satisfactory. I

Moment at operating condition is

330

EuND frANOrs, covER

ptAlrs, AND

FtANGTS

NOMENCTATURE 33I NOMENCTATURT

l'robhms

10.13 A spherically

dished flange with an outside diameter ofA = 36 in. and ofB l8in. is subjected to a gasket seating momenr of 3,500,000 in.lb. The allowable tensile stress of the flangi material is 15,000 psi. What is the minimum required thickness at the gasket seating condition?
an inside diameter

lndividual nomenclature is used throughout Chapter 10. It is usually noted near to where used. The following list gives some of the general nomenclature.

Answer: t^n = 6.24 in. 10.14

For the flange in Problem 10. 13, what is the maximum allowable flanse moment if the allowable tensile stress is increased to 17,500 psi and tie flange thickness is set at 6.25 in. ?

Answer:

M51o*

= 4,|O2,NO in. lbs./in.

circumference

A I C E G 1u' N-6 P R S S. 56

:
= =

outside diameter of flange (in.) inside diameter of flange (in.) diameter of bolt circle (in.) weld joint efficiency diameter of gasket reaction (in.)
gasket seating width (in.)

: : :
= = = =

minimum gasket width (in.) total load 0b)

spherical radius of gasket surface (in.) allowable tensile stress (psi) allowable bolt stress, room temperature (psi) allowable bolt stress, design temperature (psi)
design pressure (psi)

: :

nominal thickness of head (in.) effective diameler of flat head (in.)

minimum requircd thickness (in.)

Yory = seating stress of gasket material (psi) E, = modulus of elasticity (psi) W^t = flange loading for design condition (lb) = flange loading for bolt-up condition (lb) Wz bn = basic gasket seating width (in.) b = effective gasket seating width (in.) OD = outside diameter of gasket (in.) ID = inside diameter of gasket (in.) = actual bolt area (in.'z)
Ms

flange moment for design conditions

(in.lb)

332
Mn

tuNO fl-ANOts,

COVTR PLATES, AND

lt-ANOts

S|EUOORAPHY 333
BIBTIOGRAPHY

flange momcnt for bolt-up condition (in.-lb)

maximum bending stress (psi)

dmum deflection (in.)

0*
o,

maximum rotation (radians)

or

Bhch, A. E., and A. Bazergui, "Mthods of Analysis of Bolted, FlaDged Connections-A Review," Ecolc Pol)4echnique, Montial, Camda, Jaluary 1981. InterprEtive Study on the Design of Notr-Circular Flaoges and Flanges with Extemal Loads" (a
private report to PVRC , May 23 , 1979 .) Rrut, H. D., A. Bazeigui aod L. Marchand, 'Casket lakage Trends" (A private report to PVRC),

tangential stess (psi)

o,
a"
lL

ai = radial stress (psi) a6 = circumferential sness (psi)

poisson's ratio

April

1981.

Rodsbaugh, E. C., atrd S. E. Moore, "Evaluation of the Bolting and Flarges of ANSI 816.5 Flarged Joints-ASME Part A Design Rules," ORNUSub-2913-3, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TeDn., Septenbr 30, 1976. Timo$henko,

5., Theory of Plates and S&ells, McGraw-Hill, New Yo*,

1940.

REFERENCES

ASME Boiler atrd Pressure Vesol Code, Section VIII, Division I, Pressure Vessels, ANSVASME BPV-Vn-I, Amedcan Society of Me.hanical Engine$, New Yo*, 1983. ASME Boiler ard Pressure Vessel Code, S@ton I, Pover Boilcrs, ANSVASME BPV-I, American Society of Mechadcal Engineers, New York, 1983. Wate$, E. O., D. B. Wesstiom, D. B. Rossheim, and F. S. G. Williams, "Formulas for Sftsses in Bolted Flanged Connections," f/dns. ASME, vol. 59, 1931, pp. 16l-169.
Wate$, E. O., D, B, Rossheim, D. B, Wesstrom, aDd F. S. G. Wilham's, Development of General Formulas for Bohed Flaryes, Taylor Forge atrd Pipe Works, Chicago, 1949. Waters, E. O., and R. W. Schneider, "Derivation of ASME Code Formulas for lhe Design of Reverse Flanges," WeldittS Research Council, Bulletin 262, October 1980, pp. 2-9. ANSI Standard 816.5, "Pipe Flatrges and Flanged Fittings," American NatioMl Srzndards hstitute. New York. API St ndard 605, lzrge Diametcr Carbon Stee, FrarSer, ANSVAPI Std. 605, Americatr Petroleum ltrstitute, Washington, D,C. ANSI Staftlard B16.24, 'Bronze Flanges ard Fittings, 150 aod 300 lb," America! National Standatds Institute, New Yo*. Rossheim, D, 8,, and A. R, C. Markl, "Gasket Irading Con$tants," Mechanical Eb gi ceri g, Vol. 65, September 1943, W. 647-648. Raut, H. D., and G. F. Iron, "Report of Oasket Factor Tests," Welding Research Council, Bulleti! 233. New Yort. De.ember 1977, Modern Flange Design, Bulleth 502, Tttt ed, , G aDd W Taylor-Bomey Division, Southfield, Mich.

',

11.

12. Roark, R. J,, FormnJas for Stress and Strain,3d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954. 13. Water$, E. O,, 'Dedvatior of Code Fordulas for Part B Flanges," WeUinB Research Coun il, Bnlletin 166, October 1971, pp. n47. 14, Schneider, R. W., and E. O. Waters, "The Backgrcund of ASME Code Cas 1828: A Simplified Metbod of Analyzing Part B Flanges," Tranr, ASME, Jounal of Presrure Vessel Technology, Vol. 100, No. 2, Mt! 1978, pp. 215-219. Schneide., R. W, and E, O, Wate$, "The Application of ASME Code Case 1828," Irarr,
ASME, lournal of Pressure Vewel Technology, Vol. 101, No.

I, February

1979,

pp.87-94,

CHAPTER

ll

OPENINGS, NOZZLES, AND EXTERNAL LOADINGS

334

335

336
I
I

OPENINGS, NOZZIES, AND EXTERNAI' LOADINOS

I.I

OENERAI,

.I

GENERAL

process vessels require openings to get the contents in and out For somc vessels, where the conients miy be large or some of the intemal parts may need frequent changing, access is made through large openings in which the entirc heai or a secioriof the shell is removed. However, for most process vessels, the contents enter and exit through openings in the heads and shell to which nozzles and piping are attached. In addition to these openings others may be required, suCh- as those for personnel entering the vessel through a manway opining. Other openings rnay be necessary for inspecting the vessel ftom the outside-thmugh a handhole opening , and still others may be required-for cleaning or draining tie vessel. Thesl openings do not always have a nozzle located at the openin!. Sometimes the closure may be a manway cover o-r handhole cover pad area by that ii eithlr directly welded or attached to the vessel or a built-up

All

additional loading may require compensation as well as what is necessary to rcsist the internal and external pressure loadings, as shown in Fig. 1l.l' Openings and nozzles similar to those occurring in pressure vessels also occur in piping. This is the case where a branch run is attached to the main run of piping. The branch-to-run intersection is subjected to the same pressure and ihermal expansion loadings as those applied to a vessel nozzle. Although the nozzles have a similar construction, usually an important difference lies in the relationship between the ratio of the nozzle diameter to the vessel diameter and the branch diameter to the run diameter. For pressure vessels, this ratio d/D is much less than for piping. In many piping systems, this ratio may be very close

bolts. For some nozzles, additional loading to the iniernal or extemal pressure may be innoduced from dead loads ftom equipment and piping and ftom thermal expansion flexibility loadings from the piping and equipment motions' This
Ml

to 1:1, as as shown in Fig. 11.2. In designing openings and nozzles for resisting loadings from internal and extemal pressures and from external loadings, two types of stress conditions are important. Fkst, the primary rnembrane stresses in the vessel or run pipe, that is, the necessary stresses mahtaining static equilibrium must be kept within the limits set by the allowable tensile stresses. Second, the peak stresses caused by abrupt changes in the geometry at the nozzle-to-shell comer and cause stress concentrations must be kept within acceptable limits. These peak stresses are important in a fatigue evaluation where the design life of the nozzle and the other

f-

F^l

figura

tl.l

Applied Pras$rre ond externol loodings on noz-zle'

FigurG

ll.2

Voriotion in d/D rotio of nozzles ond piping.

OPININOS, NOZZICS, AND EXTERNAI TOADINOS vcssl parts or piping system are established. A slight change in the details at tho

I.2

STRESSS

AND TOADINGS AT OPTNINOS

intersection may enable the vessel to operate through many more cycles of pressure and temperature loadings. Detailed rules for designing vessels and piping to accommodale the primary membrane stresses and loadings from intemal and external pressures are given in codes and regulations such as the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codel
and the ASME Code for Pressure Piping B31.'z In addition, some design rulcs are given in the more advanced sections of these codes to permit considering shess intensity factors (SIF) and stress concentration factors (SCF) in determining peak stresses. The peak stresses are used to determine the design fatigue life of the vessel. Other codes do not mention peak stresses or fatigue evaluations and leave the latter as the designer's responsibility. At the present time, none of

these codes contains detailed design rules for the consideration loadings from either dead loadings or piping expansion loadings.

of extemal

I1,2

Stresses ond Loodings ot Openings

Both single and multiple openings require calculations that show that the stresses and loadings in the shell and head are kept within acceptable limits. Single openings are calculated by the reinforcement method, whereas multiple openings are calculated by either the reinforcement method or the ligament efficiency method. In both cases, the primary stresses are effectively kept less than the allowable stress by replacing the area removed for openings. For a single circular opening in a flat plate with infinite boundaries in two directions (not through the thickness) that is subjected to applied forces and stresses along opposite edges of the plate, stresses are increased above the nominal applied stress in the unperforated plate. The stresses decrease away from the opening until the nominal stress in the plate is obtained. The ratio of the stress at the examined point divided by the nominal stess is the stress

intensity factor.

The shess intensity around an opening may be expressed either in general

terms of applied stresses and geometry or in location of the considered point. The
Figure

ll.3

Two-direction'lood combinorio's on flot Plote with circ"ldr oPening'

basic equation at an opening may be represenied in terms of o and 0, with the angle of the considered point measured from the loading axis.r For the loading shown in Fig. 11.3a, the or is axial and 0 = rl2 at the maximum sfiess locarl2 atthe maximum stress location tion. ForFig. ll.3b,lhe q is axial and
and,

a1 and 0 : 0 at the maximum stress location. For Fig. 11.3c, the a1 is axial and o2 : o1 is at right angles to o1. Values of 0 are the same as for the cylinder. When two loadings or stresses are involved, the effects at the maximum stress location are added. The basic couation for direct s[ess is

o2:0.5or is at right angles to

0:

The basic equation for the maximum stress at the edge of the opening in terms of the component of stresses in each direction is

o^o:3o1 -

o2

(1r.2)

" Zl'.

(;)'] - i [' -' '(;)'] *'

''

(11

l)

where the values of or ?rd oz include plus and minus signs depending upon whether the applied stress is tension or compression. The stress intensity factor at the edge oi circular openings for various ratios of applied edge stresses is siven in Table 11. l. The stress intensity factor for various combinations of stresses is maximum

340

OPININO5, NOZZLES, AND EXTERNAT IOADINOS

l.2

STRESSES

AND IOAOINOS AT

OPININOS

341

Tqble I I.l

Streu Inlenally

Foctors for Vorious Rolios of

intemal pressure-the basic equation for the stress intensity factor is found by combinine the effects of sfesses in two directions according to Eq. l I l:

Applied Stress
Stress Ratio

",,
3.00 2.50 2.00

: Zl'.

. G)l - ; t' '(;)']

cos

20

where o cos 20

= =

1:0(axialonly)
2:

= -1
0 +

I
1

I I:I

(cylinder)
(sphere)

* =; i' . (;)'] -i['-':0']*'ze

The general equation is the summation of the two stresses and

where 0 cos 20

at the edge of the opening and decreases away from the opening until the stress

approaches a nominal shess factor close

to 1.0.

Using the following nomenclature, various formulas for different combinations of applied stresses are developed:

r = radius of circular opening in plate (in.)

=Ilz* /r)'* r - 3fr)'+ r + (r)'- t- rf:)'lI u/ 4L- \r/ \r/ \x/ ,(')' . ,(;)'] ", =ilo.
",

(l l.s)

r:

distance from centerline to point of SIF (in.)

For applied stress ratio of 1 : 0-the condition of an axial tension load only-the basic equation for the stress intensity factor is obtained by solving Eq. 1l.l with 0 = rl2 wherc cos 20 = -1, giving

At the edge of the opening, the sffess intensity factor is determined from Eq' 1 1.2 assuming cr : or vnd 02 = 0.5or so that

c* = 3or -O.5or = 2.5oot

(1

l.6)

"' = Zl'.

(;)l - i l' -''0']t-'r

(1

Substituting various values of r for.r in Eq' 11.5, stress intensity factors at various distances from the edge of the opening are

',:ilr. (;)'-,(;)l
o^:3or-0=3.00or

1.3)

At the edge of the opening, the stress iniensity factor is determined from Eq. ll.2 assuming that o1 = or and or = 6'
(r 1.4)

r 2r 31 4r

2 5oor

l.23at
1.09or

l.05or

Substituting various values of r for x in Eq. 1 I .3, stress intensity factors at various distances from the edge of the opening are

For an applied stress ratio of 1 : 1 in a spherical shell or hemispherical head under internal pressure, the basic equation for the stress intensity factor is resolved by combining effects of stesses in two directions accoding to Eq. 11.1 that gives

r 21 3r 4r
For an applied stress ratio of 2

3.00sr
1.15ar

'=t*$'
under

(l l.7)

l.Mo1
l.O4o1

At the edge of the opening, the stress intensity factor is determined from Eq' 1 I .2 assuming that at = or dllrd cz: 6t as given by

: l-the condition of a cylindrical shell

c*:3c1 - ar=200or

(11.8)

oPlNrNoS,

l{onfis,

AND ExftRNAr toAD|NOS

I.3

THEOTY OF REINfORCID OPENINOS

Substituting vsrious vulucs

ol'r

li)r

in Lq. 11.7, stress intensity tactors

at

dislances lrom the edge ol'the opening are

I'roblems
II

.1

r 2r 31 41
Exarnple

2.O0oy

What is the stress intensity factors for a plate under a stress ratio of 2 : - I for the vessel given in Example 1 1.1 at the edge of the opening and at distances of 2r,3r, and 4r?

l.25or
1.11o1

Answeri

1.06s,

A vertical vessel under intemal pressure and dead load contains an opening that is qubjected to applied stresses. The dead load stress is equal to the circumferential pressure shess. For this stress condition, what is the basic equation for the stress intensity factor at any location from the center of the
opening?

11,1

Incat\on r 21 31 41

SIF 3.50
1.2O

1.05
1.Oz

11.2

Solutian.

The applied stress in the circumferential direction is o1, whereas in the longitudinal direction it is the longitudinal pressure stress minus the longitudinal dead load shess. This equals oy, IO.5o1 and c2DL: -or and the summation equals -0.5o;. Using Eq. 11.1, the basic equations are

is one in which the stress more than VRt In terms of the radius intensity of 1.15, does not extend of the oiening r, how far ftom the edge of the opening in-a hemispherical head under iniernal pressure is required to have a stress of 1' 15. assuming

In the ASME Code,

VIII-2, a local stress region

S^

o1?

Answert Ttrc SIF

becomes equal to 1.1S. at a distance of 2'66r from the edge of the oPening.

",=url,. (t']

-;['

/r\ +31:l \r/l

4l lcos

20

where 0
cos 20 where

=
=

"
2

11.3

ofl+l-l oa: --l4L /r\21 -l l+ _ll+ *' 2o V/l 4L G):

,,

-l
tr

As in Problem 11.2, what is the distance from the edge of the opening along the longitudinal axis in a cylindrical shell under intemal pressure if required to have a stress of 1. lS,?

o:

cos

20: *l
I

Answerz T\e SIF becomes equal to l.lS. at a distance of 2'90r from the edge of the opening along the longitudinal axis'

"ol,

rG)'

+,.'(:) -' - (")'.' ., (r']

,, ="olo. (;)'

.'(')']

I,3

THEORY OF REINFORCED OPENINGS

Exarnple 11.2 For the vessel described in Example 11.1. what is the maximum stress at the edge of the opening according to Eq. I 1.2?

AsdescribedinSectionll'2,thereisanincreaseinbasicshessesatanopenlng pathway for in aflat plate or shell under edge loadings due to the discontinuous pasJ from one side of the opening to the other side' the loms (anO stresses) to the When this happens, otler pathways have to be established- in.order to keep

Soltttion.

Assuming that or = o1 and o, = -0.5 rr, the equation for maximum stress at the edge of the opening is given by Eq. 11.2 as

o,o^:

3oy

oz

= 3ot

(-0.5ar)

3.50ar

orimarv sresies at an acce-ptable level. The basic theory of reinforced openings ir to suppty pathways with additional material in the region of the opening to -ttt" opening. In designing process equipment and other tiJ ioud. Uy "u.ty u".t"l., tiis pattrway iJ supptied by the thickening of the basic shell or pr"s*r" iozzle material and Uy adding material such as a pad, as shown in Fig' l1'4' placement of the additional material is important. It must be sufficiently near prevent the opening to be effective; and yet, it must be added with caution to

OPININOS, NO2IIES, AND TXTENNAI I.OADINOS

Tn

\,i:
.r!,

\:;i*

figure

L5

Reiniorcemsnl

od&d to outside of oPening'

Figt re I

From Fis.

L,4 ,{lhods of odding r6inforcmsnt moteriol. (Court*y Arnericon Socisry UM6.l of the ASr'tE Code, Vlll-l)

of itchonicol Enginerc,

l
T
5

another problem such as high thermal stresses. Investigations by the pVRCa and others indicate that the placement or location of the reinforcement is important. On most pressure vessels, the reinforcement is added to the outside as shown in Fig. 11.5. However, on some vessels the reinforcement is added on the inside as in Fig. 11.6; and on still others, some of the reinforcehent material may be added !o both the outside and the inside as in Fig. 11.7. The best arrangement

\tl .t
Figur

for reinforcement is the so-called balanced reinforcement which consists of about 35-407o of the area on the inside and about ffi-C|Vo of the area on the
outsidg. On many designs, it is difficult to place any reinforcement on the inside

I1.6

Rinfor.ment odded to

intid. of opning'

345

t.l6

OPININOS, NOZZTES, AND IXTIRNAI. I.OADINOS

I.4

RTINFORCEMENT TIMITS

Tn

{.a
T

\i,:'l

\i-;.jl:i

ular to the surt'ace of the shell. These are set at a point at which it is l'elt that the added reinforcement within the limits is effectively helping to replace the metal removed at the opening. Two formulas are used for setting the limits measured from. the opening offlre two inswEis used. c9!!er!!e3!91g.1@g!qg".jg@f, with--th" The first answer is equal to the diam6fer of the opening d. The second limit equal tothesumof ?l + T^+ O.5d. AsshowninFig. 11.8, the thickness ofthe nozzle wall usually determines which of the two limits controls. At a distance d from the centerline without reinforcement added, Eq. 1 1.5 for a cylinder gives a SIF With additional of 1.23or and Eq. 11.7 for a sphere gives a SIF of 1.25 reinforcement material, the nominal stress is reduced close to that in an unperforated plate.

t-c*

q.

If z nozzle is attached at the opening, it also offers reinforcement arca available for replacing that area removed from the vessel at the opening.lUon the wave

@iruegAUC!.d9l4bl9-lgled
1.285 /Y rt
.

damping length of a beam on an elastic foundation. For a cylindrical shell, this length is a function of l/B, where B for a poisson's ratio of 0.3 is equal to many years ago when The vertical limit was set in the ASME Code as 2.5 an assumption was made that r/r of 10 was to be usEif-This limit is about right 12,000 psi. The development of for an internal pressure p of 1200 psi and S 2.5 T" is

Figore I I

.7

Rinlorc6manr odded to

bofi

insid ond o'rrside.

either because it is not accessible or it interferes with flow or drainage. The balanced reinforcement is often used at manway and inspection openings where no nozzle is attached. For applications in design problems, where the reinforcement requirements
are established, the method of replacing areas is chosen rather than a method that balances loads or stresses . An area at the opening for carrying primary loads and shesses is removed. Thus this required area must be replaced by another area adjacent to the opening that is not used for that purpose. It is desirable to replace that area required for primary loads by an adjacent reinforcement area. Within

- p

_l\/,

\/o.tv
r.285
1.285

O.246r

2.46t

For code application, the number was rounded off to 2.5 f. With the wide range of r/t ratios, which are currently used in process vessel construction, some of the codes are setting this reinforcement limit in the vertical direction by

L=
where L = /, =
4,

O.7S

!r-I"

11.e)

the reinforcement limits, the reinforcement areas are assumed to have the same load-carrying capabilities as the area removed for the opening. Consequently, when the reinforcement areas are equal to or exceed the required area, primary stresses have been restored to as near the unperforated plate as possible.

reinforcement limit perpendicular to shell (in.)

mean radius of nozzle opening in shell (in.)

nominal thickness of nozzle (in.)

I.4

REINFOR.CEMENT LIMITS
1.2

Each pressure vessel and piping code treats the calculation of the reinforcement area somewhat differently and establishes both parallel and perpendicular

As described in Section I

, the stress intensity factor for an opening in a shell

or head is highest at the edge of the opening and decreases away from the opening (based on a shell wall with constant thickness). When the effective thickness is increased, as happens with added reinforcement material, the everage stresses are lowered. Limits of reinforcement are set parallel and perpendic-

limits in different ways. A discussion of the reinforcement requirements for several different codes follows.
Example

11.3 A cylindrical pressure vessel that is 60-in. ID by 6-in. thick contains a nozzle that is 12-in. ID by 3-in. thick. What is the stress intensity factor at the reinforcing limit that is parallel to the surface of the vessel?

r.4

RqNtoRctMENT

tlMlrs

Solution.

The two horizontal limits are set by the larger of

d:12in.
0r

T,

T^

O.5d

=6+3+

0.5(12)

15

in'

The limit is set by the 15 in. from the nozzle centerline. The stress intensity factor is obtained by using Eq' 11.5 to give

",:Xlo. '(*)' . '(iJl = l rkn

Problams

11.4 If

the new reinforcement limit in the vertical direction were based on r/r = 5 instead of r/r = l0 that was used to obtain the present limit of 2.5T,, what is this multiplying factor in terms of T^ for r/t = 5?

Ans*ert 11.5 For

The vertical

limit is

1.74?1, based on the

limit of

r/t = 5'

an allowable stress of 15,000 psi, what is the maximum design pressure permitted for an rft = 5 based on the circumferential stress formula given in the ASME Code, VtrI-l?
Based on the circumferential stress, the maximum design pressure is 3260 Psi.

Answer:

i t.l.

Reinforcemenl Rules for ASME, Section

The rules for reinforced openings in ASME, Section l, Power Boikrs, permlt using the replacement of both area and ligament efficiency provided certain limits are met. Ligament rules may be used for repeating pattems of openings provided the maximum diameter of any hole in the pattern does not exceed a diameter determined from Fig. PG-32 of Section I. This figure is a plot of the following equation with limiting values of K between 0.5 and 0.99:

Ti+Tn+o,td

a,,,

=z.ts{WJr-x)

(11.10)

with the limits of 0.5 < K < 0.99.

Figur.

I1.8

Reintorcomsnt limits porollsl to she'l sur{o.6.

p=

intemal design pressure of maximum allowable working pressure (psi)

348

3IO
4nn"

OPTNINOS, NOZZTES, AND TXTERNAI. TOADINGS

I.4

RTINFORCEMENT

TIMITS

35I

msximum alkrwable diameter of opening (in.)

outside diameter

3. 4. 5.

D, =

of shell (in.)

fl = S=

nominal thickness of shell (in.) allowable tensile stress (psi)

Except for hemispherical heads, formed heads have dlD = 0.25 Bnd d^* : 2-in. NPS, which is the same as for cylindrical shells. For hemispherical heads, the actual center-to-center distance in item I is met. The value of K is one-half the value of 1( as determined bv Eo.
11. 14.

For formed heads,

d,-

of Eq. 11.10 is met.

For shelfs designed to PG-27.2.2.1 of Section

I,
Size and. Shape of Openings
(1

K: 1.6 s?i P?'

For shells designed to PG-27 .2.2 of Section I,

l. l1)

r= -N o Reintorcement Re quhe d

PD"
1.82

St

(t|.r2)

The shape of the opening when these rules are applicable is limited to circular, elliptical, or obround where the ratio of the large-to-small dimension is < 2.0. When the ratio is ) 2.0, special requirements may be necessary to resist any twisting moment. For shapes other than those above, a special analysis or proof test is required. No limitations are set on the size of an opening by Section I rules. However, the rules in the text are limited to the following sizes:

l. 2.

The rules for openings in Section I contain proyisions for single openings when no calculations are required to prove the adequacy of the shell. No calculations are needed for a cylindrical shell when either of the following is met:

For vessels 60 in. and less in diameler, the opening shall not exceed 0.5 D or 20 in. For vessels over 60 in. in diameter, the opening shall not exceed 0.33 D or 40 in.

l. d /D < O.25 arrd d^* = 2-in. NPS. 2. d* = maximum diameter using Fig. PG-32.
For openings in forrned heads, no calculations are required to prove the adequacy if all of the following are met:

When these sizes are exceeded, suggested rules place the available reinforcing area close to the opening. Required Area of Reinforcemenl
The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement required for any plane through the

1.

Actual center-to-cenier distance between openings is less than

where

center of an opening is given by

A+B L= 2(r + K)

(11.13)

A = dt,F

(r1.15)

r -- = --!2:1.82 S?:
A and B

(1

1.14)

where d = diameter of opening (in.) t, = minimum required thickness of seamless

openings, where permitted,

shell (in.) reinforced (11.16)

diameiers of adjacent openings (in.) diameter of formed head (in.) thickness of formed head (in.)
1 1.

f = 1.0 except that Fig. PG-33 may be used for integrally

F=0.5(cos'z0+l)

D, = outside { = nominal

Other terms are the same as for Eq.

10.

2.

The edge of one opening is no closer than

opening.

to the edge of the adjacent

For torispherical heads when the opening and its reinforcement are within the spherical part t, is the minimum required thickness for a hemispherical head when the radius is equal to that of the spherical part of the torispherical head. For a 2 : I ellipsoidal head when the opening and its reinforcement are within

352
u

OPININOS, NOZTLES, AND EXTERNAT I.OADINGS

I.4

REINFORCEMENT

IIMITS

353

circlc of 0.8 D, ,. is the nrinimum required thickness fbr a hemispherical heud when the radius is equal to 0.9 D.

Limit of Reinforcement Parallel to Shell

The limit of reinforcement parallel to the shell measured on each side of the opening centerline is the greater of (1) / or (2) T, + T, + 0.5d.

Limil of Reinforcement Perpendicular to Shell

The limit of reinforcement perpendicular to the shell measured either inward or

outward from the surface is the smaller of

(l)

2.5 T, or

(2)

2.5 T"

T".

Available Area of Reinforcement

If the thicknesses of the shell and nozzle are uniform and the reinforcement area does not extend beyond this uniform thickness, the following formulas may be used for determining the available area of reinforcement. However, if the opening and its reinforcement extend into areas with different nominal thicknesses
and different minimum required thicknesses, these formulas are not applicable.

Figorc

tt.9

binfo.cing requirom6nb for mlltiple oPnings. (courles), Americdn so.i6tv of r{e.honicdl

Ensinrs, Froh

fig.

PG-38 of the ASME Code, Scrion l)

1.

Area available in shell wall is the ereater of

At=(EL-Ft,)(zd-d)
or

(11.

l7)

Figure 11.10 shows a 66-in. ID steam drum containing five different diameters and two types of nozzles. What are the nozzle reinforcement Example
requirements? The design data are

11.4

At=z(EtT'- Ft,)(T'+n)

(11.18)

2,

Area available

in nozzle

walT is the smaller

of
(11.19)

Az=2(T"-t,)(2.57,f

Design pressure = 2875 psi. Design iemperature : saturation at design pressure approximately 689'F. Materials 70,000 psi UfS drum plate. Allowable stress at safiiration temperature : 16,800 psi. Weld joint efficiency is E : 0.95. Nozzles are 3+in., 4 in., 5 in., 63 in., nd 24-in. ID.

Az:

2(7"

t^)(2.57,

+ T)

(r 1.20)

Solution.
When two or more openings are spaced so that theil limits of reinforcement overlap, the combined area is used and counted only once. The spacing between any two openings is to be not less than 1.33 4". For a series of openings in a pattern, the area between any two openings equals 0.7f' of the area obtained by multiplying the center-to-center distance by the required thickness as shown in

1.

Minimum required thickness of shell at E

0.95 is

'

PR sE - 0.6p

Fie. 11.9.

x 33 16.800 x 0.95 - 0.6 x 2875 .- use 6i in. plate

2875

I
a d

I.4

RIINFORCEMENT I.IMITS

355

Using Eq. I L 10, the maximum diameter is

T"l

--

b
x
2X

EX
T^

d-^:2.75

\rr3t675x(i-r0.9

4.814 in.

x
6.
7

The only single openings are 5 in. and 6{ in.;others are not considered single. Consequendy, all nozzles have the reinforcement area calculated
(see Table 11.2).

All

nozzles except the 24-in.

ID

nozzle are "set-on" type and calculated

B( D=LIMIT OF REINFORCEMENT

together.

Reinforcement area required by Eq. 11.15 is

A, = dt,F

d(6.294)(1.0)

6.294 d

8. 9.

Limit parallel to shell is greater of

d or T,+7,+

O.5d:6.75 + T.+ r

Limit normal to shell is smaller of

2.57,

2.5(6.75)

16.875

in. or

2.57,

10. Area available in shell wall is

ABCD-LlMll OF
Figurc

REINFORC EMENT
ond
,,3t-in,, nozzles.

11.10

.,S.t-on,,

A, = (2x - d)(r" - t) = (2x A1 =(2X-dX0.456)

11. Area available in nozzle wall
rs

d)(6.7s

6.294)

2,

Minimum required thickness of seamless shell is

PR 2875 x 33 ' sE - o.6P t6.800 - 0.6 x 2875 =61!rrn 3.

Minimun required thickness of nozzle is

Az:2Y(T^-t^)
Tqble

ll.2

Reinforcement Cqlculqtions for

3| in.,4 in.,5

in., ond

6f

in.

Nozzles on o 66 in. /D Steom Drum

'' 4,

sE

- 0.6P

Pr

rR75 16,800

r 0.6 x 2875
as

,X=

parallel Y=
6.'75 +

normal

Maxirnum diameter of a single uffeinforced opening is determined

K from Eq. tt.tZ ls

354

D, = 66 + 2(6.75y = 79.5 in. 287 5 x 79.5 :

,*,

,r-32r-

l3 -ffifi;Js=

d 3.5 4.0 5.0

r'tur

d T"+r 2.57, 2.5T, t,^ At Az A, 22.03 1.8'75 3.s 10.375 4.688 t6.87s 0.334 7.8'7 t4.44 22.31 25.18 2.125 4.O 10.875 s.313 16.875 0.381 8.09 18.53 26.62 31.47 2.5 5.0 11.75 6.25 t6.8'75 0.477 8.44 25.29 33.73 6.875 43.27 3.O 6.875 13.188 7.5 16.875 0.656 8.89 35.16 ,t4.05
Area available is greater than atea requied and values of

A,

T"

K'- = 0'99

that were assumed arc correct.

116
12.

OPININOS, NOIZI.Is. AND EXTERNAT IOADINOS

I,4

REINIORCEMENT

IIMITS

357

A 24-in. lD

downcomer has "set-in" nozzle and calculates d/D = 24/66 = 0.36 exceeds limit of 0.33D for vessels over 60 in. ID. Alternate rules are also recommended.

Dattem of three fows on 3-in. centers and 4 5-in. longitudinal spacing, as shown

13, Minimum required thickness of a downcomer nozzle is

in Fig. I l.l l. The design pressure is 500 psi at 700"F design temperature The allowable stress is 16,600 psi There is no corosion.

t- = 0.lm(12) :
14, Reinforcement area required is

2.289

in.

use

?i

5l

Solution
in.

l.
=
151.06 in.2

The minimum required thickness of the cylindrical shell is

A, = 6.294(24)
Limit parallel to shell is greater of

"
2.
+
12

500 x l8 PR : o.6P 16,600 - 0.6 x 500 sE -

0.552 in.

The minimum required thickness of the nozzle is

d:

24

in. or T,'t
16.875

T,

O.sd

6.75

5.25

24

n.
sE

500

1.125

16. Limit normal to shell is smaller

of

- 0.6P

16,600

0.6 x 500

0.035 in.

in. or
is

2.5/5.25't:

13.125 in.

3.

t7. Area available in shell wall At = (2 x

18. Area available

U-

12)(0.456)

5.47 in.2

Deiermine the reinforcement limits based on Ts = 1.125 in' and f,. = 0.188 in. Limit parallel to shell surface = X = 2.25 in. or (1.125 + 1.125 + 0.188) = 2.438 in., use 2.438 in. y = 2.57" = 2.812 in. ot 2 5n = The limit normal to shell surface use 0.469 in. 0.469

in.,

in

r:r.rrzzle

wall; wall extends inward for 6j in. as full

reinforcing limit oulward:

At =
Azz

2(t3.t25)(5.25
2(6.5)(5.25

o)

2.289)

77.73
in.'?

in.'2

68.25

2.25" diameter

19. Total area available is

At = Ar
greater

A21

A22

151.45 in.2

> A, of

151.06 in.2

20. Also, check 'tlose-in" limit. Determine limit parallel io shell as the

of

0.75d:

0.75(24)

18

in. or

T"

T^

+r=

24 in.

limit is the same for the "close-in" limit, the area required of 0.674, is also satisfied without further calculations. I
Because the parallel

Exrmple 11.5. Determine the minimum required thickness of a 36-in. ID cylindrical shell based upon reinforcement requirements. The nozzles are through-welded as shown in Fig. 11.9c and have 2.25-in ID on a staggered

Fisur I

l.l I

Muliiple opninss in cylindricol lhell.

358

OPININOS, NOZILIS, AND EXTIRNAI. I.OADINGS

I,4

REINFORCEMENT

IIMITS

359

4.

Exnminc thc longitudinal plane

l-2.

spacing. Therefore, limits ovedap and special rules apply.

limits without overlap = 2x =

Actual spacing = 4.5 in. parallcl 2(2.438) 4.875 in., exceeds actual

ll.7

For triangular anangement of openings shown in Fig. I l.l I with oPenings that are 2.25-in.lD, what is the minimum side length of a spacing that forms a series of equilateral triangles?

A,=
Ar
Az

dt,F = (2.2s)(0.552)(1.0)

1.242in.2

Ans#sr.' Minimum

lensth of side is 4.631 in.

Ar = (?i

r)(spacins d)

= (r.tZs

0.552X4.5

z.z5) =

1.289 in.z

I1.4.2

Reinforcemenl Rules for ASME, Section Vlll, Division I

- t^)(2Y) : (0.188 A' = A1 t Az = 1.432 in.z

= (7,

0.035)(2

0.469)

0.143 in.,

The rules for reinforced openings in ASME Section

Asa = (0.552)(4.5X0.7
A561s: (l.125)(4.5

VIII, Division 1, Pressure Vessek, arc similar to those for ASME Section L However, the rules for reinforcernent are given as the main choice, with ligament rules used only as an
altrnative for repeating pattems of openings. Rules iue contained in both the

1.0)

1.739 in.2

2.25')

2.531 n.2

>

1.739 in.2

iext and the appendices. They are given for both internal pressure and extemal
pressure. The rules are essentially the same except that only 50% of the replacement area is required for extemal pressure assuming that the minimum required thickness in each case is based on the appropriate formula and design rules for both intemal and extemal pressures.

5.

3.75in.,0 = tan-' 3/2.25.0 = 53.13.. With a spacing of 3.75in., the parallel limit of 4.875 in. exceeds the actual spacing; therefore, the limits overlap and the special rules apply. From Eq. 11.16, F:0.5(cos2 0 + l) = 0.68 for g = 53.t3'.
A, = dt,F Ar = (4

Examine the diagonal plane, 2-3. With a row-to-row spacing of 3 in. and a longitudinal spacing of 4.5 in., the diagonal spacing is +

\,tr

ZB

N o Reintorcement Re quiNed
Single openings in vessels that are not subjected to special applied loadings, such as cyclic loading, do not require reinforcement calculations if the openings do not exceed the following size limits.

: -

(2.2s)(0.ss2)(0.68)

= 6.30r

.n.,

r'r,)(spacing

d) = (1.125 - 0.68 x 0.552)

(3.75

2.25)

1.124 in.2

A: = 0.143 in.'z
A, = A1 ! Az

1. 2.
Size

In plate thickness of $in. or less,

In plate thickness greater

Shape of Openings

d,,. = 3-in. NPS. than;i"., d* = 2-in. NPS.

1.267 in.2

>

0.845 in.2

A14a:
4567s

(0,552)(3.7 5)(O.7

= 0.125)(3.75

x 0.68) : 0.985 in., 2.25) = 1.688.in., > 0.985 in.,

in. and ?i = 0.188 in. are satis-

anl

6.

factory.

The assumed values of T,

1.125

The nrles apply to openings that are circular, elliptical, or obround. The latter shapes often result from an opening in a curved surface or from a nonradial nozzle. However, other shapes arc permitted when considered according to

u-2(e).
For openings in cylindrical shells, the rules in the text are limited to openings of the following size limits:

Problzms

11.6

What is the minimum required wall thickness (rounded uo to the next l/8 in.) of a t2 3/4-in. ID nozzle atrached to a 60-in. by 3.75-in. thick drum? The allowable stess of both the shell and nozzle material is 15.0 ksi. The nozzle is attached by a full penetration weld with comer fillet welds with a throat of 0.7 ?i. The design pressure if 1400 psi at room

1. 2.

For shells 60-in. and less in diameter, the opening is not to exceed 0'5 D or 20 in., For shells over 60 in. in diameter, the opening is not to exceed 0.33 D

or

210-in.

@mperature.

Answer:

t-in

2.50 in.

When these size limits are exceeded, in addition to the rules in tle text, the rules in Appendix l-7 are also to be met. These additional rules may require some reinforcement to be placed closer to the opening than required by the rules in the

360

oP!N|NOS, NOZZUS, AND CXTEnNAL tOADINOS

II

,4

RETNIORCEMINT TIMITS

361

text. l.'tlr opcnings in sphcrical shells and lbrmed heads, the text rures are mer
by considering the use of reverse curves and conical sections where possible. There are no specific limitations on size and shape of openings in spherical shells and formed heads. Required Area of Reintorceme nt
The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement required for any plane through the

center of an opening is given by

A: dt,F

(ll.2l)
a

where d = the diameter of the opening on the longitudinal plane of

cylindrical shell or any plane of a spherical shell or formed head (in.)

conection factor for pressure stress on plane being examined with respect to longitudinal axis, as shown in Fig. 11.12. This factor is applicable only to nozzles with integral reinforcement, circumferential stress (longitudinal plane) or of a seamless formed head with the following additional provisions:

t, = minimum requked thickness of a seamless shell based on the

1 2. 3.

When the opening and its reinforcement are totally within the spherical part of a torispherical head, l. is determined using the hemispherical head formula with both E and M = 1.0 (see Fig. t1.l3a). When the opening and its reinforcement are in a cone, r, is the required thickness of a seamless cone. When the opening and its reinforcement are in an ellipsoidal head and within a circle that is equal to 8070 of the shell diameter, r, is determined using the hemispherical head formula for a seamless shell of radius K1 D , where D is the shell diameter and K1 is obtained.from Table 1 1 . 3 and as shown in Fig. 11.130.

o" r;o
FisurIl.l2
of d's ASME Code, Vlll-l .)

Arrelr ol Pt.na wlih Loneitldltral

2oo so" aoo loo coo

Atb

loo loo

eoP

Charr tor derrmins F. (Courreiy Amsricon Socistv of l'lechonicol Ensiners, From

Fis UG-37

Limit o! Reinforcement Perpendicular to Shell

The limit of reinforcement prpendicular or normal to the shell measured either inward or outward from the surface of the shell is the smaller of (1) 2.57' or (2'S

The value of t, obtained from any of the methods given above is used only to determine the required area of reinforcement. The value of t" used to set the minimum required thickness of the shell or head is based on the thickness fbrmulas that consider all the design loadings and weld joint efficiencies.

2.5n+

L.

Limit of Reintorcement Parallel ta Shell Surlace

When the size of tle opening is within the limits in the text, the limits of reintbrcement parallel to the shell surface measured on each side of the centerline are the larger of (l) d or (2) T" + Tn + 0.5d.

Avaibble Area of Reinforcement

When the reinforcement limits do not extend outside the zone of nominal wall thickness of the shell and nozzle, the area available for reinforcement may be calculated by the following formulas:

t62

OPININO!, NO! T!3, AND TXTIRNAT TOADINGS

I.4

REINTORCTMENT TIMITS

Tqble I 1.3'
D

/2h

3.0

2.8
1.27 1.8

2.6

2.4
1.08 1.4

Kr
D /2h

36

l.l8
1.6 o.73

KI

0.81

0.65

2.2 2.O 0.99 0.90 1.2 l 0 0.57 0.50

Required Area of Reinforcement

(a) rimits for forisphericat

0.8D = sneci '1

Head

The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement required for any plane through the

center

of an opening using rules l-7 is given by

0.67 dt,F

(l l.26)

Limit of Reinforcement Parallel to SheA

The limit of reinforcement parallel to the shell measured on each side of the opening centerline is the greater of (1) 0.75 d or (2) T, + T, + 0.5d.

Limil of Reinforcement Perpendicular n Shell

(b) Limits for Etlipsoidaf

Figt

Head
roinfiorrnenr colculations.

The limit is set exactly the same way as for a nozzle that is within the rules the text.

of

r I L

Dorerminorion of spciol limirs

ior determing t, to u! in

Wlen any two adjacent openings are spaced so that their reinforcement overlaps, the combined area is used, but is evaluated only once in the combined area. The preferred spacing is at least 1.5d"", with 507o of the area required between the two openings.
Example 11.6. Determine the reinforcement requirements of an 8 in. 1D nozzle that is centrally located in a 2 : 1 ellipsoidal head. The inside diameter of the head skirt is 41.75 in. The allowable shess of both the head and nozzle material is 17.5 ksi. The design pressure is 700 psi and the design temperature is 500'F. There is no corrosion and the weld joint efficiency is E : 1.0. See Fig. 11. 13. 1 for details of a nozzle.

1.

Area available in shell wall is the greater of

41 =(2"d._d)(ET,_Ft)
or

(11.22)

tu = 2(7" +

T^

0.5 d)

d(ET,

Ft,)

(r1.23)

2.

Area available in nozzle wall is the smaller

of
(r1.24)
+^' o.taq"

A,=(sDQ.-h)
A2= 6n+2.5t"\(7.-t,)

T^r

t'6

(11.2s)

When the size of the opening exceeds the limits in which the rules in the text apply' the supplemental rules in r-7 are used in addition to the text rules. These additional requirements follow.

Fisure I

l.l3.l

Deroils of nozzle in exomple I

L6.

t6a
l.

oPtNtNo3, NOZZII3, AND tXTrRNAt" LOAD|NGS

t.4

RHNFORCEMENT

UMI1S

365

Solullon
The minimum required thickness of aZ: I ellipsoidal head without an opening is determined from UG-32(d) of the A3ME Code, VIII-I as

ll.

Total reinforcement available from head and nozzle

is

A,:

A1

'r Az:

1.960

+ 4'805

:
=

6 765

in'' If
additional

PD
zSE

==- 0.2P 2(17,sn x 1.0) -

7oo (41'751 0.2(700)

0.838 in.; use 1.0 in.

Area provided = 6.765 in.z > area required area is needed, use fillet weld area. I

6.040 in.'?

3.

As noied in the definition of r, ro use with Eq. 11.20 and shown in Fig. 11.13.1, when an opening and its reinforcement are located in an ellio_ soidal head and within a circle equal to 80Zo of the shell diameter, ,. to be used in reinforcement calculations is the thickness required for a seamless sphere of radius K1D, where D is the shell ID and E for a 2 : I ellipsoidal head is 0.9 frorn Table 11.3. For this head, the opening and reinforcement are within 0.8 D = 0.8(41.75) = 33.4 in. Using the spherical shell radius of R = K tD = 0.9(41.7 5) = 37 .57 5 n. in the hemispherical head formula gives

Example 11.7. Determine the reinforcement requirements for a l2-in. x 16-in. manway opening. The l2-in. dimension lies along the longitudinal axis of the cylindrical shell. The manway cover seals against the outside surface of the opening so that the opening nozzle is under intemal pressure' The ID of the
shell is 41.875 in. Both the shell and manway material have an allowable tensile stress of 17,500 psi. The design pressure is 700 psi at a design temperature of 500'F. There is no corrosion and the joint efficiency is E = 1.0' Details are shown in Fig. 11.14.

Solution

!' = = PR = 2SE - 0.2p

PR

1.

The minimum rcquired thickness of the shell is found from PR t=-= - sE - 0.6P 700 (20.938)

7oo (37.575)

2(17,500

1.0)

0.2(700)

u.

/f)

rn.

4.

(17,500

1.0)

The minimum required thickness of the nozzle is

(0.6

":'::700)

0.858 in.: use

as
1

ln.

,^= PR' '- sE - 0_6P

!.
6.

= (17,500

7OO

(4)

1.0)

0.6(700)

0.164 in.
rs

2.

The minimum required thickness of the nozzle is obtained

,|
E.

Because the limit of 2X = 2(8): 16 in. is less ihan 33.4 in. of item 2 above, the provision of the spherical head may be used.

Lirnits perpendicular to head surface i s y = 2.57, or 2.52,, whichever rs smaller. y = 2.5(1) = 2.5 in. or 2.5(1.125) = 2.813 in.; use 2.5 in.

Limits paraUel to head surface = X = d or (T, + T, + r), whichever larger. X = 8 in. or (4 + | + t.125 = 6.125 in.); use 8 in.

', : --!lo- = (17,500 x 1.0) sE - o.6P

700 (6)

(0.6

700)

= 0.246 in.:
use
1

in.

Reinforcement area required following Eq. 11.20 is

A, = d+F = 8(0.7s5)(1.0) = 6.040 in.,

9, Reinforcement area available in head according to Eq. 11.21 is A1

-a-

(ET,

Ft)(U

d) = (1.0

0.755X16

8)

1.960 in.,

10. Reinforcement area available

in nozzle according to Eq. 11.23 is

ABCD=Limit

Az=

of Reinf
l
7.

57"(7,

- tJ

= 5(1.0X1.r25 -

0.164)

4.805 in.,

Figure

ll.l,1

12

16 Monwoy opnins detoils for exompl l

OPININOS, NOZZUS, AND TXTERNAI. I,OADINOS

r.4

RflNFORCTMENT

UMTTS

367

3.

Uxuntinution ol thc longitudinal planc where Fig. l l.12.

t' =

.0 is determined tiom

Limits parallel to shell, whichever is larger:

t joint efficiency of E :
Solutinn

is 70O psi at a design temperature of 500'F.

All joints are fully radiographed with 1.0. There is no corrosion.

T,

+ T, + 0.5d : 6+

d:

12

in.
1

1* = S+in.

1.

The minimum required thickness of the cylindrical shell from Example 11.7 is

Limits perpendicular to shell, whichever is smaller:

t=

0.858

in.:
x

usel in.

2iT, = 2.5(r) = 2.5 in. 2+r": z.s(1.25) = 3.125 in.

Reinforcement area required by Eq. 11.20 is

2.

The minimum required thickness of the head is

PL
zSE

700

20.938

O.zP 2x

17,500

x 1-

= 0.420 in.; 0.2 x 7W

use

A,:
Ar = (ET"

dt,F

12 (0.858X1.0)

10.296 in.2

in.

Reinforcement area available in shell by Eq. 11.21 is

3.
=
1.7s4.o.2

The minimum reouired thickness of the nozzle is

Ft)(2x

d) = (r jn

0.85sX24

r2)

"
4.

t =-=

Pr

sE

Reinforcement area available

o.6P

700x3 0.123 in.; 17,500x1-0.6x700 =

use
o!

nozzle wall by Eq. 11.23

in.

At = Azz =

57,(7, 57,(7,

t,,) = S(t)(1.2s t^) = 5(1)(1.2s

0.246)

5.020 in.,

Limits parallel to vessel surface, whichever is the larger of

d.

0) = 6.256 ;n.z or

= 6in.
+ 3 = 4.75in.; use6in.

Total reinforcement area available:

At = At + A^ + An

1.704

5.020

+ 6.25O-_

12.974 in.2

T,

T,

+ 0.5d= I +

0.75

4.

Area provided of 12.974 in.2 ) area required of 10.296 in.2 Examination of circumferential plane where F = 0.5 from Fig. 11.12 gives the reinforcement area required by Eq. 11.20 as

5.

Limits perpendicular to vessel surface, whichever is the smaller of

2.5T,

= 2.5(1\ =

2.5 in.

A,:
conhols.

dt,F

16 (0.858)(0.s)

or
6.864 in.2 6.

2.5f":

2.519.'lt,

= l'875 in.;

use 1.875 in.

If the arc length of l6.4in. is used,A, = 7.036 in., Either of these areas is less than A. in item 3 and does not control. The longitudinal plane

Reinforcement area requhed by Eq. 11.20 is

A, = dt,F = 6(0.858X1.0) = 5.148

,1

in.'z

Example 11.8. Determine the reinforcement requirements for a 6-in. ID noz_ zle that is located at the junction of a cylindrical shell and a hemispherical head. The entire opening is in the cylindrical shell, but ttre reinforcemlni extends in Dotn drectlons-some into the head and some into the shell. The ID of the shell is 41.875 in. The allowable shess of all material is 17.5 ksi. The design pressure

Reinforcement area available in shell and head by Eq. 11.21 is

At = (ET" -

- 0.8s8X6 - 3) = 0.852 in.'? Arz = (ETt, - Fil = (l - 0.420X6 - 3) = 1.740 in.2

Ft,, = (1

3e0 E. 9.

oPlNlNos, NOZZ|tS. AND

TXTEnNAT TOAD|NGS

1.4

REINFORCIMINT

LlMlTs

369

Reinlorccnrcnt urea available in nozzle wall by Eq. I 1.23 is

Limilalions on Dimensians and Shape of Openings

in.2

Az:

5T,(T,

- t') = 5(0.75)(0.75 -

0.123)

.2.351

Total reinforcement available from shell. head. and nozzle is

'fhe rules are applicable to circular and elliptical openings and to shapes of of circular and elliptical cross-sectional nozzles' In ,ft" iti "rsection "p*i"gt "i following limits also apply: addition, the

A, =

Ar * Ao + A2 = 4.943 in.2,

not enough

1.

L0. Reinforcement area available in attachment fillet weld assuming leg dimension of 0.5 in. is 43 = (0.5)'?

limited to The ratio of the large to the small dimension of the opening is 1.5.
centerlines of openings is limited to no less than (a) Three times the sum of the radii for formed heads and the longitudinal axis of cylinders. (b) Two iimes the sum of the radii for the circumferential axrs The rules shall be satisfied for all planes'

2. d/D <0.5o. 3. Arc length between

0.250 in.'z

ll.

Total including attachment fillet welds is

At = 5.193 in.z
Problems

A, = 5.148 in.'?

4,

limitations' For all dimensions and shapes of openings that are not within these
design-by-analYsis is used.

11.8

What is the minimum required thickness of the nozzle wall (rounded up to the next ] in.) of an opening whose reinforcement is based on an available area from both the shell and the nozzle? The opening has a 15-in. diameter and is located in a cylindrical shell of 22-in. diameter. The design pressure is 450 psi, the design temperature is 450'F, and the allowable iensile stress is S : 15,000 psi. There is no corrosion.

Openings Not Requiring Reinlorcement Calculations

calcuProvisions are given for circular openings not requinng reinforcement requirements are satisfied: lations when ali the following

1. 2. 3.

Single openings with d*, = 0'2 V]4r and two or more openings within a clide- with a diameter < z 5 \/fu , the sum of the diameters is

Azswer.' Required nozzle wall

<

th'ickness is

I in.

11.9

Assume the nozzle in Example 11.6 is not centrally located in the 2 : I ellipsoidal head. Instead, some of the reinforcement area extends into the knuckle region. Is the available reinforcement area sufficient for this condition? If not, how thick does the nozzle have to be?

Center-to-center spacing > 1.5( + d)' greater than Center-to-edge of another local stressed area, where Pr is 1. 1S-, is : 2.5 \/Rt .

0.25 \/Rt

Required

Ana of Reinforcement

Azsrer.'
I

Required nozzle thickness is

?,

1.25 tn.

Thetotalcross-sectionalareaofreinforcementrequiredforanyplaneisgivenby

A:
1.4.3
Reinforcement Rules for ASME, Section

dt,F

(1r.27)

Vlll, Division 2

where t, =

minimum required thickness by either internal or external pressure

The rules for reinforced openings in Section VtrI, Division 2, are similar to those for Division 1 ; but there are some differences . Reinforcement limits and spacing are based on the damping length of a beam on an elastic foundation. The rules

rules, as aPPlicable, (in.)

F = factor

are for either intemal or external pressure with no specific rules given for extemal loadings or for fatigue. However, there are stress inlensity factors that can be combined with the intemal pressure stresses to indicate the peak stresses for fatieue.

depending upon the plane under consideration' 1 0 for formed heads and on the longitudinal plane' For nonintegral connections, F = 1.0 for all Planes'

One-half of the required area

opemng.

of reinforcement is placed on

each side

of

an

T7O

OPlNINO8, NOZZ!Is, AND IXTERNAI" I,OADINGS

Llmll of Relqforcement Along Vessel lVall

The limit of reinforcement along the vessel wall measured on each side of the openrng when 10070 of the required area of reinforcement is needed is the larger

of (l) d or (2) T, + T" + 0.54. The limit of reinforcement along the vessel wall measured on each side of the opening when two-thirds of the required area of reinforcement is needed is the larger of (1) r + 0.5 \Ar or (2) T" + f, + 0.5d.

,-

90 dca.

Limil of Reinforcement Normal to Vesset Walt

The limit of reinforcement norrnal to the vessel wall measured from the vessel surface is equal to the following:

f. 2.

fo1-FiS. 11.15a and b, it is the larger of (0.5 (1.73x+2.5b+ n < 2.57, and, < L + 2.5t,
For Fig. 11.15c, when 45 degrees

\/riI,

or

0.5

\Gn

Y"if
3.
=
2.57".

or

Z.Stp) < 2.57,. 30 degrees, it is the larger of

(L' +

2 0 > 30 Jegrees, it is rhe largerof

0

.5

\/ffi

or e.73x
te)

2.5t0)

For Fig. ll.15d, it is the targer of (0.5

\/r^I, +

or (2.57., +

t)

In both expressions above, t" is not to exceed 1.5[ or 1.7317 where I7 = width of added reinforcing pad.
For all cases, the terms and definitions are:

*=
0

slope offset distance (in.)

: amgle from vertical I' : vertical length of tapered section r^=r+0.57:

Metal Availablz for Reinforcement The metal available for reinforcement is obtained from the following within the limits established:
areas

l. 2. 3. 4.

Excess vessel wall thickness

1Lt
Figur

Excess nozzle wall thickness which penetration welds

is integral or

attached

by full_
ll.l5
Deioil! for limir of rinlorcmonr normol to vesrel woll. (Courtesy Anericon Soci6ty of

Weld metal in fillet welds

Pad attachment welds (where permitted)

,i..honi.ol

Enginis: From Fis. AD-5,{0.1 of the ASME Code, Vlll-2.)

371

OPININOS, NOZZTES. AND EXTIRNAI IOADINOS

I.4

REINFORCEMENT

TIMITS

373

Pads (where permitted) 6.

Required Area of Reintorcement The required minimum area of reinforcement

Metal from items 2, 3, and 4 meets the following:

l(aR

4.,

is

o.ilTl <

0.0008

(11.28) Value of

where rri =

mean coefficient
temperature

of expansion of reinforcing metal at design (in./in./'F)

dl\/Rt,
<o.20 >0.20 and

Nozzles in Cylinders

Nozzles in Spherical Vessels and Formed Heads

av = mean coefficient of expansion temperature (in./in./'F)

highest temperature, Strength of Reinforcement Metal

of

vessel metal

at

None, except

12

required

None, except

12

required

design

14.os(d/\/-k)1tz

Af = temperature range from 70'F to design iemperature

if
greater ('F)

<
or lowest to

0.40

1.811dt,

>0.40

0.75 dt,

- 2.41fdt, dt, cos g, O = sin-\(d/D)

ls.40(d/\/RDt/2

Limits or Reinforcing Zone

Reinforcing zone limits and reinforcing area are given in Fig' 1.1'16' Figure 11.17 shois the acceptable transition details. In order to use this altemative method of determining the reinforcing area, all provisions of the procedure are
met,

1. 2.

1.0

> &/,tv >

0.80.

Adjust area by S./Sn not to exceed 1.0

stress

where S, = allowable
Sy

of nozzle material at design temperature (psi)

allowable stress of vessel material at design temperature (psi)

Example

Alternative Rules for Noule Design

As the result of an extensive study for the PVRC5, it was determined that within the restrictive limits and rules that follow, a nozzle can be designed that does not have 100% replacernent of an area but has the nominal strbss essentially maintained.

Determine the reinforcement requirements of an.8-in- ID nozzle tha:t is centrally located in a 2 : 1 ellipsoidal head. The inside diameter of the head skirt is 41.73 in. The allowable stress of the head material is 20'5 ksi and of the nozzle material is 21.6 ksi. The design pressure is 70O psi and the design temperatme is 50OoF. There is no corrosion. See Fig. 11 18 for details ofnozzle'

11.9.

Solutinn

Limitations

1.

The minimum required thickness of the 2 : 1 ellipsoidal head using Fig' AD-2O4.1 of the ASME Code, VIII-2, is determined as follows:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Circular cross section is perpendicular to surface.

All integral construction

Material has tfslfs >

use specified comer radii.

Edge+o-edge of openings

2.5

\/Fi.

1.5.

Design is within the following dimensional limits:

which siue. : o.ozt | ; = ;* = 0.034 I = 0.9D = 0.9(a1.75) = 37 575 in. t = O.OLLL = O.o2l(37 .575) = 0.789 in.;
use 1.O-in. thickness

Limit
D/t
d/D

Formed Heads Cylinders 10-200

and Spheres

Using AD-201(a) of the ASME Code, VtrI-2, the minimum required

thickness of the nozzle is

l0-250
0.50 max.

d/\/Dt

0.33 max. 0.80 max.

P
s

700x
21,600

0.80 max.

0.5P

4 0.700

= 0.132

in.;

use 1{ in. thickness

374

oP!N|NOS, NOZZ|tS, AND [XT!RNA| TOAD|NOS

v.x.r 416, Nod.r

bl A.inlo.d.r Zar. Li'ir

ltl
l2l

Lc-

OSas

li / RPI3R

fo. nozrld in cylin l.ic.l.h.th

La

'

128

k./ 213|Bh/a+g.'tI
h.dt

for notrl.3 in

(3) Th. c.ni.r or l. or L, i! .r llr. ionct!.. ot rh. ourrldr rorl.clr ol th! .hdl r.d .02116 of rhicknt.r, ...nd a',

.
Cylindric.l Sh.llr

{a)

unilorm rhictn!3r

.on3id.r!d.31.

l. condrudioff whr. th. .o.. bosfthry p.$6 rhrollh mll r.gh.nr, th! .on. born.Lry m.y !a o.l, through !h. thi.ln'.i

lll H.lch.d'..3 r.pr .nt !{.il.blc rlinlorc.hanrr..,a..

l2l M?r.l .1.. whhin rh. ronc bou..hry, in |rc.$ ot tha.raa bV ri. inr.rildion ot th. b.!ic rh.[r, rh.l ba conrida.ad .! conrrabutin! ro th. ..qut.rl &.., Ar, Th! b.jc th.[!.,r drtimd .r h.vi.g iniid. r.di!! ,, thictn rt a, inrkt! r..liv. ,,
torhcd l3l Th. .vriltbl. r.'nldc.rn.nt .rx,4. ih.|tl b. .r t..tr .qo.l to I,/2 on ..ch rid. ol rh. norrlaornr.r ti...nd in rvaw d.m co.r.iniq rh. nor2l..tir.

rr
|

o.ltro 0.5.
rh. tfEer ot r.41
the
rtre

n
rr

'

>

\/A;
l./21

o.

tn

)
)

or tl
0

tz,sr otl.,/E7i6li,z] or lol9oltn targe. of I t - JitEil x 1.41 \,6

l0l90,1

" end0' <45deg.

= {0' /90)r

{.1

Limits of reintorcine zone. (Courrely Amgrkon Sociory of rnechonicot Ensiners: From Fis. 560.,{-l of the ASME Code, V t-2.}

Fisurc

ll.t6

Figuro I I . I 7 Nozzlo d6tqil. 60r u3 of olrrnorive rult. (Courl$v Arnericon Sociry of tnchonicol Engineers' From Fig. AD-560.IJ of {'s ASME Code. Vlll2.)

3.

Limits parallel to head surface are: (a) For 1007o or required reinforcement area:

d or (f, + f" + r) whichever is larger X=8in. or (4 + 1+ 1.125) = 6.125in.; useX:8in.

X=
(b) For two-thirds required reinforcement area is the larger of:
T-1.o"

X' = r ! 0.5 \/ R^t or (T + T, + O.sd) X' : 4 + 0.5 \,{3S.07sXD = 7.085 in. or

use

o.'1a1"

6.125 in.;

X'

7.085 in.

Fisure

tl.l8

Detcils o{ 2,1 ellipsoidol haod os givm in exomPl

ll.9'
375

116 4.

OPININOS, NOZZTES, AND EXTERNAT IOADINOS

I.4

REIN'ORCEMENT

I.IMITS
Fig. I l
19

377

Linrits nonlul to hcud surlucc, the lurgcr ol'

and the design temperature is 500"F. There is no conosion. See

tor

Y:0.5\/r^h + K or 1.73-r + 2.5rr,+ K.< 2.57, and < L + 2.5h v = o.s r{+s6rttll25) + 0.25 = 1.383 in. or
= 0 + 2.5(1.125) + O.25:3.063 in. < 2.5(l) : 2.5 in. and < 4 + 2.5(1.125) = 6.813 in.;

details.

Solutian

1. 2.

Strength ratio

is, = D.a/?-0.5 = 0.946.

700 x 29.93_8_ 20-500 -T3o00)-

Using AD-201(a) of the ASME Code, VIII-2, the minimum required

thickness of the shell is

usel=2.5in.

t=

5.

Reinforcement area required for

S:ojp Pr

pR

= 0.728 in.. - ''''o "'"

use

""'

in.

1ffi7o: A,

: ?: A, : t)(2x

dt,F

8(0.789X1)

6.312 in.'z

3.

?(6.312) :

Using AD-201(a) of the ASME Code, VIII-2, the minimum required thickness of the nozzle is

4.208 in.2

6. 7. 8.

Reinforcement available with 1007o limit is A1

,., = _ g.5p = s

,1oo 9 =.=, : o.22o\n.: u5 1| in. lt70d= IoJCdO - u.zzu ',r., use

= (r,

- dr:

(1.0

0.789)(16

8)

1.688 in.'?

4.

Examination of the longitudinal plane gives limits parallel to shell surface as:

Reinforcement available in nozzle wall is Az

(a)

For 100% of required reinforcement area:

2Y(7"

t^) = 2(2.s)(r.rz5

0.132)

4.965 in.2

Total reinforcement available form head and nozzle within 1007o reinforcement limit is

d or (f, + f, + r), whichever is larger X= l}in. or (6+ 1+ 1.25) = 8.25 in.; useX = 12in'
X=

(b)
=
1.688

For two-thirds of required reinforcement area,

A, = Ar r,4z

4.965

6.654 in.'?

>

6.312 \n.2

X' = r 4 0.5\/R"t or

(2, +

I" + r)

whichever is larger

9.

Reinforcement available with two-thtds limit is

x' = 6 + 0.5\Cl.438XD = 8.315 in. or

x
7.085

8.25

in.;

use

Ay

:
=

(7,

Ft)(2X'

d\

: (r -

0.789)(2

8)

X' =

8.315 in.

1.3O2 in.2

10. Total reinforcement available from head and nozzle usins two-thirds limit is A, = Ar

Az

1.3o2

4.965

6.267 in.2

>

4.208

in.'?

Example 11.10. Detemine the reinforcement requirements for a 12-in. x 16-in. rnanway opening. The 12-in. dimension lies along the longitudinal axis of the vessel. The manway cover seals against the outside surface of the manway. The 1D of the shell is 41 .875 in. The allowable stress of the shell material is 20.5 ksi and of the manway material 19.4 ksi. The design pressure is 700 psi
Figure

ABCD=LirDit

ot

Rei.nforcemerlt

1t.19

Deloih of 12

16 monwoy opning in exomPle

I1.10.

078

OPII{INOS, NOZZLIS, AND EXTERNAI. TOADINGS

I.4

REINFORCEMENT

TIMITS

379

(c)

For limits normal to shell surface, the larger of

5.

y=05\/VJ+x
Y

In examining the circumferential plane, reinforcement area required according to the ASME Code, VIII-2 is

or

+ K Z.ST, and, < L + Z.Stp = y = 0.5\/6.625 x l2s + 0.25 = L698 in. or Y : 0 + 2.5(1.25) + 0.25 = 3.375 < 2.5(l) = 2.5 in. and < 3 + 2.5(1.25) = 6.125 in.
1.73x 2.5te

A,:

dt,F

16

0.858

x 0.5 =

6.864 in.2

Using the arc length of 16.4 in., A. = 7.036 in.']Either of thetwo areas is less than 4, in item 4d and do not control. Longitudinal controls. I Problem

usey=2.5in.

11.10 A

(d)

Reinforcement area required for

l0o7o:

- f) A"=12x0.728x1+2x1.25 x 0.728(1 _ 0.946)

= 8.834 in., A, = 4$.834) =
5.922 in.2

A,:

dt,F + 2t"t,(1

10 in. inside diameter nozzle is attached by a full-penetration weld and comer fillet weld to a 48-in. inside diameter as shown in Figure 11. 15b. The shell maierial is 5.4-266 Class 1 carbon steel and,the nozzle material is SA-182 F304 stainless steel. The design pressure is 1250 psi at a design temperature of 500'F. What is the required thickness of the shell, nozzle, and pad (if required) to satisfy the reinforcement requirements?

+
(e)

Answer:

shell,

{ = 2.5 in.
To

Reinforcement available with 1007o limit: A1

nozzle,

0 375 in'

Pad' t"

= l'375 in'

= (1 -

0.728)(24

12)

3.264 in.2 I

(f)

1.4.4

Reinforcement available in nozzle wall:

Reinforcement Rules for ANSI/ASME 83l. I

outward: 421 = 2(2.5)(1.25 - O.2n)e.946) = 4.872 inward: A22 = 2(2.5)(1.25)(0.946) = 5.9t2 in.2

in.z

Ruies for welded, reinforced connections according to ANSVASME 831.1, Power Piping, are similar to the rules for reinforced openings in the ASME Code, I and VIII-I. The following requirements give the basic considerations. N o Reintorcement
C altulalians Re

(g)

Total reinforcement with l00qo limit is

quired

A, = A1 At

* Ar + A:z= 3.2& + 4.872 + 5.912 = 14.048 in.,

No calculations for reinforcement are required when the following limits

are met:

14.M8 > A, = 8.834 in.,

(h)

Reinforcement available in shell with two-thftds limit:

1.

A' =

(l -

0.728r(2

8.315

12)

1.259 in.2

(i)

Total reinforcement with two-thftds limit is

2. 3. d/D < 0.25. 4. Standard fittings of extra heavy or Class 3000 rating.
Limitations.
and 90 deerees.

Connections made from fittings that have a standard pressure/temperature rating established. d^:2-in. NPS with tn6 > Schedule 160 pipe.

At = At + Aa + An A,

1.259

+ 4.972 + 5.912 =

t2.O4O in.z

Angle between branch and run or nozzle and shell is between 45

= lz.MO > A, = 5.922 in.2

3t0

optt{r],tot, NoTztlt, aND txrrRNAl loADlNos

r.4

RHNFORCIMINI

llMlt3

3tl

Notatlons and Dsnnltlons. (Sce Fig. 11.20)

a = angle between nozzle and shell (degrees) D, = outside diameter of run or header (in.) d1 = (D" - 27,) /sin o(in.) dz = horizontal limit of each side of centerline, which is the T, + T, + 0.5/, but not more than D, (in.) 1 = perpndicular limit : 2.54 + t, (in.)
Required Area of Reinlorcement

larger of dy or

The lotal cross-sectional area of reinforcement required for any plane through the

center of an opening is given by

A,:
which for

l.o7t^hdlz

sin d)

(rr.29,

90' is

A,
Avoi.lable Area of Reinforcement

= l.o1t*dl

(1 1.30)

The total area available for reinforcement is the sum 45 where each area is determined as follows:

ofAl + A2 + A3 + A4 +
(11.31)

Ar=(2dz-d)(7,*t,,t) . zl(n - t'h) A1 ---------1-=

sm(I

(rr.32)

A3

=
=

area

of fillet welds

t, T; -T
N ^N N' f fislr6
F.di6d 6lnro6m..t.r!. a6. at -.rc6wdl l. h.!d.

Aa : A5 Reinlorcement Zone

arca of reinforcing rings, pads, and so on.

area of saddles a i jml[mt l@'

B3l l
Ar.!
A3

a& ar.

A4 45

rilld

*ld dll't
in

ncor In rin!, prd. or Ini.s.l dinro,c.d.nr tNol! {2ll

The limits of reinforcement are formed by a parallelogram with sides of d2 on each side of the nozzle centerline and an altitude of Z perpendicular to the shell
surface.

Au

A2

-.rcF

wttl in

br.nch

- m'ttt

td'!t doc

tun

I I .20 Dimnlions ond not'otions for ANSI/ASME Ensinosru, From Fis. 1O'1.3.1D of ASMBANSI B3l'l )

(Coud$v Americon Socitv of rnchonicol

2.
Multiple Openings
The following should be applied:

Try to limit centerline spacing to

between oPenings.

54"

with at least 50% of

area

l.

Overlapping area shall be counted only one time.

a design Example 11.11 A steam pipe has a 24-in' inside diameter with of 14,500 psi at the design temoressul of Z5OO psi and an allowable stress of pera$re. A branch ptpe wtrn an rnside diameter of 8 in connects at an angle

980

OPININO!. NOZZ[!S, AND IXTIRNAI toADlNos

1,4

RflNloRclMlt{T tl,ulTs

lu

Notatlone and Deffnltlons. (See Fig. 11.20)

a = angle between nozzle and shell (degrees) D" = outside diameter of run or header (in') dy = (D. - 24,)/sin o(in.) dz = horizontal limit of each side of centedine, which is the T, + T, + 0.5d, but not more than D, (in.) 1, : perpendicular limit = 2.5T^ + te (in.)
Required Area of Reinforcement

larger of d1 or

The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement re4uired for any plane tbrough the center of an opening is given bY

A,
which for

l.o7t,,hdt(2

sin d)

(1r.29)

a=

90o is

A,
Avaihble Area of Reinforcenent

= l.olt*dr

(11.30)

The total area available for reinforcement is the sum 45 where each area is determined as follows:

ofAl + A2 + & +

At=Qlz-d)(T"-t*)
Ar = -_---:-sln a
A3

(11.31)

;r I

t,

zL\T,

t*)

(rr.32)

= a'.ea of fillet welds A+ = nrea of reinforcing rings, pads, and so on. A5 = arca of saddles

-T
rNvFr.diDdorntor6n.nr.n!iaa..!43-lilltt'|'!ldm'itl Nv 4llD!l!II' eor aa - nrot in ri.s, p.d, or l.t trl a6. a1 -.'..sEll i. h..rL N' dinror.m.nr lNoa {2,1 l@' atle a5 _htnt innddttdd!run aE 42 -.r6.Mlt an bEnch f (Court$y Americon Socitv oI ttchonicol Figur. I I.20 Dimaffions ond nolotions for ANSVASME B3l l
Ensimrs. From Fig. 104.3.1D of ASME/ANSI

Reintorcement Zone The limits of reinforcement are formed by a parallelogram with sides of d2 on cach side of the nozzle centerline and an altitude ofl perpendicular to the shell
surl'rce.

B3l'l

2.

Try to limit centerline spacing to

between opemngs.

l 54"

with at least 5070 of

area

Mulliple Openings
Thc folkrwing should be aPPlied:

l.

Ovcrlapping area shall be counted only one time'

a design Example 11.11 A steam Plpe has a 24-in' inside diameter with psi and an-ailowable stress of 14,500 psi at the design tem-"r.ui" of 2500 ;;;;;.; ;;-.fi pipe with an inside diameter of 8 in' connects at an angle of

?82
so that

OPININOS, NOZZITS, AND EXTERNAI. TOADINGS

I.4

REINFORCEMENT

IIMITS

383

o = 75'.'l'ho
E

br&nch is &ttached by a lull-penctrutit)n wcld that is radiographed 1.0. Determine the thickness and reintbrcement requirements.

requirement: l7-in. OD ring x 0 75 in thick Nozzle attached to shell and pad by full-penetration welds'
Pad

Solutinn
Problem

l.

Determine the minimum required thickness of the run pipe as follows:

PR t', = Sf=-06p 2. t*
=

25oo

x tr

2.308 in.: use

ll.lllfthenozzlewereattachedattt=g}",whatthicknessisrequiredfor the pad, if anY?

Answer: I in. thick
I
Pad

2.5 in.

Determine the minimum required thickness of the branch pipe as follows:

I.4.5

Reinforcemenl Rules for ANSI/ASME 83l '3

Pr _ oSt, Sn A,:

2500

4.0

0.769 in.: use 4,

2.0 in.

3. 4, 5.

Area required for reinforcement according to Eq. 11.29 is

Plant and The reinforcement requirements for ANSI/ASME B31 3, Chemical are similar to the requirements for ANSVASME Petroleum Refinery Piping, connections' S31. t and for Section Vtri, Dini.ion 1. Rules are given for branch

oi no""l"., which are attached to run piping, or headers' Differing ftom other

1.07(2.308\(8X2

sin 75')

29.43s't.z

,"info.""."nt
shown in

Horizontal limits of reinforcement are the larger of

minimum requiled thickness of the branch piping piping' The area "ul"ulations anJ tne tun piping is measured on the outside thickness of the is the remainder of the piping's nominal thickness as available foi riiniorcement
, the

Fig. 11.21.

d=8in. or 4+ nI r = 2.5 + 2.O + 4 = 8.5in.;

ined.

use8.5in.

Limilations of Geomew
The angle between the nozzle and header is restricted to those intersections where tle acute intersection angle B is equal to 45" or more'

Perpendicular limit of reinforcement is as follows: Assume a 0.75 in. thick pad is added and attached by full penetration welds that are exam-

L = O'75 in'

Limitalion When No Reinforcement Calculatians Are Required

0.75

L=

2.s7i,

+ t" =

2.5(2)

5.75 in.

6.

Area available for reinforcement is

1. 2. 3.

Ar

(2x8.5

8X2.5

2.308)

2.880

in.,

Standard fittings that have pressure/temperature ratings determined' < O'25 and a Standard fittings not exceeding 2-in. NPS that have d/D lb or more. pressure rating of 2000 Integrally reinforced connections that have been proved adequate by tests, calculations, and use.

4, =

2(5.75\(2

sln /J-

:-o

7691

14.656

n.,

Nomenclature

A, = (0.5)'z= 0.250 in.'?

ra = (2x8.5 - 8 - 4)(0.75) : 3.750 in., A, = At * A2 + A3 + Ac = 21.536 n.' > A, =

Shell requirement: 24-:lr.. ID x 2.5 in. thick Nozzle requirement: 8-in. ID x 2.0 in. thick

4 = opening size in run or header (in') dz : horizontal limit on one side measured from the centedine of the open20.430 in.2

ing (in.)

l+ :

vertical limit perpendicular to header surface (in')

acute angle at intersection (degrees)

Fillet weld requirements: 2 with 0.5 in. legs

F:
,,, =

required thickness of header (in.)

L4 RllNrgRcltllllr I Llmlrt

g--t:6

Requireil Area of Reinforcement At For intemal Pressure,

'o

Ar = ttdrQ
For extemal Pressure'

sin F)

(1 1.33)

. thd(z - sin ar: -----T- B)

Horizontal 1
but not more than

(11.34)

3
E

\,

Limits.

of the The horizontal limits on each side of the centerline

nozzle is the larger of

6!l

t2 ic

'6-

t;i.ie:
IaE
g'E

d1 or T1+4+05dI
D1,.

l
I

:;e

12 fa <{ ---{--J_ 9a
i
I

I I I

*r
(t

E'6 E-i E8

Vertical

Limits.
of

the shell is The vertical limit measured from the surface of

the smaller

2.5T,
Areas Available

or

2.57b

+ 4,

where

4=

pad thickness

(in')

i +i s9
q:
I

En

96

for Reinforcement A2, Aj, and Aa

5a z6

Excess thickness in header or run ,42 is

A2:

(2d2

d)(Th

th)

(11.3s)

9i ii'6
.l

Excess thickness in nozzle or branch A3 is

. a^ =

2L4(Tb

tb)

(11.36)

sin P

metal is weaker than In other metals available within limits Aa, if reinforcement ;;r-;i;;,J,,h" area available for rcinforcement is reduced by Sn/Su'

4 = nominal

thickness of header (in.)

Reinforcement Zone. -iii:,

ut

t6 = required thickness of branch (in.) ?i = nominal thickness of branch (in.) D6 = outside diameter of branch (in.) D,, = outside diameter of header (in.)
384

"

Excess area within the following is considered acceptLa, wtrl.;e La is measured perpendicular to shell surface'

to be followed: Muttipte Openings. The following cautionary rules are

1. 2.

Center-to-center distance of at least 1'5du"' At least 5O9o of the total required area between the openings'

rrc

optt{tNot, t{ont|t, AND tXTlRt{Ar toADtNOS

I.5

TIGAMENT EFFICICNCY OF OPENINGS IN

SHCLI.S

3A7

Oxnmplc I l. 12. An tt in. NpS Scherlule g0 bronch (nozzle) is attached at right angle to a 20-in. NPS Schedule 40 run (header) with a full penetration weld with fillet weld cover. The allowable stress is 13.l ksi. Design pressure is 600 psi at a.design temperature of 900.F. Determine the reinforcin-g requirements and pad size, if required. Sohrtion

5.

Determine the areas of reinforcement as fbllows:

Excess in run (header):

Ar

(?.125)t0.519

0.450)

= 0 492 in'z

Excess in branch (nozzle):

l.

Determine actual and minimum required sizes at the branch run intersection as follows:

Ar = 2(1.095)(0.438 - 0.194) = 0.534 in

In fillet welds:
Ao

'

4= = 0.519 in. {, = (0.s00)(0.875) : 0.438 in. th: PD/2(SE + py) = (600 x 20)/2(13,100 + 0.4 x 600) = 0.450 in. b= Pd/2(SE + PY): (600 x 8.625)/2(13,100 + 0.4 x 600) = 0.194 in.
Fillet weld size is the lesser of 0.7?i or
0.7(0.438)

(0.s93)(0.875)

= 2(r()2:

0.063 in.2

Excess area

in Azr Az + Ao = 1.939 in'2 This is less than '4r; conpad shall be provided. Determine the thickness of pad based sequently, a on the pid extending to the horizontal limits of reilforcement'
(7.r25)H = 3.206
Assuming

1.089;

Il

= 0.297 in.

f, =

5116

in. determine minimum pad width'

in.;

(2w
in.

0.306 in.; use fillet

weld,ir" = |

7'r2s)(0'3125) = 2'117

2.

Determine the horizontal limits of reinforcement from the following, whichever is the greater:

6.95 in. Use 14 in. 45

5/ 16 in. pad.

(14

7.125X0.3125)

= 2 148in2 =
3 '237

= (8 - 2 x 438)/sin 90" = 7.125_in. opening size dz = (0.519) + (0.433) + 0.5(7.125) : 4.519 in. or d2 = it : 7.125 in.; use d, : 7.125 in.
d1

Available area of reinforcement in A2 + A3 + A4 + As This is greater than A1 and therefore is satisfactory'

in''

3.

Determine the vertical limits whichever is less: L4

of

reinforcement from the following,

It may be possible to obtain more refinement and a thinner or narrower plate by : 0 312 in and by including the reevaiuating the vertical limits by setting T, outer fillet;elds if they lie within the horizontal reinforcement limits' This
recalculation may reduce the pad thickness and/or the pad 14-in. by 5/16-in. pad is satisfactory. I Problem

width However,

2.5(0.519)

1.298 in.

or
Lq

11,12

2.5(0.438)

+0:

For the construction in Example 11 . 12, what is the maximum allowable working pressure when the allowable stress is increased to l8'8 ksi?

1.095

in.;

use Za

1.095 in,

Ansper.' MAWP =
I

880 Psi

4.

Determine the reinforcing area required according to Eq. 11.33 as fol_ lows:

1.5

Ligomenf Efficiency of Openings in Shells

41 = (0.450)(7.125)(2

sin 90.)

3.206 in.,

In addition to the method of reinforced openings for compensating for metal removed at openings in shells, there is the method of ligament efficiency The

318

oP!N|NOS, NOZZUS, AND TXTTRNAL TOAD|NGS

I.5

TIOAMENT EIFICIENCY OT OPENINGS IN

SHEITS

389

ligoment el'licienoy method considers the loarJ-carrying ability of the area bctween two points in relationship to the load-carrying ability of the ligament reTltlilg when the two points become the centers of two openings. In thc ASME Code, only the shell plate is considered; however, Lloyd;s Rulis6 permit some help from integrally attached nozzles. The basic method of diagonal ligament efficiency for application in thc ASME Code was developed in 1915 by Black and Jones oiihe Babcock & Wilcox Company, which was published in 1920 in the Marine Engineer's Handbook.T ln 1975. a limit design analysis was used to examine suesses ln a perforated cylindrical shell.8 This limit analysis was further developed for ASME Code application and used to update the original code rules. The rules and curves are still given in several sections of the ASME Code and several foreign codes that determine the ligament efficiency used in the cylindrical shell formulas. The ligament efficiency curves apply only to cylindrical pressure vessels where the circumferential lension (stress) has twice the inbnsity of the longitudinal tension (stress). Once this was established, Rankine's Eilipse of Streis was used to determine the iniensity of lension and of shear on any diagonal ligament. This is shown in Fig. 11.22. The total tension and the total shear are ottained by multiplying the intensity of tension and of shear, respectively, by the diagonal pitch between openings and by the shell thickness, as ixpressed by
the following equations:

intensity of tension on any plane intensity of shear on any plane total rension
rotaf

cos2 0

(11.37)

:
_

sin d cos d cos, g

l 1.38)

l(p,4)
A. ,-,

(11.39)

shear:

*\p'T,)

sin

A cos

11.40)

The stress factor for tension for any section of the ligament is obtained by dividing the total tension by the cross-sectional area of the ligament. The shess factor for bending for any section of the ligament is obtained by dividing the bending moment of the section by the modulus of the section. The bending moment is the product of the total shear multiplied by the distance between the section considered and the point of contraflexure, which is the plane passing through the centers of the openings. The distance is Y in Fig. 11 22'
length of ligament bending moment section modulus

: L = P' - \/F=4
=
(6161 shear)(I)

(11.41)

(rr.42)
(11.43)

:+:tg-P
1
(p'T,\

The stess factor fot tension is determined as follows:

^ "'

cos20+

lp'-\/d2-4Y'z)T,

(11.44)

The stess factor for bending is determined as follows:

Sa=

sin 0 cos 0

Ie' - t/F - +-qv'f la

(11.45)

The total stress factor for both tension and bending is the sum of the stress factors

for tension and for bending. When the curve was originally developed for the ASME Code, the maximum total stress factor was found by tial by calculating

the shess factor at several sections between the sections through the centers of the two openings to the plane that is tangent to the edge of the openings. Table I1.4 shows a sample of this calculation to determine the maximum factor for a particular angle ;ith the longitudinal axis 0 values of p' /d and a shell plate
Figur.

I1.22

Diogonol ligoment!.

thickness

I.

390

OPININOS, NOZZITS, AND EXTERNAI IOAOINOS

I.5

TIGAMTNT Eff ICIENCY OF OPENINGS IN

SHEIIS

39I

Undcr the sponsorship of the Pressure Vessel Research Committee, an extensive limit design analysis of perforated cylindrical shells with uniform patterns ofopenings was completed. This limit design analysis was used to determine the upper and lower bounds of limit pressure. A 2 : 1 ratio of stress field was considered and the shell plate curvature was not included. From this analysis, the basic lower bound equation was develooed into PLqb

The lowest factor is used to calculate the minimum efficiency for the angle 0 being examined.

efficiency

: -l- = O'437 : 2.29

43 7vo

I + cos2, - d/P\4 +-5io?n 2

1+3cos20

Examplell,l3.
(11.46)

Determine the minimum required thickness of the shell given in Example 11.5 using the ligament efficiency rules.

Solution For application in the ASME Code, the equation was rearranged so that the diagonal efficiency term was expressed as p' /d, a number equal to or greater than 1.0, and the efficiency was expressed as a whole number. The equation for
code use is

1.

Determine the longitudinal efficiency based on the longitudinal spacing

of 4.5 in.:

sec2

'-

/"-^ a\ o + I - I "':;YI\A + sd2-7 \P /d| 0.015 + 0.005 sec2 0

E=r ^'(1r.47)

p'

I A\-2)5 '= -:::------:j:::

4.5

O {0f)

2.

Determine the equivalent longitudinal efficiency from the diagonal efficiency using Eq. 11.47 as follows:

Calculations of minimum ligament efficiency was determined by examining various planes between openings at different distances of I as shown on FigI1.22. An exanple of the calculations based on the original ASME Code work is given below. It has io be repeated for different values ofp ,/d and for various
angles 0:

0=53.13" d=2.25 l=w sec2 53.13' + 1 - (sec 53.13)/1.67\,6 EVo =

EVo

sec0:1.667

+ s-7 51ly =
47 .59?o

known

data:

d=

4 in.; s =

calculated dnt^:

p':

6in.;0= 35.;I = 1in. s/cos d = 6/cos 0 = i.32-in.f;

=ffi

(1.667)2

+|

(r.667 /

r.6T\/t + Q.667f

t.AZ

3.

Determine the minimum requAed thickness using the equation of UG27(c)(l) from the ASME Code, VI[-l, as follows:

ToblE | 1.4
I,ength

and Total Area Tension

6.12 6.12
6.12 6.12 6.12

t = sE PR = - oip
Section

500 x 18 : C3oo;04i6 -10=.ox-500

r'164 m'

Modulus 1.84
1.98

Total Bending Tension Bending Shear Moment Factor Factor

l.'t2
1.72 0.86 r.E4

Total
Factor
I .84

o 3.32 0.50 3.45 0.75 3.62 0.90 3.'15

1.00 1.50 2.00
3.86 4.68
7

This thickness of , = 1. 184 in. is based on the shell thickness only with no contribution from the nozzle. I Problems

r.77
1.69 1.63 1.59
1.31

o.43 0.59 0.66 0.69

0.'t

2.20
2.28 2.29 2.28
2.O2

z.t8
2.34 2.48 3.65 8.93

|.72
1.72

1ro
1.55

11.13 What must the angle

1.72 t.'72
1.72

1.72 2.58

.32

6.12 6-12

between two openings for the longitudinal and to be equal when the longitudinal spacing is 4.5 in. diagonal efficiencies and the opening diameter is 2.25 in.?
d be

3.44

0.84

0.39

1.23

Answer:

Angle with longitudinal axis is 0

= 54.1'

392 ll.l4

OPININOS. NOZZIES, AND EXTERNAI. TOADINGS

I.6
R

IATIGUE EVAI,UATION

Of

NOZZTES UNDIR INTERNAI

PRISSURI

393

ln Problem

ll.l3,

what is the circumt'erential spacing for the samc

where

conliguration'l

Answer:
I

The circumferential spacing is 3.108 in.

= inside radius of shell or head (in) r = inside radius of nozzle (in) 4 = nominal thickness of shell or head (in) D. : mean radius of shell or head (in) = 2q * t
P = intemal design pressure or pressure range (psi) I : stress index for various locations (see Table 11'5)

I.6

FATIGUE EVALUATION OF NOZTES UNDER INTERNAL

PRESSURE

When a fatigue evaluation is required, it is necessary to determine the peak stesses around the openings. The current methods are the stress index method, experimental 0ests and measurements, or a theoretical analysis procedure such as a finite element analysis. The stress index method is the easiest method and is allowed by the ASME Code, III-1 and VIII-2. The stress index method was developed from reviewing a large amount of experimental and analytical data determined in a program conducted by the Pressure Vessel Research Committee . The stress index method pennits easy calculation of peak stresses at the nozzle-shell or nozzle-head intersection without resorting to any complex analysis. The stress index method gives conservative results; and if the exact multipliers for a specific geometry are known, they should be used. Essentially, the nominal stress in the shell or head is multiplied by the stress indices and the peak
shesses are obtained. The peak stresses are determined from the following equations where the shess index I is multiplied times the nominal shess. For spherical shells and formed heads:

o, = normal
or

stress

in plane being examined (psi)

= tangential stress in plane being examined (psi) o, = radial stress in plane being examined (psi)
Example
shell that is 36-in ID by 2'5-in' thick contains that is 4-in. ID by 0 75-in thick' The design pressure is a perpindicutar nozzle td00psi at a design temperature of 450'F. The vessel is subjected to cyclic operation and a faiigue analysis is requircd' Peak stresses and- str-ess concendation factors are noi known for the specific geometry to be used' What method can be used to evaluate the peak stresses for a fatigue analysis?

11.14. A cylindrical

Solutian. At the intersection of the nozzle to the shell, peak stresses are as obtained according to Eq' 11.48. The nominal stress is determined

_ "

PD^

2T,

1900(36

+ 2.5)

2(2'5)

14.630 psi

.PD.
For cylindrical shells:

(11.48)

index The peak stresses are determined as follows using the factorc for stress from Table 1 1.5:

Longitudinal Plane

Transverse Plane Inside

o= t.PD.

(11.49)

Stress (psi)

Inside

Outside

Outside
+30 ,720

Hoop stress

+45,350
stress

Toble

I1.5

lrngitudinal
Stress lndex

- t

q10

+ t7 ,560 + 14,630
0

/
Cylindrical Shells

Radial stress

1,900

,630 2,930 - 1,900

+ t4

+38,040
0

Spherical Shells and Formed Heads

LongitudinalPlane

TransversePlane

must be These values are the peak stresses due to intemal pressure only and on the shell for combined with other peak stresses occurring at the same location a.fatigue evaluation. Problem

2.0
qr

- (r/R) -o.2 -4r"/D^

2.O 2.o
0

(r/R) (r/R)

3.I

1.2 1.0

1.0

a1
z,o 0

-0.2 -2r"/D^

-o.2 -27"/D.

11,15 A reactor
:

vessel is 5 ft. 0 in. inside diameter with hemispherical heads' The design pressure is 450 psi at 650'F The allowable stress of the

OPININCS, NOIZI-TS, AND IXTtRNAt TOADINGS

I.7

TXTTRNAL IOADINGS

vcsscl is 17,5(X) psi. l'hc hcatl and shcll rrc nradc ol.rrinirnurn thickncss r)alcritl roundod up to (hc ncxt I in. Thc vessel is operated undcr ir cycling conditkrn.so.that a fatigue analysis is n"""r.ury. It is necessary to place an 8-in. inside diameter by l-in. thick nozzle, in the vessel. Is the peak stress less in the head or in the shell at the nozzle junction and what are the values ofpeak shesses at the maximum location in ttre treaa and shell? Thin-wall equations are used.

Extcmal loadings cunsidered by

W/?Cl

arc longitudinal nx)r)lcnt,

tr

nsvcrse

Answers: oFar = +48,510 psi in shell

o''.*,

+27,220 psi in head

I.7

EXTERNAT LOADINGS

stresses are generated in both head. Although the stresses in thJ nozzle are both membrane stresses, which are acting upon the entire nozzle cross sectlon, and local membrane stresses, which are aciing through the nozzle wall thickness, present analysis procedures are available only for the general stresses without resorting to some procedure such as a finite element -analysis. These general procedures usually have a way of applying a stress intensihcation facto; (SIF) that predicts the local stresses in the nozzle. The stresses generated in the shell or head adjacent to the nozzle are-focal stresses. A proce-<lure for determining the_se local stresses is given in detail in Welding Reseirch Cor,rncji, Bulletin Nol ttJ7 "

. When external loadings are applied to nozzles, the nozzle and the shell or

When extemal loadings are applied to nozzles or branch piping, local saesses are generated at the nozzle-shell intersection. Several typis of ioading may be applied, such as sustained loadings, transient loadings,- ind thermal flexibility loadings. Sustained loadings are continuorisly applied and "*paniion combined with iniernal pressure, such as dead Ioads. Transient loadings are applied for a short period of time, such as earthquake and wind loadinls, pressure fluctu_ ations, and water hammer loadings. The thermal expansion Ioadlngs are caused by potential axial growth of piping from temperature expansion.
-the

r)lorncnt. torsional moment. and axial fbrce. Stresses at various locations on thc inside and outside surfaces are obtained by combining the stresses from variuus offects. This involves considerable "bookkeeping" that WRC 107 developed t<r help alleviate. Once the stresses are obtained according to WRC, they must be combined with intemal pressure stresses to determine the overall stresses. Bijlaard's original problem was finding the effects of structural supports on a cylindrical shell. This initial work considered the radial loads and moments over a flexible, rectangular loading surface. The initial treatment of nozzles was an approximation based on a rigid attachment without the effects of nozzle wall flexibility. Bijlaard extended this work to spherical shells based on a shallow shell theory and considered both solid (rigid) attachments and nozzles with flexibility parameters. Usage of the rules is generally limited to D/, between 10 and 200 for cylinders and between l0 and 250 for spheres. Usage is also limited to d/D oI about 0.33 for cylinders and 0.50 for spheres. However, depending upon other parameters, the value of d/D nay go as high as 0.60 for some

A limit of 0.80 is also applied to the value of d/YD^T for both cylinders and spheres. The curves in WRC 107 are related to certain parameters at the intersection. The two important parameters are the shell parameter and the attachment parameter. The different applications on spherical and cylindrical shells follow.
cylinders.
Spherieal Shells The shell oarameter is
r0

"

:t :

..fn;r

(11.s0)

For a square attachment, the shell parameter is

c1

| | .7.1 Locol Stresses in the Shell or Heod Although a considerable amount of theoretical development work on local in shells from external loadings was conducted ind reported by p. p. iiJyalff'r in the early 1950s, it was not until rhe Welding Risearch Councit ff IlulldinNo. 107 was issued that all the miscellaneous inforriation from Bijlaard and others was put into a concise form for easy use. The range of usige is rcslricted by limitations on various parameters,'but it is infinitily better than
strosses

It = "

o.875\-RJ

(l1.sl)

In the attachment parameter for all solid attachments, no parameter is needed. For a hollow cylinder (nozzle),
(11.52)

t
T
I

anything before WRC 107 was issued. Currently, experimental and theoretical work is being conducted to extend its useful ranse.

(1

1.53)

396

OPIN|NOS, NOZZLES, AND EXTERNAI I.OADINGS

t.7

EXTERNAT

T.OAOINGS 397

l.br a hollow squure,

(11.54) (r 1.ss)

proper values must be read carefully because it may be necessary to interPolate not only from line-to-line but from curve to curve. The values on adjacent charts do not always increase or decrease in a consistent direction. Computation sheets
are given for:

0.875t

't
Cylindrical Shells
The shell parameter is

Figure 11.23. Solid attachment to a spherical shell

v,

._

to.

'- ,/l;r =t,/Ri =-

1::
The attachment parameter for both solid and hollow is for a cylinder

(1 1.56)

e=o8i:.
For a square,

(r 1.57)

=
For a rectangle

*g

where cr

(1 1.58)

C!

F, B,

R.
c2

R^

If

t,,
If

u=

f' -*(f; -'),' - n)\/e,k

K))\/e,e, [' - i(' - f;),' -

01.5e)

Co}.IOIN,jD S?RESS INTDNSII1

t. r,

u=

(1r 60)

- S it u r" 4f 4ith:r l ) Hhcn r I o, s - I rrI:L-lL!j-$-c--[.!qi \ s - l/2 lox+oy ! llox - ay)2 | at2 Jot r'tax - oyl' ' 4r' 2) r,then t = o, s = largest absolur. ndgnitudc of either s - dr, oy or (ox - oy)
Figure 1'1.23 Computotion sh.t for rigid onochment to.Phericol shell. (Courr.sy Welding Reseorch Council, WRC Sulloiin lO7. A',s'Et 1965,)

Using these parameters and the curves given in WRC 107, stresses may be calculated at the inside and outside surfaces due to the various loadinss. The

; I

Figure 11.24. Hollow attachment to a spherical shell

F-igure 11.25.

All attachments to a cylinclrical

shell
Mt

L Appliod Lootir'
Rodiol looC, CirG. l5h. hl, Long. Xolttl,

GF6atfia

Pc?omalcra
Rh

Mc M"

l.

Appl,cd

Loodr'

3. Gemrtric Poromctcrr

Rod,ol Lood, Shror Loqd, Shcor Lood, Ovc.terning Mom.nr, OvGrturhrng Moarcnt, lorrronol Momcnt,

M,

e=-lb. vt2_lr. v,

,'j# =i: -lb'.-if.lbr:

4. 5t.a3r ConcGnt.oiion Conpvtc obtolvtc alicrr volcer ol '

.* . "_z : =02 r an.lb.. '-

Tonica f,oronl. thocr Lccd,

Slcr Lcod, 2. Goaary Vorrrl thicllorr, Arccharat rt,dlur, Yorrol odior. Fig
lor

g.;= lb. |lL:-i6. -15. lb. lr =-_i^. vc -- -in.fb. lb. VL --lb. T,

aC

't T=P to.orsr*.-

v!
ROUND

ATTACHMENT

Focfora

dua lcl rncnbrono lcod, ;,, =bending lood, Kb aNOTE: Entc. oll torcc voluor in occsrdoncc wrth rign convGnlion Frcm fr g. Rcod <urv lor STRESSES - il lood ii cpporilG rhor rhown, rcvcrtc
AU

g Rn: -an. -rn. rlrarr

a^.

'NOTE: Enrrr cll fcrco volvcr in cccordoncr rilh aign co'vcition

SfngSSfS - il locd i. cPgotilc

CYLINDRICAL SHELL
rhot ;ho-n,

ohd anlar tlagll ?

'

rL

Eu

8L

"vc?t'

t'9nr CL

3hM DL

Cu

3c or
cc
tignr rhorn Ds

x6_
?/2,a

(n /Nd\ l t- rh /
\?/ f,b |

lnl
6P

= =

cnd antar ratull

lC or 2C- I
!A

8u

BL

CL

F,.0

ro

/rd\

5P-l to l0 Xrl F

*^

T
5r4-

(s,')'? = *'(ts)' *l=

IA

t ta^26 rd
rc/ tnE

-"(""ft)'#=
t-

l2

l-

f
t-

t-

F
r
r

ta
I

ro l0

N,rfiiT
ilt

^'\T/
/

N,r\r/E;T\

''

f
f

-=
xo

IL,/ tra6l

-^(-#)'#
/ t5l-l 16\ \nzr-B /
6fL

=
+

I
+

r9 I or It-r IL/ trlt

|.. .r6dro *

r-Prr -

x.r/T;T

@
Ht

6*{, la.lili \ xb t\ M, /i'- r.y'nnl = r, / x,rlr/ffii\

Adi rlgoltiolly of { rroror.od

\ t 7'ii7ffi=
1r-,{ffi \
\ rr /
?
T?

+
+

3C or ac

-g? t?,a
F

u.y'Ti.'i
tt
Add olgcbroicolly

6M:
:

lc-1

fr{R6f

or

2C

.. (*,)' -! r rr (3).8 ta = r/
\

lo, .ummol;on of r, r,

ffiE'
tr
2A

ir

*(#)'#?'
xr\;ta,B-'l'
t At \

I
=

lP- I ro l0

+
T
It

/xvT\ \ P /

J.c/l,aP ! _E r rL/litp

itffi
IL

6l{c

3lr-l to l0

xyrr/if
Bl

-'(+) ';l ' xrr,r/-.i\ -"\T/'iffi= r,

7

t
f
.t-

'"("-fo)' ;;EF -

t
+
+
+

---{a ., 2t-l

rllrrp

"(""+-r'#=
rrlr < {rP ' l{t =
2nc2o'

xyrr/EiT
r.,

A- olgrleially ol | $tott.lCt 5br lror ro l*rio, Jo I

f.t D.-tl

?
F

t-

xrr/F;-i
xt

xv1fiiT

""\--*l-/.ffi= 7xyffii \ *'\;;_/.ffi=

6tr
rr

//Nrry'nhr

r,

.l-

lh-r dr.. ar. ro ld, Yc llorr rtnrr &r r. l-4. YL

T,+ =
Trd =

"F
;;T
YL

{-

Add olgebroicolly Sh.or.t..r. ro lod. Yr Sh.o..tr..r ro lood, Yt :h.cr !tr.!.

lor rumnofion of
de.

fr

de.

=,+ r, ofr7
li --,7t- :*+t . a

I
{-

r
I

Ala f-.*tl6 ^halnlollt at rb-r rtroaaar,ft

-s
4T-

1)
+

d!.

Add ofgrbrorcolly lo' rua^ot,oa ol

COMBINED STRESS

I}ITENSITY

of eithEl o, s = lar@itudg s = l/2 fo**o* ! /to* - o0)2 + 4t2 )or r'(ox - o4)d + 2) Wtren T = O, S = largest absolute magnitude of either S = olr oO or (O* - 06)
tJtren 'E I

"
2)

1"1",),* t3;
Hhen

-'",

1",1fifffi;?l'5'll'lli#,Fa
to sphericol shell. (Courtesy Welding
Reseorch

(Courtesy Welding Reseqrch Council, Figure I1.25 Computotion sheei for qfiqchmenis to cylindricol shell' WRC Bullefin 107, August 1965.)

t = Or S = largcst .,rbsolute rnagnitudc of either S .' O-r qv or (o- - g.l .

Figvre 11.21 Computotion sheet for hollow otiochmenl Council, WRC Bullerin 107, August 1965.)

399 398

4OO

OPTNINOS, NOTZIIS, AND TXTTRNAL IOADINGS

I.7

IXTERNAL

TOADINGS 40I

In addition tt) thc linritllions ()n tlrc gcorlrctty in thc anitlysis in MiC, thctc arc othcr lirnitations. 'Ihis analysis detennines only the stresses in the shell or head due to the extemal loadings and thus those from intemal pressure must bc added to them. Because no nozzle stresses are determined by this method, they must be determined by a separate analysis. However, engineers felt that when the extemal loadings are applied to a relatively thin-walled nozzle, the highest stresses may be in the nozzle. For thick-walled nozzles, it appears that deformation is similar to a solid attachment and maximum stresses will occur in the

VD,"T ^: -+L:

where d, =
D^

diameter of opening in shell (in.)

rnean diameter of shell (in.)

? = nominal thickness of shell (in.)

Because the ASME Code, VI[-l, has neither an acceptance criterion nor a rnethod to classify stresses, the designer has to establish a method that is acceptable to the Authorized Inspector. For guidance, the method in the ASME Cod;, VU-2, may be followed by considering the differences in stress theory and allowable stresses between the methods in VIII-I and VIII-2 This method permits the designer to assign stresses into such categories as primary stresses' cluded.

shell or head adjacent to the nozzle. Bijlaard's method indicated that for a longitudinal moment, the maximum stress occurs on the longitudinal axis.
However, experimental results obtained in PVRC tests indicate that for larger nozzles with ad/D = O.5 or larger, the maximum stress may lie somewhat off from the longitudinal axis. Thus adjustments have been made to some of the curves in l\lfiC Bulletin 107. In spite of these shortcomings, a reasonable estimate of the stresses due to the external loadings is obtained by following

wRC lo7

iecondary stres;s, and peak stresses depending upon what loadings are inshell that is 84-in. ID by 1'0-in nominal thicknLss contains a nozzle S-in. ID by 1.0-in. nominal thickness' The design pressure is 400 psi and the allowable stress of the material is 17.5 ksi' The nozzle is subjected to an inward radial loading of 12,000 lb and an applied moment in

Recendy, in considering certain PYRC work to extend the ueful range of WRC 1O7 , J. L. Mershon concluded that within the range of its applicability, the curves for loadings on a cylindrical shell could be reduced, for all practical purposes, to an easier-to-use set of curves given in Appendix K. This set of simplified curves practically eliminates the need to interpolate between various curves in WRC 107 to determine the factors used to calculate the stresses. When the simplified curves are used, it will still be necessary to combine the internal pressure stresses and to develop a method of "bookkeeping" for the signs of the various stresses due to different loadings. The sign convention used with the Mershon method is identical to that of WRC lO7, as shown in Fig. 11.25. The figure shows that stresses may be obtained at the same locations. The relationship of the curves given in WRC and the Mershon curves given in Appendix K is as follows:

Example 11.15,

A cylindrical

of 150,000 in.lb. What are the combined sttesses on the lon-gitudinal axis due to these two extemal loadings using the Mershon metfodand the curves in Appendix K? The vessel is not subjected to cyclic
the longitudinal direction

loadiqg, and therefore no stress concentration factors need be considered' Solution

1.

The shell parameter is

Appendix K Figure K.1

WRC 107 Figures

K.2 K.3 K.4 K.5 K.6 K.7 K.8

11-,2A 3A, 4A 18, 18-1,28,28-l 38, 48 1C, 1C-l

d^ _--:l0 = ----: yD^T

V(85X1)

r.uo

Using this parameter, the constants from the radial loading on the longitudinal axis are:

2C,zc-l 3c(l),4c(1)
3C(2),4C(2\

K.5 M'/P = 0.127 From Fig. K.6 Mo/P : 0.086 From Fig. K.8 N,I/P = 0.160 From Fig. K.8 N6T/P = 0.176
From Fig.

tor the simplified method, only one parameter is required in using the the opening-shell parameter of ,\, which is determined as follows:

curves-

3.

Using these constants, the stresses due to the radial loading are determined as follows:

OPTNINOS, NOZZTIS, AND IXTERNAI. TOADINGS

t.7

EXTERNAT

TOADINOS 403
if available.

M, rrom p (bending) = 0

rr?[A18gu] :
0861@5!qE]

nrro o,'
oreo n,i

as shown in Table I I .5. However, exact values may be used

For this geomefy, assume the following values were determined:

M6 from p(bending)
N, rrom p
N4 from p

Lonsitudinal Axis

Membrane
(membrane) (membrane)

Bending

Membrane
o"( = a) o,( = a4)
85

Bending
-r-0.35
-f 0.55

= 0.160142!9E] = uzo n,i

: 0 1?6[%P]

u,( = oo, o'( = o)

1.40

0.80

+0.20 +o.lo
400

0.70 0.85

= zrro nri
s =PD^ ' 2T

Using the parameter in item (1), the constants from the applied longitudinal moment on the longitudinal axis are determined as follows: From Fig. From Fig. From Fig.

2xl I

= l/'wuPsl

E.

rc.2

u,ft=

The total cornbined shesses from htemal pressure and extemal loadings are grven in Table 11.9.

o.tto

r.z uoft= o.tu

K.4 N,H = 0.076
K.4 N6H:0.260

11.16. For the cylindrical shell given in Example 11.15, determine the stresses due to iniemal pressure and applied extemal loading by the method in WRC Bulletin lO7 .
Example Solution

1.
FromFig.
Using these constants, the stresses due to the longitudinal moment are determined as follows:

For the WRC method, the following shell-nozzle parameters are required:

B:0.875f;=

,5

0.875

a2r=

o.roz

R^ 42.5 Y=;=i=
stesses determined as follows:

42's

M,

ftom M2@ending)

o r?o

l(ffi#]

=,r,r*

0,,

The constants below are determined from various figures in ITRC and the

M5from M1(bendins)

: 0 r04lqx!ggg]
o.oze f

= e:oo n,i

From Fig.

N, ffom M L(membrane) =
N5from M1 (membrane)

!J!9'0{ll = | lao psi L (luxrr I

:eoo pri

o.roof$lqll :

l.l * J244- = 2060 psi q#"'q = 6340 psi From Fig. zc-r M6/P = 0.088 x
4C
No/e/R^) =
From Fig.

38

N6/@L/R,^B) = 4.5 x

Summaries of membrane stresses, bending shesses, and combined stresses at various locations for external loadings are given in Tables I1.6. 11.7. and 11.8. From Fig. 1B
n

@#ftffi-_

3630 psi

In addition to the stresses from the extemal loadings, the stresses from
internal pressue must b combined. These stresses may be determined

M6 =or}4sx 6x 150,000 (MJR^p) ""'"' (42.sxo.lo3XlF

=
9250 psi

898
-..i

--t

&

Y|56 oi ,.i 6 +-:

I I

88S
I
\ct .d

s"qaR
all+ f

O\FF'

t':+ -t-

ldui

8833
i++l

di -i ,.i d

REB O\:O
ttl

:5t516;6

..r --i ..i

+'++

s:8.i -i -i
ttl

98 a" +t$.1
o
ar
J

v1

\o^

\ +ll

v1 ..!

e88 1o\\
.9

o\ \o
,9

t
2
o o o o

t++

+tl

+tl

o
o
.9

o
o O\\OF

t++
tt

l++
6

o'
o

F:o\

+++
s
6

c..l | -! ol

o
aa

o o

ao

:H5

o
-o

oi ..i 'd tll

f B o
-o

o
o
o

c
o

o
{,

= o

ao

iO\Q

c t

ttl

F q
f

1 tt.:

."1

vl
I

= o b o
in
f

t.icj tl

b o

NINI

)
q
Eonr
-g

9
o
-o

o.: I9E AF,.Y

\
-9 -o o F

\s
eeE

o
-o q F

zlaF

o l-

>oA.F
405

::c-fi:

406

oPlNlNOs, NOZUuS, ANO EXTERNAT tOAD|NOS From Fig. From

1.7

EXTIRNAI

LOADINOS

407

t" h=
tc-t +
4B 28

6.6

* -l?41 = l6eo psi

Probhms 11.16 For the same vessel described in Example 11'15, what are the stresses on the transverse plane when the applied moment is changed from a longitudinal rnoment to a transverse moment M": 150'000 in'lb and the radial loading remains at 12,000 lb using the method in Appendix F?

Fig.

= 0.12s x

ai?rq = e000 psi

150,000

FrornFig.

Mfu= 1.3 x
=

(42.5),(0.103X1)

Answer: o6:

1050 psi

From Fig.

6 x 150,000 M,/(ML/R^O = 0.072 x (42.5X0.103X1F

14,800 psi

3.

Using the intemal pressure stresses determined for Example 11.15 and combining then with these stresses gives:
oO

= -8180 Psi Cr. = +30,460 psi Du = +33,280 psi Dt = -6200 Psi 4t Cu = -3550 Psi
Cu
Cr'

+ 19'970 Psi +23,030 Psi

+47O Psi

Du
BU

A7 Pressure mernbrane Pressure bending

BL

= Dt =

+23,800

+23,800
+ 3,400

+ 23,800

+23,800
+ 3,400

11.17 What are the same

results using WRC

l0'l?
Psi

-3,400

-3,400

P membrane P bending
M1 membrane M1 bending Totals

1,690

I,690

1,690

l,690

Answer: o4:' Cu : -7730

C.

9,000

+ 9,000

-9,000
+3,630

+ 9,000

-3,630 -9,250 -880

-3,630 +9,250
+37,100

+3,630

+9,250 +24,880

-9,250
+25,860

or
AU

= + 31,150 Psi Du = +34'670 Psr Dr. = -7050 Psi o': Ct) = -2620 Psi Cr = + 19,240 psi Du = +21.820 Psi

AL

BU

B1

Dz:
I1.7.2
equaUon

+920 psi

hessure membrane Pressure bending P membrane P bending

Mr. membrane

+ 13,600 + 1,700

+ 13,600

+ 13,600

+ 13,600

I,700

+ 1,700

1,700

Stresses in ihe Nozzle

-2,060 -6,340

-2,060
+6,340
1,050

-2,060 -6,340
+ I,050
+ 14,800

-2,060
+6,340 + 1,050

The general membrane stresses

in the

nozzle are calculated using the basic

1,050

M1 bending Totals

- 14,800 - 11,240

+ 14,800

14,800

+32,960

+20,4ffi

.P,M,,7" _ _ A_ I

+5,460

(1 1.61)

4OO

OPININOS, NOZILCS, AND EXTIRNAI I.OADINOS

r.7

txTCRNAt

LOADINGS 409

Howcvcr, to utiempt to make some correction fbr local eflbcts, the bending moments are adjusted by a stress intensification thctor. For piping thermal expansion flexibility stresses in both the ANSI B3l.l and ANSI 831.3 Codes,
the procedure is as follows:

The sfess range, SE, is calculated by

se

- t/il a aP

(0r.62)

where

S'

M'/22 @si)
torsional moment (in.-lb) section modulus of nozzle (in.3)

Example 11.17. A l2-in. NPS Schedule 160 branch and run pipe are attached to oneinother. The design pressure is 2200 psi. The allowable stress at ambient temperature is & = 17.5 ksi and at design temperature is Sl = 12'0 ksi' In addition to the intemal pressure, the branch is subjected to externally applied forces and moments ftom thermal expansion of connecting piping. These moments and force are Mi = 600,000 in.-lb; M, = 900,000 in.-lbiMt = 750 '00,0 in.lb; and F*iur = 90,000 lb. The nozzle is designed for 20,000 cycles Using the design procedure ofthe ASME-ANSI B31 I Code, what is the total applied stress and what is the allowable stress?

Mr

= Z=

Solution

and 56, the resultant bending moment, is

1.
z
(11.63)

itM)" + (i"M.)

Properties of 12-in. NPS Schedule 160 are D, : 12.75 in.; inside ard : 80.5 in.2; metal area = 47.14in.z;z = 122.6in.3; t^ = 1'312

ln.

where

i1

: :

in-plane SIF from Table 11.10 outplane SIF from Table 11.10 in-plane bending moment, (in-lb)
100

i, =
Mi

M, = outplane bending moment (in.Jb)

The allowable shess range 51 is

80 60 40 30

Flexibility 'for elbows

{actor

= 1.65/i

' Flexibilitv factor lor miterc k = 1.52/h5t6 ' Stress intensif ication

lo =/(1.255" +
where
S" 51

0.255/,)

(11.64)

20
15 10

:
= =

lactor i =O.9lh2t3 -Z 'Stress intensi{ication N

allowable stress at ambient (cold) temperature (psi) allowable sfress at design temperature (psi) reduction factor from Table 11.11 based on number of cycles
.9

r .r ||
.\

'

'tactor t = O-75/h213

l|

3
2

The design is acceptable when S5 < 51. lrngitudinal stesses Sa due to sustained loadings, such as pressure and dead loading, shall not exceed S7,. When 51 ) .[, the difference may be added to the term 0.2551 in Eq. 11.57. This gives
,So

t!

1.5

cl
I I

I
1.00

tf.
1 end flanged

0.75

:/[1.255" +

0.255,

(Sr

Sz)]

0.50 o.375 o.25

cr

i]

2 ends flanged c1

=i1l3

or
sA =/[1.25(s" + s) _.ir.l

(11.6s)

s EE E e q:33 33: .t oo o o o
Characteristic

which may be used in place of Eq. 11.64.

rs

,:f F "1l't I (

ll

tLh
,

|r

F_r
q

.l

rI. 1f

-Ill r$'
t)t

-lf't I s

rir. ,l -ll- | I

rlr s
.!

IFH .a',-n

lF.. tS

1r -1

N
.RIG It\
l'>

lms

ill,\

frn-T|

ilM ili@ lIrJ

H
{

e't Eo
#E

*lh
-iEIN
(,)l
o\
'\ l<

rFi I

9l' +l
*l
l{ e l"t
o\

:l

rF,ls

r,-rs
<f
=r

+ It\

{.tFr
rr..,

Jl{
I

rr-,.|s adl
\t

rr-. |

.n

9X
o
o
E

<i

lt

ol\
o.
lE.

l{

-l-

o, lE

<i

l!
o
c]

g.F
!.)

o o

rt)

qli ot{

ctl\

o.

lt dl\

o. lQ

ctl\

o\

..tF

t{

oF.
ct

l\

o'lQ
ct

lt

li dlt
o.

l{ cil\
o.

(.:9

=
o
E

'=ll x .!s

9I's

!a

rn

l;' ls

vr

i I'q

l;

o o o
-o !>r !-

0 ;
-9
-o

61!. 'Eo lee TE 35F

3bX

E}?

.:

c
g
d0

--&-

E
E
Fr'

F: -dsF Fi;: 9 eE

'^c

'r::

.i ltt

B
4r0

sY

HH.t g;Ill

^.,*

Es it .E &,

<;

e I

"E Ea

E E"*ii"Eq
gSEFe"gE

EE

J{

.bv
trl

EtIigEtEEEFf
4ll

P.2 '*6 E E{ OE

>!!

E;3 = 5 Ei E { Eg E E ; ;E 9c i r t 7 ;: i gHE E; r i.Ex*,+ E E Z.E.gEE Es E E.F*E EE g E:.gCi

E

il tr lr

I
g

F"

B* 3E g9
613 hF 2A

p,B

g.E E

o .9. 9'x
o o
,S

E c o

-E

.s

Eg '{E {>r
EE di >,
a.-

ac sb a

ssso;

.E

gq
EE ra
E--R

'E }F

2-\ eltt-, ,-->

\tRl q
+

l!";:5
5
9

E.Ets

Jg; ET
.i

EO

E E

.9 -EE
q -t *; .i;i FF

E ir-a
5fi
ao .-' >i E - 6 E .l =

.9

I
at)

ll '6
.s

c o
p

E9 5fi

!E' * E*c c$F ; ?EH E:E ; Fei i: E ;BE iE; g i

AE
g

6 F! o .E *! i' >, .z .-'

E *E
E

t\ d" t 'E

t,
o o o
,s

$ig E iE,
ei e 'Eq

$*c

5 o
al
o)

"a t s E ; t : Ec d --=: gE E\ I *HE 3.8 E E$ :E r ; E *,t..tc 3b: s E ; EE 5 !

6

:H fr 6 -e; H R H {lrF. e; a 5 E --:-\ E9 d o o { lasg.E ".9 +

E

E 3.3 t

>-:-e

e F

o
.g

6fr igg'EiEiiiEs ;$H; E FBa ! L' ll.,l I l. $E 'EE ri .EE Bfl

gESF
.3 FE.E

A;EI iEf I - .eE E E

EFsggg
4t3

o p
412

EEEI F

Eg
?A

1t1

ollt{lt{ol, f{ollt|t,
Tobb

AND

rxil${

r KTAD|NO3

NO'rltNCtATURt

4lt

ll,ll
f)

Strcr-Rongr Rrductlon
Factor,

Focl,oru (

7.

Determine allowable stress range

S,r:

Cycles, rV 7000 and less Over 7000 to 14,000

/
Se

0.8 for 20,000 cycles

1.0

Over 14,000 to 22,000 Over 22,m fi 45,ON

Over 45,0m

100,000

Over 100,000
Courtgoy American Society
gioeers.

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 of Mchanical En-

= 0.8[1.25(17,500 + 12,000) Ss < S,{ design is acceptable.

Problpm

3760]

26,490 psi

11.1E An 8-in. NPS Schedule

160 branch pipe is attached to a 16-in. NPS pipe. The design pressure is 2000 psi, the allowable Schedule 160 run stress cold is S, = 17.5 ksi, and the allowable sfress at design temperature is 12.0 ksi. The maximum allowable torsional moment is 450,000 in.-lb. The pipe is designed for 10,000 cycles. Maximum

2.

Data at juncture from Table 11.6: 1.312 n=4 __ 5.719 =n,r"n R, u:H=z.qo n-'-

allowable bending moments are set as equal, ff rounded up to the next even 1(X) in.lb, what is the value of M. md Mi2

Answer: M. = Mr = 331,400 in.-lb

t = o.75i" + i = o.7s(2.$) + 0.25 = 2.05

3. Determine torsional stess:

s,=E=ffi=*oo.t
4.
Determine the bending shess:

NOMENCTATURE

Individual nomenclature is used throughout Chapter 11 and usually noted close to where used. The following gives some general nomenclature:

Sa=

2.05

600,000),

(2.40

900,000

122.6

20,770 psi

p, or P = intemal
(psi)
F"

design prcssure or maximum allowable working pressure

5.

Determine the stess range:

s"

- !*|14

\/Ao,nTT4@ - 2t,t7o psi

3760 psi

n
M6
OT

: :
= =

extemally applied axial force (lb) extemally applied horizontal force (lb) extemally applied bending moment (in.-lb)
total local stess at opening (psi) allowable tensile stress (psi) inside diameter of shell (in.)

6.

Determine sustained longitudinal stress:

sL: ezu) nl4i:

s
D

: :

t6

OPTNINOS, NOZZtTS. AND TXTTRNAT I.OADINGS

BIBI.IOGRAPHY

417

insidc dianrctcr

ol nozzle (in.)

:
=
r,
T^

inside radius of opening (in.)

distance from center of opening to point being examined (in.)
,l

"strcsscs liorl Radial Loads aDd Lxlonl l MoDrcnls in Cylintlrical I'r'cssttrc Vcs scls," Wtltlint: Journal, Vol. 34, Rcsearch Supplcncnt, pp 601ts-617s, 1955 "Computation of the Sbesses ftom Local Loads in Sphcrical Prcssurc Vcsscls or -, Pressure vessel Heads," Wewing Research Council, Bulletin No. 34, New York, March
14.

:
= = =

nominal thickness of shell (in.) nominal thickness of nozzle (in.)

minimum required thickness of shell (in.) minimum required thickness of nozzle (in.)
17.

"Local Stresses irr Spherical Shells from Radial or Moment Loadings," Weklirg Joumal, Vol. 36, Research Supplement, pp. 24ls-243s, 1957. "Sresses in a Spherical vessel from Radial l,oads Acting on a Pipe," weldinS -, Research Council, Bulletin No. 49, New Yo*, April 1959 "Stresses in a Spherical Vessel from Extemal Moments Acting on a Pipe," ibid , pp

195't. -,

-,

3t-62.
"Influence of a Reinforcing Pad on the Stresses in a Spherical Vessel -, l-oading," ibid., pp. 63-?3.
under Local

, "stresses in Spherical Vessels from Local Loads Transfe.red by ^ Pipe," Weditq Research Council, No,50, pp. 1-9, May 1959. , "Additional Data on Stresses in Cylindrical Shells under Local Loading," ibid., pp.

-, -

l0-50.

REFERENCES

1. 2. 3. 4, 5. 6, 7. E. qlll.

'ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code," ANSVASME BPV, American Society of Mechanical Enginee$, New York, 1983. 'ANSI/ASME Code for Pressure Piping Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1980.

B3l" ANSI/ASME 831,

American Society of

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Harvey, J. F., Theory and Design of Modern Pressure Vessels, 2nd ed., Van Nostland Reinhold, hincton, N.J., 1974.
Rodabaugh, E. C., and R. C. Gwaltney, "Inside Versus Outside Reinforcing of Nozzles in Spherical Shells with Pressure Loading," Phase Report 117-7, January 1974, BattelleColumbus Inboratory, Columbus, Ohio.
Rodabaugh, E. C., "Proposed Altemate Rules for Use in ASME Codes," Phase Report 117-3, August 1969, Battelle-Columbus Laboratory, Columbus, Ohio, Rules and Regulations

Ellyin, F., "An Experimental Study of Elasto-Plastic Response of Branch-Pipe Tee Connections Subjected to lntemal hessure, Extemal Couples, and Combined lrading," wRC BulletinNo 230, Welding Research Council, New York, September 1977.
Ellyin, F., "Elastic Stresses Near
Attachments
a Skewed

Hole in

a FIat Plate and

in Shells," WRC 8llrrerln No. 153, Welding

Applications to Oblique Nozzle Research Council, New York,

l98l.

for

the Classifcatior

o/SiDJ, Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Irndon,

August 1970.

Sterling, F. W ,, Marine E gi eers Handbook, McCtraw-Hill, New York, 1920. Porowski, J. S., W, J. O'Donnell, and J. R. Fan, "Limit Design of Perforated Cylindrical Shells per ASME Code," Jounal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 99, Sedes J, No. 4,
November 197?.

Ellyin F., "Experimental Investigation of Limit lnads of Nozzles in Cylinddcal Vessels"' wRc BulletinNo.2lg, welding Research Council, New York, September 1976 Eringen, A. C., A. K. Naghdi, S. S. Mahmood, C. C. Thiel, and T. Ariman, "Stress Concentrations in Two Normatly Intersecting Cylindrical Shells Subject to lntemal hessure," WRC Bulletin No. 139, welding Research Council, New York, April 1969. Fidler, R., "A Photoelastic Analysis of Oblique Cylinder In&fiections Subjected to Intemal Ptesslure," WRC Bulletin No. 153, Welding Research Council, New York, August 1970. Findlay, G. E. and J. spenc, "Bending ofPipe Bends with Elliptic Cross Sections," I/Rc B!.rletin No. 164, Welding Research Council, New York, August 1971. Gwaltney, R. C., and J. M. Corum, "An Analytical Study of Inside and Outside Compact Reinforcement for Radial Nozzles in Spherical Sheus," ORNL 4732, June 1974, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn.

Wichman, K. R., A. G. Hopper, and J. L. Mershon, "Local Stresses in Spherical and Cylindrical Shells due to Extemal lradings," Welding Research Council, Bulletin No. 107, Ncw York, August 1965.

Bijlaad, P. P., "Shesses from Local Loadings in Cylindrical I.\ME, Vol. 77. pp. 805-816. 1955.

Pressure Vessels," T/ans.

ll. _,

vol.

"Stresses ftom Radial Loads in Cylindrical Pressue Vessels," Welding .loutnal, 33, Research Supplement, pp. 6l5s-623s, 1954.

al!

oPlNtt{ot, t{ozz[3, aNo rxTaRNAt r,oAotNos

"A
Rcvlcw dnd llvlluution of Computcr Program6 for thc Analysis of Strcsscs in MtC BulletinNo. 108, Wclding Research Couocil, New York, September
SellcrB. F.,

BIEIIOORAPHY 4I9
"A Note on
the Conelation of Photoelestic and Stcel Model Data for Nozzlc Con' Cylindrical Shells," WRC Blt eri, No l39, Welding Resealch Council, Ncw

Kruus, H.,

PrcBsun Vc$scls," 1965.

ne.tions in

teveD, M. M., "Photoelastic Determination of the Sftesses at Oblique Openings in Plates and Shells," WftC Bunettu No. 153, Welding Resea.ch Council, New York, August 1970.

teven, M. M., "Phoioelastic Determination of thc Shesses in Reinforced Openings in hessure Vessels," WRC Bulletirr No. ll3, Welding Resea.ch Council, New York, April 1 6. Lind, N. C., A. N. Sherboume, F. Ellyin, and J. Dainora, "Plastic Tests of Two Branch-pipe Connections," lyRC trrrerir No. 164, Welditrg Research Council, New York, August 1971. Marwell, R. L., atrd R. W. Holland, 'collaps Test of a Thin-Walled Cylin&ical Pressue Vesscl with Radially Attached Nozzle," WRC Bulletin No. 230, Welding Research CouDcil, New

Yo!k, April 1969. Taylor, C. E,, and N. C. Lind, "Photolastic Study of the Stresses neat Operdngs in hcssure Vessels," WRC Burkr,t No. ll3, Welding Resea.ch Council, New York, April 1966' Tso, F. K. W., J. w. Bryson, R. A weed, and S. E. Moore' "Stress Analysis of Cylindrical Pressure Vessels with Closely Spaced Nozzles by the Fhit Element Melhod"'in Vol l' Stres! Analysis of vessels with Two Closely Spaced Nozzles under Intemlrl Pressure'

oRNL/NUIiEG-18/vl, November 1977, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, oak Ridge, Tenn'

Yort, September

1977.

Mershon, J. L. , "Intetpretive Repoit orr Obliqle Nozzle Connections in hessure Vessel Heads and Shells udder Ifternal Pres$ur ading," WXC Sarr?rrn No. 153, Welding Research Council,

New Yort, August 1970. Mershon J. L., "Preliminary Evaluation of PVRC Photoelastic Test Data on Reinforced Openings in Pressur Vessels," WRC Bullain No. I13, Welding Research Council, New York, April
1966.

Raju, P. P., '"Tbre-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of 45" Lateral Model | (tl/D = 0.08, D/T = lO, under External i&Plarc MomeDt lrading," TR-3984-2, Teledyne Enginedng Services, Waltham. Mass. December 1980. Raju, P. P,, "Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of 45"I-ateral Modelz(d/D :0.5, D/f : n) under Intrtral hessur and Extemal in-Plane Moment Loading," TR-3984-1, Tlcdyne Engineeriry Services, Waltham, Mass., December 1980. Raju, P, P., "Tbree-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of 45" Lareral Model l(d/D = 0.08, D/T = lO) under Internal Pressure and Extemal in-Plane Moment Loadings," TR-3X9-1, revisd A, Teledyne Engineering Services, Waltham, Mass., January 1980. Riley, W, F., "Experime al Detennination of Stress Disributioni in Thin-Walled Cylindrical and Spherical Pressure Vessls wilh Ciltula. Nozzles," WRC BulletinNo. 108, Welding Research Council, New York, September 1965. Rodabaugh, E. C., "Elastic Stesses in Nozzles iD Pressue Vessels with Intemal Pressue Loaditr8," Phas Repoft ll7-1, April 1969, Battelle-Colubus Laboratory, Columbus, Ohio. Rodabaugh, E. C., "Review of Service Experietrc atrd Test Data on q)ening$ in Pressure Vessels with Non-I egral ReiDforcidg," WRC Bulletin No. 166, Weldiog Research Council, New York, October 1971. Rodabaugh, E. C. , and R. C. Gwahiey, 'Additional Data on Elastic Stresses in Nozzles in Pre$sulE Vessels with Intemal Pressure loading," Phase Report ll7-2, December 1971, BattelleColumbus kboratory, Columbus, Ohio. Rodabaugh, E. C,, aDd R. C. cwaltoey, "Elastic Stsesses at Reinforced Nozzles ir Spherical Shells with Pressur and Moment Loadiog," Phase Report ll?-gR, September 1976, BattelleColumbus Iaboratory, Columbus, Ohio. Rodabaugh, E, C,, and S. E. Moore, "Evaluation of the Plastic Characte.istics of Piping hoducts in Relation to ASME Code Cdteiia," NUREC/CR-0261 ORNI-/Sub-2913/8, Oak Ridge National Inboratory, Oak Ridge, TeIm., July 1978. Schroeder, J., K. R. Srinivasaiah, and P, Graham, "Analysis of Test Data on Bmnch Connections Exposd to Intemal Pressure and/or Extemal Coluples," WRC Bulk,n No. 200, Welding
Research Council. New

York. Novembr 1974.

Schoeder,

and P, Tugcu, "Plastic Stability of Pipes and Tes Exposed to Extemal Couples," WRC Bullctin No, 238, Welding Research Couucil, New York, June 1978.

t.,

CHAPTER

12

VESSEL SUPPORTS

Ditfereni v$sel supporis. (Courresy of the Noofer Corporotion: St. touir, Mo.)

420

421

412

VISSfl" SUPPORTS

I2.2

SKIRT AND BASE RING DESIGN

I2.I 1. 2. 3. 4, 5.

INTRODUCTION

Process equipment is normally supported by one

of the following methods:

Skirts Support legs Support lugs

a;.

Ring girders
Saddles

Most vertical vessels are supported by skirts, as shown in Fig. 12.Ic. Skirts are-economical because they generally transfer the loads from the vessel by shear action. They also hansfer the loads to the foundation through anchor bolts and bearing plates. I*g-supported vessels are normally lightweight and the legs provide easy access to the bottom of the vessel. An economic design is shown in Fig. 12. lb, where the legs attach directly to the vessel and the loads are transferredby shear action.

I.'igure 12. lc shows an alternate design where the lcgs irLre attached to lugs that in tum are welded to the vessel. The bending stiffness of the shell and its ability to resist the moments adequately, must be considered. The cross-bracing ol the legs may be needed to minimize lateral and torsional movements. Vessels supported by ring girders, (Fig. 12.1d), are usually placed within a structural frame. The ring girder has the advantage of supporting torsional and bending moments resulting from the transfer of loads from the vessel wall to the supports. Horizontal vessels, (Fig. l2.le), Ne normally supported by saddles. Stiffening rings may be required if the shell is too thin to transfer the loads to the saddles. The problem of thermal expansion must also be considered.

I2,2

SKIRT AND BASE RING DESIGN

Design of the skirt consists of first determining the dead weight of the vessel W and bending moment M due to wind and earthquake forces (see Chapter I 6) . The
stress

in the skirt is then determined from

(f =

-w
^

Mc -+I

(r2.r)
10. Hence, the area A and the

In most practical applications, the ratio moment of inertia I is exPressed as

R/t )
2rRt
rR3 t

: I:

and the equation for the stress in a skirt becomes

(a) Sklrt

(b)

Leg

(c) L!s

,
where

#'#,

0z.z)

o:
= M=
W

axial stress in skirt weight of vessel

moment due to wind or earthquake forces radius of skirt

r = thickness of skirt (d)

Rins Gl

rder
Figur

(e) l2.l
Vessel supporrs.

Because the compressive stress is larger than the tensile stress,

Saddtes

it

usually

controls the skirt design and is kept below the skirt's allowable axial compressive stress as given by Eq. 8.15.

VESSIt SUPPORTS

Atlcr the thickncss of the skirt r is determined, the next step is designing the anchor bolts. For a given number of bolts Nthe total bolt area can be expressed as NA where A is the area of one bolt. The moment of inertia of bolts about the vessel's neutral axis is I = NAR2/2.'fhtts, Eq. 12.1 is

Toble

12.2

Bolt Dimensions ond Cleorqnces Bolting Dqtd

Nut Dimensions

Radial Edge Wrench Across Across Bolt Root Bolt No. of Size Thrcads Arca (in.'?) Flats Corners Spacing Distance Distance Diameter
B

_-w2M ,
where P = load/bolt
17

N -NR

(r2.3)

arJ rr d 10 o1

weight of vessel

'

N = number ofbolts R = radius of bolt chcle

M=

bending moment

18 l* li 1"1 ll 1"2 28 2i8 2i8 2i8

;e

o.126 o.202 o.302

0.419 0.551

z
rr_6

0.969
1.1'7 5

li
l!2 L7

RE .t? 16a
!!1

a,

ti
z

ri
7F,

1.383
rr_6

1.589

rt

t5

L1
L'

ra-

8 8
8

o.728 o.929
1. 155

ri3
2

t.'796 2.002 2.209

zc

.16
L1

2.4t6
2.622

3*l
J7

The maximum load/bolt is based on the allowable stress and conesponding area given in Table 12.1. The allowable stress depends on the type of boli fumished. Table 12.2 shows various properties and required dimensions for bolts with different diameters.

lt li

8 8 8 8

1.405 1.608 1.980

2.828 ^3
-15
Ja-

4
J;

3.035 3.449

+7

12.1. Determine the required skirt thickness and the number of bolts needed in a vessel with an outside radius R = 7 .0 ft. IIJI empty weight Wr : 160 kips, weight of contents Wz: l4l;} kips, wind-bending momenr M : 1500 ft-kips and temperature = 300. F. Assume A307 bolts and use
Example
Figure 8. 11 for the exiemal pressure chart.

2.304 2.652 3.423

4.292

+i
zi
^ I J-6 Lz ^3 ZE
t)a
,7

1!
1Z

Ji

3.862 4.2't5
4.688 5.102 5.515

5.259
6.3
7

+i
5

Solution
Skirt design

3i8 v 3i8 3i8 48

On
tt
a=

.487

Ji

7i
8

8.'749 10.108 11.566

5.928 6.341

'7L

lE
8"1

oi

6.755

+i .ri

rt
ra

8j
9

Lpt

t=

0.375 in. From Eq. 12.2,

Tqble

12. I

Bolt Type
4307 4325 4449
A.490

Allowable
Tensile
Stress (ksi)

Cross-Sectional Area

(in.')
tr

20 40 40 54

/^ 0.9743\' t\" - -7rr- 1

Nominal

Nominal Nominal 425

'l{'

is number of lhrcads/in.

lN

Vttilt luPlotTt

r2,2
160

tKlnT aND

lA$

RINO

DIIION all

o= From Eq. 8.15,

1l|40

1500

12

r (84

0.37 5 / 2)(0.37 5\

r(83.813f(0.375)

10.28 ksi

bctwccn and/or r,esting on a group of piles, it can be assumed that fte intersction to that of a reinforced concrotc c-on"ret" is similar Uots, bie plaie, U"".. fn t"feoit g to Fig. 12.2, the following assumptions are made:

ttt

*d

1. 2.
0.125

A:
=
Boh design
Let

The contribution of the bolts on the compression side is negligible' The bolts on the tension side are assumed to act as a continuous ring width r", where r" is calculated from the equation

of

RJt
0.001 I

,,=4 zrd
12,100

(t2.4)

Hence, from Fig. 8.11,

A=

psi

OK

3.

The allowable stress of steel /" is taken from Table

l2'1'

N=

12 bolts. From Eq. 12.3,

I-oad/tntr:

- t2

l@+

2(15ooxl2)
12(84)

:
Frorn Table 12.1,
area requlre{

22.4 kips

:
=

ldW

22.4
| .12

n.2

From Table 12.2

l|.-lln. diameter bolts

(N' =.S).

Thus from Table 12.1,

n." ^-- 0.9743." *u=Z1r.sD-1-): 1.23 nz > 1.12 OK

actual shess

7)A = J1: l-25

:
=

18.2 ksi

total furnished area

Use

12

1.23

14.8 in.'?

l-in. skirt with 12

l*-in. dianeter bolts.

Having established the nurnber and size of bolts, the next step is to calculate thc interaction between the base plate, anchor bolts, and supporting snuchre. If thc supporting structure is a steel ftame or foundation, then Eq. 12.3 is all that is necded for designing anchor bolts. On the other hand, if the foundation is deep

tigl!.o 12,2

lrt

v||||t turro$t
Tobb 12.3 Concntr Proprrflcr
Allowable
Compressive Stess (psi) Compressive Stress (psi) Modulus

I2.2

SKIRT AND

IA3:

RINO DTSION

429

1=,t"
of Flasticity Gsi)

=W=t-2k

(12.6)

f" = o.4sfl
25m
3000

E.:

The total force T of the tensile area of the reinforcement can be determined bv sumrning forces on the tensile side of the neuhal axis which gives

57,WO\/n

Ei

1,t25
1,350 1,575 1,800

2,850,000 3,120,000 3,370,000 3,610,000

lt
8

/8"

t0
9

3500
,1000

'll /,r\( t r = f,t,l;l {r--= ll.,r. yl sin 7 + cos 7l I * \ | [; \z/ tr -1- sln 7 L\z / J)
o|

"E, = 30 x

lf

psi.

, =r,^(1) *,
The disance between

(r2.7)
12

4.

6.

Concrete on the compression side is assumed to have a width t" that is the same as the width of the base plate. The allowable complessive stress of concretel is taken from Table 12.3. The ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete is defined as n.

and the neutral axis expressed by

is

t"=4l<r/z+nt't+t.st*t" *n+o '' 2L (r/2 * 7) sinT cosT

f
J

(r2.8)

n: .E" Ec
=f'/e, -f"e" e"
f"
f"a"

Similarly, the total force C of the compressive area of the concrete is given by

b=<,,*-{;lls::=;v]
c=(t,+*"r\h*
The distance /3 between C and the neuhal axis is

(12.e)

In an elastic analysis, the stains in the concrete and steel at any location are the same. Hence, e" : e, and

':ti - ,=*
Also, from Frg. t2.2c, using similar triangles

f, d-kd ,1 x=
From these
obtained:

nf. kd

"-216]
lJ2's)

_ dl(n/2 -z)(sin'zy + l/21 - 1.S(sinycosy)'l

The relationship between extemal forces M and I7 and the intemal forces

C are derived from Fig. 12.2c. He,nce

and

1] 1Jnf"

2M"=O

assumptions

afr Fig,

12.2, the following relationships are

w(h + h)

r(h + 4) = 0

alo
0nd

v|lilt lutFom

12,2

SKIRT AND

lASl

RINO

DlllON .ltl

^ = M-W(\+l) t 1ra
1,

(12. r0)

Example 12,2, ln Example 12.1, it was found that l2-lN in. A307 anchor bolts were needed for a vessel with an outside radius R = 7 ft,Wt = 160 kips, M = 1500 ft-kips, and a skht thickness of0.375 in. If/l = 3000 psi, determine the actual stess in the concrete and bolts.

Similarly,

Sohiion.

)r',=o
and

By referring to Fig. 12.3 and Table 12.2, for le-:ff' bolts, the bolt circle can be calculated as

d = 2(84 + 0.25 + 1.875) = 172.25 in.

C:T+W
The values of 7,

(12. r 1)

Also

h, h, h, Ks and K2 are given in Table 12.4 for various values

of

/c.

,t":2(0.25 +
Frorn Example 12.1,

1.875

1.375)

0.375

7.375

n.

Tqble 12.4

2h/d
0.01 0.02 0.03 78.52 73.74 70.05
66.93

2t"/d
1.489 1.477 1.465

2h/d
0.016 0,o32
0.048 0.064 0.080 0.096

Kr
3.1 13

Kz o.267 0.378

"f, From Eq. 12.2

18.2 ksi

0.04
0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.15 0.20 o.25

@.16

0.98 0.96 o.94 0.92 0.90

0.88

3.085 3.059 3.033 3.008

0.463
0.535 0.599 0.657 0.160 0.852
1.049

1.452

r.439
1.426 1.400
1.373

,=- r2(r.23\ '" t(172.25)

=
0.0273 in.

6t.&
57.t4
53.13
44.43

36.87 30.00 23.58

0.30
0.35

r7.46
11.54

0.40
0.45

5.74

0.50
0.55

0.00

0.84 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 o.20 0.10 0.00

o.128
0.160

2.983 2.935
2.887 2.772

1.304
1.233
1.161 1.087 1.013

o.239
0.318 0.397

2.61
2.551
2.442

1.218

r.370
1.509

o.475
0.553 0.631

2.333

1.640

0.938

0.862
0.785 0.709 0.631 0.553 0.475 0.397 0.318

o.709
0.785 0.862 0.938
1.013 1.087 1.161

2.2U 2.1t3
2.000 1.884

r.765
1.884 2.000

0.@
0.65

-5.74 -11.54 -17.46

-23.5E

0.70
o.75 0.80 0.85

-30.00

-36.8'l -44.43

-0.10 -0.20 -0.30 -0.,m -0.50 -0.60 -0.70

2.113

t.765

2.2U
2.333 2.442 2.551 2.661
2.772
Figirr. 12.3

1.ffi
1.509

|.3'to
1.218 1.049

t.233
1.304

o.239

1t2 Vililt tuttottl

From Tablo 12,3

I2.2

SKIRT AND

8A3I RINO DI3ION

433

The calculatcd values of/,1 andf, result in a K value

of

"f'
and Eq. 12.5 gives

= 1350 Psi n=10

K= r + 9810/(10xr8)

K=

0.43.

:
0.47 ,

O.O2

From Table 12.4 wirh

K=

1= a
1= a 1 a
&:
The magnitude of

o'.,*
o.ssz

which is considerably lower than the assumed value ofl( = 0.43. Hence another trial is needed with a K value of 0.02. After recalculating values of 7, /", C, and /", a new value ofK is obtained and compared with the assumed one. ff both values are approximately the same, the analysis is completed. If they axe not, a new analysis is performed. Thus, in this example after a few trials, for K = 0.O75, the following values were obtained:

= o.srr
2.157

:1 = 0.8s (t
',L --:1.$7
as

& = 1.836

is obtained ftom Eq. 12.10

- _ 1,500,000 x 12 - 160,000 (0.1{ + 0.678) (172.25) (0.892

+
0.678)(r72.2s)

4 d
.

= o.rn

:
The value

49,750lb
is determined ftom Eq. 12.7
as

ofi

K(:2.e47 K) = 0.734 T. _ t5 x ld x t2 tr
-

16

x lff

(0.85

0.120) (172.25)

49,750 (0.027 3)(r7 2.2s / 2) (2. 1 s7),

:35.230
35,230
(o.027 3)(t7 2.2s / 2) Q.e 47 ) 5085 psi

:
From Eq. 12.1I

9810 psi

:
C

C = 49,750

160,000 and

= t95,230 f"=42psi

:2O9,750lb
Equation 12.9 gives

f": lo.on3 + (10x7.37st (t72.2s/2) (r.836)

=
18 psi

2@,750

K:
I" =

r+(5085/10+42)

0.076

which is apptoximately the same 42 psi is the answer.

as

the assumed value. Hence;[

5085 psi and

,4r.tll',t!tf!,t;;

atrt

vlSlll tUPPOltl
Anchor Cholr Dcrlgn

r2,2

SKtRt AND

lA3!

R|NO

Dll|ON 4$

12,2,I

The base ring is designed both for the effect of the concrete-bearing load on the side of the foundation under compression and for the bblt force on the other side of the foundation in tension. On the compressive side, the base ring can bc assumed as a cantilever beam subjected tol as shown in Fig. 12.4. The required thickness is obtained from 6lj4 C= __V t

r]--l
lrl

ls-l
(")
(b)

t:

\/;

l6It4

PARTIAL VIEW OF
BASE RING

Substituting for M the value

M=
the expression for

r!-

t becomes

\/;
wherc t

tw

---1_r",,
(r2.r2)
DEFLECIION

: : : :

required base ring thickness on the compressive side of the neufal

(,
Fisuru 12.5

axis

/" I o

actud sftess in concete

cantilever length of base ring as defined in Fig. 12.5 allowable bending stess of base ring

rnining the maximum bending moment in the base ring is rather complicated because of the nature of the boundary conditions and the hole. However, an
approximate and conservative solution can be obtained by assuming the ring to act as a plate simply supported on three sides and free on the fourth side. Using the yield-line theory,l

On the tensile side, the thickness of the base ring is conholled by the amount of bolt force and dimensions shown in Fig. 12.5. The exact analysis for deter-

external

work =

intemal work

F(t) =
or

21,1016

dr

u,

(a

- fi j

__r'

Mp=

2[2n

/a + a /2t

d(2/a + r/21)']

Using. a load factor of 1.7 and a factor effect,r the equation

of l.l5 to allow for fleld-line comer

Fi$,r. | 2.a

^4M 't'

lta

w||tt tuDotTl
whcrc o
(

I2.2

SKIRT AND

!A3!

RINO DISION

can bo solvod for tho rcqutrcd thickncss cxpressed as

allowable sness in shell

S,l2b

/a + a /2t

d 12'/a

+ t/zq'l

12.13)

, = thickness of shell F = bolt load

where t = required base ring F : bolt load

S,

thickness on the tensile side of the neuhal axis

yield shess of base ring

12.3. Design the base ring shown in Fig. 12.7a. Stress in the bolts is 17,500 psi; height of gussets 12 in., and concrete-bearing stress is 100 psi, Allowable stress for base ring is 20,000 psi and yield sfress is 36,000 psi.
Example

ul

approximate free-body diagram of the forces is shown in FIg. lZ.O. Venicat torces are transferred as shown in Fig. l2-6a. The resulting unbalanced bending the gussets resulting from the vertical forcei requires equal and -^_1T:,1i opposrte T horizontal forces as shown in Fig. 12.6b. These horizontal forces induco local sfiesses in the shell that are calculated from the equation
(f =

as defined in Fig. 12.5b. The load in the shell is tansferred tothe anchor bolts through the gussets.

a, b, d, and I

re

Solution.
tained from

Required base ring thickness due to concrele-bearing stress is obF4. 12.12 as

An

x100x62
20,000

0.73 in.
From Table 12.2,

tln

net area

of I l-in. bolts is

1.405 in.'? 1.405

l.5Fb ntzh -:-

(12.r4)

force F in bolts

17,500

= 24,6M lb

G)vqlrcaL_EaSaEs

(l2) t.l BOLTS

u.c)(b4) ''
zzh

(!)HoRtzoNTaL FoRcEs

Figur. 12.6

Figw.12.7

all
12.13.

vltllr

SuPFol?t

t2.3

D!3|ON

ol

luPPoR?

t!o! 4tg "

":''''

From thls trblc, cloarancc for wrcnch diametcr is 3.75 in. Allowing for gusset flllct wclds, the distance between gussets is as shown in Fig. 12.7i. froi fq.

v
ile- designq
thickness

91

z4-roo

--

t-i-7 \i-_/
q
Jtcrta,r
'4-,4

/F lor

--+--

thickness of 0.73

by bolt load, or use a base rin! in. with anchor chairs, as shown n Fig. 12.7. The stess in the shell is obtained from Eq. 12.14 as
"- = -1t

of

point has choice to make. I tlisin., which ais controlled One can either use a base ring 1.07

[Iil-[f[ff]w

ruro,
\7V
,,,u,"'r.,
Column B in Fig. 12.8 is designed to carry shear in accordance with the equation

1.5x24.600x6

: I

oigt n

10,4O0 psi

This sbess is combined with the axial stress and the total must be less than thre tirnes the allowable stess.

I2,3

DESIGN OF SUPPORT IEGS

Support legs are designed to take into consideration axial loads, bendins mo_ ments, and shear forces in tlre vessel. Refering so Fig. 12.g we see that at-cross section A-A all forces are expressed in terms of M, V, and W. The axial force W.is canie.d uniformly by all columns. Bending moment M is carried by the columns away from the neutral axis and the shearing forces v are carried by the columns closest to the neutral axis as shown in Fie. 12.g. Column A in Fig. 12.8 is designed by using Eql I2.3 given by

The shearihg force f at the top of columns B causes bending mornent in the column if no cross-bracing is used. With cross-bracing the force T is resolved irito axial forces as shown in Example 12.4.

T =VQ -Il

Example 12.4. Determine the forces in columns A and B of the vessel shown in Fig. 12.9.

Sohtlion. Axial force in colurnns A

and B due to W is

=-w * n{ -NR

2tu1

F=

w 240 :30 N8

where

P:
W
iV :

load per column

Axial force in column A due to M is

weight of vessel
number of columns

_ 2t4 .NR
2x20p,0

R = radius of columns' circle

M = noment

due to wind or earthquake loads

--"--*-"-ry*"trffiffitrufft
t2.3
rr3t. I'he quantity p of the crosshatched
DIS|ON Ot SUPPOnT

uog

4l

area in this figure is givcn by

a= wo(?,\ \1t /
/=

50k
The force

2:r2t

M-2aaa8Fr
(b)

Il

is then given by

H- V (2r2t) - v " (in3t)(zt) nrt -2V A txSfl :;6

H

0.2653 lb/in.

Horizontal force in column B is

a=

(o.z6sr)(:3y
12.50 kips

:
X=

/2.5

(d)

This force

Il

is normally resolved into two components as shown in Fig. 12.9d'

Force U is a r{dial force on the shell and force X is a horizontal force in the plane

of the cross-b\acing.

.
(")
:igur. 12.9

u=

Hcnt
sin

a=

12.5

0.414

5.18 kips

y= '^

!-a = !-L = 13.53 kips 0.924

The force X intoduces additional cornpressive force in column B as shown in Fig. 12.9e. The distance between columns is

= total axial load in column B =

total axial load in column

-50 - 100 = -150 kip -50 kip

A
are zero. Those transferred to

t=2{ =3.en
The apFoximate height of the colurnns is 20 deers and the axial force F in colurnn B is

The shearing stnesses transferred to column column B are detennined frorn

ft.

Hence, angle B is about

ll

u=W h
The moment of inertia

#n:6e.61
=

kips

I of

the whole cross section in Fig. 12.9c is given by

force E

= 7O.lt fip.

"n

BA

vtss

suPPokrs

I2,5
A
lhc shgll duc t() support cccentricity is givcn by
119.61 kio

RING GIRDTRS

total lirrcc in colunrr

: --l5() kip total forcc in column B : -50 - 69.61 : total force in bracing : 70.91 kips I

M":

Fe

r2. r5)

If the cross-bracing is eliminated in Example 12.4, the shear force tends to cause a bending moment in column B. Assuming the bottom end of the columns pinned, the horizontal force causes a bending moment at the top of the column of magnitude 12.5 x 20 ft 250 k-ft. Thus, without a bracing system, column B must be designed to withstand a compressive force of 50 kips plus a bending moment of 250 k-ft rather than a compressive force of 119.61 kips with a bracing system. Note that the absence of a cross-bracing causes the tops of the columns to

and the maximum stress in the shell is calculated from reference 2. Both membrane and bending stresses are calculated. Details ofthe required calculations are well established in reference 2. Further treatment of this topic is unnecessary in

this book.

I2.5

RING GIRDERS

sway laterally because of reduced rigidity. This can also cause excessive vibration or deformation of the vessel.

Ring girders (Fig. lz.ld), are common in elevated vessels supported by a structural frame. An exact analysis of the stresses in a ring girder due to various loading conditions is very complicated. For a uniform load, the stresses and forces can be determined easily with the following assumptions:

I2.4

LUG-SUPPORTED VESSETS

The main design consideration regarding lug-supported vessels is the stress magnitude in the shell. Bijlaard's method is usually followed in such a design.2 It consists of determining the stress in the shell at the vicinity of a support lug of height 2C2 and width 2C1, as shown in Fig. 12.10. The bending moment in

l. 2. 3. 4.

Supports are equally spaced. Vertical deflection at supports is zero. Slope of ring girder at supports is zero due to symmetry of loads and
supports.

Torsion force at supports is zero. This assumes twisting of the girder due to flexibility of shell.

Based on these assumptions, t}le moments, shears, and torsion at the supports and in-between supports are given by

M, = Kzwr2

M^

Kswrz (12.16)

: Ka,wr r, =0
V,

v^:o
T^:o

where M,, V,, T" = support moment, shear, and torsion, respectively. Posi tive direction is shown in Fig. 12.11.

M,,

V^, T^

K3

(t
w

= =

midspan moment, shear and torsion, respectively constants obtained from Table 12.5

\__

)r-l t4

1,.,
t
Fisur 12.10

: r:

uniform load
radius
I 2 .5

The maximum torsional moment occurs at the ansles shown in Table is given by

and

Ifl'

Viiiliti,hom

2,t

milo

ottDltt 4t

_ In deriving Eqs. 12.16 it is assumed that thc loade and thc rcactions rct through the neutal axis ofthe girder. In pressure vessels the loads are tansfcrre.d to the ring girder through the shell. If the ring girder is taken as a channel section as in Fig, l2.l3a, tben the loads in the sh-ell cause a bending moment in the girder because they are not applied through the shear (flexural) center. This
moment, shown in Frg.

l2.l2a,

has the magnitude

m=-we
Figuro

l2.l I

where e is the shear cnter moment arm, which can be expressed as

T*"
supports are obtained ftom

Kewr2

(r2.r7)

e=

b2d2h 41,

The moment, shear, and torsion expressions for any given location between
Me
Ve

The uniform bending moment m causes tension hoop sbess above the r_axis and compression hoop stress below the.x-axis as shown in Fig. l2.l2b. T\e

V,r sin d

M,cos 0

= V" - wrg To = V,r(l - cos d) + M" s:rr,e -wr.z (e - sn 0)

wr2

(l -

cos 01

(l2.l8)

whete M6,

V6, 76

:
=

mornent shear, and torsion at any location angle as define.d in Fig. 12.11

0
Tqble

\ 'r
Angle of Maximum
Torsion

12.5

Ring

Gider Coefficienrs

'l--zt{-

Tr-

Number

Angle
Between

of
2
J

ftom
Support
Ka Ks Ka (degrees)

Suppons

(degrees) K3
180

Supports

120 90 72 60
45

-1.0000 -0.3954 -0.2146

1.5707 1.0471

-0.57m
-o.2091 -0.1107 -0.0690

0.7853
0.6283 0.5235 0.3926 0.3141

5 6
8

-0.t351
-0.0931 -0.0519 -0.0331 -o.o229 -0.0128 -0.0082

-o.M7l
-0.0262 -0.0166
-0.0115

t0

36 30 22.5
18

l2 l6
20

0.261'l
0.1963 0.1570

-0.@65 -0.0042

-3.9q x -2.W x - 1.154 x -3.722 x

-2.469
><

-3.307 x -8.278 x -3.313 x -1.654 x -9.471 x

l0-r 10-, lo-2 10-2 l0-3 10-3 l0-! 10-3 l0-3 l0-"

39.55 25.80

D.21
15.30 12.74

9.53

7.62

634
4.72
3.79
(b) Figw. 12,l2

"--*tr*"wffruruilr12.5
momont and corrorponding strcso can be cxproosod
ac

RINO

OtRDlRt

Uf

,, M=-mr= -v,rb2d2h 4L a:
mry

/.tsev-rr *

rt

L
(12.19)
wb2d2hry

4I?

where

o-

sftess

= width of flange d = distance between flanses ft = flange thickness I, = rnoment of inertia of girder r : radius of vessel
D

r = shell thickness w = unifonn applied load

At the supports, the reaction eccentricity tends to produce compressive forces in the top flange and tensile forces in the bottom one as shown in Fig.. 12.13c. The.top and bottom flanges can be assumed to fansfer the loads as shJwn in Fig,

(bl
Figurc 12.13

(c)

12.13b. TIla forces are derived as

At the supports, 0 = 0 and

M,:+

("o,a"otf

- 'rr -

3) - t. t .t
(t2.20)

M,=+(*,;-i)
-Ha tt = Zco.a

- roo, (t-i.,) n,=Z---;ttt

v,:-H '2
and in-between the supports 0

.. -H.. i) ,,= z ---.

(a

= a/2

it-z

Mr=

nrl . ";\sm;

f coo ?
4

W$tt tupPotll

2,6

SADDU

tUPPOmt 49

''''tit'lttl

_ r, = .f,| cos a

Solutlon

7_.i smt
from Table 12.5, with N

w
fia

0.637 k-in. (zXl00) =

200

v,: +!:!s a .a
The positive directions of M1,
F1,

t-z

8,

& = -0.0519
Ks

and % are shown in Fig. 12. l3c.

-0.02.52

= 0.3926 K6==3.940x10-3
Kc

Exanp!9 12.5. The ring girder shown in Fig. 12.t4 is supporred at eight points. If I7 = 200 kips, find the forces in the ring at the supports and at the point of maximum torsional moment.

Maximum torsion occurs at 9.53' ftom support.

The forces given by Eqs. 12.16, 12.19, afi 12.?I are detemrined in Table Fig. 12.15 at the supports and at the point of maximum torsion.
12.6 and illustrated in

I2.6

SADDTE SUPPORTS

Horizontal vessels supported by two saddles (Fig; 12. le) act as simply supported beams. For vesSels with dished heads (Fig. 12.16a) the equivalent beam lenglh is taken as .L -l 4H 13 where L is the tangent-to-tangent length of the vessel and

.br (,
At Support
Eq. 12.16
M", M^

At Point of Maximum Torsion

0 k-in.

-82.65 k-in.
12.50

v", v^

L,T^
Eq. 12.19

7.20k 6.n k-ln.

-60.05 k-in.
-101.50 k-in.

M
Eq. 12.2V

-60.05 k-in.
+40.54 k-in.

Mf
Fr

lxx =

587.4Inl

k -6.13 k
14.80

k -8.50 k
13.58

" Ihese equatioas apply at

poifis a and D; poirts A and C have opposite signs.

'-. Wk+e'\
_
200 1.89

812

=
Flgure 12.14

12.'26'

a==z:45o 6'

t2.6

SADD!! SUPPORTI

4tl

M=60.05 K-in

Fo.f.! or Support. Figur. 12.15

Fotce.

tt

point ot

l rrinr,n

is the depth of the heads. The vertical load on each head is given by V = 2IIw 13 and is assumed to act at the center of gravity of the head. Thc horizontal pfessure on the heads due to liquid heads is resistd by a horizontal force F acting as shown n Fig. L2.l6b.It is interesting to note that for hemispherical heads where 11 is equal to r, the bending moment at the head{o-shell junction due to force F and vertical force V is zero. The bending moFent at any point in the vessel is obtained from statics as shown nFig. n/f6 lL b The section modulus of the shell between the saddles is I/c and is expressed as rr2t. At the saddles, the effective section modulus is reduced due to the dqfonnation of the shell which renders the full cross section less effective. Research has shown3 that the length of the effective cross section of the shell is equal to the arc length of the contact angle of the saddle plus one-sixth of the unstiffened shell, as shown in Fig. 12.17. The section modulus of the arc length that is in tnsion is expressed as

Il

Z:

r2t

[4

Thus the maximum longitudinal stress values can be expressed as

01

o1\ C2M, for unstiffened shells at saddles or: CrM" for stiffened shells at saddles

,=

C1M6 for

midspan between supports

(r2.22'

,TEI
'(.
F=r.w

L/

Fisur. 12.16

450

tigur. 12.17

112 Vllln

tuPForTl
shoss in shell (ksi)

t2.6

SADDI tUPPOtTt

4t0

whorc or - longltudinal bcnding

I7 = weight of vessel plus its contents (kips)

The shearing stress at the saddle area is influenced by the deformation of thc unstiffened shell above the saddle. Experimental research has shown that the shear near the saddle is distributed along an arc length of

r: t=

length of vessel between tangent lines (in.) radius of vessel (in.)

thickness of shell (in.)

t=2,(!+9\ " \z 20)

as shown

c,: '

J,ft't
sinA/A

in Fig. 12.18. The shearing stress can then be calculaied

as

I ^-ll "-r4LA+;inE;I-2Giltlfu)l

- cosA

a, =
wher

CtV

(12.24)

t=o+E

The shear sress in tlre shell between the saddles is computed by assuming a sinusoidal distribution of the shear forces where the maximum value is at ihe equator, given by

^ Cr

: -;- sin d n\n-d+srnccos)

for saddles away from heads

o' = I nn 'io
where
@

sin c sinacosa - flI6 / - + Smdcosc/ ) \n- (l

for saddles near heads

'

(12.23)

where r

is measured as shown in Fig. 12.18.

: a:

radius of vessel

0/2 + F/20
ang(e as rneasured in

\ h : ngle that varies between z .

o-"

d= =

Fig. 12.18

and

shear sftess

Equation l2.Z is also used to check.the stess in the head. In this case the value of t in the expression for C3 is taken as the thickness of head rather than shell. The circumferential stress in lhe shell at the saddle area is calculated by assuming the shell above the saddle 0o act as a fixed arch subjected to shearing s&ess as illustated in Fig. 12.19. Using the theory of indeterminate stuctures, the moment at any point along the arch can be expressed as

Ma =

wrf I - s * | cos {(sin'zB - iFsin2F + 79'z cos2 F) anLa

L
+ dsind(iB'z
I

/1

osnzB -

sin,9)

+ jFcosPQF + sin2p)

.
Flgurc 12,18

-sinp

[;B \4

lr

| | \1 ; sin 2B + ; gcoszll o + ll

#a

v||l|taultom

12.6 SADDtl SUPPOffg

.ltt

"r

3.#Pi
o
o

160

6 o

140

V
.\

s1s
120

-Ut
t@

\
o

w
2

Fi$rc 12.19

o.ol o.o2 0.o3 0.o4 0.(E 0.06 0.o7 0.G o.os

Cs ond
C6

o.t

o.2

where

tigw.12,20

Volucr of C5 ond C6 or o tunction oI the loddlo onsl! 0. (R.f. 4, p. 212)

Cc=s111.2|-:^P'-=sn2!. '24
The maxirnum value of M6 given by this equation occus at
the maximum circumferential bending moment in the shell can be expressed asa

ll

The maximum circumferential force P at the hom of the saddle is determined

0:

from B. Hence

,'= (v)",
where C6 is given by

(12.26)

"r=
where C5 is plotted in

H*,

(r2.25)

Fig. 12.20.

..=
and

, /, Experimental work has shown that the wjdth of the shell that is effective in , / j/resisting the moment in F4, 12.25 can be taken as four times the radius or " one-half the length of the shell, whichever is smaller. It has also been showna that Eq. 12.25 is valid whenA/r is eqgg!-Io lfreater than 1.0. For A/r values of 0.5 or less, it is suggEGTll[llvalG-i@1e reduced l tfre neaA. nor inbetween values of A/r, a reduction factor (Rf)

l*+ifu - "',8] . #*F (cs - c,)

t,

: frf,r,u(t - | "o,n * ) o"ne - le,)

- l|rnA + llcosFQP+ sin2B - ssinp + B cosB)]

* = (;i -',
can be used.

0.5<:<1.0

A plot of the Quantrtt C6 is shown in fi9. 12.20. When the stess in the shell as calculated from Eq. (12.25) nd 92.?,6) is excessive, stiffening rings are used at the vicinity of the saddles to carry the
bending moment.

.t!6 v|llll luttotTl

NOMENCTATUR,E

illuooRAPHY 1r'

{,

Browncll, L. 8., ald E, H, Young, Procr$ Equlpmcnt Datlgn, John Wiloy, Now York,
1959.

C = compressive force on concreie foundation

F = bolt
"f"

load

BIBTIOGRAPHY
Ro8rk, R, J.,

f, : allowable lensile stress of steel bolts * = constant given by Eq. 12.5 Kr Kz = constants given in Table 12.4 K3 - (u = constants given in Table 12.5
/=
length
12.2

allowable compressive stress of concrete

aodw. C.Yot

g, Formulasfor S''ast and

Stain,sthed., Mccmw Hill, New York,

Steel Plate EnE Bering

t915. Uteful ltdomation

American lron

ol the Design of Plate Structwes, ad Steel Institute, New York.

Data, Vol.2,

h - h = lengths as specified by Fig. M = bending moment

Ma

bending moment in a ring girder

N = number of bolts

n: f,/f.
R = radius

f:
To

bnsile force on foundation

girder

= torsion moment in a ring , = thickness

t"

equivalent thickness of anchor bolts

: shearing force in a ring girder W : weight o : shess

Ve
REFER,ENCES

V = shearing force

l. t

Wood, R, H, , Pla.rric aal Elattic Design of Slabs 4nd Prater, Ronald hEss, New York, 196l . Wichman, K. R. , A. G, Hopper, ad J. L. Mershon, "Local Stiesses ir Sphericl a|ld Cylin&ical Shels due to ErteErl lradings," BAC Barr"ri, 107, Welding Resarch Council, New

YorL. 1965.

Zic}' L. P.,

Large Horizortal Cylitrdrical Pressur Versls otr T\a,o Saddle "Stsss Suppons" in Prr$rr" Vesscl dnd Piphb DesigL, Collected Pqert 1m7-1959, lJreicat Society of Mechanical Elgircers, New York, 1960.

it

PART

THEORY AND DESIGN OF SPECIAL EQUIPMENT

459

''"' 'rii tir

CHAPTER
a
T

I3

't
.!

FLAT BOTTOM TANKS

I
5 z ,l

'b
!

*
p
g

461

462

fl.At toTIoM

TANKS

I3.I

INTRODUCTION

four standards:

Flat bottom tanks are normally constructed according to one of the following

F*

llr.rF.= < ld..l

oZ

zzz
XXX

1. 2, 3. 4,

storage tanks.

welded, low-pressure storage tanks. ANSI 896.1. American National Standard for welded alumrnum_alloy

API 650. Welded steel tanks for oil storage. API 620. Recommended rules for design and construction of large,

F-

o.l

< | 42
'6bE qa- 9-

-i -i

cl cl

AWWA D 100. Standard for welded steel elevated tanls, standpipes, and reservoirs for water storage.

xxx
E

:.:
a.l

txz
tz

specific requirements and limitations are obtaiied from the standards them_
selves.

Table 13.1 shows a general comparison between the requirements of the various standards. The values in the table serve as a general comparison;

6
\o

however,

.- q. q.

9e

*9.9-

-t

zz

zzz

'6

I3.2

API 650 TANKS

F

.- Irr ,J t-z

The requkements of API 6501 are for flat bottom tanks containing liquids with litde or no surface pressure. The design criteria are based on simpti"fied equations with a minimum amount of analysis.
|

3.2.

Roof Design

ao

o
o

.+
E<
\o

(,)

:.9

column-supported roofs. As the diameter gets smaller, seif_supporting roofs become more economical. Dome and cone ioofs -" th" -ort popolar iypes. The following equation for designing self-supporting do-" .ooi. is obtained ^ from Eq. 9.2b, which is based on a fairor ot saiety (FS) four:

Flat bottom tanks with large diameter and fixed roof normally are designed with

XXX

o
(t E (t

ed

ERE

< txd
*.E

aa

XXX

d,

c o

<zx-..;
r.)oo
a

5?)XF-

F frR g 9:-?, 6 EE ; 290F

.E A.{l

.E }!'EU

e .<

'H

'^

P=-

0.0625 E (n111'

(13.1)

E 'o
0
an

The required thickness is obtained by assuming that the maximum pressure consists ofa live load of 25 psf, which is the assumed maximum snow load, and a dead load of a maximum roof thickness of 0.5 in. as allowed by ApI. Hence

o o

^ s E3 \ E 8.9
EFsE
EtrEE
tsFEE

E e 8-: Ve
,= .9

:
=

25 psf live load 0.315 psi

20.4 psf dead load o

-o

E EE^ EEH v 5t
.9*

Fe{ife aEitE ErEb::e E r F3::i

gsEEctg
| , ,t
g s.2

^" 3 H.c ; ::

?sEFEfE 4 aa6e
5 e*ff

o F

>

trtrtrE

a6.l

ttAt lOnOiit IANK!

I3.2

API 650 TANKS

tptting

f-

29 X lOi psi, expressing R in fcet, and r in inches, Eq. 13.l is

'

200

(13.2)

= /Pncos0\/a\| | -------:- || ^ \ z / \zo/

= 4t/(P
DR

which gives the required thickness of a dome roof. - The roof+o-shell junction has a stiffening ring to provide for the discontinuity forces shown in Fig. 13.1. Force 1l is u,

"."

o)

"*pr".rJa 11 = Ndcos d
PR

API 650 assumes a maxirnum value of o for head-to-shell rings of 15,000 psi. The value of P can be taken as 0.315 psi. The maximurn value of cos 0 for R is 0.8D and is equal to 0.909. Expressing R andD in feet andA in square inches, the required area is

zcos0
and the required area needed to resist this tensile force is given by

(13.3)

^: ux
API uses the equation

.DR

H(D /2) ^_

(13.4)

'-

DR
1500

(13.s)

for the required area at dome-to-shell junction.

The required thickness of self-supporting conical roofs is based on Eq. 9.19
and is

P"

E-

2.61(t sin 0/D)25

FS(L

/2D) 10..14 /r sin 0\x5 = FS(,* g)\ D /

Substituting

t = 29 x

ing D in feet and t

psi and P" in inches results in

106

0.315 psi in this equation and express-

. D lcs(tan 0)lo4 '= u" g zza,sq

13.6)

Figure 13.2 shows a plot of this equation for various factors of safety. A more simplified equation used by API is

,: 400 sin 0 -J
where 1 : pquired thickness of cone roof
D
Fis',.o 13.l

(13.7)

(in.)

:
=

diameter of tank (f0

angle between cone and horizontal base (degrees)

rt,2

Alt $0 rAHKI

A= 2645 sin 0 -3: .

API uses the simplified expression
D2 3000 sin 0 (13.9)

for the required area at the cone-to-shell junction where

A = rcquired area (in.2) D = diameter of tank (ft)

0

angle between cone surface and horizontal base (degrees)

For tanks with small intemal pressures, the maximum pressure is limited to that which does not cause the uplift of the tan} in the ernpty condition. Hence ftom Fig. 13.3 the upward force due to pressure is equal to the downward force

resulting from weight of shell plus roof:

Pt?2=w.(q)(')
4
r. -.2r.

Flgure | 3.2

In this caee,

The required area at the cone roof-to-shell junction is obtained from Eq. 13.4. H for a deed load condition is liven Oy

PD n= 4sin0
and

A=Dz
Using 1.5,000 pi p = 0.315 equare inches, the rcquired area is

8c sin 0

(13.8)

g:

psi, and expressing D in feet and.4 in

tlg0re 13.3

'*""'-

*-^ffi**Yffiiffiitnmr
13,2
or
API 630

TANKT

{i60

lrtting a = 20,000 psi and I = 490lbfit3,

this equation reduces to thc approx-

P= 4 =6w+h't
where P = intemal

Imate equation

r'N=--2

30,8004tan0

^ 6th

(13.1 1)

: D: t/r : YW

pressure (in. of water)

weight of shell (lb)

diameter of tank (ft) thickness of roof plate (in.) 49o

where P = intsmal pressure (in. of water) A = required area at roof-to-shell junction

(in.'?)

lbttr

The equation for maximum pressure is then

= D= 4=

angle as defined in Fig. 13.3

diameter of tank (ft)

roof thickness (in.)

P*":W
ferring

t,,

Equation i3.11 may be rewritten to calculate the required junction area -A as (13.10)

. A -- :

Dz(P - 8t,\ --------:------'

30,800 tan 0

(r3.r2)

The stess level at the head+o-shell junction must also be checked. In reo Fig. 13.3, vertical force V is given by

., PD ,D v=__;__\th.l)-;

API 650 assumes failure to occur when the stess in the junction area reaches 32,000 psi. This is an increase of 60% over the allowable sness of 20,fi)0 psi used in deriving Eq. 13.11. Hence failure pressure can be expressed as

4:
whete
P1

r.6P

4.8r,

(r3. l3)

failure pressure (in. of water)

desigp pressure (in.

=J 6 tan
_

,P

1 IPD H: ta'J9L4-thrDf 4l
rcquired area is

= A=

of water)

roof thickness (in.)

The sepond tenn in Eq, 13.13 is an adjustment factor that corrslates this equation

with experimental data.

When the roof-to-shell junction is designed so that failure because of excessive surface pressure occurs at the junction rather than the roof or shell, the junction is called frangible. A frangible joint design equation can be derived by substituting Eq. 13.10 into Eq. 13.13, which gives

HDlz
(f

Dzl\ =#4r-to1

ryY .

Bh,

= 1.u,

o.r u

^ Mo tan d r=--jr-+thy

e=ffi+tt,

It.2
Sub8titutlng thia oquatlon into Eq, 13.12 givcs

AFI 610

TANKT ilTl

0.153 W
30,800 tan 0

(r3.14)

which is the circumferential oeam between courses A and B, This mcthod considers that the bottom plate on course B stiffens the next course at point X 0nd the maximum stess occurs at a location higher than X. This location is arbiharily set at "one foot." At point X the hoop stress is given by

where .4 : required tangible roof-to-shell area (in.2)

17

: d:

weight of shell
angle of roof with horizontal axis (degrees)

.PD -2t
or

Note that failure of a frangible roof joint is only possible when the wetding is

from one side.

-_Gy(H-t)D
Design Defining y
gtves

13.2.2 Shell

25

API 650 includes two rnethods for the design of shells. The first is called the "one-foot method," which consists of calculiting Ae re4uir"O ttrict<r,"ss of sn"l course A in Fig. 13.4 based on the hydrostatic pressure at I ft above point X

62.4 pcf and adding the corrosion allowance to this expression

t:2.6p(H_where CA : corrosion allowance (in.)

r)G

+ cA

(13. r s)

: G: I1 D
S

diameter of tank (ft) specific gravity of liquid

liquid height (ft)

allowable stess (psi) required thickness (in.)

= I=

The second method, the 'variable point method," is an extension of the one-footmethod in that it calculates a more exact location of the maximum stress near the junction of the bottom or shell courses with differing thickness. In this case the bottom course is assumed to be hinged at its junction with the bottom plate. Hence the deflection due to intemal pressure at the junction is equal to the deflection due to an applied shearing force as shown in Fig, 13.5. From Section

{t

TFo= n
Fisure 13,4

4:6p V PR2

.. '=

ZB3DPR'

E-

?AI'IKS

'IAT 'OTTOM

13.2

APt 650

TANKS

473

'l'osts have shown that this equation is too conservative because the maximunl strcss can be many feet away from thejunction where the pressure is reduced and the stiffness ofthe second course becomes signincant. Accordingly, the equatbn lirr the desisn of the bottom course is modified to read

13.

l6)

The thickness of the second course is determined from the following equations;

.2t-=t^

t, ir +<r.37s

Fieur 13,5

.L

I + (t. -t^\l 7l '4/t -''

.2-

The hood stress at any point along the cylinder close to the junction ls given by

- ,r*--,1 ir l'375 <;;<2'62s t,. it L-z.ezs

h,

h. -l

(t3.r7)

Na=pR(l_Ca.)
where.c& is given by F{,. 5.23. Taking the derivalion of this equatlon with respect to .r and equating it to zero gives the point of maximum Nr.'This occurs
at

where

t2

thickness of first course (in.)

thickness

= lz =
/z

of second course (in.)

thickness of second course calculated from the equation for upper course (in.)

3tr 4p
and

ftr = height of first course (in.) r = radius of shell (in.)

Design of the upper courses is based on the equation

lr, = rn(r =
Hence

"n,to

"o"3!)

2.6DlH : ___- - x / 1,21G + L]A s-

(13.18)

1.06 PR

where "r is the variable design point that is a function of the thicknesses of layers,

tank radius, and liquid height. In referring to Fig. 13.6,.r is the minimum value of .r1, -r2, and "r, obtained

t=

Ne/S 1.06 pP

from the following equations:

_
or using the terminology of ApI 650

s "'

q = o.6r{E + 0.32 ch,

x2

Ch"

xz
where

= l '22lrt"

'=

rr.oor(a!429)

t ={.*,(*=-! I + K\/K

--* nr-Tfflffiffiiifrir
P
3

r3.2

Apt 6t0

TANKS 47t

locATtot{ OF TA CF TAN(
SHELL

oEstcit Fo[{T

VARIAELE

_ 2.42E ( (t/o)rt 1 Fs (r - *zltte \n /o - o.4s \/;lDl or for long cylinders with E : 30 x 106 psi and p = 0.3,
H =77.e2
Substituting P",

'"1-:
/

0.3iI Gh,

r" \u/ " ro.#,l/*)" :

2.0, this equation becomes
(13.19)

0.61

fr/

25.6 psf and FS

iflN. Hrr. OF xi
WHEl,l

+'1.o;c-o.xr

I 'Tn

'll
I

,6+j.-l

where
UNRESTRAIT{ED

0..'ffi
Figure

MDIAL
GROTIT'TH GROTITN

Il = length between stiffeners (ft) t : thickness of shell (in.)

D = tank diameler (ft)

t D, lh,,t1 t.-{// \--EtElo3fic nrovment oI rhll cour!. ot girth ioint (Rt. 5).

13.6

The required section modulus of the stiffening ring necessary for resisting the lateral pressure is obtained from the following classical buckling equation of a ring:

I
as

*=?

3EI
R3

After establishing the shell thickr

towindroadsm'it*.n*d.ri:;lil:J"-Hfr::3*Tilffi
p = O.00256
where p = wind
pressure (psf)
V2

if:#,::;
where

-: "
F=
Hence

3EI

Fs(R)

V = wind velocity (mph)

API
,yses

PH

a__100-mph

specified. Hence

wind velocity for design purposes unless a higher value is

PrlilFS)
P = 25.6 Psf
3E

shell is designed to withstand a yaglum pressure of 25.6 psf. A simplified expression for the buckling of cylindrical s-hells is given Uy fq. O. tZ as

Because the pressure distribution may cause a vacuum on part of the shell, the

FS z= PHD2C/D 2AE

(r3.20)

1rt

!;rlll.rr{jwlillirfrs

illT tonom

?aNl(t

I3,2

APt 650

TANKT

4ll

of the tank is not lcss than 0.015. Hence, C/D = 0.0075. Usins FS : 2.0. P = 25.6 psf, E = 29 x 106 psi, and expressing D and If in feet,-the equation for the required section modulus of a stiffening ring is

API arsumca that tho rstio of thc outstanding leg of a stiffener to thc diameter

Z = O.Offit HD2
where z =
requirc.d section modulus

(r3.21)

II :
D
|

of stiffening ring (in.3)

height between stiffeners (ft)

diameter of ta.nk (ft)

3.2.3 Annulor

Plqtes

ApI 650 tank is given in Table 13.1. At the shell-to-bottom plate junction, the ApI standard requires a buttwelded annular plate whose thickness varies between 0.25 and 0.15 in. and is a function of the shess and thickness of the first shell course. The width of the annular plate nust be adequate to support the column of water on top of it in cas of a foundation settlement. By referring to Fig. 13.7,

The requircd thickness of the bot8om plate in an

al

*=+
Using plastic analysis,

lM

,
(b)

4M tisut

13.7

L= L=

R Y;
"l

where tr

t;fr
yGH

: /a : 1l: G:

length of annular plate (in.) thickness of annular pla0e (in.) height of liquid (ft) specific gravity of liquid

Letring p = 62.4 pcf, a), = 33,000 psi, and expressing inches, the equation becomes

H in

fe,et and

4 in

Exarnple 13.1. The steel tank in Fig. 13.8a contains a liquid at the roof-toshell junction level. Eesign the various tank components if G = 1.1, CA = 0.0, S = 15,000 psi. Use the "one-foot" method for shell design.

._

195

tb

\/GH

Sohtian,

For the roof design, Eq.

l3.l

gives

API 650 uses a factor of safety of two for the length. The length of the annular plate is thus expressed as

n80 ' 2M -'

'
=
0.40

2n
Use

L=

390

in.

7116 in. for the dome roof

\/ GH

Out not less than 24 in.)

(r3.22)
For the shell design the required thickness for the bottom course is given by Eq.

ata

':.!1].:, ., ]''' ',]i!,!r

'ltt

torTors ?A]{t(l

r3,2

APt 6!0 ?ANK3

lV'
ae

The required inteffiediale stiffener spacing is obtained from Eq. 13'19

I/ = 6(100t)
Usins a conservative value of

0.25 in.,

I1 :6(100 x 0.25)
(.)

v\s"/
Zroo

o:sV

26.20

ft

Because this is larger than the height of the tank, no intermediate stiffeners are needed.

The required area of the roof-to-shell junction from Eq. 13.5 is

Angl

4r4xt

,DR " 1500

_ (80x80)
1500
,

4.27

n.2

Use

4 x 4 x 5/8 in.

angle with

A = 4.61 n.2

t = ll4 in. according to Table 13.1. Assume the annular plate is 1/4 in. thick. Then the width of the armular plate from Eq. 13.22 is
For the bottom plate use
(b) Fisur6 | 3.8

L = ------_

39oh

YGH

-:ffi
L

390

0.25

13.

15 as

2JJ79

in.;

Use a 24-in. wide annular plate

. '
=

2.6(80\Qo 15,m0
0.29

- txl.t)
r = 5/16 in. for
the bottom course

The above details of construction are shown in Fig.

13.8b.

in.

Example

Use

For the top course

In Example 13.1, determine (a) the maximum allowable internal pressure and the maximum failure pressure, (b) the required roof-to-shell area if a ftangible joint is required, and (c) the thickness of the shell using the design conditions of Example 13.1 and the variable point method.

13.2.

.- _2.6(80X10-1x1.1)
15,000

Solation
(a) The maximum pressure that does not cause uplift of the shell is obtained ftom Eq. 13.10:

0.14

in.

Use

1/4 in. for the top course according to Table 13.1

-'. -*-ry--'fil?Yffiii irrxr

wctght of eholl

r3,2

APr 630

IANKS 4tl

. r'*=--lo-+Ex0.437s
:
junction is giveo by Eq. 13.11

= (a0.82)(a)(EO)(tl)(s/16 = 57,800 tb _ 0.245 x 57,800 ^

5.71 in. of water
0.21 psi

U4)

h1

Yrtr

l0x12 v(40 x 12x0.3) -10

indicates that tz t2! as given by Eq. 13.17. Equation 13.18 is based on an iterative process that is initiated by assuming a value of f2, which can be obtained from the approximate equation

t": -'

2.6H- t) DG '
15,000

The maximum pressure that does not cause excessive stess ai the head-to-shell
as

_2.6x9x80x1.1
15,000

^
:
=

(30,800x4.61x0.s77)
16.3 in. of water From Eq.13.19,

: r.
O1n

0.14 in.

0.59 psi

Thus, maximum intemal pressure 0.21 psi. The failure pressure from Eq. 13.13 is

K=-=1':-;=2.14 t" u. t4
C
.r,

Pr:
=

4.8 A (1.6)(s.71) _ 4.s(0.437s) 7.04 in. of water 0.25 psi

1.6

:
=

0,59

0.6tV@l-iZXo5 + 0.32(0.5eX10 x
0.59(10
70.80

12)

:29.98

:
p1

rz:
xc

12)

(b) The frangible joint arca given by Eq. 13.14 is

1.22Y(40

l2)(0.14)

=10
Hence -r

t"" d _ 0.153 x 57,800 30,800 x 0.577 A = 0.50 in.,

3oSoo

0.t53 W

l0 controls

and

-x tz=2.6D@ a,-/r2\G
2.6(80X10
as

ro/r2)(r.D

(c) The thickness of the bottom course is calcrilated from Eq. 13.16

15,000

6.1a

,=(t.*: 0.30 in.

0.463

x m

80

6x20x80x1.
15,m0

f.

Because this value is the same as the assumed one, the analysis is complete, and no additional iteration is needed. Hence. use

For the top cowse, the quantity

h: 5/16 in. for the bottom course tz: l/4 n. for the top course as govemed by Table 13.1 I

-' -.---ru-*ryffiffiiuffiTtliii
I3,3
API 620 TANKS

..2iL$tua

r3,3 APt 620 TANKI 4ts

API 620 tanks2 tend to be more complicated in geometry and are generally hiekr-ilptt^pressu'e than Apr 650 tank;. Accordingly, trr! :llJ9:Id g of API 620 differ rquirements significantly fiom those of ApI 650 because the mrcknss of the components is obtained from shess analysis that considers the biaxial shess state rather than a set of simplified formulas. _ The shess analysis procedure in Apl 6t0 is based on Eqs. 6.10 and 6.11. Equation 6. I I for /Vd can be determined- for any shell configuration by using the summation of forces obtained from a free-body diagram.-The advantage of a free-body diagram is that forces other than pressure cair be accountedlor without C:inF tryugh T inregration process. Once Nd is determined, the value of ly'e is obtained ftom Eq. 6.l0 as

'l

.62,4 pct

l&*&=o
R2
Rr cross section.

(r3.23)

where

Ne

= X of forces at a given

Example 13.3 illustrates the application of

\.

13.23 ro

ApI 620 tanks.

Figur6 13.9

13.3. The rower shown in Fig. 13.9 is filled with a liquid whose specific gravity- is 1,9 rlp to point d. Above point a the tower is subjectd to a gas pr9sswe of 5 psi. Determine the forces in the various components of the tower disrcgarding the dead weight of the tower.
Example
Solutian
Roof Forces
The maximum force in the roof is obtained from

and

fron 84.

13.23 with R1

:
t\o ^,

Rz

48

ft,

_PR_ 5x576 - 2-

:
Fig. 13.10a. Below section a_o,
and the unbalanced force 11.

1440 lb/in.

a 5-psi pressure is needed to balance the pressurJabove sectjon a_a. Force lVu in the roofhas a vertical component V around the perimeter of the roof. Sum_ mauon ot torces in the vertical direction eives

1309 lb/in. (inwards).

40-Ft Shell
The maximum force in the shell is at section b-D as shown in Fig. 13.10r. Total weight of liquid at section D-b is

av -

,o,ll o
=
600 lb/in.

v=!=s"ff
Total pressure at

w r-,
is 5

(62.4/144)(35).

=:rr^;*:X,:,o,
P = 20.17 psi

Hcnce

-=ff;;%

Sum of the forces at b-b is equal to zero. Hence,

2,744,s00

(2O.17)GiQaD' + v1ay480;

V = 600 lb/in.

' -- "

ffi **ff IYI#iiiSii'ilirr

\,4)"1'nr'

r3.3

API 620

TANKS

4T5

(e)

lV:i
c(c)

+-

cb- - -

_c

Tfr-{-tT
v

.-b

o)

b"(d)

Figuro 13.10

----d
and

iV' = 600 lb/in'

In a cylindrical shell R,

Figurc 13.10 (Continvod)

oo

and Rz

= R.

Hence Eq. 13.23 becomes

Ne_pR=(n.n)(?/io)
=
Conical Trawition

V:
and

600 lb/in.

zt84l lbiin.

wo

-. =
:

di6
849 lb/in.
Hence Eq. 13.23 becomes

600

At section b-b force V in the zl0-ft shell rnust equal force V in the cone due to continuity, as shown in Fig. l3.l0}.

In a conical shell R' =

co and

iz = R/sin L

'""

-" --ilffi*-"""Tiiftl6ffii'iinn
13,3
APt 620

TANKS 4tt

&=g0=uo?o:!!) -srn

0.707

20-Ft Shell At section c-c the value of V in the 20-ft shell is the same as V in the cone duc to continuity. Thus
N1

6847 lb/in.

The horizontal force at trnint b is Ho

section is

600

lb/in.

(inwards)

Figure 13.10c shows the forcs at point c. The weight of tiquid in conical

= lt

,'1llol,ff^",,,',
At section d-d the liquid weight is given by

-2777 lbli'..'

*=4rl+R,R,+n3)
-3 : 457.2100 lb -(Iy+
Total liquid weight is

.^ _nx62.4 x 10..^" l0 xzo+202)

W:
=

j,?rr,9oo + (62.4)(n)(r0)2(zs)
3,692,000 lb

and the pressure is calculated as

2,744jffi +

457

,4n =

3,201,900 lb

/6) A\ P=s+l#l(70)

Pressure at section c-c is

5 + (62.4/ A0@S\.

:
From Fig.

35.3 psi

p = ?A.5 psi
Sumrning forces at section c-c gives ('24.s)Gr|(r2o)2

l3.l0d the summation of forces about d-d is 3,692,W

3,201,900

(v)Giea\ = o

N6

35.3(r)(r2o)2

+ v(r)(2$):

l/ = -2177 lblin'

= -2777 tbtin.

which is the same as that at point c.

- The negative sign indicates that the vertical component of iy', is opposite to that assrrmed in Fig. l3.l0c and is in cornpression Ltner man 6nsion. This is caused by the^column of liquid above the cone whose weight is greater than the net pressue force at section c-c.

No: PR = (35.3X120)

:4236lblin. I
13.3.1 Allowqble
Stress Criterio

: : H. :

-.t11''

0.707

-39271blin.

(compressive)

The required thicknrcss of API 620 components in iension is dtermined from the larger of the values obtained from these two exDressions:

l/o = RPlsin '

24'5 0= tZOx 0.707

(inwards)

, =N' -sE
(13.24)

4158 lb/in. 3927

lb/in.

'

.rt{"

,tE

488

FIAT SOTTOM TANKS

13.3
Compressive Stress with Equal Magniludc

API 620

TANKS

489

whorc t :
Ne No

rcquircd thickncss ol'componcnt (in.)

hoop force (lb/in.) meridional force (lbs/in.)

in the Meridional and Circum-

lerentinl Dbections
The goveming equation is obtained from Eq. 6.35 for the buckling of a spherical

J = allowable tensile stress (psi) E = joint efficiency similar to discussion in

shell with a factor of safety of four. Using E

becomes

30,000,000 psi, the equation

Section 8.1

The API criteria for components in compression are as follows. Compressive Stress

a= srz,soo(*)
which is approximated in API
as

in

the Axial Direction wilh

No

Stress

in the Circum-

ferential Directian
The rules for this case are based on the axial buckling of a cylindrical shell as given by Eq. 5.28. With E = 30,000,000 psi and a factor of safety 10, this equation becomes

r,ooo.oool;l

/.\ \^/

(13.26)

,=,.,,,o'(f)

13.2s)

This value is 1.8 times smaller than the value given by Eq. 13.25. Accordingly, the limit ofEq. 13.26 is established as 15,000/1.8 = 8340 psi. Thus oDElc in Fig . I 3 . I 1 is the criteria used for components having compressive stress of equal magnitude in the meridional and circumferential directions. Compressive Stress with Unequal Magnitude in the Meridional and Circum-

To prevent the stress in Eq. 13.25 from exceeding the allowable tensile stress of the material, an arbihary value of 15,000 psi is established as the upper limit of the allowable compressive stress. This is shown in Fig. 13.11 as line OABC where 4-B is a transition line between Eq. l3.ZS and the upper limit of 15,000 psi.

terential Directions
The criteria for this case are based on the following equations: (larger stress) + 0.8(smaller stress) shess determined fuom OABC tn Fig. 13.11 using R for the larger force

<

1.0

(13.27a)

at

th

1.8(smaller stress) shess determined from OABC in Fig. 13.11 using R for the smaller force

< 1.0

(13.27b)

o o

Compressive Stress in One Directinn and TensiJe Stress in the Other Direction

o
t

The criteria are based on the assumption that the capability of a component to resist compressive force in a given direction is reduced as the tensile force in the other direction increases. The goveming relationship is derived as follows. Let
,

E
Figure

rrr

--ii_------:-i--------------

l3.ll

(Coortesy of the Anericon Perrolum Inlritute.)

actual comoressive stress allowaDle comDresslve sress tuom OABC of fin.

t:.tt

fLAt
und

lotTot

TANKS

I3,3
actual tensile

API 620 TANKS

491

stress ,r - r-i-----_:-i_--^, allowaDle tenslle stress

Rool

ol

l8nk

Then

M2+MN+N2=1.0
13,3.2

(13.28)

The interaction of this equation with Eq. 13.25 is shown in Fis. 13.12.

Compression Rings

p_ression ring region at that location. The region can be in tension or compression depending on the direction of the discontiriuity as well as the troop torces. apt 620 as-sumes that portions of the roof, shell, and cone shown in He. 13.13 are

As shovn in Example 13.3 there are unbaranced horizontal forces at the roofto-shell and cone-to+hell junctions. These forces must be carried by a com_

t*^.,.l_T :*pt":tioT equaron ls assumed to be supported by the ring region:

ring region._ Th9 total force given Uy tt-e torro*ing

Fisur

13.13

Comprssion rins rasion. (Courtosy of rhe Americon Pelroleum Inslitute.)

Q=Na,Wn+N1'"W"+HR

(r3.2e)

where

!
3

: Nr. : N0, :
Q
I7r,

total force at ring region (lb)

meridional force in roof or cone (lbiin.)

circumferential force in shell (lb/in.)

= =

effective length of roof or cone as determined from Fig. 13.13

(in.)

W"
11

effective length of shell as determined from Fig. 13.13, (in.)

unbalanced horizontal force at junction (lb/in.)

: R:

radius of tank at junction (in.)

t:

\
The total required area at the junction is determined from

i
B

Flgura 13.

l" *r'o
Sioxiol stress chon for combinod retuion ond comprelsion 3O.Om p3i ro 38,OOO pst yietd srr$s

:
=

is,ooo--L

when Q is compressive

(r3.30)

rt.oh. (Courrory of rh6 Am6ricon petrolsm tmrirute.l

when Q is tensile

'.'

--*""*'ffi **TffiTffi
whorc A
S

f irmr
a,rpa (in,2)

roqulrtd

Allowabie tn6ils stress (psi)

E = joint efficiency
Details of various ring attachments are shown in Fig. 13.14.

Example 13.4. Deterrnine the required thicknesses of the 20_ft shell and the conical reducer in Example 13.3. Also detemine the required stiffening ring arca at point c. I,et S 20,000 psi, E = 1.0, and CA :0.O.

Sohttian 20-Ft Shell

From Example 13.3 the forces at point c are

No

: -2777 lVn' ffd = 2940lblin.

and the forces at point

are

: -2177 lbln. Nd = 4236 lblin.

Nt
Thus forces at point d control. From Eq. 13.24,

'=

4236 2o"ooo x

lo

0.21 in.

kt . 9. t=i6-'
Then
Figurol3.14
!,6!y

z 4t
, tfsom

P..niisibl. wh.r. rEf (ft bor+.E)

pldl! thi.tn...
i5 nor

6v.tiir.

Y-J
of {|.

Not P.rh'.3rbrc

Fmi.libl.

qnd noip6rml$lble

d.lcik ot compr$ioo'ringFiuicturo conJ?udioi. (cour-

Amlricon Peholcum lnrtituL.)

f.:

o.oo+z

actual tensile

r*rr

ffi

7530 psi
493

.91

IIAT IOTTOM TANK!

actuel compressive sress

13.3

APr 620

TANKS

495

ffi

+S+O Vsi
106 10.5625\

actual compressive

,o"r. =

o%- = 5710 Psi u.t)6 /)

allowable compressive stess

8zl40psi

from Eq.

13.25

= l.g x

\-m-)=

allowable compressive stress from Eq. 13.25

x - l'8 1q10 6875 = 7290 psi

From Eq. 13.28, 7530 20,000 4940

ru=ffi=0.:o
n
0.302
use

0.38

=W: 7290

o.ts
0.78'?

+ 0.30 x 0.78 +

= 0.91 0K

M = ,Ooo = O.SS
0.38'?

t = 11/16 in. for

conical hansition section

+ 0.38 x 0.59 +

0.592

=0.72 < 1.0

or

user=9/16in.

shell. Compression Ring

Conical Transition Section From Example 13.3, forces at point

From Example 13.3 the discontinuity force at point c is

are

N, = 849 lb/in.
Ne
and from

6847 tb/in.

H = -3927 lb/in. (inwards) w. = 0.6 (120X0.s625) = 4.93 in.

Wt'

Eq. 13.24

' = 20,000

6847

/ rtn \ " = O'6 {;+ | (0.6875) \u. /u// '

=
6.48 in.
2940 lb/in.

:
Forces at point c are given by

0.34 in.

Na
No,

= -3927 lblin'
C3927)(6.48) + 2940(4.93) + (-3927)(r2o) -482,190 lb

: l/a :
N,
Lt

-3927 lblin.
4158 lb/in.

Q: :
From Eq. 13.30,

t = 11/16 n.
Then

", _
available

482,190
15,000

= area =

32.15

n.2

required area

(0.6875X6.48)

(0.5625X4.93)

, 0.6875 R= 120 = 0.0057

actual rensile rt

= t.25 |It.needed area

31.25

.23

24.O2 in.2

"rr

ffi

6o5o psi

Use 2

in. x

12 in.

ti"g. I

.9O

ILAT IO'TOM TANKS

I3.4

ANSI

896.I ALUMINUM TANKS

I3.4

ANS 896.I AI.UMINUM

TANKS

497

The rules for ANSI 896.1 Tanksr follow the same general criteria as ApI 650 rules. Differences in various requirements between ai-uminum anJ sieet tants are given in Table 13.1.
|

lilllowing expression, which is similar to Eq. 13.5:

, = r"oo -

Y:-,e)I 897 sin 0

of

(13.34)

3.4.

Design Rules

The design of dome roofs is obtained from Eq. 9.2b and is based on a factor safety of 4.0. Hence,

of

ANSI 896.1 uses an approximate equation which, for the design lrxrf.s, is given by

conical

o.06258

t=-

\/F

1414 sin 0

13.35)

\R/t)'
Using E

8,000,000 psi at 400T, this equation reduces to

t= ToiYP where r = p=
thickness of dome roof

R-

where r = required thickness of cone roof (in.) D = diameter of tank (ft) P = dead plus live loads (psf)
(13.31) 0

angle between cone surface and horizontal base (degrees)

1

The required area at the cone roof-to-shell junction is obtained from Eq .

its

R = radius of roof (ft)

dead and live loads (psf)

The required area at the roof-to_shell junction is obtained from Eq. 13.4:

--

PD2

8o sin

(13.36)

O_DRpcos0
4o A conservative value of cos 0 is taken as 1.0. Hence,

(r3.32)

where A = required area (in.') P = dead and live loads (psf)

D= o:
(13.33)
0

diameter of tank (ft) allowable tensile stress (psi) angle between cone surface and horizontal base (degrees)

^_

PRD

4o

where A = required area at dome roof_to_shell junction (in.z) P = dead and live loads (psf)

The design of aluminum shells is based on Eq. 13.15, which is based on the "one-foot" method given by

4 = spherical radius of dome

D= o=
diameter of shell (ft)

roof (ft)

I:_----.4

2.6D (H

tt

(r3.37)

allowable tensile shess of roof, shell, or junction area, whichever is less (psi)

The required thickness of a self-supporting conical roof is obtained flom the

where r: shell thickness (in.) D = tank diameter (ft) 11 = height of liquid (ft) G = specific gavity

498

FLAT

IOTTOM TANKS

BIETIOGRAPHY

/:

ulkrwablc tcnsile stress ol'alurninum (psi)

e = joint efticiency
top tanks,

Il

ANSI B96.1 does not contain mles for intermediate stiffening rings. For open 'iilio. a stiffening ring is required, *hich is basJ;; a. i" *,, is defined as the overall height of the t"* ""*, ,J-E{I.'liio;;";;".

dcsign of components. Instead it outlines the general requirements associatc(l with design loads, earthquakes, allowable compressive stress in columns, radiographic examination, and so on. Most of the requirements in API 650 can bc applied to AWWA tanks. Some exceptions are given in Table 13.1.

REFERCNCES

- _ PHD,
48

(FS)
(13.38)

E Q/D)

l. 2. 1.

Weldcd Steel Tanks

Washiqton, D.C., 1980.

Recommended Rules

for Oil

StoraSe, 7th ed., API Standard 650, American Petroleum Institute,

In an elastic body,

for Design and Construction of Large, welded, Lout-Pressure Storage Tanks, 7th ed., API Standard 620, American Petroleum lnstitute, washington, D.C., 1982.

= Ee

13.3e)

4. 5. 6,

and for a stiffener in bending, the relationship between strain and curvarure

t=
Hence, from Eqs. 13.39 and 13.40

t
2R

(13.40)

for welled Aluminum-Allo! Storage fdt tJ, ANSI 896.1-1981, America[ National Standards Institute. New York. 1981. AwwA Standotd fot Welded Steel Elev.tted Tanks, Standpipes, and Resen'oirs for water StoraS?, AWWA Dl00-73, Afterican Water Works Association, New York, 1973. Zick, L. P., and R. V. Mcclath, "Design of Large-Diameter Cylindrical Shells," presented at the 33rd Midyear Meeting of the American Pekoleum Institute, 1968. Karcher, G. G., "Stresses at the Shell-to-Bottom Junction of Elevated-Temperature Tanks" in l98l Proceedings-Refning Department, 46th Midyear Meeting, American Petroleum Institute, May 1981.
American Nation^l Standard

t =f 2D 2E
Substituting-this expression into Eq. 13.3g and using a factor of safety 2.0, the expression for the required section modulus Z becoires

BIBTIOGRAPHY
Steel Tanks

for Liquid Storase-Steel Plate Engineering Data, Vol. Institute, Washington, D,C,, 197 6.

l,

Americao hon and Steel

z = 0.084 PHD'

(13.4r)

where Z = required section modulus (in.3) P : wind pressure on tank (ps|

Il = height of tank (ft)

D=
diameter of tank (ft) allowable stress of stiffening ring (psi)

/: I3.5

AWWA STANDARD DIOO

Most water tanks are built in accordance with the ..American Water Works As.sociation Standard for Welded Steel Elevated Tankr, Si_Jpio".,'_o n"r"._ voirs for water Storage.'a The standard gt";, ;;";ons rbr the

f"* ;;";#"

CHAPTER

14

HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT

Rod bdffle h.or x.honsers. (Courr$y of ihe Noorer corpororion, Sr. touis.)

501

HEAT TRANSFER IOUIPMENT

Heet transt'er cquipment is used in many applications such as boilers in power plants, heat exchangers in the petrochemical industry, and condensers and evaporators in heating and refrigerating systems. Heat transferequipment varies from miniature heat exchangers a few inches in diameter to power boilers over 100 ft long. This chapter presents the theoretical background and design equations of heat exchangers and boilers.

raat
.'AT|oNARY I{AO TY?II atiEu tYPl5

aNo

----tlll!-i l,-tn
E

'1t'-ii'

L
ONE PA3s
SHETL

14.I

TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

ll,l
TWO PrSs SHEI!
WITTI TONGITIJDINAL AAfRC

---{11=i l-\
fIXED TUBESHEI

LIKE 'A" STATIONARY -lL---,?'-"-'---'JU !i i: -_

flxlo

Tuscs8fEr

H(AO

Heat exchangers in the United States are normally designed according to the Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA)I and the ASME Code, VI[. In general, TEMA requirements are a supplement to the ASME requirements, for they tend to include areas not discussed in the ASME. Most of the TEMA design e.quations relate to tubesheet design when affected by differential pressure and temperature, expansion joints, bustles, and so on. TEMA uses alphabetical designation to differentiate between vadous types of frequendy used components. This is illustrated in Fig. 14.1. The components can be interchanged to form a wide variety of heat exchanger configurations, as shown in Fig. 14.2.

llr la-I
-Jl
a

!ii!r I
BONNET

-tL---.>
N

LIKt "8" STATIONARY IIIAD

ftxED TutEska6t IIKT 'N" STAT|oNARY I]EAO

(NftCRAI

p
H
OI,i'!;IDE PACKCD FLOATING
'IEAO

c s
J

+J11------

Their rules, which apply to thft different classes of construction depending on the severity of service, are referred to as R, C, or B. A summarv of the differences between these classes is given in Table 14.1.

.---LI
WTH

----Lfn\

\
$.=.!a_(n===
DEVICE

FLOATING HEAD

'ACKNG

Tqble

14.l

Some TEMA Requiremenfs of Closses R,

C, qnd B Exchongers

I
PUTI THROIJOh fLOATING HEAO

CIIANNEL II

K
KETILf TYPE RE'OILEN

'1-1-------------\\

Paragaph
Service

fuIJ-IIJBf SUNOLE

o_||

,l

t.l2
1.15 3.3

Severe
i

Corrosion allowance

(cafton steel)
Shell diameter

rn.

Moderate

General

in.

-l

in.

x
SPECIAL TiIGH PICSSUR CTOSUNE

__'ii',

__

8-60

Minimum thickness of
longitudinal baffle

4.42

i h.
;

in.

6-60 in. I in. carbon

stel

6-60 in. I in. carbon

steel

w --r-:++:.,:zlTT 6---r=--l \ lu -----t=:E-+

xrERft^trY slatED FIOAIINC TUBTSHEEI

Figurs

l,(.1

Vorio{rs IEMA component6. (Courtesy of the Tutulor Exchongr Monufoturoi! Alsociotion, Inc.)

Minimum tie rod

diameter Prefened gasket contact surface
tolerance

4.71

in.

I in. i io.
None

atloys
"1

in. alloys

in.

6.32

!+
?n.

None

Minimum bolt size

l0.

s j in.

t in.
503

AJW
Fis'lrc

l,{.2

(conrinued)

I4.2
.l

TEMA DESIGN OF TUBESHEETS IN U-TUBE EXCHANGERS

The basic equation for the design of heat exchangers is obtained from Examples 7 and 7 .2 ^s

"

|.'APaz

T -7=
0.7 5Pa2

for simply supported Plate

for fixed plare

o=
Letting G

2a and solving for the required thickness gives

:'l*:
5(M

].o

typicol h6ot er(chons.r confisurorion5. (Courtr), of rho tvbolor Exchonser /$dnurodurers

=ttE {',

rornxedprate
50s

5OO

HIAT TRANS;IR IOUIPMTNT

I4.2

TEMA OESION OF TUBESHETTS IN U-TUBE EXCHANOTNS

507

whcrc Cr is a constent that is based-on such parameters as ligament efficiency, tubc.stiffening effect, and method of edge suiport. n" fiV"e for the required thickness of a tubesheet in bending is based "q""tion_ g.77. on a t^t6i Hence.

C,

-_FG t, '-7 Vs
where

(14.1)

= required thickness of tubesheet G = diameter P = applied pressure S = ASME allowable tensile stress F = factor equal to I 25 for simply supported plate and I
.

plate.

00 for a fixed

in the tubesheet of Fig.

Tle $earing stress in the tubesheet at the outer tube perimeter must also be checked and kept below an allowable stess. The tota force W aue io press*e

Fisurs l,{.3

l4.3is

perimeter of outer tubes, as defined in Fig. 14.3 outside diameter of tube

distance between tubes

W=PA
The shear area A" through the outer perimeter is obtained from Fig. 14.3 and is

d"

= p=

e,=
Hence the shearing shess

cr( -e)
as

Example

o ls expressed

14.1. A tubesheet for U-tube exchanger has a 12-in. diameter and is subjected to a design pressure of 100 psi. If the tube layout is as shown in Fig. 14.4 and S 17,000 psi, what is the required thickness? Assume the edge to be simply supported.

A" Cr(l a=
Thus Eq. 14.2 becomes

PA

d,/p)

(14.2) is given by

The allowable shearing s[ess in the ASME Code, 0.8S

VIII-I,

_ 0.3tDL lP\
0 - dJpt\i)
within outer tube perimeter

(14.3)

w\erc

DL

4Af C
area of tubesheet
Figuro

A=

l,{,,(

IOI

HIAT IRAN3IIR IOUIPAATNT

I4.3

THTORffICAI ANALYSI5 OT TUBISHEITS IN U-TUBE EXCHANGTRS

509

Solullon,

F'ronr

Lq.

14.

l,

where M7
2

- _ (r.2s)\r2)
=
From Eq. 14.3 with

: Er :
11

bending moment of tube modulus of elasticity of tubes

0.58 in.

= I=

mohnt of inertia of tube baffle spacing as shown in Fig. 14.6

rotation of tube at tubesheet junction

A = rR2 : 98.17 in.2

and

4 = factor

relating effect of baffles on tube-end bending moment

given by Fig. 14.6

Similarly, the radial bending moment in the tubesheet is given by

34.97 in.

Thus

_ 0.31(4 x 98.17 /34.97, / too \ (1 - 0.7s/r) \17,000/ = 0.08 in.

,. NErlrF,a,r M, = __:,TA'l
M,

14.))

ndial bending moment in tubesheet

14.5

f,*, = 0.58

in. I
ANArySts oF TUBESHEETS tN
U_TUBE

N = number of tube holes Ar = radius increment as shown in Fig.

a = radius of tubesheet

THEORETTCAI EXCHANGERS

r4.9

to be represenrd by Fig. 14.5. Hence thJ bending in

Gardner in 1959 published a papef that explained the interaction between the tubes and tubesheet in U-rube ireit exchangers. Gardner assumeJthe interaction

th";1;.;-

,r= -nTt

(r4.4)

DX
o
o.2
OA

Fn
1

2
4.OO

More

3Or

400
3a3
3.70

3.83 3.69

o.6

359
3.52
3.OO
Figure

3.60 3.53
3.46

o8
1.O

3.43

F'sur6

la.5

(Rf. 2)

1,t.6

(RcI. 2)

I)clining

I4.3

THEORETICAT ANALYSIS

OI

TUSTSHETTS IN

U.TUBI TXCHANGTRS

5l
r0)

Eq. 7.7

where D* is the modified flexural rigidity of the tubesheet and ly' is the total number of tubes. The differential erquation of the bending ofa plate as given by

'= cry#)"'

(14.6)

IIU")

for fixed edge

( 14.

becomes

For simply supported tubesheets, the moment at the edge is not zero because the outer tubes have a bending moment that is transferred to the tubesheet. For this boundary condition, the value ofAl is given by
A1

dlt d (.dw\l _ e drlr dr| El ] - o.'

.,/d,u\ ,\d,)
a

(14.7)

This equation can be solved in terms ofBessel functions. For plate, the solution can be expressed as

for simply supported

uniformly loaded

edge

(14.1l)

. =uJ-{1g1_!1_
dw pa3 / -I\ dr= o.\zu2)LU-Alt(utl
_

Afto@") _

r"(U)t}

With the value ofA; established for the two boundary conditions, the values of M,, M,, and Q can be obtained from Eqs. 7.3a, 7.3b and 7.10 as follows:
(14.8)

u,:
(r4.9)

r*fi{o

p+y

- alro14 - 5Or,<rr]}
elsaul

w = deflection

a,=

r' fir{o + p.t -

+9nP4u,]}

t'0

"'

P = applied

pressure

U.=
A=
10,

(a

9 = rafir,<u)
The maximum value of M, can be obtained from boundary conditions and U values. Hence,

u=tr
constant of integration

Eq. 14.12 for

various

1r

modified Bessel function of zero and first order, respectively

D*=
.E'*

E*73

M'* = Pa2 F.
where F.

(14.13)

= effective modulus of elasticity of perforated tubesneer Z = thickness of tubesheet t,r = effective poisson,s ratio of perforated tubesheet a = radius of tubesheet r = radius of a given point on tubesheet
d

: coefficient obtained from Fig. 14.7. The maximum bending stress is given by lt \T/ ' =e!e\
(14.14)

where r; = ligament efficiency of perforated tubesheet in bending

tube diameter
tube pitch

:p -

p
as

p=

For fixed tubesheets, the rohti,on at the edge is zero and Eq. 14.9 can be solved forA,:

Also the maximum value of Mr in the tubes can be expressed

maxMT

i(#),",

(l4.ls)

,22

.20
.18

.16

74
12
.10

.oa

.ou

""1

.o2 |

234567
rigurc 1,1.8 (ReI.2)

u .t ,

Or-U 6 7 8 9 "
Fisurs

10

ra.;

Ger. 2l

Equations 14.16 and 14.17 arc combined in a plot, as shown in Fig. 14.9.

The interaction between the tubeshe"t ttii"t oy combining Eq. 14.6 with Il" = !a:

*lY . 4 =

coefficient obtained from Fig. 14.8.

Example
is illustrated

14.2.

Find the thickness of the tubesheet in Example 14.1

if

n"r. _O tt e pressure Etvng

E* : 9.0 x

106

psi

(:)=h
t

N= 88 Er=30x

lt* : Ir =

0.3
O'0166

106

psi

n=

3.46

l=
(14.16)

12 in.

r-zts

T
AA

where

E+ Iasl ^=ftztl=il4f.Nr,lt/t L l
Also Eq. 14.13 can be expressed
as

1a\

/l\= \qo/
or

^' 6F^U2n

5t2

ff:

ar.utu

(14.17)

Fisurg

1,{.9

(Ref. 2)

drAr la

srlR laulPMlNT

Solullon. tct ?.= 0.24 in.

I4,4
Then

BACKGROUNO OF THE ASMT DESIGN TQUATIONS FOR IUBCSHTETS

515

(9.0 x ^* _ 12(1 106X0.24)r _ 031)

11,390

U.:(a=18.78
T=THIcKNESS Or PERFORAIED PIAIE

From Fig. 14.7,

f. = 0.008 (conservative)

,=10--9'7s=0.r,
and from

Eq. 14.14,

o_
o=

(6)(0.008)(100)/

0.2s
psi

< 6 (,

0.6

o.s
o.4 o.s

\o.z+)

12,000

>

OK

UI

TUBESHEETS

r4.4_-.BACKGROUND OF THE-li_t4E DESTGN EQUATTONS FOR IN

U-TUBE EXCHANGERS

The ASME Code, VII_I, uses the method in- Section 14.3 for designing tubesheets. The tigament efficiencv 4^obtained from o',D#Jiii.Jrk, is sum_ manzed in Figs. 14. t0 and 14. il . Because the diamet , oiti" ouirt" tuu. ,o* ls normally less than the tubesheet dlameter, an adjustment is made to Gardner,s t4. t4.t3. The tubesheet is assumed ," a and an outside ring of outer "r"riri.ii" iirilr"i"Tllj,. r"or, radius ,. Accordingly, Fig. 14.9 must be modified ft"-y,io_ot b/a. A ::.J.j:., on Heat Exchan8ers sample of the curves developed by the ASME ruSgr_o_up is shown in nigs. r+. r z anJi+ifr rlr. , .r I .os. r,xpressing Eqs. t4.16 and 14.17 in rerm's oi

o.1

02
Figure

03
14.10

04 05 06

08

1.o

LtcaMENT EFFrcrEt{cY, ?
TAIANGULAB PITCH (Ref. 3)

=+cq

r;;;;;;;;;;".

g,"".

Also Eqs. 14.16 and 14.17 can be expressed

as

,
where f = 6F^

",e.J

(14.18)

P ,". T2 )t'rlo'" ' )t2 a2

c,=+s

r, : otl(f) 110

(14.19a)

HIAT TRANSITR IQUIPMINT

I4.4

BACKOROUND OT THT ASME DISION TQUATIONS FOR TUBESHETTS

6.00 4.00 3.00

517

\
2.OO

-0.1

\
SIII'AFE

P|ICII

ROTATED
PLATE

SOI'ARE PITCH 1.00 0.80

T-THICX ESS OF PERFORATED

1.O

09

0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30

C6

o8 o:l
2 2
o.6

0.20

o o 05
OA

0.r0
0.04

uI

o3
a2
o.l

0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03

oo

o.2 0:i
LGAmENT EFFrcrENcy
SQTJAFE PITCH

rtl

o4 05 05

, -

PFd'

oa

o.o2

Fisure

l4.l

(Ref. 3)

o.2 0.3 0.40.s 0.6

T/

0.8
c^

1.0

2.O

3.0 4.0

5.0

Expressing
Figvre

Triangular pitch

14.12

(Coud6s), ot ihe Amsricon Sociaty of Mechonicol Engineers.)

K'

a G
a

F4. 14.19a becomes

,:
where

of

rlZ,,

(l4. r9b)

and

/*

is obtained from Figs. 14.14 and 14.15.

r*: "

li'
2K'

Example 14.3. Determine the thickness of the tubesheet of Example 14.2 using ASME's Eq. 14.l9b.

t tl

IAT TTANIIII IOUIPMINT

I4.5

THEORETICAT ANATYSIS OF FIXCD TUBESHEETS

519

2AAeA

FfiF ( / I*AE / er=6o" ile\ \ \7

,)
TRIANGUTAR
PlTCH

t 66

;;
SOUARL P]TCH

\,

ROIATTD SOUARI
P TCH

(.Ya Fisur. l,l,l/a

K: bA

Fis'rra l,(.15 (Court sy of th6 Am6ricon Socity oI ntechoni.ol Enginsers.)

I4.5

THEORETICAT ANATYSIS OF FIXED TUBESHEETS

The shess analysis of fixed tubesheets in heat exchangers is very complex due
to the large number of variables that affect the analysis such as difference in tube

Tlar
Figure

l,l.l3

SOUARE PIrcH
(Court

.y ot

rh Arn.ricon So<ie, of riG.honicol Engin.er3)

and shell strain, the ratio of shell and tubeshet stiffnesses, effective applied pressure, and relative thermal expansion of shell and tubes. The development of the simplified TEMA design equations for determining fixed tubesheet tlickness is based parfly on the theoretical work done by Gardnel'5 and Miller.6 From Eq. 7.9 the differential equation for the bending of circular plate is given by

Soluti^oy._ From Fig. 14.4, a q = o.25. From Fig. 14.15,

5.0 and

= 6.0.

Hence

K, = t.?

I d [,d lt d (.a\ll g r drl'drlr dr\ dr/l) = D

and

(r4.20a)

The next sction shows that in a fixed tubesheet the quantity q, which is the local pressure at radius r, is not a constant. Rather it is a function oftll given by

f+
From Eq.

o.sz

Q:Cz'rKlm-2w)
where g: local pressure C2 = constant

l4.l9b with G

3.0,

r = 3.0(0.s2)
=
O.2A

(0.25X17,000)

in.

Kr = tube bundle stiffness = R = bolt circle

Nt(d!;-t)Er

!20

HIAT IRANSFIR TQUIPMENT

I4.5

THIORTTICAL ANATYSIS OT FIXTD TUSESHEETS

as

521

: 4:
L
,,?

lcngth

ol

tubcs

l'he valuc ol C2 can then be deternlinctl liorn this cqualittn

outside diameter of tube

r = thickness of tube wall

a,:
move with respect to each other. Now define

= distance tubesheet edges }1, = deflection of tubesheet

"f-----"----=tt-l - r'#ll
fzzi,,rfr
Q"

\t4.22)

Equation 14.20a can be written for perforated tubesheets subjected to pressure 4

FqP

(14.23)

*ffi*2,'fi-*#*,ff**oo=o
where

local pressure at radius a. Then from Eqs. 14.20b and 14.21,

qo

where

Z,(x.)

, = (4\* (r) = Br *,/

\D
and and from Eqs.

^ -,
,a

=--

x. Zz@.) 2 zi&"\

,, h6) - "

(r4.24)

'1-IJ'-"' zl?.) "

I

I 4.20e

and 14.2Of

p* =

E*73 12(l - p*21

M"
0"

lzz6.) +
_

BD*

L--

rr-,r\ vzltr;l

x4

- alz'G) L I

(l-

-::------r!'zt9a)l xa

ttt

zl(x") + Hzte")
\14.25)

This equation can be solved in terms of Bessel functions. For symmetnc loads, the solution can be taken as

or

q=C2[27@)+HZ2@)]

(r4.20b)

zl(x)

ffiV,<ol -

H=ZL@.)

Z1@)

+ HLzze)

z+(x)l|

(14.20c) (14.zod)

e=ffifzX,l+Hz!(x)l

(14.26')

", ft

{1", . (*)'r-,1 -,f,,<,t - (*1,*111

(14.20e)

The value of 11 is based on the edge condition of the tubesheet. For fixed
tubesheet,

4:

0 and Eq. 14.26 gives

,=-t#
[zzb) ,.. = -\ffi] + l0 -

for fixed tubesheets

(14.27)

whcre the Z functions are as defined in Chapter 7 and C and be det^ermined from the boundary condidons. Definrng P as the average pressure acdng on the

II

are consranm to

Similarly, for simply supported tubesheet M"

O and

E9. 14.25 becomes

fubesheet, its total value is

I"

*o

* = r,z&)lt - rffi]

ttt/x"Vt,- r\

(14.21)

"t

simply supported hrhesheets

04.28\

i|IAI IiAII'IIR
f1t^u.uiu"n

IQUIPMINT

and f.o_fi.'il.;j.",i"i? *a C, ar" at any rocation in the tubesheet -magnitude is obtained from F4. l4.2oe. The maximum uAu" oi tf,l.M. ui url g,u"n ,. ,, ---- "" *'*t obtained from 84. l4.ZOe and

vuluc or',r,,, the H constants can be carculated from 14.2[1. Constanr C2 c{rn then be determi""d known, the of the benolng moment

Eqs. 14.27

normally

"*p."r."a
pazF^

u,

M^
where

(14.29)

The maximum bending str6ss is

fi

is obrained from Fis. 14.16.

"
I

=T (1)'"
"ili..r"J ^i

(14.30)

For large values of -r, the Z val.uls can be approximated by those gtven in "' "'" Table 7.1 and rhe quantities Fo and F^."n u"

F= 7{l + t/-X.l
F^

for fixed tubesheets

(14.3

1234567A9

t/i
IX" =-:

t)

Fieur 14.16

and

I"rom

Fig. 14.16, F. = 0.059 and T

0.25. From Eq. 14.30,

;O 2\/-2x) -,-n/4 F''' 2x"

F
+
Example
ness

for simply supported tubesheets (14.32)

":
a

,+P(ort)ro
20,390 psi

o'nr

I4.6

TEMA FIXED TUBESHEET DESIGN

tubesheet of thick_ ? = 0.50 in. if the eeometry L u, ,to*n? n!:'il;;?: = 52,800 lb/in.3. E* = 9 x 106 psr, p* p = icrii-pri. =-0..1.

14.4.

Determine the stoess at the edge of a fixed

-a

Solution

Development of the TEMA simplified equations are based on Eq. 14.23 and can generdly$e<fi.r'idedinto.thraseparateieps-..The first is determining an equivalent local pressure on any given tube. The second step is establishing an equivalent general pressure on an equivalent tubesheet. The third is incorporating the first two steps into the differential equation of the tubesheet that is considered as a plate on elastic foundation. These three steps discussed in the next three sections are based on th work of Gardner. ? The notations used are the same as those given by TEMA.I

D.=q;#H#=103,020

"-\o-)
xa:

= (^\r'_

x 52.800\o,s -\/2 ro3"oro-/

=I'0062

I4.6.1. locol

Equivoleni Pressure

9(6) = 6.037

One of the main assumptions made by TEMA in the analysis of tubesheets is that the tubes are uniformly distributed tbroughout the tubesheet. Referring to Fig.

524

HIAT TNANS;ER IOUIPI,ITNT

14.6

TTMA FIXED TUBESHITT DESION

14.17, it is seen that the total tbrce 4 in one tube due to a tubeside pressure acting on the face of the tubesheet iS dxpressed as

li

o=

rl# - r(d' i "D'z1 = r#1, - i(+n

n = nAf'
(14.33)

tt r,:r-Z\ /d. - ztY " / :

number of tubes

4: t=

tubeside pressure thickness of tube

P, is expressed

Similarly, the total force 4 in one tube due to shellside pressure

where

A = ra2/N a : inside radius of

tubesheet

o:*l#-ry1=*+l'-i(*il
4:
where
nAf,
(14.34)

4 = outside diameter of tubes

4=
force in tube due to pressure ,q acdng on face of tubesheet

[ = force in tube due to pressure P, acting on face of tubesheet

4:
shellside pressure

'ti_il ||tttt Ps li wrl

Actual Contiguration

force F" also acts on the tubes of Fig. 14.3 that is caused by such factors as thermal stresses, restraint due to other tubesheet, or other unbalanced forces in the heat exchanger. This force is expressed as Besides forces 4 and

4 a third

F*= nt(d. where F-

t)on

r4.3s)

tube force
stress

or = longitudinal

in tubes

The total summation of Eqs. 14.33,14-34, and 14.35 is equal to an assumed equivalent force q acting on an equivalent tubesheet of radius r. Hence,

4na2

N
or

E- n+

F*

(14.36\

s=@f,-u)+\u,-ttot,
The axial stress dr in F4. 14 -37 can be written Equlvalent Confl gurafl on
Fieuf.e 11.17

(t4.37)

as

,,=!,6,-

u,,",)

14.38)

iIiIO

HIAT TRANSIIR IOUIPMINT

I4.6

TEMA FIXTD TUBESHTET DCSIGN

whcrc Ii,

i = pr : poisson's ratio of
oc,

[x)dulus ol.clasticity ol.tubcs longitudinal strain of tubes

tubes

wlrcrc

= clrcumferential stress of tube a1, = longitudinal stress of tube 4

and

: w: c, :
L
0r

length of tube deflection of tubesheet coefficient of thermal expansion of tube

AI, =

"1tunt"

in tube length

temperature change in tube

The circumferential shess due to

can be expressed by

suhstituting Eq. 14.40 into 14.39 gives

"'=(#),'(*)Thus Eq. 14.38 becomes

q: @t- P,n ++(d.-

rl"(Y-

",4]

.
"[(#), - (*)-]
(r4.39)
a

(r4.41)

oh: E,eh. T"^I1r",9t tube at a distance

"l(ry)'-(*)-l
Pressure

lluation 14.41 has three unknown quantities: q, w, and LL..

**

r from

Eq. 14.39 can be.obtained Fig. 14.18. The strain of the centerline .r ,r,. lrom i_ir,_g". r,."i i,j*L*"o

14.6.2 Generol Equivolent

'l he total longitudinal force

",

a,=a-!t-L-o,r,

W1 in the bonnet due to tubeside pressure in Fig. 14.19 and is expressed as

is shown

(14.40)
Wn

: ta'P,

(14.42)

where

W1

longitudinal force in bonnet.

If the tubesheet is assumed as an equivalent solid plate subjected to a general cquivalent pressure P, then the total load on the tubesheet is
Wp

= ra'P

(r4.43)

where P = Wo =
Because W|,

general equivalent pressure

total load on tubesheet due to pressure P

is not necessarily equal to w', the unbalanced force transmitted

through the shell is

W:
where ll{ =

1ra'(n

- P)
as

(14.44)

unbalanced force on tubesheet. The longitudinal shess in the shell can be expressed

Figur6 14.18

w
nt!(Do ts)

(14.4s)

.,.,6r$g.t,.rr:t,r^tr1rtii4t;ti.

14.6 ilMA flxlD luBllllllr

Flnally, the value of
,r can be

DttloN lt9

written

as

+ = ^!
whcre
d"

",e,

(4,47)

coefficient of thermal expansion in shell

AZ, = change in shell lengtrh 4 = temPerature change in shell

And the value of 4", is

*,=o#*

(14.48)

Substituting Eqs. 14.44, 14.46, 14.47 , and 14.48 into Eq. 14.45 gives

ot=*o.m-ee;ln

(14.49)

Equation 14.49 has two unknowns, Atr" and P. It is also based on Eq' 14.47 which does not take into consideration the strain due to an expansion joint.
When the dhell has an expansion joint, E4. 14.47 must be modified accordingly. In Fig. 14.20a the expansionjoint can be approximated as shown. The flat plite aD in Fig. 14.?-Ob is assumed fixed at points a and b' The total deflection of the shell is given by

FigurE

l,t.l9

where D,
r"

outside diameter

of shell

LL"=
where 6 = deflection of
as

1"

+ La"Q

(14.s0)

= thickness of shell ob = longitudinal stress in shell

and the longitudinal snain is given by

expansion joint.

The expansion joint deflection 6 can be expressed in terms of two components

,*=!6rwhere d,
e6
tr

6=t"+6,
1",o*'1

(14.51)

(r4.46)

where 6.
6p

:
=

deflection due to mechanical load deflection due to pressure load

modulus of elasticity of shell sfrain of.shell

= longitudinal

Furthermore, the deflection due to mechanical load 6, can be written as

ratio of shell " = Iroisson's o" : circumferential sness of shell

a":

{rw

w,"l

(14.52)

,.n.rnier'_lrti,iirllilrw,

]lt

14,6 TIMA

ftXNO TUBrSl{ilT

DllION

tOl

Fisur. 14.21

=Lyra-!(w+w+wet)t3 - lMol" 2 EIr EjIi 2n 8 EIi 3

Similarly, the slope is

(r4.54)

e :!w,il2 -L(w+w" +w)lz +MoI "' 6 EiL 2 Ey'i EiIi

where D;
Figur.
I

(14.55)

outside diametr of expansion joint as defined in Fig. 14.19

,1.2O

where

51

:
=
=

spring constant of expansion joint load on shell from expansion joint 1rt,(D" t,)P"

l7r,

Ei = modulus of elasticity of expansion joint /i = mornent of inertia of expansion joint = 4,24(Dt + D)tj I - lengtlt of expansion joint n : number of convolutions in expansion joint

Substituting Eqs. 14.45, 14.46,14.51, and 14.52 flta 14.50 gives

L!"= w -

t/ ^\ -t&L E"r,t,@;4--il* 4,4 +E(r + X)W + wF) (r4.s3)

+
Wpj

= l7e; =
4

thickness of bxpansion

joint joint

pressure force in expansion

=4tp?4'Letting 0

o?tp.

oue Io priessurc torce Woy end forceW" obtained from stucturii analvsis as

gy,iq g/6" can be derived from *..Tf:ilTl5^l1l:.f 9: to be subjested to the forces shown. Fig. r4.2r by assumrng me expansionjoint
+
Thi deflection
Wo",

0 and substituting Eq. 14.54 into 14.55 gives

and end moment M0 can be

u=ffi,w+w^rfr+#@l

Conpulng thlr oquatlon wlth thc last tom of Eq. 14.53 shows that

('.*) =r+---atand

Equation 14.54 has two unknowns,l, and P. It is also idontical to Eq' 14.49 lor hcat exchangers without expansion joints, that is, for Si '-+ o. (14.56)

14.6.3 Relstionship I
ISj
Tho

Between Locol ond Equivolent Pregsure

2nl3 r2Ey'i

TEMA design equation for fixed tubesheets is based on F4s. 14.23,14.41, 14.49. At r 4 it is assumed that the quantity 2w in Eq. 14.41 is negligible. rnd Eq. 14.23 into Eq. 14.41 and equating the latter with Eq. 14.49 Substituting . tlsult,in the following expression:

968,L ^ ,); = ' 2n(D1 -" D")3

P=Pr'-P!+Pa
(r4.57)
P

(14.60)

.t:ii:tflTri HL

r4'4'

14'48' 14

sc

and the expressions ror

w* afr

woi

Pi =

+/)l xrolr + 0.,UK(l.s

+=ffi_w*,,,"
*
P) + $1",<n rt"(Do

":

:T*n{o.*lrsp* I + r(r.5 +/r] -t

_(:)(j#)1,.,ffi])
un,r,
1p"-

,sa +

[<o?

- Dhp"]

'-

(o--rt'fu!__g!f\ a\ u )\-r+.nq / - o.ol1e%&(ql]'A

This equation can be simplifed by letting

.. E,t,(D" n=Effi@" t) 1s
E
modulus of elasticity of tubesheet material

I J
Hence,

LZ4J

Ir+"@"-t"t*t"1

(14.58)

Fe:0.2s+ tr
=

LL' .-:_ = L

a2

The values P,',

P:, P:, Pi

can be simplified by letting

E"tn(D.

t,\

frc

L-'/t

"l1

<4

*|.i-t/r-**a

\p

8"t-\t - 1) - #r(D" - 2t)(D. - ,JP,]

(r4.se)

oztn 1r

d"-t d-2t

. r -

d.-t .......:d,
t,(D.

- l

D"-t"-tu:G

D"'2t"-2a=G
h - t) (D.-2 z (D"-3t",

.,--_-_.*@"*,1r7@qrr'!l[t|ttEr|Eu|'mnr1*
14.6 TIMA llxlD TUllSHllT
Honco,

,,,r..sr.tRtitrrttll]]]{{44e1

DllloN ctt

=ffi;n

+ o.dr(r.s

+nl

"'

=t*4{o'*Irr's

+ K(1'5

,,-(#+)(w\

+Dr

(+)('"5)t

3:Httf

the stress in the tubesheet of the heat exchanger

"ti..L.iftrlate E : n x ld psi for tubesheet material and shell d" = 0.5 x 10-6 in./in."F Iength of tubes = 144 in.
=
0.065 fu.

rrzo-*boruees on'lt"tnntout-lR pttct-t.

thickness of tubes

E, = 30 x 106 psi d, = 6.5 x 10-6 in./in.gF

tubeside plessule = 75 psi concruTent shellside pressure

.=

(assurne a simply supported plare) !,ZS

(b)

15 osi

tigor'11.22

From Se.tion 14.6.3

operating temperature of shell = l87T operating tempexature of tubes = ambient temperature 70.F

ll9?

K:
Fq

Q7 x rO\(O.2s)(36 - 0.25) = 2N.73 (27 x 101(0.06s)(0.75 - 0.06s)

o 2s

+ (, 2s _,

Solution.

.,|#_qa#ft#%

(#;l]'"

From Eq. 14.57

of
in.a

Fq

'8752

tt =

f;1n

+ 36xo.2sf = o.l6e8

and from Section 14.6.1

"i

a _ O6)Q7

106X0.1698)

j =, * s(ry?E#H:1]q
OI

-@Xlxl?l)47=6t--

165,300 lb/in.

t:t-i(*, 1
=l- +\ ,l : 0.9146
=
rr2o I 0.75

2 x 0.065
35.5

32 85

J=

0.0304 0.8750

!36
llcncc,

HIAT TRANSfTN IQUIPMfNT

NOMENCTATURE

+
/f,

(0.0304X200. 73)(1.87

s'

x [1 + 0.4(0.0304)(200.73)(l.s + 0.9146'
=_
12.4428.16 RO?7r

7-)

Itll\:r-=
ilil||tl
Fisur 1,t.23

/r'\

FLANOED 1I FLUED EXPANSION JOIN'I

""'

'

41.55
15

n.lnn

(0.0304x200.73)(1.s7

s'

___-/uuu\F._______ l-.-------1
EELLOWS EXPANSION JOINT

{o.oro.orooltr.

200.73(1.5+ 0.s75)l

_ rr.0 \
l5

9.0304)/ot,; ll r,).I /\ 3s.52 lJ

I4.7

EXPANSION JOINTS

= nTarr<s.trst
=
6.57

0.36s0)

'fhe two most common types of expansion joints are the flanged-and-flued and the bellows, shown in Fig. 14.23. The flanged-and-flued expansion joints are
used where the deflection between the tubes and the shell is not very large. The most frequently used method of analysis is that of Kopp and Sayre.E It treats the

x [9.5 x =
1.48

10 6(187

70)

(6.5

10-6)(119

70)

12.4428

From Eq. 14.58

joint as an equivalent rectangular structural frame with some modifications to account for the inside and outside radii. Many experimental investigations have been performed to verify Kopp and Sayre's method. The results have shown that tbr most applications this method is satisfactory. Bellows are used for large deformations of the shell. The analysis based on a NASA researche is similar to that of Kopp and Sayre in that the bellows are treated as a structural frame with hoop stresses resisted by rings or equivalent plate-and-shell segments of the bellows. A frequently used standard in the united states is that of EJMA.I0

P=41.55-6.57+1.48
=
From Eq. 14.I 36.46
NOMENCTATURE

F2G2 P

47"
4

(1.2r2Q5.r2

36.46

8686

psi

OK

a = radius of tubesheet b = G/2 D. : outside diameier of tube F : modulus of elasticity of shell E,r : modulus of elasticity of tube
G

diameter of tubesheet

530

HIAI

TRANSTTR IQUIP/IITNI

BIBLIOGRAPHY 539

/I, i: poisroo's r.ittio ol tubcshcct ntatcrial /r* : poisson's ratio of perforated plate o = allowable bending stress
K' = b/a
M, = radial bending moment in a tubesheet Mr = tangentizl bending moment in a tubesheet

(r. Milfcr, K. A. G., "fhc

Dcsign

of l'ubc

Pla(cs in Hc.rl Exchrngcrs," in

l'r(!$ut? V(tii,l Ml

P4ing Design Colletted Pape^ 1927 1959, Amcrican Socicty ol Mcchanical lirgirrccrs, 1960, p. 6'72.

7, 8. 't.
10,

Mcmo from G- P. Byme, Jr., Secretary ofthe Tubular Exchanger Manufacturcrs Associatk)n to Members of the Technical Commiftee, dated January 3, 1964 regarding Standards Background Data prepared by Karl Gardner. Kopp, S. and M. F. Sayre, "Expansion Joints fo. Heat Exchangers," Contributed by the Heat Transfer Division and presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engitreers, New York, November 27th, 1950.

N : number of tubes P = pressure

P, =

Analysis of Stresses in Bellorrs, Design Criteria and Test Resubs, Part l, Atomics International Repon NAA-SR-4527. Standads of the Exponsion Joint Manufacturers Association,4th ed., Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association, New York, l9?5.

shell side pressure BIBTIOGRAPHY L., "What's lhe Difference Between TEMA Exchatrger Cl^sses,"? Hydroca/bon Prcce$in8, June 1980. Rubin, F. L. and N. R. Gainsboro, "Latest TEMA Standards for Shell-and-Tube Exchangers," Chemical Engineering, September 24, 1979.
Rubin, F.

= ASME allowable tensile stess = thickness of tubesheet = thickness = thickness of shell = thickness of tube a" = coefficient of thermal expansion of shell a, = coefficient of thermal expansion of tubes

4 p g J Z t t" t,

= tubeside pressure = rube pitch

local pressure

Yokell, S., "Heat-Exchanger Tube-to-Tubesheet Connections," Cr"nical Engineering, Feh aty

8,

1982.

n =(p-d)/d.
REFERENCES Standads of Tubular Erchonper Manufecturers Association,6th ed., Tubular Exchanger Manufacuers Associarion. york,

Niw

1978.

Gardner,

K. A., "Hear-Exchanser

Jourrnl ol Applied Meclranics, American Soc",y O'Donrell, W. J., and T. Slot, ..Effective Elastic
Noverbber 197t. American Society

Tube-shet Dsign_3. U_Tube and Bayonet_Tube Sheers,..

lf ,r4""_-Lat"*'i1r".",

,'S#:

Squares and Triangular penet ation panerns,.. A S!4!

Constants fo. Thiciperforatea plates wrttr

Applied Mechanics, American

A., Exchanger 9**, Society of Mechanical Tube_Sheer Design.,. Journal of Apptied Mechanics, Amencar I Engineers, Decembei tgag Gatdner. K. A.. "Heat Exchanser Tube-Sheet

..Heat

of Mechanical Ensineers.

J*r;i ;I ;;;;;;;Ir'#"r'l*^o",

s;iety of Mechani.je

Design_2

Fixed Ttbe

nginee..,

Sheets,,, Jounat of i;;; trr."' "-

CHAPTER

t5

VESSELS FOR HIGH

PRESSURES
I5.I
BASIC EQUATIONS

This chapter presents some design aspects of solid and layered vessels with pressures in the range of 10,000 to 100,000 psi and higher. In these high pressures prestressing, or autofrettaging, becomes an important consideration in
the design. It was shown in Eq. 8.1 that

t=. sE

PR.

0.6P

,,,

is the design equation for vessel shells. As the quantity (,SE

zero, the thickness approaches infinity. In other words, as the pressure increases, the allowable stress of the shell material must be increased higher than 607o of the design pressure for the equation to be valid. This increase in allowable stress requires materials of high tensile and yield properties. The limitations ofEq. 8.1 for high pressures are usually overcome by using a different equation that is based on the theory of plasticity as discussed later in this chapter. Equation 8. 1 is shown in Fig. 5.6 as being very similar to Lame's Eq. 5.9 for thick vessels. Disregarding extemal pressures, Eqs. 5.9 and 5.10 become
A thick-woll loyercd
vssst (Courres),

0.6P) approaches

of rhe Nooter corpororion, Sr. touis.)

/ ,2\ o,=P'lt-41 r-l

(1s.1)

540

ot = P'

541

512
whcrc

vt33!13 foR HtoH PRtssulEs

r5.2

PRESTRESSTNG

Ot WAU"S

whcre
P' = Pl ,!! "l \r; - rfl

strain energy poisson's ratio

/,?\

t, :
or, cz, 03
F-or a

E = modulus of elasticity

The shess distribution given by Eq. l5.l is shown in Fig. 15. 1 for a vessel with rJ 11 = 2.2. The max-imum stress is in the hoop direction and is at the inner surface where r = ri. As the pressure is increased, the stesses increase until they reach a maximum limiting stress where rainre is assumJ ti oc-cur. r,o. trrin vessels the ASME Code assrirnes that failure occurs *f,"oG-ii"ra poin, l, reached. This failure criterion is conveni*t *a tir"'rni*iriut pnocipat sfess tleory. In thick vessels the crirerion usually""lf"i mareriats is the energy of dislortion theory. This trr""q, tl,;lrrii.o" -combination in a body under any ""uor, ", of sfesses begins only when the TI,I)oi", *oCy .I per unit volume absorbed at trrefiiit is Squar to tfre Sstorrion ^s:11 stain energy of distortion absorbed per unit volume at any poi* in u .,r"rr"O to the elastic limit under a state of.umaxral stress as occurs in a simple tnsion "'* """, test. The equation that expresses this theory i, giu"n iV-.

principal shess

bar stressed to the elastic limit in simple tension, cncrgy of distortion expression becomes

02:

a3

0 and the

t ;p;Iil f;;;i" .lt"Jil;i

0 I u\ol w:--6lror a pressure vessel with the tbree principal stresses given by cnergy of distortion expression is

Eq. 15.1, the

i*

-o
Itecause Ws,

* = \!t<r, -

oz)2

(sz

o),

(o3

- c1)21

(1s.2)

(# /t + p\",f ,'; .f1tY = \l \r;- ri/ \r/

+ De),

l4lr, the maximum pressure at which yield is assumed to occur at

the inner surface is given by

'.:($(T)Gl
o1

(15.3)

It is interesting to nole that when the axial strain is assumed to be zero, the axial stress becomes

p,(21t)

and the maximum pressure given by Eq. 15.3 becomes

or

\/3

21t'fl-t/z rl - r?f ri , --l-Ll - \r -3 I

(1s.4)

In most applications the difference between Eqs. 15.3 and 15.4 is negligible.

I5.2
.L
Figu.e 15.t

PR,ESTRESSING OF SOLID WALL VESSELS

As the pressure in Eq. 15.3 is exceeded, the inner part of the shell becomes plastic, whereas the outer part remains elastic, as illustrated in Fig. 15.2. The derivation of the relationship between dle elastic and plastic regions is beyond

,4

vtt!!t! fot

HtoH PnlssuRrs

15.2

PRESTRTSSTNG OF

WAU.S

545

.,"

o'r"sr'c

Rrc,o, 't'

wlrrrc or, o,, a1 = or, = r, = ri : r= p=

hoop, radial, and longitudinal stress, respectively (psi)

yield stress of material (psi)

outside radius of shell (in.) inside radius of shell (in.) radius at any point in the shell (in.)

elastic-plastic interface radius (in.)

lklrution 15.7 may be used to determine the lower bound pressure P* at which ytrl(ling occurs by letting p : 4. Hence
Fisurc 15.2

the s9ory of this book. However, it suffices to say that the derivation is based on plastic analysis of an incompressible ."r"c-i *irl, *." "*i"i'.nn.. rr," resultant equations are as follows:

".=#(
-2o"

-1)

(15.8)

l'his equation gives results very close to those given by Eq. 15.4. Equation 15.7

Elastic region:

lnn also be used to determine the upper bound pressure P+ at which total yicfding occurs by letting p = ro. Hence

(+)H ('.!)

\r5

lnr

(15.9)

@)6 (t -'4\ @e)

Plastic region:

Itlxnmple (15.5)

15.1. A

l?.6 in., and o,,

({).000 psi.

pressure vessel with a solid wall has an 4 of 8 in., r, of 80,000 psi. Plot o6 and o, when P = P* and when P =

Solution. From Eo.

15.3.
8'z

(#X'*1*znt)
(#J(-' * 4.* znt)
@(5"*z'n!)
*:trfl':H[X
?iween
the applied pressure and the elasric-plastic interrace

e+ . _ 80,000 /17.6, - )(-''J V5\ 3'

=
(15.6)
rrnd

36,650 psi

from Eq. 15.1,

o,

= ss+o(r. ,,-/ \

!g\

o,=rsno(r
'l'hese two values are shown in

-ry)
:

#('

-4 f;

Fig. 15.3.

zr,L\ p/

(r5.7)

80,000 psi, a trial-and-error From Eq. 15.7 with P = 60,ffi0 psi and o, 11.50 in. Hence from Eq. t5 5 calculation gives p

t46

Ytlstt3 foR

HtoH PRISSUnES

I5,3

I.AYERED VESSEIS

547

Figlro'15.4

Solution.
,

The maximum autofrettaging pressure of 60 ksi is less than fwice the lower bound pressure P*. Accordingly, the stress distribution resulting from a pressure drop of 60 ksi is in the elastic fange, as shown in Fig. 15.4. FromEq.

RaDrus

lNcH

t5.1.

Fisurc 15.3

qe=rs.72o(t*!g) r'/ \ o,=rs,72o(t-!g)

\ r"/
and from Eq. 15.6

"'= -t,*t(rrr, P' = 15,625 psi

s.---g-)

oa= -rs,ezs(r

.ry)

a,=

46,Do(1.427

+ 2rn;3)

The stress distribution given by this equation is superimposed with that in Fig. 15.3 for a6 at P = 60 ksi. The resultant residual stress is shown in Fig. 15.5. The internal pressure of 45,000 psi gives a stress of

o; = +e,loo(-o sz: + z rn
A plot of

/-

;)
ri. f
u,

oe: rr.tzo(r.ry)
and the total stress distribution due to this and residual stress is eiven in Fie. 15.5.

the elastic-plastic boundary as the pressure

these equations is shown in Fig. 15.3. i" Fig . I 5 . 3 are significait because they show the redistriburion or the stress pattem as the inner region of ^. ,1.^.y:-p_t"g the cylinder beco_"a ptu"ti". ato not" the reduction of rhe stress at ttre inner

surfactrrrd;;il;;;,i'?iL" ,o"r,
i, ln"."u."Ji"yoro

I5.3

TAYERED VESSETS

Example 15.2. plot the circumferential residual stress a, when the frettaging-pressure
oeslgn pressure of 45,000 psi is applied.

j: !f-pl:

rs

r.

i, ."o""ic iJr"r,

;i;

auto_

irlT o, *r,"n u

Layered vessels were developed in the United States and Germany at about the same time during World War II. In Germany they were used in ammonia plants as well as for producing gasoline from coal. In the United States they were used for ammonia-synthesis processes for the ultimate production of nitrates. Since

vlssg.s Fon HtoH

PRESSURTS

I5.3
od

LAYERID VESSTTS

ar P=45Ksl

c(

o o
f

i,:)SBRINK

Fr-r

(d) ColL

WRAP

Figure 15.6

'?iiLi;i*
Wodd War II the technology of building layered vessels has improved substantialty..Today layered vesseJi are used ii'",i,ia"i"re" ;i[nfT"."ru." tions in the penochemical industry "pp,,""as heat exchangers,

fit method wherebv layers ."'inOiuiOuutty for_"Jiito form thl reguired total ,r,t'L"*'ii]g.'is.orl. "yfmO"r, rr," to. ft: coil-wrapped method whereby a .rrti"u""r-J""t i. it ip i, *ounO ItlO spiral or rn a helical fashion to form a cylinder as in Fig. 15.4:'
and shrunk on each other to

ItT ft::"guld is the shrink

the colcentric_ or spiral_wrapped method where the layers.consist of segments welded together in spiral fashion to ftickness, as shown in Fig. 15.6a andb. The second method

I:l1ilg-r."ryiqy In^ general, layered-vesset three categories. The first is

of potential problems such as erosion and at -ay oc"urln ti" inner rt during the operation of the vesset. "orrosioritt "tt Layered vessels are constructed by various methods. The difference between these methods is in the thickness of inoiuiaua Uyeri *.ap-piig
"nA construction can be divided inro

urea reactors, -such ammonia convenrs, autoclaves. and coal gasificati;; Layered vessels consist of a multitude of layers wrapped tightly around an inner shell to form a pressure-retarnlng envelope, as shown in Fig. 15.6. The vent hole system is a safety feature incorporateainio ttre iay"iJu"."sel o"_ hon. It consists of a mulritude of small holes "on.t drilled radiity lntoit fuy"., _a extending from the ouiermost layer to and including " tfr. i'uy", uj1'u""nt to tfr" inner shell. The holes are sized and spaced so that they do not affect the structural integrity of the vessel. The venting ,yrt"- uJt, u. u'rnonitor

The earliest reference to layered vessels was made in the 1951 API-ASME bde. In later years when the API Standard and the ASME Code were separated, llre layered-vessel criterion was deleted from both. It was not until Jan'tary 1979 that layered vessels were included in the ASME Code. In establishing the new llyered-vessel rules, consideration was given to the state of the art as well as the and research accumulated by the industry in the past 50 years. An "iperience c l ibrt was also made to provide rules to accommodate all types of known
l:ryered-vessel construction. Today most layered vessels are constructed in accordance with the ASME ('ode, VI[-1, Division 2. The majority of the design equations given in the code lor solid wall vessels are applicable to layered vessels. For fabrication, the ASME Code, VI[-1, Division 2, gives additional rules for layered-vessel construction. One criterion for controlling wrapping tightness of layered shells is rhat the area of any gap between two adjacent layers, as measured from the end of a shell section, must not exceed the thickness of a layer expressed in square inches. This is illustrated in Fig. 15.7. Another criterion used occasionally to measure the tightness of layered shells

,#il.

!.-o""ou.",

is limiting the circumferential expansion of the outer layer during hydrostatic testing to a value not less than one-half that ofan equivalent solid wall thickness' tlencJ the stress at the outer layer due to internal pressure P as given by Eqs. 5.9 and 5.10 is co

;;;;;;

= --;--"-r;- ri
Pr?

2Prl

C,=0

' r;-

ri

wtt|tt tot

HtoH PR!33UR!3

15.3

t/aYIRED

VISSILS

55t

'l'hc uctusl measurcd growth must not be less than one-half the value given by r5.10. A third criterion for determining the maximum permissible gap in layered rhclls is by relating the gap height to a given shess level. Referring to Fig. 15.8 End Eq. 5.12 and assuming the end to be fixed against rotation, it can be shown lhd the gap /, can be related to the bending moment by the expressron

l!.

,F;
GAp AREA
AREA OF GAP

Mo

(15. 11)

a=f

r,.n

!l

bstituting cb

<

TH ICKNESS
Figurc 15.7

ex pnesseo rN nl

= -- .)-

6Mo

and from Eq. 2.1,

B=

*: |b, e, = '

p(o, + o)l

,:d+
into Eq. 15.1l gives

9.--DP'J E(rz.

r?)

The circumferential growth can be expressed as

h= O.55ro, E

(1s.12)

=,#ii _ ,*, -Ee=ALt

n-tr', defined as the
mean radius. Then
11

=P--! -2

,.=n"+|
and the circumferential growth is given by

t.71rp(Z?.^

t)2(?R^ SERnt

t)

(b)

(15.10)
Figur6 15.8

5!2

V!!t!ts toR t{toH

PRESSURIS
r

5.3

TAYTRED

VESSfl.S

553

Equati0n 15.12 cannot be used directly becau-se the quantity o, is not readily known. This. quantity, however, can be related to un uiio*udr"-Jt uy lating the principal stresses at a layer as ".. "ut"u.

llv('I

by

oo: S + pab a,= -P

1-n / o,. K= I + --:--- - l:i-,?(m - l) \JJ6

wlrcrc
m

')

15. r 6)

:
=

3.0 for carbon steel 2.0 for low-alloy steel

1.7 for austenitic stainless steel

ot=tyt+)
where o6, cr., ar = principal
,S

stresses

'

: n:
=
S.

0.2 for carbon and low-alloy steels 0.3 for austenitic stainless steels
allowable stress:
15. 15

= hoop stress ;r, = poisson's ratio o6 = bending stress due to gap l, p = intemal pressure
The maximum stress intensity is given by

lrluation 15.16 can be expressed in terms of S" by substituting Eq. uxl letting m = 3.0 and n = 0.2, which yields

for o6

K: -!- ,[!-!t" t'Va-5s.

(15.13) li(luations 15.13 and 15.15 can be expressed as
the ASME Code, VIL[, Section

(1s. r 7)

ah=ob+r+p
The maximum stress inrensiry

2, to 3S,. Or in general terms

o; is limited by

",o+f,+"=#r.
or assuming S

15. 18)

oo+]+p<KS^
where K = 3 for indefinite number of
Code,

(1s.14)

= S.

and

cycles. where aa is greater than 35, Lut less than . _Ircases 3rn,S,, the rules ASME

u:T" .' KS^

liquation 15.18 becomes

V I,

analysis. In this case

para-sraoh q_rce .q,"

apiti i"r

"

of the s.pilfr!a""ir"'rr,"_pr"rri"

t": *Z
and z^\-

o6=NS.-+-P
Eq. 15.12 can be written
as

(15.15)

o= o'ss/s" fN E L
where N = 25"/KS^

'

0.5

:l J..l

15.19)

^
where & = alternating
stress as defined in the ASME Code,

VIII,

and

K is

3 for indefinite number of cycles

vtttttt tot

HtoH PnrssuRES

r5.3

|AYERED VrSSfl.S

K=-+.,,"[**
& = maximum
allowable alternating stress

S. = allowable stress E = modulus of elasticity

r=
P

radius where gap is measured

design pressure
Fisur 15.9

t:.r, . A l::10L" with E layered vessel with a 42_in.. inner d.iameter is constructed of carbon sleet = 29,000.000 psi. D.,.r*in. ,ir" ni"iriorn iito*uor" g"p

irmbining these two equations gives

RZ

i:r:*ifff:''
f31#fl'

s' = 20,000 psi,i"d

th".;i;;"y;;'iiiii'h"
vrr,

".,,"r

'i
Also from Fig. 15.9

- R?: a2 R2

?aYs

(1s.20)

iffi

il:IlTr1
I

of the ASME code,

Fis. 5-r10.r, & =

rnd

RyI h=

Ia

(15.21)

K=-:+

: l.2l
2 ^r- 1.21xx4o,ooo 2O,nO

Ys

,R1

cos d

(ls.22)

Substituting Eqs. 15.21 and 15.22 inoo Eq. 15.20 gives

3.31

h(h + 2R.)
21 x 20.000 29,000,000

_ 0.55

2(&+h-R'cosc)
_ 0.5 _
4000
20,Oo0/

(1s.23)

'l'he circumferential saain determined from

Fig. 15.9 is expressed as (rs.24)

0.021 in.

t
Substituting

n"t'"l wh"r.

Equadon 15. 19 determines the

2RzB

is n"eteo to tar.e uc"u,nui"##;:1""91t tT9 account' rhis can be accomprished by 91,p' ..X*nsap. rhe toar st uin tr,eo zu--'J""; rn gettrng the strain required to close one gap, refer to fig. iJ.S

i,

;;il;;;;

one gap tl,".Jil;ffi;""1TlTYl auulue of anv secdon' ain a lavered rn given cross criterion

2Rra ZrRr

ilij};T,=fffifj
x6

ilJ'#:,li1

ffif:T,:

t= Bc

,1,"r"

+ yE:

R?

and

'Rz
xE+(Yo-a)2=Rtr

asina
R2

l!6

VttSlt! foR

HtoH

PRTSSURES

15.3

TAYERED VESSIL3

into Lq. 15.24 yields

o, ='rr, Rr

r1

'="'&1"*""'\ & /l
and 15.23 into 15.25, which gives

_,

/c

sin

a\'l

_j,P * l*
o,= -P

-2

p,--

) .

(r5.25)

The maximum radial stress is given by

The total snain required to close one gap is obtained by substituting Eqs. 15.21

Hence the maximum stress inlensity is

,=fre+4sin-tc
where

(rs.26,

co,: oo-

o.

A=l4: I r

2+

h/Rl

2(l-cosa+h/R)

'1*'1r, + =l----). e + P < NS, r- lL-ri- ri

and

(2 + h/R)(h/R)

Rr 2(l -cos d+h/R)

+ h/R)(r

C:

2(1

cos

d + h/R)

(2 + h/R)(h/R)
Example
vessel

y.=!d(rs.
15.4. The following gaps of 11 = zl0 in. and rz = 55 in.

(15.28)

by the quantity

A plot of Fq. 15.26 will show that the lines are a linear function of strain versus /r/R1. Hence, the ASME Code, VItr, Division 2, approximated 84. 15.26

were measured after forming a layered

=)

Gap
e

lrngth
5 in.

Height
0.008 0.005 0.010 0.009

At Radius
43.25 in. 43.25 in. 48.50 in. 53.00 in.

= 0.109(2a)3

/(1

or in terms of Fig. 15.7 terminology

I 2 3
4
(rs.27)
Determine

9 in.

in. in.
in.

7 in.

6llr.

in.

< 0.r0er4)

\/-/

if

/, = 0.3, S.

these gaps are acceptable 1f E = 20,000 psi, and N 3.

3O

106

psi, P = 6000 psi'

stain required to close all the gaps is determined by summiig all -the individual shains given by Eq. 15.27. The hoop stress in a layir due o all accumulated gap stains is approximated by
ue

Equation 15.27 calculates the strain needed to close any given gap. The total

Solutian. Frcm 84.

15.27 ,

.,:o.loefi#

=2.33x10-6

=;l t-

lL--

,)e

., = o.roeff# :2.62

1o-6

The total hoop stress due to gap shains and intemal pressure can be expressed
as

.,=o.loe*#:3.25x10-6

vlttl|.s

foR HtOH
eo

PRTSSURtS

I5.4
pressure ffa1

PRESTRESSING OF LAYTRED

VESSII.S

559

=9

1"^

6(o o09t UYJJII = 2. l0 x tO-o

whcrc r/, : radial dellection of layer l, shown in Fig.

15.7, duc to intcrlacc

rotal=10.30x10,6
From Eq. 15.28,

d. = radial deflection of all layers beneath layer

pressure fl11

due to interlacc

| ,.?D -;tu2/("t - f+,)\ = rr,.

Substituting Eq. 15.30 into Eq. 15.31 gives

*-,r,-

(,

2o.ooo

=
Because total e is less than 10.47

1O.47

H#)
f

10-6

a.-4,:

NS
(

1s.32)

1g-d, gaps are safisfactory.

I5.4

'l'he deflection of layer i and all layers beneath I due to pressure 4+r can be olrtained from Eq. 5.8 by substituting ar = 0 and disregarding the term p'z. The cxpressions for the deflection, using the terminology of Fig. 15.10, becomes

PRESTRESSING OF IAYERED VESSETS

tfe gniral or concentric method,of fn fabrication, the transverse weld shrinkage m me rongitudinat seams causes prestressing .f ,h. ;;r;;i6#: Such weld snnnkage is influenced bv manv r,.ut input, unJ ff:"iffilr:'"X.ll,ii,X#ill1ffi:J.T

niiiiil;"',ffiI

, - 4*'R,*, /Ri*r + ni - n.\ E \Rl+,-rR? "-l , 4*rRi*r o'= /Ri,r * tRi., , ^ ,\

/15 ?1\
(1s.34)

;i

r \n,t,-ni-,-"''/

s=kw
where s =
transverse shrintage rn welds

Substituting Eqs. 15.33 and 15.34 into

yields

Eq. 15.32 and reananging

(Is.29)

ft = coefficient of transverse shrinkase w = width of seam weld Refe'ing to Fig. 15.10, the total radiar deflection due to transverse shrinkage ot a number of seams in one layer
rs

^ ,i-,:

(Ri. | - RiXR:-2 nsE ____lRL _ R?) 4.IrRr-j

as

Rr'?-

r)

(1s.35)

'lhe stress in layer i can be expressed

o': .4*tRi*t ---J

(15.36)

,ns 2t
where d = radial deflection n = number of welded
seams

(15.30)

in a layer

Weld shrinkage decreases the diameterof a welded layer. This causes a ravers undemeath it' rhe deflection equai;;'ffi; ;?::;:"trh "ompatibitity
pressure between the welded laver

d-dt=4"

15.31)

Fisure 15.10

560

vt3$tE toR t{toH PRtssuR[s

I5,4

PRISTRCSSINO OF TAYERED

VTSSEIS !6I

Substituting Eqs. 15.29 antl 15.35 into Eq. t5.36 gives

und the stress in inner layers is given by

o' =
Stress

v'nR'n-'

nkwE (RIt

- 4.iR!*z lRi'z

R!.)

Ri)

(rs.37)

/- R?\ 4*rR?-' * = -\t **) - Ril:E 4

Itxample 15.5. Determine the wrapping stress in the-vessel shown in Fig' l5.11lf n =2,k=o.1',8= 30 x 106 psi, w = 0'375 in'

in the layers below I due to welding i is

"'=
Stress

il:;r-1t

-i.,,Ri*r

R?\ /. *;,7

Solution. From Eq. 15.37,

stress in layer one due to wrapping of layer one is

in any layer due to welding other layers around it is

,,= -(t * x'/ r !-,Ri,. - \ {\ 1R?,,-nl

Substituting Eqs. 15.29 and 15.35 inio Eq. 15.3g resulrs in

=
(r5.38)
Stress

8733 psi

in layer two due to wrapping of layer two is 2.25 x tO6 or:4igffi@

(21'z

2r\(21.52

21'z\

(1s.39) Equations 15.37 and 15.39 are necessary to determine the precompressive sress in a layered vessel due to wrapping Uy *," oiri-ira.etnoA of fabrication. "on""oG" In the shrink fit rnethod, the orecompression equations are the same as 15.37 and 15.39 except that the'qaanniy n*w/2iir"pfuJJy-Jrn. Eqs.
Stress

11,365 psi

in layer three due to wrapping of layer three is

ot

= 4o(o.s)er.sf
=
12,487 ps|

2.25

tO6 (2t.52 -

202\(222

2l.5'z1

n"*"

, ='#,'
.. In the coil-wrapped Hence the applied

r'
ra,(i!'!Liul

*r,

(15.40) (15.41)

"'::!f('\.#) + ry#::t
method, the initial stress in the outer layer pressure for Eq. 15.lg is

i is known.

n-r=#
and the total sbess in the outer layer is

oi= o"

Figur 15.l I

362

vt33!ts Fon HtoH

PRESSURIS

SIBTIOO[APHY

From Eq. 15.39, stress in inner shell due to wrapping all three layers is

o,, =

:??l

l_]ou

(, .

22, 21.52 \ r- 21.52 - 212 - 2tetF=6\*, n6=65) -(179,049)(1.97s)(0.0247

#) (ffi _
+

0.0163

0.0120)

-18,737 psi
Stress

in layer one due to wrapping layers two and three is

d' = -17e,04e(l

\ * ffis,)to.otos

lnz

+ 0.0t20)

l{ = inside radius as defined by ASME llm : mean radius r = radius rr = inside radius r,, = outside radius J = shess ,1. : allowable sfress given in ASME t : thickness w = width of weld seam rr = coefficient of thermal expansion
pn
A.r

-9774 psi

Stress in layer two due to wrapping layer three is

o,= -tls,rNs(t + ff)ollllt : _4052 psi Total stress in inner shell : -1g,737 psi Total stess in layer one = g733 - 9744 = _1041 osi Total stress in layer two = I I ,365 4052 7313 osi = Total srress in layer three = 12.4g7 psi f
NOMENCTATURE

= change in temperature c = strain p = proisson's ratio

: : :

radius at interface between elastic and plastic zones bending stress

stess at layer

.,1

(fr

= =

longitudinal seess radial stress

stress at layer .r

(ft (f,

: :

yield stress
hoop shess

D = tr-T,
E = modulus of elasticity e = circumferential growth h = gap K = weld shrinkage
Mo = longitudinal bending rnoment

ITtl

U0

BIBTIOGRAPHY
Armstrong, W. P., and M. H. Jawad, "Evaluation of Thermal Conductivity in Layercd Vessels," ASME Jounal Prcssure Vessel Technology, November 1981.

Brownell, L. W., 8trd E, H.

Jawad,
Prager,

\onnl,

Process Equipme t

Deiqn, John Wiley, New York,

1959.

M. H., "Wrapping

Stress and lts Effect on Strenglh of Concentrically Formed Plywalls,"

n P

= number of seams in a layer = pressure

NME Publication 72-pvp-7, Seprcmber l9?2. W., andP. G. Hodge, Theory of Perfectb Pkstic

Sortrb, John Wiley, l'{e\t York,

5.

CHAPTER

t6

TALL VESSELS

Tollve$el. (Co',rtesy oI rhe Noorer Corpororion, Sr. touj3 Mo.)

564

565

566 I6.I

TAtt vtssfl.s DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

16.2

IARTHQUAKI

LOADING

567

Special design considerations are required for tall vessels that are installed in the vertical position. These vessels may utilize support skirts, nngs, ring girders, lugs, and other forms of support attachments as describid in Chapter 12. However, the vessel itselfrequires special design considerations in setecting the proper thicknesses and stiffening rings, if neided, to adequately support the vessel and to resist the applied loadings. In addition to loadings from intemal and external pressures, tall vessets must De capaDle ot.wlthstanding additional loadings from the dead load of the vessel, the inlgmal parts, insulation, piping-, and externA equipment, anA tiom 9onte.nt1 earthquake loading and wind loading. Thi tall vessel, as we as'most otner types of vessels, T9y also be subjected to applied forces and morneni, fro- tt errna expansion of the piping. The niost critical combination of loadings that cause the highest stresses may not occur when all of the loads are appii.j u? ttr" .a-e ti-e. Certain loads may cause critical stresses during the time of of u".r"t, whereas other combinations of loadings ma! cuuse critical ".""tion stre;ses when the vessel is filled with its contents. The propei design of the veJmay require examining several different loading conditions to Jstablish the proper thickness and other requirements for a safe desien. Some of the cornbinations of loadirigs requiring careful consideration

sffirt

cornbined with the internal and external pressurcs and any other kradings that arc lpplicable to the tall vessel. The following sections describe dift'erent methods lor establishing the forces, moments, and overturning moments from extcrnal kradings. In addition, methods are given regarding how to combine those loadings with other loadings in order to determine the highest stresses and to satisfy tid-22 of the ASME Code, VI[-1. Included also are methods ofconsidering the rlynamics effects of the wind loading and wind velocity on vortex shedding and

ovalling vibrations.

I6.2

EARTHQUAKE LOADING

t"

ln the design of tall, vertical vessels, one cause of stresses in the v-essel wall is lhe overhr;ing moment from the lateral force of an earthquake loading' Although most disign standards require vessels to withstand earthquakes, usually no sfecific applicible rules are given. The purchase order or design specification ,hould list thi applicable code to be used for earthquake design, such as the

are:

l. 2. 3.

Vessel. installed in place but not operating (no contents, internals, or insulation) and not under an applied earth{uake or *inJiouotng. Vessel under intemal pressure with contents and other dead loads with or without earthquake or wind loading. Vessel under external pressure with contents and other dead loads with or without earthquake or wind loading.

ANSI A58.1, "suilaing Code."r the Ilniform Building Code,a ot some otler applicable building cod;. Additionally, the location ofthe installation is required ^determine the appropriate earthquake factor. Figure 16.1 shows a typical t; oarthquake -up aicording to the Uniform Building Code (UBC)' Earth"one in other building standards may be different. The procedure quakj zones given lbr determining the lateral earthquake loading is similar in most building standards and is G same in both the UBC and ANSI standards Some coefficients in the formulas and the zones on the earthquake zone map may differ in various
standards.

For both the UBC and the ANSI standards, the total lateral earthquake force is calculated by the following formuia:

for a specific vessel, may be a worse combination than any or me condltons listed ^t;*:::::,b,:l!:y: above. The designer must be certain that all conditions aretxamined for determining the controlling condition. The required thicknesses and other desigi requirements vary somewhat de_ pending upon the design theory chosen. Thi .*i-u, ,o".r ,fi.o* is used for Ine oeslgn ot most tall vessels. This theory is used in the ASME Code. VI[_I, and the API 620t and 6502 design rules. Tie effects of using other theori"s a.e discussed later. The two-external loadings that are important in the design are those due to e:mnquake toadrngs and wind loadings. AJthough the ASME Code, VI[_ | , does not specify design methods or design codes th-at are considered, application of used design ruGs is discussed. nememUer,'ii'ile specinc rocauon where tie tall vessel is to be_ installed, as given il the design specifica_ tion or purchase order, the design rules may be so-mewhat oimere# tom eitrrer ()1 me two rules described here. Local requirements are always considered. Once the extemal loadings and overtuming moments are determined, they are

ZIKCSW

(16.1)

where Z = coefficient
Z= Iv = total
3

depending upon the earthquake for the location of installation. For ANSI A58. I for zone O' Z = | /8 ' For both the UBC and the ANSI 458.1, the following apply: for zone 1'

/16

zone 4.

Z:

for zone 2, Z
1.0.

3/8; for

zone 3,

: 3/4; and for

dead load of vessel and contents above plane being consid-

ered 0b)

I:
K=
C

importance factor; assume

I=
K

1'0 for vessel

*^y: :"lryPt

arrangement factor; assume base shear factor

2.0 for vessel

0.12

= 1/15\/7 =

? = fundamental period of vibration of the vessel assuming a uniformly loaded cantilever beam fixed at the base by the following:

16,2

IARTHOUAKE IOADINO

569

zn ^ 3.52 \ t;n" ' EI,s

Substituting

(16.2)

I = 386.4 in./sec2 gives

r = o.osos.g.
lines (in.)

(16.3)

h = sfraight length of shell from tangent to tangent of shell-to-head w = W/h = average unit weight of shell (lb/in') of straight shell
length

E = modulus of elasticity of vessel material at design temperature (Psi) /* = moment of inertia of shell cross section (in.4)

1,:

(v/8)(tl +

t)3t when (d

L = O.Oa9@2 -

+ t)/t < 20 dt when (d + t)/t > 20 (in.)

r = nominal thickness of shell (in.) 4 = outside diameter of shell (in.) d = inside diameter of shell (in.)
S

site-sFucture resonance: assume S

1.5 unless an exact value is

known.

'hdrdhh|'b.dlol

Figuro I 6. I Rirl zorc mop ot rhc Uniied $ort" (Reproducld tro,n thc Unifrofih Building Code, I 9g2 Edirion, CoPy'iglt 1982, wifi pcrminion oI th. p!bti3h6r, Thc Inr,arnotionot Confera"* J g;tdr;Offt.uL.f

O.l2 < KC s 0.25 for UBC. O.l2 < KC < O.29 for ANSI, zones 0, l, and 2. O.l2 KC < 0.23 for ANSI, zones 3 and 4. = CS < 0.14 for UBC and for ANSI in zones 0, 1, and 2. CS 0.11 for ANSI in zones 3 and 4 when.l = 1.5. = KCS need not exceed 0.3.
When KCS
force becomes

= 0.3 is substituted into @.

V=
O.3O

16.1, the total lateral earthquake

Zw

(16.4)

When the vessel is rnade from shell sections with different dianieters and thicknesses, the lateral earthquake force is determined for each cylindrical shell section above the plane being examined. However, for a cylindrical shell of uniform diameoer and thickness, the total lateral earthquake force V is distributed
as follows:

s68

570
1.

lAt I

vrlslt

I6.2
fluid in shell fluid

EARTHQUAKETOADINO

571

At the.upper head-to-shell tangent line, apply a concentrated horizontal force determined as follows;

4=

0.07 TV, except

n shall not exceed O.Z5V and Fl shall be considered zero for ? = 0.7 or less

(f6.5)

2.

Along the straight length of shell,

where ? is given in Eq. 16.3 and V is given in Eq. 16.1.

w = total weight : 34,240lb /r = 360 in. w = Wlh:34240/360 = 95.1 lb-in.

= 7r(30F(360)(35 /1728) = 20,620 lb in heads = (4/3)n(30)3(35 /ltzt1 = 229916

E:30x106psi
(16.6)

^ (V - hw.h. n,=--;f,

d+t
'

60

0.5

U.J

For a shell of uniform diameter and thickness, this gives __ a triangular load disnibution with the pointing downward. fo. tie momenr, _apex assume a concentrated loadine of (V _ "ul1ufutirg fl applied at the centroijof the niangle that is equal to 2/3 tr from the-lower he"j_t,i'rr,"rr arg"riiiJJri Jio*n rn nig. t6.2.
Ongg A9 values of d and .{ are determined and the moment arms respective forces are known, the overtuming moment

to the

is determinel

as

M": 4(h). n(!^)

Example

(16.7)

-f
I

earthquake design. what are the lateral earthquake

vertical vessel with a cylindrical shell and hemispherical heads is installed inside a building in Boston. fhe sheU is i ftlnril aiurn"t"r, 0. 5 in. noninal thickness and 30 h from t"rg"nitl i-t"r,t. ft uiJ."r , a fluid at 35- lb/ft3. The purchase order speclfies "ontuio, tf,"t tfi" UsC"b" i"llowed for

16.1. A

ro.",

ur"a ro.

Solwion. The UBC specifies that the total lateral earthquake force is calcu_ lated from Eq. 16.1 by the followrng: v = zIKCSw Z = earthquake factor
earthquake zone 2 where Z = 3/8

"

c"rigor

depending upon site location. Boston is located in

1= 1.0 K=2.0
W

-+
I

total dead load of vessel and contents is

shell weight

n(30.52

weight of heads

= (4/3)n(30.53 _

30\(360)(490/1728): g7gs16
3O?)(4gO/

|TZS\:

1630 lb

Figure

16.2

Eonlquoks lood distribulion on o toll vos!|.

312
/, =

tAtt vrlstts
9.949161r

16.3
600)

WIND

IOADING

573

r = 0.0908

= 43,400 in.a (95.lx360f (3d-i06x43/00 = o lo06

16.3 What is the equivalent

Problem 16.1?

earthquake force in terms

of g for the vessel in

Azswer.'
0.12

Earthquake force is 0.229.

"
CS

=r

0.2102;maximum is C

16,4 What is the equivalent

Problem 16.2?

earthquake force in terms of g for the vessel in

KC = (2.0)(0.12): 0.24; maximun is r(C = 0.25

= (0.12)(1.5) = 0.18; maxrmum is CJ = 0.14 KCS = (2)(O.M) = 0.28; maximum rCS = 0.3 yis determined by using Eq. t6.l and KCS : 0.2g as follows: v = (3/s)(t)(0.28)(34,24o) _
3600 tb

Answer:

Eafihquake force is 0.289.

16.3 WIND

TOADING

4=0. I

4 = 0 when ? is less than 0.7 (T :0.1006).

Therefore, V

3600

lb

and

Example 16.2. The tall vessel described in Example 16.l is to be supported at the lower head-to-shell iunction. Dete-rmin" ,fr" i"""".frg'iro-"n, - -'i-'i''|b 'n u, support line from the lateril earthquake forces.

Two distinctly different kinds of design considerations are generated from wind Ioading. First, the static force from the wind-loading pressure against the vessel ou".to-ing moment that must be considered in designing tall vessels "our"a'- in the vertic-al position' The second consideration is the dynamic effect installed from vorlex shedding of wind passing arcund the vessel'

*"

16.3.1

Externol Forces from Wind Looding

&e horizontal earthquake force to-be applie; the vessel in Example 16.1, this grves

Sotution. previous calculations

As with earthquake loading, many different design lnocedures determine the

show that the period of vibration places all

;t;r-""',,#;;i#loaoing.

of

For

wind loading and its applica:tion to i vessel. The two most widely used standards are the ANSI A58.1 Code and the Uniform Building Code' Although there are differences in tle procedure for determinilg the wind loads

M" = (3600)(20
Problems

rZ) = 864,000

in.{b

site' methods use the same rnap for determining the wind velocity at the location Building Code' as shown in Fig. 16.3 for the Uniform

betieen the ANSI A58'1 Code and the Uniform Building code' both

16.1

When the ailst A58.1 Code is used, the basic equation for determining the velocity pressure q, at various heights z is calculated from q"

What is the total lateral earthquake force using the ANSI A5g.l Code for the following vessel? A vertiial vess"t *irh ;-;;;l;;.il-o.on"o o, lower head. The shell is a seaml"r, pip" *i;h inrialtii.am","., ,.0 in. thick,.and 40 ft. long wirh 3_in.-ih'i.k ri;;;J#;. rd"uJrlr"r gas at ambient temperature. The vesset is instJleJin "ont"tn. --.*mqo"k" ,on" 4 where Z = l.O.

;_i;:

*"

0.OO256

K,(tv)2
=
1'0

(a)

where q, = veloclty

pressure (Psf)

Answer: 16.2

= y=
1

importance factor; assume 1

design wind velocity (mph) from

Fig' 16'3

Lateral earthquake force is 3910 lb.

K,

veloc8

Pressure coefficient

Consider the exact same vessel given in problem 16.1. What is &e total lateral earthquake force using tri'" u.ii"""-i",rar"!'C"iJ.ll"r,

Ansu,er: Latel-3l earthquake force is 4970 lb;

In addition, it is necessary to modify Eq.a by the force coefficient C1' which is 0.6 for a cylinder, and by the gust factor G, for the height of the vessel above -basic wind speed is determined from Fig' 16'3' ttte ground bv!I. Once the ielocity pressure for a cylinder is obtained from Table 16' 1a' To determine the

16.3 WlNo toADlNG 515

Tqble P"t

l6'lo

velocitv Pressure for cylinder' (q

Q) ucing ANSI A58'l codr'

\-,

Basic Wind Speed (mph) frorn

Fig

16'3

N* k)
| | il

g !E ! g.a ? r;

HN -.r d6 uI| : 9{ E ET

I I

r.,:-rr1 Above lcight alr^i,a

(;round (ft)
l,css than 30

100

110

t20

r-, | :at
;

:F 'E _i

i t;
i- F!
,!aA
q

gi

*8i i '-9
tr

i*i 95 i E6' FT eE I E::E F i!; rb8 frE; ; $ sE iEF

a:-

5 E +l

5 *,J E 5? =:! trr >

: FT d -0H E I

30-60 60-100
100-140

l40-200
200-300

100-400

7 911 10 11 12 14 15

g 13 15 16 18 20

11 14 16 rg 20 23 26

13 17 20 23 25 2E 31

16 21 2s 28 30 34 38

19 25 29 33 36 41 45

23 29 34 39

42
48

s2

gEg

: p:

9rE I!t *EFE I =:a

li

16' 1b tlesign wind pressurep, the velocity pressure is modified by G, from Table

Ei=s ::5 b5 A*g gE +'t I !ai E

: 6r

i:

-E

uccordins to

p=(qxc)(G)
where

16.8)

q r." -* 6d

E g !8 .e:

i-e

is ftom Table 16.1a and G, is ftom Table 16'1b' for instatlations above ground level, G is based on the total height of shell and supports. Depending on the total height, there may be several different ^wind pr"riu.". f6r different height zones. For {.sig1 purposes, wind tlesign toaoi ure appiieC at the center of each height zone Gee Fig' 16'4)' Wfren tdi 1982 Ilniform Buitding Code is used for determining the design wind oressure in the horizontal direction, the basic formula is

(g

Cy)

P = C,C"q'l

(16.9)

Toble

16.lb

Gusl Foclor for ylinder ot Vorious Heights

Height above ground (ft)

Gust factor

1.32 1.29 1.27

15 20 25

30

40
1.23
180

1.26
160

1.21 1.20 1.19 1.18

50 60 '10 80

90
1.17
/100

Height above ground (ft)

Gust factor

100 Dn AO
1.16 1.15 1.14

2N 250 300 350

1.11 1.10 1.09 1.08

1.13

1.12

1.07

574

t"t

wtl .l
16.3
Tqblc
WIND

LOADING

577

16.2

Derign Wind Pressure pfor o Cylinder Uslng the Unlform Bulldlng

Basic Wind Speed (mph) from Fig. 16.3

odo (psf)

llcight above (ltound (ft)

100

ll0
30 37

120 36 38 44

lrss than 20
;10-40

t2 t4
16

l6
18

20 22 25 30 32 35

z)
27
31

42 .to
53
JO

40..{0
l,{l -10O

20 22 26 29 30

t'7

t(x) t(x)

150

t9
20 22
23

33
,10

40
45

47
53 56 62 65

63

110-200
300

47
52 55

6't
'14

44

){) 400

3'l

't't

Ituilding Code are different from those given in the ANSI standard. A typical rlistribution of wind loads at various elevations for a tall vessel is shown in Fig. t6.4.

-f
I

16.3.2 Dynomic Anolysis from Wind Effecfs

When a laminar wind flows by a circular pressure vessel, the air stream or wake bchind the vessel is no longer smooth. There is a region of pressure instability in which vortices are shed in a regular pattem. These vorlices cause an alternating force perpendicular to the wind direction that could make the vessel vibrate. When the frequency of the vortex shedding coincides with the natural frequency ol the vessel, a resonance is caused with increasing amplitude. To prevent this

Figrrr.

16.,t

Wind lood disiriburion on o rollwr!|.

condition, the natural frequency of the vessel is set higher than the vortex
slrcdding frequency determined by the maximum velocity of laminar wind at the vcssel location.5 Resonant wind velocity is related to the heighfto-diameter ratio ol a cylindrical vessel, as shown in Fig. 16.5.

where p = design wind pressure (psf) C" = coefficient for combined height, exposure, and gust Cq = pressue factor = 0.g for cylinders 4, = wind stagnation pressure at 30-ft level 1 = importance factor = 1.0 for pressure vessel
The Uniform Building Code basic. wind speed map is shown *._dg::rry_p for a cylinder for vari9";r,!r!itz"i", in Fig. 16.3. The 1"11T tn" grouoo rs glven in Table 16.2. Aeain- there "ilou? may be sevlral aifferent jesign winC pressure Ioads for different-height zones. The height zones for the Uniform

The natural frequency of the vessel/, is greater than the frequency of vortex sheddingJ, using the following equations:

f, = i = natural frequency of vessel (cps)

(16.10)
(16.1 1)

^ f, = -t;

o.2v

frequency of vortex shedding (cps)

1 = period of vibration from Eq. 16.3 I{ = maximum velocity of laminar wind or resonant velocity (fVsec), (see Fig. 16.5)

rAu.

vlll .l
r60
140

16.3
shell is 5

W|NO LOADINO

a 120
110
.8.

,-

15,106.7

wall thickness, and 100 tl. specification requires the vessel to 0 in. from tangent to tangent. The contract be designed according to the Uniform Building Code requirements What are the ltteral wind forces to be used for design?

ft.0 in. inside diameter, 1.0 in. nominal

Solution, The UBC map shows that Corpus Christi, Texas, is located in

100

3 .s 90

100-mph wind zone. Therefore, the wind forces at various locations are calculated usins Table 16.2 as follows:

I
E ,E

;l

0-30 20-40 40-60 60-100

ft ri = Qs)(2o)(62/12) = ft Fz = (n)Qo)(62/r2) = ft 4 = ODQO)(62/L2) : ft Fq = (n)@o)(62/12) =

.
r0.5)( zrY3l Y(45)

2,580 2,790 3,200 6,820

lb
rb

lb lb

;l
Exampte
vessel

Upper Head --

Total

\r?r,

470 lb 15,860

lb I

What is the overtuming moment due to the lateral wind forces assuming that the vessel is supported at the lower shell-to-head junction for the

16,4.

in Example 16.3?

12
Figl|rre

t4 16 la

Height to diameter rario,

20 E--24---i

ltD

Solution Load

t6.5

Relononr wind velocir,, V,, vrcus H/D.

Arm

D=

outside diameter of vessel (ft)

f,>L
as a

(16.12)

frequeniyf,

In addition to the vorrex sheddins. dng. The ovalling frequenc-v

l"

",i"s;;i;itil;;:,fi#11,f
f' = #
=
r = nominal

y,:.:.1 is examined for ovalling vrbration at least twice the vonei shedding

x 10 = 25,800 ft-lb x 30 : 83,700 ft-lb 3,2N x 50 = 160,000 ft-lb 6,820 x 80 = 545,600 ftlb Upper head 470 x 101* : 47,470 ft-lb Mo : 862,570 ft-lb a ft 2040 ft 4}-ffi ft 60-100 ft
0-20
2,580 2,790
Example 16.5. Determine if the vessel described in Example 16.3 is adequate to resist vortex shedding and ovalling vibration.

ovalling frequency (cps)

thickness of shell (in.)

(16.13)

I{i.l_!.. ,\*.T: ed a stiffening ring within 24 in. ofboth shelt-to_head Junctlons, and additional stiffening nngs are evenly spaced to keep the maxrmum of g0 ft. span a
f. > 2f,
Example 16.3,
(16.14)

Solution

1.

Determine the total dead load weight of the vessel:

= z(31'? - 301$200)@90/ 1728) = 65,219 16 Heads = 4/3 r(313 - 3or(49o / 1728) = 3,320 lb Total weight = w:68,530 lb
Shell
i,100

with a cylindrical shell and hemi_ spherical heads is to be installed our ol doors near Corpus Christi. Texas. The

vertical ves1l. m3de

+ 0.4 x 2.5 : l0l.

!to
.,

rAu.

vlll|lt
I6,4
VESSEI. UNDER INTERNAT PRESSURE

ONIY

58I

Dctcrminc these properties: 68.530 .= w 1200 = 57.1 lb/in. n= 10.11 lJused on a support line at the lower head, what is the overturning momsnt liom the lateral wind force for the vessel in Problem 16.5'l

E:30xl06psi I = 0.049(62a - 604) = 89,000 in.a

Answer: Mo = I1,682,400 in.-lb.

10,0

r = 0.0e08. /- (5ZJ.lg?99I_ =0'6047 ' ""'""Yt:o xloS<as"ooo) .1 I

= 0"604? =
1.65 cps

A pressure vessel is 10-ft inside diameier by 2.O-in. thick and 150-ft tall. l)etermine if the vessel design is adequate to resist ovalling vibration.

Answer: Tl:,e design is not adequate because the "f, = 0.11 :

and

f.

0.09i consequently,

does not equal or exceed 2f,.

H
V

D=

ii;

000x12)

te.3s

I6.4

VESSET UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE ONLY

40.33 ftlsec

s D '" =0.2V - --51? = I.56cps f, > f, 1.65 > 1.56 oK - 683(1) J. = .o;i = 25.55 cps f' > 2k 25.55 > 3.12 oK
Problems

_(0.2)(40.331

tall vessel under internal pressure only, the primary additional considF|rli(nr to the intemal pressure is the effect of fluid pressure head and the dead ['rrl. 'lhis is especially important at the bottom of a vessel where the effects may r rrrubine. The fluid pressure head may occur only during hydrostatic testing of lh{' vcssel or it may be a continuing load occurring during operation ofthe vessel, lh' additional pressure caused by the ffuid head is calculated as follows:

l,or

",=W
wlrt

(16.ls)

lc

PJ

16.5 A tall vessel conshucted with a- cylindrical

Il
7
t'

= =

additional internal pressure effect from fluid pressure head (psi) height of fluid column above point (ft) density of fluid. lb/ftl

design of the vesset fouowing rh"

shell and flat closure ends i8 to be installed near Denver, Coloiado. Th" ffi;;#;;.or tlre cyfin_ drical shell is 8 ft, the nominal i.6't.l'Joo ,r," ,o"igr,, length from head weld seam b head i, izJ n.-rir" nut t"ua, are 6.0-in. nominal thickness. Wt at is tf,e totA fa*J*ioO

*rl.rhi"k;;j, *aJl""-

*d;irh";;i;rltili io."" u."O fo.

Lateral wind force

Answer:

""a"r
14,060 lb.

|l the fluid head exists in the vessel during operation, the value ofP7is added lhe intemal pressure when the minimum required thicknesses are set. At the ' lr(,ttom of tlte vessel, the stresses and minimum required thickness are set by the tirtrl pressure. It may be possible to decrease the thickness when the fluid head rllcct is decreased in a vessel where a variation in plate thicknesses is acceptrrblc.

16.6

What is the total lateral wi using the Uniform Buildinf,%tff;

the vessel given in hoblem 16'5

Ansu'er:

Laterul wind force

21,100 lb.

16'7

Many_design specifications requirea-minimum design wind speed of r00 mph. What is the total lateral^wlnd torce on the vessel in problem 16.5 based on a wind speed of 100 mph?

Answer:

Lateral wind force

21,390lb.

If the fluid head exists in the vessel only during the hydrostatic testing, the plirnary membrane stress frorn the combination of the hydrostatic test pressure rrrrtl the fluid head pressure may go as high as the yield strength of the vessel t|r terial at the 0est temperature. However, if the resulting minimum required tlrickness from the combination is indicated as more than that thickness required lrrr the normal design conditions, substitution of a pneumatic iest or a combination of hydrostatic/pneumatic test should be considered. In general, the minirnum required thickness of a vessel should never be set by the requirements of thc hydrostatic head unless it is impossible to test it any other way. Also, rcrnember tJlat a hydrostatic test may use fluids other than water if water causes rr rrroblem such as corrosion.

..7
.

TAtl

Vt!!!ts

16.4

VESSCL UNDTR INTTRNAI PRESSURT

ONIY

583

vslrcr uur also lts weight to iffi:i;:lJ:,.:ji,# ffi #*'#liilT":lji ;iilliJi,l,,lj, ;ii il.;",l:ll,l be consi( cause tensile or -addttronal.loadings : locatton of the extemal supports sKrn tocation. "r# ,ii:e or s[
Whether the ,t .ir", pressive sresses a"p""a, "uur.J.Un",t-,w

F'or u vcssel untjcr intcrnal pres

lrr hoth Eqs. 16.18 and 16.19, the dead load term may be either tension or
q'orrrpression depending upon the plane being examined.

In general, above the rrrpport line, this term is compressive and the total longitudinal stress is the

. In th actual design, the minin circumrerentiaLsnesi;ffi

il

#l}1T3ffi:*|"**'
or=PR _

is initiallv set by

rllllcrence between the intemal pressure effect and the dead load effect. When llris is below the support line, the terms are both tensile. For some arangements, thc condition without inlemal pressure may be more critical than when intemal
prcssure is considered.

(16.1

.rr is positive, the actual stress is positive and the allowable stress is rlctcrmined from the allowable tensile stress tables. If the value of or is negative,
lht: allowable stress is determined by the method that establishes the maximum rrllowable axial compressive stress in a cylindrical shell.

ll

From the equation

ter-s or sr', tte

in

IJG_Z7tct(l

'e;;#;"i:') sE=P(4+o'

of the ASME code,

vltr-I,

expressed

(r6.1

l{xample 16,6. For the vessel described in Example 16.1, determine the total kngitudinal stress in the cylindrical shell above and below the support line that : 15,000 psi. lN at the lower shell-to-head junction. The value of SE

where

= allowable tensile shess (psi) E = weld joint efficiency (E = I.0 for seamless) P = intemal design pressure (psi) R = inside radius (in.)
,S

,l{rrtttion. Assume the intemal

Jr,

pressure

is set by Eq. 16.17 for a value of

15,000 psi. Reananging the terms gives

sEt _ (t5,000)(0.5) 'p.=R + 0.6r (30) + 0.6(0.5) = )45 nci

'l'he dead load of vessel above the support line is

rninimum required thickness (in.)

Using this equation, a lentative m. circumferential .*;.. Wil;;;"f"rmum required thickness is set based on tho thickness is determined, be necessary ro inci;" it may d;;f;:litequ.ired tluid head.as well as the intemal pressure. Based desigir ^thethe total lonsitudinal stress'is determined ";;;;;;:r

Shell Upper head

9,700
815 10,515 lb

f.;;

il;;iil#;

l"nili,ill"t'""''
,PR
2t

'l'he longitudinal stress using Eq. 16.19 is

w rD^t

(16.18)

oL: ot:

+Q45)(
*730O

wnere

ot:
W

_n"\ 2x0.5 "'- I 30 110 psi

(lo.sls)
a(60.5X0.5)

tatal longitudinal sress (psi)

being

= total dead load of examined(rb).rhl,;.h:#X,,:?lf :*;r.TdLJr""" D" = mean diameter of shell (in.) _ 211 * ,
From the equafion in

ot = 7190 psi tension with intemal pressure ot : ll0 psi compression without internal pressure
'lhe dead load of vessel and contents below the support line is

VI[_ | , with rhe rerms rearranged and the dead load term added, 1tM-E.-C"de, the following equation is grven:

uG_27(c\et.:lg:

,,=+p(!-o.z)t
\zr /

w rD^t

(16.19)

head fluid Shell Head fluid

Lower

815

20,620

2,290
23,725 tb

tta

TAtt

wr!![3

16.5

VESSEI. UNDER INTCRNAT PRISSUR

AND EXTERNAI

IOADINO

585

The longitudinal $tress usinS Eq. 16.19 is

16,12 What is the maximum longitudinal O.2l

stress in the vessel in Problem 16.10

a1

: I

oy: + (245)l/ ;--30 \z ^u.r

73C0

\ oe:'<r + \'r'tzr) / r(60.5X0.5)

with and without considering the internal design pressure? Answersz ot

= TllO psi tension with intemal

pressure considered.

250

7550 psi tension with intemal pressure

ot:
I6.5

Example

l6J.

l7O psi compression without considering intemal pressure.

l"TlT
line^

For the vessel described in Example 16. 1, determine the

!Trftri".'tainingnuidat35rb/ft

t;;*r;ivo'l.,jii'L,r"e,

VESSEL UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE

AND EXTERNAT TOADING

When a

tall vessel supported in the vertical position is subjected to internal

l(#t. at the lowest **.::of is-nee_ded lt both the lower sheu-to-head tansenr and *f point the lower head.
JZ.s

At the^r,ff shell+o_head tanr lower .jent line. rhe fluid height ft.
For
For

is

30ft+2.5ft=

fluid P7

7.9 psi
14.1 psi

|rcssure and extemal loading from such sources as earthquake or wind, both the tcnsion and compression sides of the cylinder must be examined. These items rurc similar to those for a tall vessel under internal pressure only, except for the Irl(er only one of the sides needs examination. The earthquake loading or the wind loading is resolved into an overturning moment that is further resolved into lcnsile and compressive loads. Using the membrane shess equations given in Eq. 10.2, the total longitudinal
ntrcss is determined

water e, = GZ.$(Q.D =

ftom
(f':-|-=-=----..--:-

At the bottom of the lower head, the fluid height is 30 ft + 5 ft

,PR W 4M" 2t rD^t nDit

VU-l,

(16.20)

35 ft.
And in terms of the present ASME Code, obtained from the total longitudinal stress is

Forfluid P"= (3.5)(35) = e {----- 't (1441 -orPst

For

water P, =

15.2 psi

6t:

*P

w 4M. lR \ (t - or/ =i.,';fr

(16.21)

Problcms

16.10

0.5-in. minimum wan uv +s ft 0

heads on each end.

What is rhe circumferential syss bgeO_o1_tfre ASME Code, VIII-I, at the bottom of a tall vessel rh"t contains nuiC at sO tUTdJj an intemal "#al'ta_eter design pressure of 400 osi? .The.

As can be seen from this equation, many different combinations of stresses must hc examined to obtain the maximum stress such as, with the first term equal to zero when tlere is no internal pressure (vessel not operating), and with internal pressure, with the second term either iension or compression, and with the third tcrm either tension or compression. There may be more combinations because

,."e,i,, *iii"i_il. n* l.U and the vessel is supported at the bottom.

i".;;;;l

,"r."i; ;;:;.

uy

".*

Answer: 16.11

c6

of W, the dead load, varies depending upon the location of the plane lhat is being considered. Usually, the maximum stress is located at the support line; however, when the vessel has various diameters, it may be necessary to cxamine stresses at different cross sections. This, of course, is not considering any local stresses in the shell caused by the support.
rhe value

15,200 psi

What is the naximum shess in the shell of the vessel in problem 16.10 during a standard hydrostatlc test of 1.5p?

Ilxampte 16,8. The vessel described in Example 16.l is to be supported at the Iower shell-to-head junction. What are the longitudinal stresses in the shell above and below the support line? The intemal pressure is 225 psi.

Answer: o,

22,700 psi

Solutian. From Example 16.1, the dead load of the various

components is

386

TAtr vlssEls

I6.5

VESSET UNDER INTERNAI PRESSURE

AND EXTERNAT I.OADING

;::: i:;::i:
Shelt fluid

M. = (862,570)(12)

10,350,840 in'-lb

l)etermine the total longitudinal stress o1 using Eq. 16.21 as follows:

2O,62O lb

Fluid, heads
The overtuming moment is

2,290 tb

oL: + @7s)(*ot
Windward Side Stresses

o.z)

= + QO3O) -f (350) + (3540)

ftffi ' 11ffi#E

(3540)

M" = 864,000 in.lb

Using Eq. 16.21, the total longitudinal stress is

- = * <zzst(#* - o 2) !ft#6.u.
The side of applied force above the support line is
dead load

|.

Pressure, dead

load, wind load = +(7030) - (350) +

ffi#3
I

10,220 psi tension

2. 3.

No lnessure, dead load, wind load

tension

(350)

(3540)

3190 psi

Dead load only

350 psi compression

shell

upper head

ITOO

815

o1

= + (6705) =

10,515 lb

(110)

+ (ffi01 =

t eward Side Stesses

72OO

psi tension

The side of applied force below the support line is

dead load

f. 2.
23,725 tb

lower head

o1

= + (6705)

+ contents : gl5 + 22,910 = + (250) + (0) = 695S psi tension

With intemal pressure, dead load and wind load' = +(7030) - (350) - (3540) = 3140 psi tension With no internal pressure, with dead load, and wind load = 0 - (350) - (3540) = 3890 psi compression
Stre

The opposite side of applied force above the support line is

A I lowable

ss-Tension

at = +(6705) - (110)

(600;

= 56*

710 psi compression withour pressure

psi rension with pressure and

&=

15,000 psi for 5,{-516 Grade 60 at

6507

Allowable Stre s s-C omPres s ion

and leeward sides at the support line? What are the allowable tensile and compressive shesses?

Example 16.9, The vessel given in Example 16.3 is to be constructed trom 5.{-516 Grade 60 marerial o""ign"d f- +zS pri ut iSO;f."I.lle weto joint --a efficiency is E= 1.0. what are trre tota longiirJinartr"rr"r' on uotr, tr,e windward

. = 0. 125 ^ nJ,
and

0.12s
(31/

l)

o.0go

calculated stresses are less than the allowable stresses.

fron Fig. 8.1 I and also Fig. 5-UCS-28.2 of the ASME Code, VI[-l ' the value of8 is 11,500. This gives an allowable stress ofS": 11,500 psi' All

S1luti91,

From Table UCS-23 ofthe ASME Code, VIII-I, for SA-516 Grade 60 at 650'F, the allowable tensile stress is t = 15,m0 psi. The weight of the shell and upper head above the support line is'determined'from Eiu-pt" tO.S u,

I'roblems

65,2rO

16.13 A tall

vessel is constructed of a cylindrical shell with a flat head on each

0.5(3320)

66.870 lb

The. overtuming moment due to the wind loading at the support line is determined from Example 16.2 as

end. The shell is 4 ft inside diameter by 2 in. thick by 75 ft from end to end. The flat heads are ?.5 in. thick. The vessel is supported on the bottom that rests on structural supports that are 75 ft from the ground level to the support line of the vessel. The wind zone is 110 mph and

!tt8

TAtr vt33!r3
1000

thc Unilbrm Building Code prevails. What are the longitudinal stre liom wind loading on both the windward and leeward sides above support line?

800 800 500 400

Answer: t6.t4

o2from wind

300
200

load =

-r 1 660

a
n

Assume that the vessel described in problem 16.13 is supported on ground instead of supported 75 ft in the air. What are the tonsituJ shesses from the wind loading in the shell above the support iinei

!eo
Foo E50

roo

Answer:

oL from wind load

+1360 pel

340
30

16.6 VESSET UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE ONIY

For.a tall vessel under external pressure only, in addition to the basic consid. erauons tor external pressure design given in Chapter g, the effect of fluid pressure and dead load is considered. This is very iimilar to those conditiong considered in Section 16.3 for the vessel under intemal pressure only. When bl9: caused by th_ fluid pressure and dead load create a compressrv! S::l lt has to be combined with the toadrng. loading from the extemal pressure. ASME Code, YI[-l, has methods to consider each of these rwo - ]he rypes of.loadings separately. Extemal pressure, of course, is described in UG_2g and aluar compresslve stress on a cylindrical shell is described in UG_23(b). How_ ever, there is no method given in the ASME code that describes how to consider both at the same tirne. An arbitrary method to consider these two loadings simultaneously and use the ASME Code, VI[-l, procedure was developed iy Dr. E.O. Bergman in 1954.6 This method combinei the effects of axial loadinge and extemal pressure by establishing an adjusted pressure used in the extem-al pressure calculation procedure given in UG_2g. Based on the von Mises instability formulas as discussed in Chapter 8 for a cylinder loaded with both radial and axial pressure fouaing, uju. oJ-r-i, drtermined-for values of L/D. and t / D,. This is plotted in f.igl tO.O " tom wtrich the value ofz can be easily determined for varioius values of"Lf D. versus t/Do, A comparison of results between pressure on the sides only and pressure on the sides and ends indicates that the value of z changes very iinle for values of c < l 0. The ratio a is the axial compression unit toad divijed by the allowablo extemal pressure that is permitted when it is acting alone. Eipressed in an
10
0.1

1.0
Numbr of Lob!,

2 3 4 56

810
subicr

Length to diameter ratio

{t/Da}
lo uniform extornol
prssuro

llsure

16.6

4, into which o .hell will collopse when

nnd the compression term m is

"'

1.23

D:

L',

(16.24)

Ity applying Sturm's equationT for the ratio between the extemal pressure alone loadings, an equation can be developed that gives an rrna thi *i"t "o-p."ssive Pj for the combined loading as a multiplier of the cquivalent external pressure base extemal pressure Po. This equation is

Pl= n2-1+m+mct n2-l+m

(16.2s)

For a ) 1.0, the vessel rnay fail by yielding and should also be checked as u cantilever beam including the axial shess effect due to the external pressure' fhe axial load from the extemal pressure is

equadon,

P* = 0.25 P"D-

(16.26)

Pp.
And the axial compression unit load is
P..

(16.22)

'Ihe axial load from external pressure in Eq. 16.26 is combined with the axial load from dead loads in Eq. 16.23 to give the total axial loading on the cylindrical shell. When this loading is divided by the shell thickness, the result is the total axial compressive shess on the cylindrical shell. This actual stress is

' = nD^

compared with the allowable axial compressive shess determined according to UG-23(b) of the ASME Code, VI[-l.

(16.23',)

Example

16.10. A tall vessel is constructed with a cylindrical

shell and two

589

TAu, VtSSH.S

I6.7

VESSET UNDER PRESSURE

AND EXTERNAI.
r

TOADINO 59I

hemisphericul heuds. The vessel is designed for lull vacuum (15 psi pressure) at a design temperature of 550'F. The material is 5A-516 Grade There is no corrosion allowance required. The vessel is l0 ft 0 m. diameter and 116 ft 8 in. from tangent to tangent. The vessel is to be in the vertical position and supported at the bottom tangent line. It contains ffuid weighing 50 lb/fd. Thee stiffening rings are evenly spaced at 30 ft 0 in with 28 ft 4 in. from each tangent line. What are the longitudinal stresses the support line?

lir

i;il;;

is less than the permissible pressure of 23 9

psi'

;i;;;

tian I .0' no cantilever

beam check

?5 .:.0 needed' is

in'.is satisluctttry

l'rohlcm

16.15 A tall "" --

Solutian

l.

Determine a preliminary thickness based on the extemal pressure using the procedure of the ASME code, uc-28(c)(1). a thickness of t = 0.75 in. D. = 129 + 2(0.75) = 121.5 in. D"/t 121.5/0.75 = 162, and 360/121.5 = 2.9630. From Fig,

vl[-l,

L/D":
101

5-UGO-28.0, A

O.OO022.

head a hemivessel consisls of a cylindrical shell with-the lower the upper head soherical head and the upper head a flat head Because *"igi'tt or zo,ooo lb from connecting equipment it vacuum at room is rnaAe- 2'S in. thick. The vessel is designed for full there is no corrosion' Material is 5A-516 Grade 60' and position and vessel is to be hydrostatically tested in the horizontal The is supported at the lower installed in the vertiial position The vessel permitted' The vessel treoa+o-stt"tt tangent line' No stiffening rings are from tangent to tangent' The is 5 ft 0 in. insidi diameter by 60 ft 0 in' the required thickvessel contains only a gas during operation' What is ness of the vessel?

ffi; ilp".t; J;
i".p".*."'

^ ," = -----ffi
,,

2(O.OW22)(26.38

Azswer.' Required thickness = 5/8 in'

23.9 psi:

3/4

in.

OK

Determine the weight of the vessel and contents when

I6.7

VESSEL UNDER EXTERNAT PRESSURE

AND EXTERNAL LOADING

Shell-weight Heads-weight Contents-shell Conrents-head

: : :
=

zr(60.7 52 -602)Q4C0)@90
(4

/ 1728) = 112,950

/3\n(60.753 -603)(490/

t728)

9,740
26,180

n(61)z (l4N)(50 / 1728) (4 / 3) n(60)3 (50 / 1728)

:458,150

to extemal pressure and A tall, vertically supported vessel which is subjected in a vessel with extemal .*rc.uf fouain! contains ,tre'set similar to those by Bergman and ur"rror" on". ft *"thod of combining loadings as developed " 16.5 is used to obtain Pj used in the analysrs il.,scribed in Section value -iit" between Sections 16'5 and 16'6 is that an expanded which is given in Eq' 16 23: ".f"-Aff"t*"e are used in obtaining P" ,,,'i;ii#J.i;;;

3.

Determine the maximum compressive load,

(lb/in.) using Eq. (16.23) as

follows:

P'=
= rlu'o lDlrn'

4=

^ w (il2,950) + 0.5(9740) ": no,= "il:lul,

15.0 psi

-trD^

W *.4We ;D3-

4M

nDz c
and

(16.27)

'l'his new value of P, is then used to obtain new values of 16 .22 and 16 .25 .

P/ from Eqs'

^=A/D"f:ffi=0.1401
n = 3.0 from Fig. 16.6 for

"= Fh= (,ffi (1.23) (1.23)

e

P,

(310.6)

llxample

0.1704

what are the For the tall vessel described in Example 16 10' zone 2 using the tonsitudinal stresses when the vessel is designed for earthquake Uniform Building Code?

16'11.

L/D,:
r?04)

2.963 andD"/t

162

Sotutian, It is necessary to determine the lateral earthquake earthquake ,,u".t,-iog rno."nt at thl support line Using Eq' 16' 1' the lateral
lbrces may be determined.

forces and the

p; =

- l *t0:11

13,11(0

(r5)

rs.04 ps'

As determined in step I, the maximum allowable extemal pressure based on t : 0.75 in. is P, = 23.9 r", at 550T. Because the required pressure of 15.04

y=|fcrzone2 1= 1.0
K=2.O

392

TAu. VtSSEtS

BIBTIOGRAPHY 593

607,(xx) tb

I - l4(X) in. w 607.000 *:'h= ffi:

E = 26.38
120

Axill
433.6tb/in.

+ 5698.3/().75) : lt,200 Psi' lirftowing the method given in UG-23(b) of the ASME Code' -Vlll-l ' stress on a cylinder is determined as follows: lllowable" axial "o-p."riiu"
stress is (452.lt

thc

106 psi

d+t t

determine

A=

0.125

0.75

R.lt

0.125181

0.0015

O.75

I,:0.049(l2l.5a
v

l2O4)

517,600 in.a

T=ooeo8./ x t06x5t7,600) : (26.38 -1 c:_=--::0.{1666 ls

v(l.0029)
r(C = (2.0X0.0666) = 0.1331
CS

(433.6)(l4ooF

r noro

Code' VIII-I is Ar 550'F, the value of B from Fig. 5-UCS-28 1 of the ASME ' -ont"qoently, the actual compressive- stress. of 8200 psi is less than l;ititi pJ.' plate thickness of 0'75 in' thc allowable compressrve sness of 8700 psi, and the
rs

satisfactory.

l'roblem

= (0. 12X1.5) = 0. 18; maximum is CS : 0. 14 KCS = (Z.O)(0.14) = 0.28; maximum KCS : 0.3 y = (3/8)(l)(.28)(607,000) : 63,740 rb F' = 0.07(1.0592)(63,7 40) = 4,7301b but not more than 0.25y =
(63'740, F" = V M" = (s9,010X1400)(2/3) + (4730)(1400) = 61,698,000 in.-lb
Using Eq. 16.27, determine total compressive loading as

16.16 For the

in Problem 16'15' what is the required cylinder thickness if the 20,000-lb force is applied at the edge of the rather than at the center of the head?
same vessel described

Answer.' Required thickness = 5/8

0.25 quarc.

in Although--the ffect of the thickness originally selected is adeovertumlng moment ls added, the

= 15,940 lb; F, = 4730lb F, = 63,740 - 4730 : 59,010 lb

REFERENCES ANsvAPlstandard62o,RecommendedRulesforDesignandConstruc|ionofLarse.weucd', Washington' D L ' Inw-Pressure Storage IdnIJ American Pelroleum Institute Peroleum Institute ' 65 O, Wetded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage ' American ANSTAPI Standard Washington, D.C. New York' 1982' Auiidings and Other Stntct rr, American Nalional Standards Institute' Building Officials' Whittier' Uniform Buitditrg Code, 1982 ed , Intemational Conference of
Cal.

,"
P,

ffi*
15.0

ffr^@# : 310.6 +
/56OR 1r

5387:1

s6e8.3

=
=

ANSIStandardA58.l-lgS2,BuildingCodeRequirementsforMinimumDesiSn.I'oadsin

"=#r=ffi=3-t266
m
0.1401

n=3.0

9-l+0.1401
Because

15.8 psi

7.

Hydrccarbon ProDechetto, K., and w. Long, "Check Towers for Dynamic stability "' 45, No. 2, February 1966, pp' 143-147 ' c?rrir,g, Vol. Subjected to Applied Forces"' Bergman, E.O., "The Design of Venical Prcssure vessels piping Design ASME New York' 1960' pp 576-580 it"?in vuutt ona University of Strum, R.G., A Study of the Collapsing Pressure of Thin'walled Ctlinders' Experiment Station, Bulletin No 329' 1941 Illinois, Engineering

0.75 in., MAW? = 23.9 psi at 550.F, the shell is still acceptable with the earthquake loading. When a is larger than 1.0, the vessel is checked as a cantilever beam. The axial unit stress due to p- is P_:2!

BIBLIOGMPHY
Vibratiots, 4th ed , Mccraw-Hill' New York' 1956' "Collapse by lnstability of Thin Clindrical Shells under Wrndenburs, D. F , and C. Trilling, Ttuns. ASME Vol 56' NewYork l9J4 pp ulv-bzJ' Extemil Pressure,"
Den Hartog, J. P., Mechanical

=Gs)(120.7s)

452.8rb/ in.

CHAPTER

17

VESSELS OF NONCIRCULAR

cRoss sEcrloN

595

396
17,I

V!33H.3

0r

NoNctRcutaR cRoss sEcfloN

l7.r

TYpES

Ot vEsstls

597

WPES OF VESSELS

opening consists of several different diameters through the vessel wall thickness , depending upon the type of calculated stress (either direct membrane sfiess or bending shess), the effective opening size and the ligament efficiency calcu-

jlte diamelers of the openings are uniform through the wall thiikness, the ligament efficiency is calculated very similarly to that for a circular vessel. Ifthe

Although many kinds of noncircular cross sections may be used for proces! vessels, only a few configurations are used widely. The ASME Code, VI[_l, limits design rules to vessels of rectangular cross section as shown in Fig. 1i, i and Fig. 17.2 and to obround cross sections. Some additional rules are given fof vessels with a circular cross section that utilizes stay plates to give addedltrength to the vessel. The rules in this chapter are limiied to vessels with a straight longitudinal axis and noncircular cross sections. Rules are given elsewhere ior vessels with or without a circular cross section that is made into some other shaoo than one with a shaight longitudinal axis, such as a torus. Some vessels contain very few openings, whereas many others contain many openings. If tlere are only a few openings, they usually are individually rein'. forced by replacing the area removed as described in Chapter 11. In manv vessels, multiple openings are calculated according to the rules for ligaments.

Ii

Fiour6lT.2 "C" thops headeru wiih

dnd flol w6ld ioint lorg-rodius corne'5 {or minimum sire$ oncanlrolion

for eosv rodiogroptry. (Courre3v EcodFo MR'vt Divkion)

with rectangular or square cross lations are determined in different ways' Vessels

r;*it*t."y tt ;it"i"."

Figur.

l7,l

Diviiion)

Four-plore rectongulor hoodcr utilizo! wsld ioints or eoch corner. (Coortesy Ecodyne MR/r{

thicknesses' built with many different combinations of wall opposite sides have the same-wall thickness where two "o.uinutions opposite sides have a different wall thickness ftom the two ^"J*ft".,ft" ",ft- $pe is often used in air-cooled heat exchangers' other tiJ".. nts mav "ii"# fu iioes or different thicknesses' wheteas still others ffiil;;;i; uiitir. ,tuv'ptut"t to stiffen the flat sides of the vessel' -'. for rectangular cross i"n"rui diff"."nt combhations are shown in Fig' 17'3 for rectangular cross r""ii#ii rt ti r"yplates, in Fig' 17'4 circular cross sectionssections with stay without and ;;;;d]; F s i'?.5 for obrooid is similar for vessels with with andpressure intemal "*y ;ilf""gh the analysis

;il;

"oirJarea is di-fferent.

plates on each type witfr tnos! with extemal pressure, the effect of stay

+--J

+ l";
fioure Enginen' (Couriesy Americon So.isfy of Recrongulor crds s6ction' wilh sloy plots' '{echonicol Cod, Vlll-l') Fis. l3-2(o) of the ASl,tE

17.,1

kim

figur 17.3 Ploin ractongulor crols sectioff. (Courtesy of Americdn So.iery of Fis. l3-2(o) of the ASME Cod, vlll-I.)

rt^honicol Engineer!, from

s99

598

I7,4

TIGAMINT ETFICIENCY FOR CONSTANT DIAMETER

OPENINGS 60I

I7.2 :-(
.1--

RULES IN CODES

cross section have been in Spccilic rules for the design of vessels of noncircular Prior to that time' the ASME 1, iince the r97 7 Addenda'

;ifi ;ffi A;;, tI[-

(ieaDDliedseveraldiftbrentmethodsforestablishingthemaximumallowable ln 1963' the ASME -,'rir"I i"it= i;; ".tt.it tr noncircular cross section pressure.vessels' This code "t i,;[';:"ffi;A;A Cu." irrs rot noncvlindrical according to UG-34' but ,,,r, *.rtin"O the heads and covers to bi calculated longitudinal axis be calculated il;;i;il;tid;;iuie" p-a["] to ttt"thic[ress or maximum-allowableaccording working il;;;6. il;;;;i*rt", p"r-its ttre by one of the proof tests permitted by irr"r*i!',J" i","t-ined analytically or tho ASME Code. -tn cross section given in the addition to the rules for vessels of noncircular vessels^are contained in ASME-Cod", VIII-I, design rules for rectangular vessel code'2 and several Pressure i ,i,,yd" R;;i;*;i strippin!,r the Swedish
other codes.

I7.3

CROSS SECTION OPENING IN VESSELS WITH NONCIRCUTAR

number of openings that are lirr those vessels and headers that contain a limited mav be applied For :';; ;;;g;-lrt p"n"m, the method of reinforced openings reinforcing rules for flat plates apply lf the flat sides of noncircular vesseis, the ligament efficiencv i;; ;;;;i;;t ;;angea in a reluiar pattern' the method of
rrrav be apDlied.

""i;;Jfi;i"ament

memefficiency appears in both of the equalions for

brane stress and for bending stress,

,^t a J"i".-it"

ili;,-#;i"*t r- t"nain! to the degree of weld joint examination' relati-ve iii**"Ld i"* "in;iency
k,wer effiiiencY of the two is used'

both *rJ

it is necesstress and the hgament efficiency for membrane $ress' In addition' it is necessary to determine

foi

some opening confiurations

The

(c)
Figure

(d)
(Co,rrr,e5y Americon Socioty

I7.4

DIAMETER OPENINGS TIGAMENT EFFICIENCY FOR CONSTANT

oI

17.5 Obround ond circl.llor cros. .crions with ond wiftout sioy plote!. lchonical Engiru.rc, tom Fig, t3-2(b) ond (c) of th ASME Code, V t_I.)

a regular pattem as shown ln l'or flat plates with constant diameter openings in and bending stresses is the i ig.'i?.6, ,ii" flg"."nt efficiercy for b;rh membrane for setting the ligament same. When the two opemng's being considered an equivalent rtu"" Ano"nt diam;ters, it is necessary to determine follows: "iil"i*"y openings by averaging their diameters as

oi"-"i"i"i,ft"

DB=O'S(dt+dz)
600

(17.1)

The ligament efficiency is then determined

as

vtssEts

of

NoNctRcutaR cRoss srcTtoN

r7.5
rllicicncy equation

IIOAMENT ETFICINCY SUBJICT TO MEMIRANI

i|s

STRT3S

OOI

Da=05(1 5 + 1'25):1375in'
.|.|rglisamentefficiencyisbasedontheminimumspacingofp=3'5in.ustng in' tlrc eq-uivalent diameter Dr = 1'375
^

r:3's ,.1'3" = o.ao,

l'roblems

l?.lAheaderisdesignedforaligamentefficiencyofe-=-e'=0667What for 1 ?5-in diameter openings? is the rninimum cen ".-,o-tJnt"' 'puting Answer: d = 5'25 tn'
17

''

.2 '-

two.rows of 7 /8in' Theflat side plate of a rectangular header contains 3-in' apan and the openings,are on 8-in' ie th" iiL"L

'o*' r6.gi*-oinal Jt"-ui" "p"oing.' spacing

ienter of the same flat side plate The i""d;JtJi*ao ioint " ;;il'j"t"r, only visually eiamined' has a weld joint efficiency of f = O.ZO. Wftut is the efflciency used to set the minimum required
alon'g ttre

along each

row

The header.

aLso

contains

thickness?
Figuro

17.6

Op6nings wiih constonr diomerer.

efficiency' Answer: E = 0 70, which is less than the ligament

(17.2)

cm-eb--

P_DF
p

17.3 If the header in Problem ' ' 't"pfty,

*ft"

radiog2 has the weld joint examined by fuli thickness? required is the efficiency used to set the minimum
17
'

Example 17,1. What is the membrane and bending ligament efficiency in a rectangular cross section header in which 11:6 lf|.-, h = 12 in., and tt = tz = 0.75 in. with a single row of 1.5-in. diameter holes on 4-rn. cenrerto-center spacing?

Answer: E = 0'825' which is the ligament efficiency'

OPENINGS TIGAMENT EFFICIENCY FOR MULTIDIAMETER STRESS SUBJECT TO MEMBRANE

I7.5

Solution. Using Eq. 17.2,

calculate the efficiency as

4-1.5

0.625

T
and

Therearemanydifferentarrangementsofplateswith.openings.withmulti. the .iio*n in Fig 17 7' For use in air-cooled heat exchangers' ;;;; thickness ", ."iiidi".J" ar" orr-gJd in increasing diameter through the-plate tube

3.5-in. center-to-center spacings. The opening diameters also alternate with first a 1.5-in. diameter opening followed with a 1.25-in. diameter oDenins. What is the minimum ligament efficiency for setting thickness?

!,xrmple 17.2. A single row of openings is altemately spaced on 4-in.

*t

holding for "*", For me-mLrane stress, the ligament efficiency is

i",

rolling in the tubJs the larger diarieters are needed for may be considered' "a-in power. Any nrrung"'fi"nt of various diameters

,.

D-Da
p

17.3)

Solution, Calculate the equivalent diameier DE to be used in the ligament

vt33!t3 0f NoNctRcutaR cRoss sEcfloN

I7.5

TIOAMINT EFFICIENCY SUBJECT TO MfMBRANI

nr

STRESS

I-,-IN

t:
11

. p-

d1

I a, tt.n>j F;--;;;'r
*1

+
lFl
I

:I

do = 1,625"

J
figure

17.8

Hole dsloils Ior oxomple

l7'3'

D,

=1#(r.625 x

0.125

+ l.s x

1.r2s + 1.375 x 025)

1 490

in. I
Figur.

17.7

Op.ning! wirfi muhi{iomeier.

is 1'25 in' Example 17'4. Tubes are expanded into a rectangular header that 'fne grooves in the notes ute 0.875-in. diameter with two 0 3l25-in -deep tt ict. spacing hole for holding power. The grooves are 0 125 in' high with 0 25-in' What is the between them.-The top gtoove is 0.25 in ftom the top edge
membrane ligament efficiincy

where

if

the openings are on 3-in' centers?

17

o" = + dlt + dzTz + . . . + d,n) I@on

Solutinn. Calculate the equivalent diameter DE using Eq'

(t7 .4)

'4:

p:3in'
do

Example 17.3. Determine the membrane ligament efficiency in a header where /r : tz = l.5O in. The header contains a series of openings on 4_in, centers. The openings are multidiameter, as shown in Fig. lt.g.

Solution,

Calculate the equivalent diameter DE using Eq. 17.4 as follows:

P:4in. in. ?6 = 0.125 in. dr = 1.5 in. T1 : 1.125 in. dz = 1.375 in. Tz = 0.25 in.
da:
1.625

in. ?6 = 0.25 in' dr : O.9375 in. T : O.125 in7i : O 25 dz : 0.875 indz = 0.9375 n. \ = 0.125 n' d, = 0.875 in' 7i = 0.50 in'
=
0.875

,"

#(0.875
0.9375

x 0.25 +
+

0'9375

0.125

+ 0'875 x 0'25 +

0.125

0.875

x 0.5) = 0.888

606

Vt33!r3

0t

NoNctRcurAR CROSS
rs

SECTTON

The mcnrhranc ligunrcnt cllicicncy

I7.6

TIGAMTNT ETFICICNCY SUBJECT TO EENDING s]RESS

607
(

I =2
lrrom Fig. 17.1 and Eq. 17 5'

AXz

17.6)

",=1:jq=o.zo+
Problcms

>Ax=bofr(;+4
/a

/T^

+z+...+4) -/
7;+...+T"l -/
\
(r7.7)

17.4 A rectangular header contains a series of tube holes on 3.5-in.

+ btrt

centers. The holes are l-in. diameter with the ends counterbored 0.25 in. deeo to a diameter of 1.125 in. ff the plate is 1.5 in. thick, what is the lisament efficiency for membrane stresses?

l;
/'r-

+ brTrl; +

\-

"'n

4)

Answet
17.5

etu

+
0.702

/T\ u.nlil \-/

A seamless square header that hasT l/4-in- inside measurement by 1.125 in. thick is to be formed so that it will have a constant thickness. Thc header contains a row of 2-in. diameter on 3-in. centers. The holes havc one groove for expansion at the midthickness of the plate that is 0.125 in. high and has a2.125-in. diameter. The opposite wall contains a series of handhole openings 4.25-in. diameter on 7-in. centers with a seat on the outside 0.125-in. deep by 4.75-in. diameter. What are the ligament
effi ciencies

2A=

boTo

"
From Eq. 17.6

bll + bzT) + .. . + b"T" >AX Eq. 17 7 >A Eq. 17.8

(17.8) (17.9)

for membrane stresses?

Ansver2

e^: e^ :

0.328 on tubeside 0.384 on handhole side

I=2Ior2AXz t * brTrt + bzTrt +.. +bE 12 tz' '-=boTo3 t2 12 * b'ft (?

/T^

(17.10)

+ rt +

12

+ . . . + r.

-I)

\2

17.6 A header is to be made from

1-in.-thick plate. The plate contains a row of tube holes on 3.5-in. centers. The holes are allernate 2 and 2.5 in. All holes are counterbored 0.25 in. and to a O.Zs-in.larqer diameter. What is the ligament efficiency for membrane stress?

.^lr, -rarrrErT2* "+T,-X)

lT -\'z +brr,(;+...+r.-x)
/* b"r"v ?\2 _;)

(17.11)

Answer: e. =
LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY FOR MULTIDIAMETER OPENINGS SUBJECT TO BENDING STRESS

9'339

I7.6

c = larger

off or

(r

- fJ
(r7.r2)

For a flat plate that contains rnultidiameter openings, it is necessaxy to determine an effective ligament efficiency in bending by locating a neutril axis of the various diameters and thicknesses of the openings and the effective moment of inertia. From structual mechanics, the basic equations are

The width of the ligament is

b6=P-DB
Because

c = t/2 and I =

bEt3

/12,
6
(17. r 3)

= "

2AX

>A

(17.5)

-=-l-------=l=-- brx I 2 \bEt"/

c tll2\

608

vtsstts oF

NoNCtRCUtAR CROSS SECTTON

I7.6

LIGAMTNT EFTICIENCY SUBJECT TO EENDINO STRESS

609
us

And

thc ligament cl'licicncy lirr bending strsss is calculatcd lrom

liq

lT l5

Dt=P

-n
o/

4
(17. t4)

1.53

0.617

For bending stress, the ligament efnciency is

|.)xamp|elT.6.TheheaderinExamplel?.4issubjectedto'bendingStresses in tt e nut sides. What is the ligament efficiency for the bending shess?
(17.15) Solution

D_D"
p
Example

17.5.

Example 17.3.

Determine the bending ligament efficiency in the header in

Solwion

P = 4in.

in. Zr = 0.375 in. Tz = 0.25 in.

To

0.125

2 AX = 2.37s

x 0.12s(O.o62S + 0.375 + 0.25) + 2.s x 0.37s(0.1875 + 0.25) + 2.625 x 0.25(0.125\ x

0.375

in. bo = 4 - 1.625 = 2.375 in. dr : 1.5 in. br = 4 - 1.5 = 2.5 in. dz = 1.375 in. bz = 4 - 1.375 = 2.625 in.
do

1.625

P=3in' bo = 3 - 0'875 = 2'125 tl:,' do : 0.875 in' To : 0.25 in. h = 3 - 0'9375 :2'O625 \n' dr = 0.9375 n' Tr = 0.125 in. :2lZ5 in' Tz= 0.25in. dz=0.875\n' bz=3- 0 875 bt: 3 - O'9375 : 2'0625 in' dz = O.9375 in' Z: = 0.125 in. bq = 3 - 0'875 = 2'125 \n' dr = 0.875 in' Tr : 0.5 in. r, AX : (2.125)(0.25)(0.125 + 0.125 + 0.25 + 0.125 + 0 5)
+ (2.0625)(O.t25)(0.0625 + 0.25 + 0'125 + + (2.125X0.25X0.125 + 0.125 + 0.5) + (2.062sX0.12s)(0.062s + o's) + (2.12sx0.s)(0.25)
X 0 5)

AX = 0.6963 2 A = 2.375 x 0.125 + 2.5 _ N KOK? X= = 0.3683 in. 1.8900::

+ 2.625 x0.25 =

1.8906

AX = 1.6484 t A = (2. 12sx0.2s) + (2.062sX0. 125) + (2'r2s)(0 25)

(2.o62s)(o.r2s')

+ (2.12sx0's) =

2'6406

r = + l(2.37 s)(0.12r3 + e.s)(0.37 13 + e.6zs)(0.2s)31 + (2.375X0.125X0.625 + 0.375 + 0.2s _ 0.36S3f + (2.5X0.375X0.1875 + O.zs _ 0.36S3f + (2.62s)(o.2sr(0.3683 _ 0.1212

- L64C6 x = 1.6484 = u.o4+)

r=$
+ +
l<2.

rzsxo.2r3

Q'062s)(o.r2r3 + Q. t2sr(o'2s\31

(2.0625XO.r25)3
0.6243)2

/ = 0.0884
c = the larger of 0.3683

+ (2.125X0.5f (2.125)(O.25)(O.l2s + o.lzs + 0.25 + 0 125 +

0'5
0'6243)2

or

(0.75

0.3683)

0.3817

From Eq. 17.14, the equivalent diameter is

Ds = 4

-#ffi

= 4 - z'47:

1'53 in.

+ (2.0625)(0.125)(0.0625 + O.25 + 0.125 + 0.5 + (2.125X0.25X0.125 + 0.125 + O.5 - 0.6243)2 + (2.0625)(0.125)(0.0625 + 0.5 - 0.6243)2 + (2.125x0.sx0.6243 - O.2s\2

610

vrsslr.s

0f

NoNcrRcurAR cRoss s[cTtoN

I7.7

DTSIGN METHODS AND ALLOWABTE

STRISSES 6I

I = 0.3451 in.a
c = the larger oI O.6243
Equivalent diameter is equal to

or

(1.25

0.6243)

O.6257 \n.

De
eb

= 3 -ffi

(6)(0 345r \

= 3 - 2 tl8 =

0 882 in'

1-ntR? : '-:------::-::= = 0.706 J

applied badsolvc lbr minimium required thickness in terms of geometry and are. necessary because the thickness ings. Even in these cases' some assumptions of isiirectly related to primary membrane shess, but, it is related by the square stress ' lhc thickness to primary bending th B;th il.rty;embiane and primary bending s$esses are determined for point examined' Where required' shesses may various configurations at each t f"r the effect oi a weld joint efficiency' if there.is one' and for when a """J "O.i"t*E membrane shess and the bending saess ligament efficiencies

In looking at the efficiency from Example 17.4, this is a case where the groovcl for expanding the tube have little to do with the efficiency because e. = 6.794
and eu

9.796.

both thJ rspeating pattern of openings is used. -'n.""iai"g to ttre ASME-Code, VIII-I, a weld joint efficiency according 10 joints) ' uw- t Z ls reiuirea for longitudinal butt-weld joints (and-some other butt all points .trtrr.ugn tftJ*"fa joint eficiency is applied to the membrane stress at weld in tn" noi side plates, iiis applied to the bending stress only at the "*u-in""OA" examined binding stresJ is located in the flat side plate rather than ri

Problcms

Code' '"i"i. ui tt" *"tA iom,, the weld j6int efficiency is not applied' The ASME applying the weld joint efficiency to the allowable stresses VUi- t , is any polnt' "onsiOAng instead of modifyinf thJcalculated snesses' However, in examining

17.7 T\e

header in Problem 17.4 is subjected to bending stresses as well a! membrane shesses. What is the ligament efficiency for bending stresses?

Answer:

eu

9.792

17.8

What are the ligament efficiencies for bending shesses in Problem 17.5?

Answers:

et : et :

0.333 on tubeside 0.367 on handhole sido

I7.7

DESIGN METHODS AND ATIOWABIE STRESSES

joint efficiency is used in the equaeither method worki when the proper weld tions. '"-Only bending the lower efficiency of the weld joint and the membrane and is used. The weld joint efficiency is not modified by the lit es."', efncien"ies joint does not only the lower efficiency is used' If the weld ii*u*"n "tn"i"n"y; rt" p-", irxamined, only the ligament efficiencies. need be considered' thrcugh the "3"* Provisions are given to account for holis with different diameters determined for calcuolate thickness.-For those cases, an equivalent diameter is iating the ligament efficiencY. in deterttt"" for"going discussion, one realizes that care is. required separate the a:t any location. In general, it is. easier to tlt"and the bending stress at each location examined ln most stress midpoint and ends of the side , shesses should be ixamined at the also have to as at the weld joint, if one exists Other points may

"i

Design rules given in this chapter are for vessels and headers that have a sraight longitudinal axis with a noncircular cross section and closure plates on each end, The fonnulas are based on assuming a unitJength vessel section with no stengthening effect form the longitudinal direction of the plate. However, for certain uniform thickness vessels and headers, provisions are given for plates with a length-to-width ratio of two or less to compensate for the added strength from the longitudinal direction. The design rules in the ASME Code, VItr-I, provide for vessels of rectangular and obround cross section where different walls may have different thicknesses. The method used in the ASME Code, VI[-1, combines plate and shell theory and stuctural design theory where it is necessary to assume wall thicknesses and calculate stresses that are compared with allowable stress values. These methods were described in Chapter 7. For vessels and headers of uniform thickness, e.quations can be developed that

iiotttd"s -i.i; a"-ti-" "r"ig*"ti-t pf"telt waf

be examined.

allowable The calculated primary membrane stress is limited to the basic

t"nril",t

.6tt -".U.-""r.

gin"nin the applicable

code; however, the combination of primary pfus primary bending stress for a plate thickness assumed to be

rectangular in cross section is limited to the following:

1. 2.

govern' At design temperatures where tensile strength and yield strength the lesser of the following:

(a) 1.5 times the basic allowable tensile stress at design temperature' (b) Yield strength at design temperature' At design temperature where creep and rupture strength govem' the
lesser of the following: (a) 1.25 times the basic allowable stress at design temperature' (b) Yield strength at design temperature'

612

VtSSttS OF NONCTRCUTAR CROSS SICT|ON

17.8

BASIC

EouAlloNS

0r3

["br externll prcssure, where the total stress may be compressive, a limitation also set based on buckling of the side plat.

il

is llcnding moment at cOrner O

. As_mentioned previously, in order to determine

The basic theory is the maximum strsss theory that is generally used in structural analysis. For cross sections of members and stifieners other than the combination of primary membrane plus primary bending stresl Tlangular, is limited to the shape factor of the member times the basic ailowable tensilc str6s in the applicable code but is not to exceed the yield strength at the design temperatures where tensile strengtl and yield strength govem. At design teir. pratures where crep and rupture strength govem, the same limits apply, but tho shape factor multiplier is limited to 1.25 regardless of the actual shape factor,
r.

M"=+Hl{'##)
of long-side M is llcnding moment at midpoint

(17.18)

u"

__

un

_P#

( 17.

19)

such as and the bending stress in the same equation. It may be necessary to separate them for evaluation when different efficiencies apply to the membrane stress rather than to the bending shess.

it is necessary to calculate shesses at various pointl which combination controls. Certain analysis methods, that in the Swedish Pressure Vessel Code, combine the mjmbrane stresg

short-side N is llcnding moment at midpoint of

ur= un_P#

(17.2o)

I7.8

BASIC EQUATIONS

For analysis purposes, the noncircular cross section of the vessel is considered as a skuctural frame. Each component of the rectangular or obround frame contains a load that causes a membrane stress and i moment that causes a bending shess. The total stress at any point is the summation of these two
stfesses.

Internal Pressure,

loading against the adjacent walls. fhls toaaine is resisted by strength of material, and weld or ligament efficilency of the -the-thickness, lvall! that are carrying the load. The applied loading d e)(1,) and the resisting loading is (&Xr)(2d. When these are equated to e;ch other and solved for S,l the membrane stress for the short-side iJ

_ As shown in Fig. 17.9, the direct or membrane by intemal pressure

skess at any point is caused

-Ph t^: xrn

and for the long side, the membrane stress is

(17.16)

^PH
2t2E

Ith'

(17

.17)

as follows:

From the theory of structural frames,3 the basic moment equations for a rectangular frame under intemal pressure loading p when the two pairs of oppcsite sides have equal thickness and equal length, as shown in Fig. -.9, are

MM

rigur '17.9

diogrom ior reclongulor lnbrnol pr*3'rr. looding ond bnding moment

'ro$

!crion heodor'

6t4

Vt!!!ts 0f

NONCTRCUTAR CROSS SECTION

17.8

BASIC

EQUATIONS 615

Momont

ol incrtiu

/1 lirr short-side is

L=\ '12
Moment of inertia
12

t3

. P /htl, + Htlz\ M,=ilffi)-?

(t7,2ll
('learing Eq. 17.28, we obtain

PHz

(r728)

for long-side is

1.. |-

r3
'2

n
I

""07.22,t
Clearing

p /hJt. + ,. - L t:_:.L-- Hjlz\ t2\w,+at,

P l2rrz r28

(17.2e)

P/12 in Eq. 17.29 gives

The basic equation for bending stress rs

M-=+ffi#-1.s''?)
Multiplying Eq. 17.30 through by

(17.30)

So:M'
Bending stress in comer of short_side is

(-l),

M-=+('5"'(r7.23)

G)a=ryx! Z.lt E
Bending stress in comer of long_side is

+J#)
+tuo,.;

(17.31)

Substituting Eq. 17.31into Eq. 17.25 andcfor hf2:

6;)a=ryx! 2lz E
Bending stress at the midpoint of the short_side is

$),=h(""'(r7 .24)

(11

.32)

tsr.lr: $ * 1 UtE
Bending stress at midpoint of the long_side is

Ilxarnple 17.7. Determine the adequacy of a rectangular cfo-ss-sectional headeiwith a design pressure of 150 psi and made from a seamless forging with oi t2,soo psi' The header inside dimensions are 14 in by tn allowable .t "ti 7.25 in. with a constant thickness of 1 in. All openings are reinforced'
Solutian

(17

.2s)

$,:ryx!
Cross multiplying Eq. (17.18)

1.
(17

Calculate the moment of inertia:

.26)

,=*$=oo',,
2.
Calculate bending moment at comer Mc using Eq. 17 l8:

simplifying equations, the equation for the bending stress at the midpoint of the short-side is determined as follows:

.. ua:
P
(r7.27)

M. .

(t!!!-!'h\ = t2\ hlr+HIz/

150 /(14)r/0.0s33

\- r+rerffi -llfr
=1838.28

(7.25)3/0.0833\

1838.28

3.

Calculate bending moment at midpoint of long-side

M1a

using

Eq lT' 19:

Substituting Eq. 17.27 in Eq. 17.20 gives

Mu = Ma

-'+

*Tq = -

ft3632

6t6 4.

I7.8
VtSSEtS

BASIC EQUATION5

ot/

Of

NONCTRCUTAR CRO55 5ICT|ON

(S)c',v

Calculate bending moment at midpoint of shorfside Mry using Eq.

(S')'v

+ (Si')or:

1050

l l'030

=
=

l2'0ti() psi

Mu = Mo

- +8 = 1838.28 :
(1838.28)(0.5) (0.0833)

PH2

(150x-7 25)'?

14. Total stress at midpoint of short-side:

852.7J

(S).,v

(sJ,u

+ (S)' =

1959

5120

6170 Psi

5.

Calculate bending stress at corner of lons-side:

values' so 1-in. thickness is satisAll sfesses are less than allowable sffess

lrctory.

(S)aa
6.

11,030 psi

Calculate bending shess at midpoint of long-side:

from two Crectangular cross-sectional header is made of the short-sides' Th weld joints are rcctions and butt welded along ule center
l,)xumple

17.8. A

(r""
,f

--O:d833- =

1836.72)(0.5)

I l'o2o Psi

r|)otexaminedwiththebacking,t.ipt"ftinplacefromTable.Uw-12ofthe room tem,ili*,riit"J", vrii-r' r = o.si' The design pressure.is l15,psi,at of 7 500 i0 with an allowable stress ' ,"r",ri."] *O tft" .","""f is se-S t S Craae is 6 bv 0 625 in' thick'
1

ilI.

Calculate bending stress at corner of short-side:

(S6)qv

uv r in thick and the short-side holes on 3'75-in' centers ls ( )ne lons-side contains a row ot i'S in diameter thc desiln acceptable?
Solution

ri'!il;; ;il;ir.i

11,030 psi

8.

Calculate bending moment at midpoint

of short-side:
)

1.

long-side with the tube holes: Calculate the ligament efficiency of the

^ tsr)" =
9.

(852.73 )r0.5 -to.offi : 5120 psi

c^=t=:'ls,;1

s=oeo

Calculate membrane stress on long-side:

2.Calculatethemomentsofinertiaofboththelong-Sideandtheshort-side:

,", _PH (t50x7.2s) rs-,u= T = ,(D

10. Calculate membrane stress on short-side:

:540

psi

L = i=

l,r (0.625)r \-'Y:-' = o.o2o3 I,: tz\ (lt = 0 0833 i=;- 8q

17 18:

3.
lo5opsi
4.

Mp using Calculate the bending moment at the comer

Ph (J'),v=t=t50)( 14) r(ri:

(

ll.

Total stress at corner of long-side:

(S)o,u

Calculatethebendingmomentatthemidpointofthelong.sideMMusing

(,S.),r.r

(S)aa:540 +

11,030

Eq. 17.19:
11,570 psi

12. Total stress at midpoint of long-side:

M, -- Ma -

( = ror.rr-

(115X13'5f

-1778'so

(S)u = (&)v + (Srr

13. Total stress at comer

5,40

11,020

11,560 psi

5.

of the short-side Mrv using Calculate the bending moment at the midpoint

of short-side;

Eq. (17.20):

6t8

vlsSIts of NoNctRcutaR cRoss stcTtoN Mn = Mo

.
:323.8s
(S)o,v

17

EOUATIoNS lN THE ASME CODt',

vlll'l

619

-'+ = 84r.3s - t+q

(S,)'v

(Sr')o'v

=
+

1550

12'950

14'500 pst

6.

Calculate the bending stress at the corner of the long-side with the (E = 1.0):

15. Total stress at midpoint of short-side:

(S)p

(S'),v

(Sa)rv

1550

6230

7780 psi

<s,t*=W:ffiffi=5o5opsi
7.
Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the long-side with holes (E = ea = 0.60):

'l'hc allowable stress for membrane stress

rrrembrane plus bending stresses and are acceptable' |rlculated sfesses are tess tnan tne aiowable

t*t""t-'it"i

is 17'500 p:'-Td ft^t't* combined i-s = l 5(li'500) = 26'250 psi All

l'roblems
C-sections that are-buttrvelded 17.9 A header is made ftom from two *eld is not examined and the backing fn" the centerline of th" 12 bv 6 bv 'tto*-'iA" in pro""; tr'"tiiott' E = 0 65 -The.header-is at the weld il;;;. is the stress I in. thick with a de"gn p'";tit" oiZoO psi' What

: tsttu = -ilF: (0.0S33X0O

(

Mucz

1778.50X0.5.)

along

/./eu

psi

8.

Calculate the bending stress at the comer of the short-side (E

1.0):

Maq : ttilaN = iE
9.

joint?

(841.35)(0.3125)

(o^oro3xl3) =

12'950 psi

Answer: Maximum

stress

10'160 Psi

Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the short-side (E

0.80):

l?.10 A

t.)att

: Mucr (323.85X0.3125) lF = (oJro3xojo)

= bzru Psr =

the centerline or t*o oppoiit" 2-in diameter on of openings that The adiacent side co"tain' u 'ow 'are lreader is 7'25 by ii ttoisi and the 5.75-in. centers' fr'" O"'igtipt""ut" where is it located?

along C-sections that are bxtt welded square header is made from two is 0 65' efficiency wetd-

liJes' The

ioint

0'75 in. thick' Wf'ut

it

tfi"''l*ito*
=

stress and

10. Calculate the membrane stress on the long-side (E

e^:

9.691

\r.)M =

PH (l rsx6) : Ui = ,(lx0f)
(l1sxt3.5) ,(o.6rsxo3)

Azs*er"

Maximum stress

side 5950 psi at corner of welded

)uu

PSr

I7.9
=
0.S0):

VIII-I EQUATIONS IN THE ASME CODE'

11, Calculate the membrane stress on the short-side (.E

\r^tN

zttE

Ph=

Appendix13.r,h:f

y:::*h#t"

j;,:.lllllll1lH"',,'Tl:H jiJ,::iT;

l55u

Psr

jfi ttriillT:l:i:Tfl m irs:i;if#l:h'#' *::*'ffi 'll"l,l: :re ASME

* *"tt' some other variation occurs , iir"'g"".""y,
equation for that conngo'ut'on

12. Total stress at corner of long-side:

(S)oy = 6^)u + (S)e1a = 580 + 5050

13. Total stress at midpoint of long-side:

5630 psi

c expressed Code geometries shown' to the sPecific in the ASME same thickness' the equations When the opposite sides have the lT lT However' tnot" *iu"n in Eqs 17 16 and Code, V[I-l, are the same *"*rt"" theri are rounded comers' or when when opposite thicknesses a specific

ue ,esM! code has oiut J"utiopta ttot the theory of

structural

(S),v

(S.),y

+ (Stff

580

17,790

18,370 psi

ftHl'"quu,ion,
.ipi",

t4.

Total stress at comer of short-side:

oi"*o*a f.T::"',::1"*f .J:rT: ;#:ffiil:tX"il:^1f'""?#'fl to sive different equatrons rol

The prinfor the bending stresses were similarly.developed

'f'ui

+
Z:

\-l -!:

'{

3
+I

+: + crs \l*
I

,: *sl
j
I

-(\ -+
I

-s
\i
I

;
(J

9,)

Fst. ,n ^r F ^slv ll-=l-l-tir

"? ^' {lv ol+
*l+

-^-r-i- T 5 -E-'"r
lt5\(l

t(a

lc'l
I

T-r 't!.
c.l

-i

Eo
]: : \"1^
.:_-:-\

I +

.*

; ^;l{ -l+
'{ ol
I

:'
al

+ +

,-..:\

: \]
f'l r_]d

\)
N
!J

di

N
+

\]
d

I *+.F\E ;F it5 tl$ ti! rl$ tlH

].

:J

dl

a.a\
*<-

.\ilN
I

6Jor

.-i- i-]^ -i1c.|

-Nl

le {-l$
IN

-l tN

<\' la '--:a i ,lla

-t{

:l lA :
rN

s .+Y

+ dl- ili < *llc lltl

^
t!.1

I
qJ

"l! rls q,i

Qaa a<
ul!"4 Fe-rr

->
ri
o 9

'Ed 9! YE

-B

EEEFEEEE E:>S"a'Si
ii3333Ss rxrrSSrC

3a93qLraa

Fa
E!

lrl

<at\
$\J

r-

c-

F-

(J

620

621

622

vfssg.s oF NoNctRcurAR cRoss sEcTtoN

bending stress at thc midpoint of the short-side of a rectangular cross-sectlr headerisEq.3of Article l3-7 of the ASMECode, VIII_1. bevelopment of same equatlon as given in Eq. 17.32 is

Iqble
l,rIure

17

.2
Location Membrane Stress (Psi)

as,:

ffiltsn'n

o,ttti

:ff

(t7
(17

l'l .3a
t't .3b

Short-side Long-side Short-side Long-side

Ph

/(2hE)

Ph/(2t28)
Ph

/(2^D
k?)

+ -=:=--=l4NH'-2h'? |L (K, b./Yttt2l I

-kt(Kt + k) +

K= |+
o2K

t;td

(r7

"'k

Kr

- Kr))\

I:, 1] h3lt + H3t2 . = t * l4 * r,^i]____Fh

Lh,..

17

.3c

Short-side Long-side

P(a + L)/^E

(r7. (r7
(t7
t't .3d

P(h + s)lhE
Php/2(At
PHp

comel
Short-side Long-side Shon-side Long-side

p(tE l17 + d/ns

+
ph)E

_h2(l + a2n = _orlhtl, + Hrl, u H, I _ h3lt + H3I2 -L h'1, "ht,+Htr] (l+K) hlt + HI2
Substituting Eq. 17.38 into Eq. 17.33 gives

r+K=l *11 "',.1 -htt+Ht2 hll Lh rtl

12( z +

pt)E

l7 .3e
.

P(L+L.l+a)/hE P(h+h+a)/t2E
P(a + L)/nE Pa/hE
PaltzE

tt.)a

Midpoint, curve
End, curve
Side

@,:#,rftt"'-

+:#]

(17

t't .5b

Midpoint, curve
End, curve
Side

P(a+L)pl(At+ph)E
Pap/(A, + ptt)E Pap/(At + ph) E

brane stresses remain the same, but the blnding stresses are reduced by multl. plying by the factors in Table 17.3. The stressei are then obtained by using tho following equations:

in Table 17 .2. Although all the formulas have been developed on the basis of a length_to. width L1/H and Ly /ft of four or more-the ratio where there is no long dimen. sion effect-provisions are given for the simple rectangular header shown in Fig. 17.3a to reduce stresses when the aspect iatio is lei than two. The mem,

Equation 17.39 is identical to Eq. 17.32 and shows the relationship between thl gquations in Appendix 13 of the ASME Code, VI[-l, and those derived fron basic theory. The ASME Code contains extensive nomenclature in Article 13.! fo-r yarioug configurations. Equations for the bending stresses in Table l3_lg,l of the code are shown in Table 17.1. In addition, equations for membrana :hTle! for various configurations in the ASME Code, VIII_I, are summarizod

Tqble 17.3

LtlH

or 1.0
1.1

Lr/h
0.56 0.64
0.'13

Cz

0.62

0.70
o.77 o.82 0.87 0.91

1.2
1.3

o.79
0.85 0.89

1.4

l.)
1.6
1.8 1.9
2.O

For the short-side at the comer:

(Sa)o

o.92
0.95

0.94 0.96

= Eq. 17 .23 x

0.9't
0.99 1.00

0.9'l
0.99 1.00

C2

(17.40)

For the shon-side at the midpoint:

623

vEssH,s oF NoNctRcurAR cRoss sEcfloN

(Sr,),v

r7.9
Cl
(

EQUAI|ONS lN THI ASMI coD[,

vlll'l

= Eq.

17

'25 x

r7.4

(Si,),v

5120 Psi

For the long-side at the corner:

(sa)o

= Eq'

17

'24

Cz

17 midpoint of the long-side using Table Calculate the bending stress at the lirst equatlon:

l'

For the long-side at the midpoint:

(Sa),r.r

(s,)" =
17.26

f, . - I +-t(0.51?9)rl = lr.020psi 1;(o58txt L' ' I o.5l7e I

(l50x0.s)(l4f

= Eq.

Cl

17.

l,lxample

For those cases where eitdrrer Lr/H or Ltf h is elss than 1.0, it is necessary reorient the axes of the header and to recalculate all properties such as of inertia of the wall. Dimensions are chosen so that the longest dimension is L1, the next dimension is ft, and the shortest dimension is 11. This may result in pafi which was originally considered to be an end closure becoming a wall the header. All calculations are based on this revised confieuration. Vessels of noncircular cross section may be subjected to external pressuro, Membrane and bending sfiesses are considered the same as for intemal pressun unless the resulting stresses are compressive where stability may be a possibh mode of failure. Interaction equations are used to examine the various plates fot stability. Calculated stresses are compared with critical buckling stresses with I factor of safety applied. This is described in Article 13-14 of the ASME Codo,

ffi;;ffi;;;

17.10.

truilt with a shortened The header in Example 1?'9 is to be at the midpoints considering the trt" foesses ia in. wttu'

rho-rtened length?

'"

Solutian. Zr = 18in';H = 7 '25 in'; andh

= l4it'
=
l.oo

Calculate the following:

L'

18 = 7.25 = 2.48 H =9 h14 =

cr

c2

L:

t.ZS

Ct =

0.79 znd Cz = 0.82

vl[-l.

long-side only because the length-toThe strengthening effect applies to the width ratio ii less than 2'0 This gives

(s)1q'

(s6)r

x cl =

(11,020)(0 79)

8?10

psi

Example 17.9. The rectangular cross-sectional header in Example 17.7 il made according to ASME Code, VIII-I, rules. What are the bending stresses at the midpoints of both the short-side and the long-side?

ExamDle

ffi1ilfi;;''=

l7.tl.

Sohttion. Knowns: Il = 7.25 in.: h= 14 in.; E = 1.0. Calculate a. 1. and K as follows:

r=

1 in.; c

0.5

and

^r"",il"'r'o""". " Solution. Calculate the header

,rt"

be built with a shortened The header in Example 17 9 is to axes for analysis and what iz in' whnt is aonejo trt" n"aaer long-side? midpoints oi the short-side and the

geometry properties as follows:

"=#=T:o.ttn
rl fl\l r=i=;-=0.0833

Lr: 12 = t.66 H 7 '2,5 4 =9 = o'ss

h14
:0.5179
Since

. = (,:)"

0.0833 (0.0833X0.s 179)

ffi;#, r,)

Lr/h

reoriented for analysis ln the 1.0, the axes of the header must be

Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the short-side using Eq. 17.33 and Table 17.1, second equation:

b".;.';i;;";'also

-,,1: flat end closur-et^which have now The first assumption is that the originat I in trti"t on'tttur basis' 1= 0'0833 remains'

tqin.,h=

12in', andrl-=

7'tf

in' -

(Ja)":

(1s0)(0.5) l2(0.0833)(1)

fr

s,z rsv - rr+, Lt.J\t.zJ,

+ (0'5t79)3'l /t4), I

" =+
K=

=ff

= o.suz

O.6042

vEsSEt

o;

NoNCtRCUtAR CROSS SCCTTON

l7,lo

DGSION

Of NoNclRcutAR

VESStLs lN OTHER

CODES

627

Check

il

thc strcngthening I'actors apply:

proof vcurs based on dellection and burst

L, :
V

1O = t.lZ
14

t4

Ct = 0.99 and C2 = 0.99 Ct = O.62 and C2 = 0.68

l';;";;;; ulrr"i, *" il"*'.i"' ii*p*g n"r"-"1'*i::l"T",i

Lrl

tests Among those design codes lirr Llovd's the Swedis'h Pressure Vessel Code and the

L,

"i structural ftames, spectnc appt luro different.

;$,"%il'ni-":X',"*"';1ff #:1':,1

h=

i=

1.17

l7.lO.l

Method in Swedish Pressure Vessel Code2

to intemal

Shengthening fagtors apply to both short_side and long_side. Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the sliort-side

are rules and (i)ntained in Chapter 18 of the Swedish Pressure Vessel Code using Eq. 17.4

ts,r,=ffffil'
(Sa),v

rrrrrl -

ozrfffilro.el
l,

il;;;t-f- ilGning rectangular cross-sectional headers subjectedare no rules G ,ut"-ttti"tn"" of walls on all sides' There are con:ffi;";;;;i,h when i;ff;5;it ffi ;tilerent watl thicknesses' both thethe wall thicknesses long-side and the short+ide' for ttre st'"ss"s in J;"i, ;;;i;;; *i{;-basJ;q"^u'; ;iu"n Pressure vessel Code
for the long-side from the Swedish
is

2280 psi

^ fust equation:

Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint ofthe long_side using Table 17.

;=(;,-&*6
t

(17.M)

/c, - (150X0.5)(lD2f .- - I + (0.6042)r'l (0 62; = ae5e o,' '""' - D6lEl5?i) 1t': 1; fi,ai |
Problems

effect and the other term is the One term in the denominator is the membrane gives Code' em"ct. Substituting terms from the ASME

VI[-l'

"nOing

s*i. =
rectangular vessel

17,11 A

^ =;

2: n
100 for

21

eb

K = bending moment tenn

of the cross section

shown

a=3in.;L=6in.;h:3:[il.

psi.at a design temperature of 300.F. There is no cfusion and full radiography is applied at all weldjoints. What are the total stresses in tho long-side plaies and in the comer section using the method in the ASME Code, VI[-1, Appendix 13? Dimensions are as follows: 11 0.75 in,; =

constructed from 5A-516 Grade 60 material. The design pissure is 75

in Fig.

17.3c ir

kilo

x=d

Substituting these terms into

P-

Eq 17'rg

gives '2

s= (z'*i;. +1hKtr' \/'/

Eq'
17 45 for S gives

(r7.4s)

Answen At

center, ,t
,S

14,100 psi

Rearranging terms and solving

At end,

1480 psi

Ph lta s=*\*=
10,720 psi

3hK\

(17

.46)

In bend at 26.e, S

"

lf e- =

e6

= E,

F.q' 17 '46 may be simplified as follows:

I7.IO

DESIGN OF NONCIRCULAR VESSETS IN OTHER CODES

s - = 2Et'= (td. '+ 3hn

Ph

(r7.47)

In addition to the ASME Code, VI[-l, design rules for noncircular pressure vessels are contained in other design codes as well as in various textbooks. In addition, empirical design rules have been developed and used for a numUer of

the Swedish Pressure Vessel Code The basic equation for the short-side ftom
is:

628

VtSStts

of

NoNctRcutAR CROSS

SECTTON

I7.IO
(

DESIGN OF NONCIRCUTAR VESSETS IN OTHTR

CODES

629

p_ s-

/100\

\;i

'^,Jz

!
tz

rz

6^k/4

t7.48)

cross-scctional headcr givcn in krng-side and the short-side of the rectangular lixrrnple 17.7.

Substituting terms from the ASME Code,

VI[-l,

into Eq. 17.48 gives

Solution. Design data ftom Example 17'7 are as follows:

p /)\ - = I:l S

\1,/ t/e^ +

3hKfe6

(r7 .49)

Rearranging terms and solving Eq. 17.49 for S gives

h:14\n. :H =7 h14
li)llows:

H=
25

7.25in'

= 150Psi r:1'0tn'

g.51g E:1.0
use

li)r the stress at the midpoint of the long-side'

Eqs 17'52 and

17 47 as

'=#(*='+)
If e^ =
e6

(17.50)

t,

Eq. 17.50 may be simplified as follows:

K:K^=
(r7.5t)
1s0(14)(1 x s_
0.5_1_8_-t__?

s=#e+3hn
The various values of K are determined as follows:

14

x 0'250)

11,570 psi

lrortheStressatthemidpointoftheshort-side,useEqs.17.53and17.51as
lbllows:

Midpoint of long-side:

K^:
Midpoint of short-side:

\-LA--rZd
(17

K = K^ =(o.s18f
.s2)

+ 40.s18)

= -0.116
=
6170 psi

s_ KN:
q-ttq-z
(

1s0(14X1

+_1lj-_lj x

(0 116)

Problems
17.53)

17.12 Using the design conditions for

Any point

y. from midpoint of long-side:

K^,: K.Any point

o.s (Y-)'

the vessel described in Example 17 12' if thJ same cross_sectional area is kept but the cross sectlon $ square iort*A of a""t-gular, what are the maximum stresses at the midpoint and comer of thJ side using the Swedish Code?

\m/

(17

.s4)

Ansrver:

Stress at midpoint Stress at corner

4560 psi

from midpoint of short-side:

8370 Psi

K^ = K, '

0.5

f)-)' \n/

(17.55)

lT.l3ForthevesseldescribedinExamplelT12'what-isthemaximum is increased allowable working pressure for the header if the thickness

tot=

1.5 in'?
based on the stress at the corner of the

Example 17.12, Using the Swedish pressure Vessel Code formulas for n rectangular header, determine the maximum stress at the midpoint of both the

Answer: MAWP = 600 psi

short-side'

630

Vl33tr3 0F NoNctRcutaR cRoss stcTtoN

l7.lo

DESIGN

Ot NoNclRCUl'AR

VESSELS

lN oTHER

17.14 A vesscl of the dimensions in Example 17.12 is made from two

sections welded along the centedine of the short-side. The weld ioint only visually examined and no backing strip is used (E = 0.70). Wt are the maximum stresses at the midpoint and the corner of the
side?

surlace cular limits measured from the vessel is the nominal op"nin^g Aia*"tet and where d, is ttre actJ 'd ,fti-.tn"t' of the tube stub (in'')

coDts 63l of b = {7L'

from fl.+S, th. valie of K is determined

determined from either Once the ligament efficiency.ls

SE x=V

Eq' 11 44a or F4'

Ansrrel: 17.10.2 Design by lloyd's

Stress at midpoint Stress at comer

8810

12,530 psl

Register of Shipping Rules

Rules for the design of forged, rectangular cross-sectional headers air given Chapter J of Lloyd's Rules. In order to use the rules, the header has\i con radius of not less than 0.25 in. As with other desisn methods for cross-sectional headers, stresses at the corner and in the ligaments betwecn openings are examined. The method used to detennine the efftciency of ligaments between openingl is similar to that used in other codes except that Lloyd's Rules permit coniiderin'g the reinforcement area in a welded tube stub as giving a smaller equivalent diameter. Without welded tube stubs, the hole diameter is used. For a regular pattem of holes, the ligament efficiency is

(psi) where S : allowable tensile stress P = design Pressure (Psi)

E = ligament efficiency
'l'he value

ofA/8

is then determined where

il;#;;;;";;,uaio'
lri.'"..iiJ"

of corner (both in inches),

#i;.;t.
of

irj"'ii

ro determine the value

H;"ji.i;',H*1""a.
uDart. the value cIose.

"Au. ls reduceo und th"

't'o*n the.value of A/B'Readhorizontauv ""4 ""'JJlvio r' the minimum required thickness' of uJui ot values are 'lo' fi," 'n" of r tnitt U" greatel than t. [f the
pto""doi"

u'

from tangent of comer to tansent -a r = ditt*"" lT l0 Using the value of K' enter in Fig

A=

distance ftom centerline of hole

repeatd until the values are

(17.s6)

efficiency is

For an irregular pattern of holes, that is, one in which the spacing between op;nings is variable but the opening diameter is the same, the ligament

using the doss-sectional htd:t Example 17.13. A rgctlnSlr| -square wittr no ftbe openings' The allow-lt-,*t]t Llovd's Rules. The header rs I :]in' psi' th" d"tign pt"ssure P equals 150 abli stress of the materi* is rs,o0O fsi':oJ ffi"ij, ,it" rnrnrfi required thitkness of the header?
Solutinn

="

p, Io,-Zd -

Ptrpz

(17.s7)
an

4=o B
t

anct

J=

1.0

opening with a welded tube stub, the diameter used is the equivalent diameter d. determined by

For an opening without a tube stub, the hole diameter d is used. For

K=Y= lfiH
B
0.056

= rooo

d"=d-L T
where

(17.58)

B:7'5-2(o'2s)=t'o
r = (7 0X0'056)
Example

I = nominal

thickness

of shell or header (in.).

:0

392

in'

A, = excess area in tube stub over that requ ed for internal design pressure plus area in attaching fillet welds within perpendi_

17.14.

on 3 5-in' centers lies along A row of2-in' diameter openings

6t2

vtgSlrs 0i

NoNC|RCUTAR CROSS SrcTtoN A/B

BIBTIOORAPHY

633

E3333SB

4 = 0.s0 B
B
1

(0.23)(7.15

- 2 x O'25) = 1.668 in'

I'roblems

17.16 Using ' "^"

10865432
K

;J";;er'with

i^l;i;;;;"rtrl"
i.o-in. aiut.t.t

of a the Lloyd's Rules' what is the minimum -requi-red.thickness wall-to0'25-in corner radius and 9-25--in' inside psi and the urro*uur" tensile stress is 1s'000 contains a row of openings that is desiqn Dressure 1800 psr' One side on 3'b-in' spacing along the center'

AIB
0,30

Answer:

t,ni,,

1'75 in'

u.lTwhatistheminimumrequiredthickness(withinl/16in')inProblemare The tube stubs

o,m
0,15

17. 16

stuus' are added at the openings? anA aftached by a 1.O-in. inner diameter uy O ZS in' ' tttict

if welded tube

0'25-in' fillet

weld.

tlB
0,10 0,08 0,07

Answer:

t";n:

1'75

in

Cannot be reduced

to 1'625 in'

0,06
0,05

REIERENCES

l.
K

l7.t0 Rcclongulor Rssisior ot shippins)

Figuro

hooder thickness 'aquiremenis for tlovd's regisrr ot shippins (courl'elv Llovdl

2.

and Other Lloyd's Register of Shipping, chap J' "Boilers of Steel Ships' London' lg72' the Co structon and tlassirtcaio Relulatiotls for the Strength of Pressure^Vessels' Publication of Pressure V essel Code' Calculation
Swedish

Pressue vessels"'

it

Rules and

Series A

r, tiJg"t, o.",

-a What is the minimum required thickness bf the header? ^ E=::_:____-::=0.42g6

Calculate the other properties of the header as follows:

the centerline of a header that is 7. 75-in . square with 0. Z5-in. inside corner radii. The material's allowable stress is.15,000 psi tf," J"riln fSOO pri.

August 19?6, James F. Lincoln Arc w ., DesiSn ofwellments, 8th printing, Wetdog gounAation, Cleveland' Ohio' 1963'

Stockholm' No. lE, Swedish ttessure vessel Commission'

1967'

f."rr*"

BIBTIOGRAPHY
Barberton' Recnngular Headcts' Rabcock & Wilcox' Allovlable Working Presswes--square vnd Ohio, 1950 (private communicatlon) ' ed Mccraw-Hill' Young' Fom ulasfot Stess and Strai'' 5th ' Roark, Raymond J. andwaren ' New Yolk, 1975

Soltrtion. Calculate the ligament efficiency as follows:

35-)

sE

P=

(15,000)(0.4236)
(1500)

= 4.286

,!t

APPENDICES

635

GUIDE TO ASME sEC.

VIII' DIV' I

fu|.fu4'A*dirr'.'cu^nno
1r

il

APPENDX

A
Lill:;ll;T;X;'i: . ,' ,"'

lt

GUIDE TO VARIOUS CODES

'lif;f;l'l'
'3,S'11i1"?t1'**'

I
I
il u
tl

ll

l'"*;+.r*, ":"1ili*d,*:1. -,, r;l*"t+lg;_:'tiix

Is:s''x: **

:i;'-T,l'j'i-Ir"?
D

*.

'$ll r';:*::r;
*,,".',

**iir:'**';*:.::,

qgt:l.l**"

*,*::"";,";.*.1;t;," _"

.,

-J T:. ;$l;::J:-'$: :5:.:ji:s Jil:Ti; ",. ;;;;i*i-.6

societv or

ffibv

H;:ij,'"3ill:"1il'.f;".)'li \ela \ l'Jll"i'i,J-*it, ""** ins' De''

:l:;1ffi nn''""'' e .'liJi"l i,Li; lill iH' Lv ioo'z''o'n'"'i

ft e Amricon

637

GUIDE TO BRITISH CODE BS.55OO

CODE GUIDE TO A. D. MERKBTATT

J. W. Strowson, Oil Componies Mqleriols Associotion, London

e'V'' Technischen Uberwochungs-Vereine H. Steffen, Vereinigung der Essen, Wesl GermonY

1,---^-*--J:l
sb,ve-J'.tNol..

taen tftu*) 6on-

35!
rr.iriLon (o!u{n rdrcn

tribi

(,dud) dm

^o.B?-

-aos2

lB:i'",-,..*'
^D.s3srh..ic.rt

d'hd

11

lf$<

3:llll"ft-*-^""""" ii*ri*;;'::m*:::::*l

:liEEry,.+
i'drcnit G!-11::: PEumia Gi P'oo' rer

LEg
.ea.:

r#r:g:'liJ.Tffi:
-aY-:.-: ddd4e/od_ -'::;:;

-",..::::",""
Fif
"."f.";Y'

tmF

Fisuro

A.2

cuid6 to Brirish Cod6

SS.55OO. (p,rblirhed by rhe Britilh

London WfA 2BS, co{r.t sy

ot Hy&ocatbn kocessing, De<. lg7'.)

gondords Insriturion, 2 pdrk Sirser,

ffi

ot o-sOm s cotogn", F.derot Republic

Germ

""i'

i3,'n- a n'***bon

18-32, cort HeymonnsVerlos KG, Gereoftrr*! 1978') Prccessins'

D*

639

GUIDE TO DUTCH STOOMWEZEN CODE

P.

VESSET CODE GUIDE TO SWEDISH PRESSURE

Netherlonds

von Rossen, Diensl voor hef Sloomwezen, ,s-Grovenhoge, The

The Swedish Pressure Vessel l. Berglund, Tryckkirlskommissionen' Commission, Stockholm

lo,5-xozh..dorc.h.d

sE'9.|4-Geo'12!) D &h'c. ri. ..1.' [h -G@oqn) -oo8l?!.o..0| etn-oo.o3{10'd)

hl.|plpic-6@013e|

:ffll"

-i;;'
id,.,",--d--1'1.

*'-""---l1rli?..-i,-",".'--)
H:H

l*T'":il

-,"..?,r

":::7"
"x

il

sd..!

.,,,i.1

F*.

-.""

?9Tt

gtigffi

uwT
eli,
F.DrD

rEedm 6Fi^ll strlt.l'

rxvl.vi|.

*f;?sl;ffi!ft: fi ;;,."",-..,.-_''.,,
x'.,Jffi

nnd.bl

;;;;

ilT:I$ll;:i

X;1;1

ssdd.c @ido3g1l,.

_Ooaqs.|s@or.Mr,o7oi

'"'

Sf{*,.*if

:i#lBffiil$rj#'1fiilj{ffilljlf;3$C*{E"F}::#'3'ff:U'ii
(Published bv Trvchkkorkkommi'3ionn Prccessins' DEc teTa')

fisu.6

cuid to Dukh Stoomw.zen Code, (Published for rhe Minisrry of Sociot AfidiB [Dinsr voor h6r Stoomwezenl by Govornmnr Publishing Offico, Chrisioffel Plonriinsrroot, The Hdgue, Nthendnds; courbiy ol Hydrea$on Processing, Oe<. l979.l

A.,{

A.5 Guide to Swsdi3h P'e$ure ve$er code ot ttdrcnrbon l":ti. l-iti;;1.anorm, sweden; courtesv
Fio'ire

lvA'

Box

&1
640

GUIDE TO ITATIAN PRESSURE VESSGT CODE R. lV\ozzoncini, Brescio, lfoly

VESSEL CODE GUIDE TO JAPANESE PRESSURE

TokYo M. Koike, NiPPon Kokon K'K"

".!-$ll'#:'""'"'-

-a1..=1e-lAH{H'rud",.
rird

,itit

r\
-r,r.o2

;:.d.;;i#6i."!-?o?1r"

wdd oFrir

I
a

tt

\=lE!-T

-v.s.R.r.t,s
^l.t.iob-v.s'i''''i rrntu l'-G.n Bbi -v5e.r.F.3

:1-- l,llx.li'" ---."r{; iEEi'i' J

Xl ;":;-.-,

atu6,d rul.

I=IHH

::il'H*4fi' iX'bF *t;;*

:tt'i= I
'5

-""-

"

-s3

ffi
% A.7 G!i& ro rory:a P:'*:"::::;;iln Fisur
the JoPon borrc r.rinirtrv oI I'obor, poblishd bv

fr;;u^d o{gd-nt! .".--'' .rdn.lor.u.--4rie

5'

ur.

w.rd loiir

or.9

2'0

-s
Fisu.o A.6 Guide to ltolion Pres5ur6 Vossal Code. (pubtkhed by Co3o Ed;rrice tuisi Di G. piroto, vio CorFlico, P.O. Box 3680, Mifon, lt'j,ly 2468Ar <owtety ot Hdroc bon pro.essing, D... 197A., bv rhe Ab'irvoku Yo'iki Kouzou Kikohu' roPon' courtesv s-ss-r st'il'o r^ino'o-Ku,Iokvo,

"l

19741 tlioeorbon processns' De'

g2

&3

GUIDE TO JAPANESE STD. PV CONSTRUCTION

PRESSURE GAS CONTROT GUIDE TO JAPANESE HIGH

tAW

M. Koike, Nippon Kokon K.K., Tokyo

K'K" Tokyo M. Koike, NiPPon Kokon

hi.rn6 ridi.l r.gr r d.D .nrni rtur

2..t

1?

i45..5.t

f-'ikhd{n@.|pr@[

-rh'cri..n.d..r

tru'.

.r. -^cj.cd.F

not

2c-^di.c-r oP-r.lt

i;;;;d;F;'-,.,5
5

cod,|6imn.!-..''4|
Ar- sor

t22r

Lndb tdl6t ..en ,hr*'u itund ,'uur_r4{, -4r,.r

r2..1-r'.n|lM (r.dd) d4

rrx30.. t'dldr d'd

^r.rt4.

-rN?,*l'
il

-ir'tl 'nfi|*.i.n.''i.@-..
rhddh'dd9.dd.-1. thB|lA.eij'.d.-B

lJJt::l

-arrr
12

rv

dbH @

-senrk

;liliiffi
PF-.J

T-ffi

Mrr rndrbb *dit

p,[*r-t3

n::,ffi;u:--"*.'.

tu:;;::
f,ll*1i:!l-=--'
Figur A.8 Guide to Jor,ono! Srondord pV Construction. (JtS B B2tg-IgT?, pubtished by rhe Jopcn Sfondor& A5.oiotion, 4-l-24 Akcoko, Minoto-Ku. Tokyo, Jopon; courrery oj Hydrccchon pft,cassing,

ii:}i:F,s--- "; flllf:i"---------;li

fuol4[ch( Ej-.':;

'{i=----------=1r'

,ffi

stud. l\

sq

Dc. 1978.)

hiu:rrv,

poblished bv th6 In3lil"le tor wrry

*l;::l:$:'J"T:J:1

Hvdrocorbon Procassing'

D*

1974'l

645 d44

HEAT EXCHANGER SPECIFICATION SHEET

APPENDX B

SAMPLE OF HEAT EXCHANGER SPECI FICATION

SHEET

fi:--swc-

ttNGrH

Plrcrr

*n

." ot,t.,uluto,

York' N Y' ,xchongsr Monufocturerc Atsocialion' New

u6

47

API Strndrrd 850 Stor.gc Tlnk Spcctllcltlon Dlta Shcet

sh..t
1

ol3

FlL No.

hlvnlnbn (!Y Ptt!at-.)

Phdic

_---

APPENDIX

|lLr ta! ib ._-i.||.r h

ol P|.'

T.t* C.FdtY (t'll:

bblfir'

|{d $rdld.le

ot -.-

Dlfi.
D-igo s!.dic Ot
vlty @

SAMPLE OF SPECIFICATION SHE

h.r.Ung T.inFnur.

lF(.d

hoar5 Yo tod.r Unlto?rn t r. (cdt ld.t tGY)

frdgn par APP. E: Ylo.r. (Fle. E.t) tlo.llld.rll (T&|. E 1)
Lo.dkE (p|oYLt

fb.fitC

Rool APg H
t'ao

-&

--l{o

----_
h.

X pllllcrddr

Fer O.dc

tL

L.d:

Bod! (3.10.4.5): Y.! V.lodtY (m9h)

h ld.dn

dllt

$finddit r (a!F

Ethclr:
rd/or 8.bin

-Ftrll, m.t"

39.9):Yr--t{o.-_ rs.

ht.

Rdtena

Dbnatar, nur, l,t

i!i!.

Co|EtL

D'C' Court$y ot lhe Anricon Pelroler,m Inslitur, Woshinglon'

u8

g9

ahrt
Conalnrc on On I Manul&arcr
Clty

I. (!t ttrutotur.,

rnr'o, Frxdr-r, ar

Ff.
^tDtb!b)
$ara

2 o.

0t:

8h.at 3 ol 3
Flh No.

S.fial tto. 2 Fabrlcator

Clly

q.l.
sli.I

S.rhl No. 3 ri,hbdll Sp.dnc.tdlj

Fool
Eolio.n

Doof Stt..t ( PP. lrllold Htlcrr Ittamd FY,D.: Swlno U|.

Flulh-TYP.

grcton N@L
aq,

iaadne Co{ Stltt

F iooi Ddn: noli.ll

iiru

At

ll.

Mrnw|Y.:, i'lo.

Jd
a,|c

E2c

6'nrictuds
Slioll

hr Mrflty!. llo
(no. ot)

Coul!..

[:rJ

ta-

ttg.

Ads rudh rnd

I
a

ntch6

*8, ]5, s, "d r'bb!

Si.

]e

'r'd

]10)

(hdulng conBdon dowrnc.

t
7

7 Tank Bonom: ptata

litdsEaa
hp

Scrmr (cli.d( one)

Slope Bottom Root to

_
Ftg.

t C||.d( q'l.: To-Fto.r_caot Annutrr Pt !. tfin. nb$ arld ltkrot- (!..

h. p.r

dr,

Str.ilO.rdt:

_ Top wlidgirdr (r,rc .r ritr,ory): - Rool Typ.: S'.Fpo.iad y.! _ l0

'It R6t ptrio: t chra
Bur Joh Slop. or R.diu.

c Irbm.dhi. Wirdliidrr: yG

Fl

t{o

--

l{o

_
S.tt.SI

l?

ll
la
16

T.nk Bo(brn Cofdnt: ht do..yaa_ Applb.tio.t Sp.dtb.ton Prhi S-tn cturlt S.tr.t tih.-yar _

ll Fd rbrd..
o o

(lidt

*t

v.ilthe od'tttdotr) (s..

Flg. 3.4

aid &r5 itd T.blc &t6

'nd

$t4

_,itd.rld _
eir{or.y.r

Lo

lfiFdion By: Shog la lvcld Ellrn|mtonr R.dofmph

t7 Fllmr
Sh.ll
supp|.?iantary uquld parFarai or Aotb.n Ya!
lil,o

ultarric
PDp.rty

It L.rt T.'dllgr

2l T.nk SLc: Dtr'l| tar.nd |htght i, tt. &| O.!. ot dt0on or R.trton ot Apt S||rd]d

Phb -20 Pud[rar,a Ratafaica Drar,ttg

lg iilll T.d R.porb R.qutrrdl

A5O

l{ot.r Stadl atd/ot aaDatn

Ji"t

ttr|y

!' d'dr.d

b cov'r

'9'd'l

nqulrmcnt3

650

651

Pressure Veesel Deslgn Dsta Sheet

Bcagr.4s$c! cepaclty of v65e1:

de.1e! code: rSrc Sectjon
coD3tructioo:

ec.ktns pte6Bure:

VIII - Dlv. I

----l?!rorka!8 !.aPe!6ttrte: ;:P9<cilos1on allol'ance: 0.063

P"18

deg'

bcrl

APPENDIX

Uateltal

Speclf lcatlon8 :

! latcllel
sP.ct!1c!tlon8
E...1orra

GlP.
No.
2

lUooable 6t!e56
P61

No.

SAMPLE OF PRESSU
forAlnS6

sA-204, &ade

17,500

abl.
Tbl.

ucs-23
UCS-23

sA-215' ctade I|cA

SA-181,

i5,000x0'8=12'000
17,500 20,000 15,000 y-3

UG-24(.)

cla.

70

Tbl. ucs-23

bolrl[g
PlPl!8

sA-193, Crrdc 816

9A-106, Grade
B

rbl. Ibr.

ucs-23

Itcs-23

l/16 lEch

asbe3to6

,700 Fz ,75

Tb1.2-5.1

Skeich and Genelsl Dbenstone of V6se1

4-lnch outlet ulth rtru.n8 neck fl.nte

3ao1e$ di8heil head, !re3u! on
corcave

sld,

unstayeal

8-iD(h outlet wlth la! loinr

flaige

sPeclgi cast 3tee1 oeldlng

Epeclal folted Eteel bllnd

flente

:-1./2 lnch blosdoh ourlet rlth reldtr8

653

ata

.10
APPTNDIX

Ihdgn ol Hord and Shell

th.lt lttcta...! !c-27 (c)tlt l. dDlEl! r.qrd lhtcb.tr, !. pt fsb-:-id' atrrl rir'\

Dectgn of Head and Shell (contlnued)

!G-32 (b) thtchlis: ti'at'd lfflclencv of 0'85 btt'en head '!d 'he11' post s'ld hcat Joint U6_32 (f) "ot. double_buitaelil fot th' c1lctDfetentlll lo'!t:
chcck Ernt-Erd

5P-t

(..rtir!e 8 -

?IiSdli-ffi6j:io-fi-3E -

0.?0, Tbl $t-lt (doubl. e.ld.d bur! Jotlrt

lh. t'

o'7e1

|ild coEo.lo! rllosroc.s ,?9t + .053 . .8j4 ts. Z. Cb.cL pos! rold hcrt !t rtDtsr rlit r.dtoSrrpb rcqult sllrr. VCS-56, Ib1 I'CS-56 [o!. O)(r): port e!1it b!.t rrcrlE.lr r.qul..d lt .ac.!dr 5/3 t!; b.c.$. 0.8500.625r por! e.:.d b.rt !r.*!!ar t.qulr.it UFfI (a), IrCS_j7 cf D$-52): r.illotr.ph r.qstr.d t-3, Cr 1, 2, 3 1f t> O.?50 r!.; b.c.ur. 0.851D0. 750 rdll.ogrrpby tr !.!ulrcd r.crlcuLtc tl{cbcrr rrqut!.al orb8 f - 0.85 (rbl DT-12, 3Eot .tr6b.d)

,r-_l trio' rc:rl lr-EEfuu F

frd
check

' :"1a' 6:E5 iii--mo-ii=iclFsrt |

0.318<0.68E, thlckneB6 Ucs-16 (b):
oR

' 'dn.0.3l8

t!1d'lEi instde lnuckle iadlus!

3/32<0.688, thtckn38 oK Uc-32 (J)

'a'd->2 053 knuckle ;adrus 0&

t + c '?ir-s66++=ii?5ir

.ll'1,.,1'lll.Ll"l'l
UA-27

c$.cl |Ppltcrbltttt of foinutr:

0.385

(c)(1)

;.i#

0,5r

sl - (0.365) (rt500) (0,85) (0.5) (18)

0.688<(1'25)('750)' 0'937 cyundlr.cal 3k1!t: rr,l-13 (a) 6klrt b o9llorlat for Ehe h'ail buttalded to the Ehell' t A cyllDttrlssl b!e1 fot the butt rangeot of 1-112 In. 1e4!h l'tll be used to Provide a rnto the L^nuckl'' e.ld, lbtu uU1 rvoltt cultln8 th' bevd Skctch;f h.d lnil 3blL shotdng ?llDcipal dlo'Dslo!! and to!'!3nc'

(3) (0,688) . 2.053

5?2Oi 525<5720

forsutr fi

9.01

0,750<9.0 JomuL of,

Aud frlct!..s: {EG-3ZI l. l dlrhld ie&! dll b. u..tt, !C-32 (J) r.qulr.r rlrt rb. tl|taL buckh lritltra rh.lll bc not 1,..r ri& 6t of rh. ou!.td. alr"o.tcl ot th. .t1!!, lor l.t. rha! tbr.. ct!c. th. h.|tl !hlct!.ra. rh. b.l.dc .touD E.iHtlt l. ro Dot .rc.ral !L. outr:litc (tt6.r6t ol tbc ^lro, lhur lsy: rldlt, llaill. crorrn r.dtr[, t - 27 i!.<37.3t5 t!. llllde l lcllc s.illu., Ir 4 tu.>(0.06 r 37.375 - 2.24 r!. tllcbcr. rqult.d: lrA-a (d) Ia . 1.00 fot rcalcrs t.rA (2SE)-(0.21) ---!I!-tot LIt - 2114 - 5.75, x. r.4o (tbl D^i.2)

t+

"o={i3t}*32}={i:4-rzsr
0.568 + 0.063 0.531 thu.!or.

+ 0.053

(!) v.3!cl to bc Po.t e.lil hclt t:clted !t 1]'00'F fo! 3/4 hout (Un-33) (b) drxl.'tE Dclrtu.1bl. off.et of ctrc@fe!'nt1a1 JolEt' ' 3/16" UP-52 (c) .Pot cxllllitloE ot e'ldcd lotnts Pet (a)' u{-91(a) (1) @ 3/32" rclnfotctEg bc!d: w-35 n.cc!.mv bett'en hcld ind sh'll b'c'u!! thlckltlt'er No of!r.! P!.Pst!t1on ux-g(c) ' do no! illff.! bv Eolt lhrd 1/8 ln'

t +c-

gr. h.rd phr. thtct!$r of

0,688

b (tt/16)

1e

."'.-ir'i. lltO"
I

th.l.l. lulfrcG of h..d 'hrU not d'vlrtc rtoD 27'r rrdlus uG"81 (r)

r-r/2", b.vl 30' fo! $eldh8

6t6
Data Sheet for Relnforcement Calculafions (UG.3Z, -40)
She1l -r--s.d- (!ecrfv l

5tf
APPENDIX

Relnforcement Calculatlons for E Inch Nozzle

!*lDLo alloeabte slres6 . !. i . .. . ,. corlo61on all@ence

d..crlption: (Iontltudhal butr Jcl.nt, dcJbte eelded, poEr vetd near treaEed, spct fBClotraphy) desi'" pr66'ore ........,,"....,.,....,,. p Jo1!! err1c1ncy ..,.. ...,,...,...,,..., E
.
,

5_gll!tl lu5

*a+{+ (s!clfy) befolc """"t', coiloBion atr.

llBrde rsdlu' .'

r".-,.

.;';;;:.",'..';;;;-;;",.';.,,."-

D@rnal,h1c'.!e.6, .,rc''ii.ve of ".,.J::':,i:,:::'.1,.1..i:: bhlEle lequlred thlcknels (!efere.(: U6-Z,) ... .....,.... ._

#*
;;;
0,137

r. R.1afore.r.!t lcqut.d: Itc-37 A - (a) (!!) (F) - (7.?50) (.550)(1) !t trl colslil.lctl !o h.v. t.LDfolc1ng vrLu:: !G-40(d) A- ' s.t..l lD th. 3h.Il . l! th. not!1c eru elthto lh' -f ;i.ii rlsll thtcb.i. rvrtlibt' fo! r'lEforc'E nt: .h.11: (15.50-8.525) ('r37) Dorzr!: (8.623-7.750) (.137) (15,000/17'500) (cf ttc-4b)
A- - Ectrl' ln th. aotrl. rlll oultlil' th' ' rv.ll.bl! fo! r!bfotc@'D!: (.438-,$e)
G) (.43S-.139) (2) (1.s95)
(2)

. {.260 r.. ln,

,942 3q, rn. .103

3q' ln. so. ln.

\ .
At -

1.045

xce8E 2,

'h11
h

!btcy!!t3
.J9Etr

thlckDea

"

rsr-;jta-o
....., ,...........,. r_t_
80)

x. i.r.

t" belo' for

Lach

:-:913-cs.:-$.:b 'lircbo6t
.3.000 rq.

Norzle

tlalertal uEed: selless s.eet pt!, sA-i06. clede B (s3h toaxlD@ aUorable 6t!es3 . !.... <,.. ...

A- - r.L1 ritil.il .| t.i.3lorc@cat '!d !'trt

- rililoil tolaforcrocrt (U2

Phtc' 8-5/8 :D bv 14-5/8

14.

"".,r"r ndlnal thlcksess excluslr 6f co!!.ron 6Uoasn4. . . ,.. . .. ,. r thlcknese lequlled for hrrp.Ere6s ,U"-rtl ,.....,......... ,_] tTPR. 3.
skrch

j.n'l.e ittuere! of lblshcd

r,.;,"r"; :"";r;;";'...::

:tr*
0.438 in.

oD)

(.50O) (r4.525-8.525)

;;;

o4-belt tnch fuU ftUt s'ld! 'losad o'rt3fi! of i.raiotcf"g Plrtc .!il srolad noztlc srll:
(.50) (.50) (.50) (4)

.50O

.q, b. 'o. b.

of

".le1nforc.Eepr ,:rhar*-ra-3fii3#isi dtonslors

GE :{ol-:?r

6id seidlns deialt

(W_15._X5._1E.1

4: -

g.soo

3. Ifdth ol .!.s of t.luforc.DcDt nolEil to v'sscl nrll:

oc-40(e)

(2.s) ('587)

1.720 1D.

rn= O.l3b
Y6

(2,5) (.438)

.1.095
h - 1.595 (th13 toverD6) :-9=!9q

ptl,3 .dd.d -.1ofo!c.ocut

-- o,2q3

4. sr@rtY:
relDfotcco.!!
uacdt 1'045 Al: sli.U r[a aoz . .....".'""' 0'954 Lz' aorzle ............,".,..""" .ilahil letufoic.o.rt rod ttclds'. !:Eg

aee

g!LEgLl@{'

658

APPENDIT

APPINDIX

Attochmcnt Weldlng for 8-tnch Ouflet (UW-fS, -16)

l. lllo!.!1c .t!.3!G6 1p vc1d6: (Tbt. Un-lsJ (!) ccabiDcd 6at rlit 31d loadLlt rr.s6 1n brrt ,.1d6 (17500) (0.74) (b) cmblned .[d ind s1d. lo.trlls 6t!!86 tD flllct eeld (17J00) (0.49) Strhrth of l,l1d6: (r) outer ftuer s.Ial b.tr..! ves6cl ratt lDd r.hfolcbg plar

and Selection It-Inch Lap'Jolnt l'lange Attachment

!o fo! rtrd 6h'11 rnd t'l[fo!c1!8 '!r'rgth r.l chcck tleldbg b'r'c'! noztl' I ot.h".^od hvillollrllc fotc' 'ril 6t!c' LB butt .'']d' (rbl n$-15) 10,500 PE1 ;:;;; '""' (u,sOO) (.60) ' drDdlloDs) of butt r"1it (cf 'h!* 4 for 195,450 tb. ;.1;..;.; (ro'500) (r) (s,525) (.687) noz'rc !orc! to bslil' ilt'!'tet o: 24,700 tb. ;'";..t".Dd (525) ' (n/4) (?.750)' *r' ro! b'd!o3t!tlc 'Dd 195,460>24'700 lb. ,.,u .'*' :;:"'.;:'";;; '. foic' uB' 4o0 l!' PlP lt rEr)t's ltd Flttrt'gs' 2, Fror A161 315.t192 srlrL !.!.il .! 565 Ptt rt 50' F' FtoD vtti'6'! cttrlogt D,'!b!! of boltt .1t' ot bolt' 13 lnchli boll cltcf ill'Dltct """"'""' tDchcs lons 8'625 oD bv ?'625 lD bv I ,, o.. ;:;.;t D 't!rb 'Dd' 1^5 ln' saskot - i2 rn' (D bv I tn' crirl'os' ts' ;: ;;;;

12,950

}rt

2,

E,560 ?.1

(b) (c)

6\

04.62512) (0.500) (Es5o)

butt rr.ld

b.tr..r v.sr.l r'ru

9E,500 1.20,500

lb.
lb,

(n)

(8.52512) (.687) (12r9s0)

.nd !6rzt! !'eU

(d) b!!! ultd b3rt'!.! aoz.tc ndl rlil t.bto!c!.!8 ph!. (n) (8.625/2) (0.500) (r2950) E$!: (r) .tt.!gEh 1n !.n.toD of rh. pL!. rroov.d firC-41(b)(2) (17500) (.550) (8.6?5) (b) .r!.Dgth of !.trt 1D vcrr.I rrtl .v.lhbl. for r.lnforc.r!.!t (17500) (.137) (15,50 - 8,625) (.) rclEJorc6!6r lord e.!tLd by rh! ro:rt.|'rtl (15000) (2) (.438) (.687) + (15000) (2) (.2ee) (1,59i) . (il) rclDfolc.o.a! 1o.dt c.rrLat by r.l.DforctoS lhtc E3!000 - (15,500 + 23,380) 4. -9.w.:
crrrt.d !y rltrcb.it r.hforc.onr - 16,500 rtr.Dtrh of rtt.clDllr - 98,500 + 120,500. (b) lord to b. clrrlcd by lorzh ritl atlen8th ol rttrchElDt (c) r6.d to bc c.Flcd bt r.hfofcllt ptrt .r!.n8th of rttrclE.nt Attr.hD.Dr elldl[g ls lrtlsf.ctor?
E3,000

f1U! !r.1d b.tt'ecD lorrl. |!it r.lDforclDS phr. (1) (8.6?'s12> (0.500) (8550) .

38,000

r!.

87,600 rb.

831000

$.

15,500 11. 9,030 :.b, 14.330 23,380

tb.

It.

43,120 th.

(r)

16.d !o bc

55,500 219,000

tb, Ib. 23,380 L!,

120,500 :.b, 43,120 tb. 98,500 1!.

cto
APPENDIX

661

Prollmlnary Derlgn of tE.Inch Inregrel l.lrnge (27,L25)

Prellmlnary Deslgn of lE'Inch Integral Flange ll ,. ^ r/rS lnch flat

z,
aBlestos sasket HlI1 be
usd

^c

(24.525,

d.!tr! p!G..ur! S2S d.318n rt!.!i r ]2,OOO Dort d.8tgn .t!si . 2O.OOO try 1.250 ln. Dl.s!t.! bott! root .!e. 0.943 iq. tn, (8 ,! e6rtEar. - . i 8. 0.553 1n. B.crlon I radlar fo! f
:rrna!

'

19 lnch ID bv 22 I'ph @

Flon Table 2-J.2t basrc sasket Beatitts f,ldth,

K--

fi

olcttca6

frary.

W Y

hub

rlitth, b = (1'/z) -dffr = o'D3 rn' 2_5'2 ), locatlon of g.sk t load reaction' fabk G = 21'1?r in' d= 22'o'2(o.4)t) = 22'o ' 0'866
effective
,sk

\o = G/z)(n - 19)/2 = o'?5o i^'

sea,tjns

r. hub l.Drth, r, i-'JE . \\n r"-;;l;; . ,.0,,, 2. c.ntr 11n. bolt cilclc to hub l (r.j)Db _ o.j)(r,25) - r.875 3, DlntltlD bolr cllc]e itl.ecrcr for ! 4. bo,, Bpaclna - g rn. or (2.25ror):'.;Xn; ]',:,i'li:.', r. nu!b!! of bot!! . r(21.0)/2.Er r 26,s
Itr@. lhtt the hydrosEatlc.n.t fo!c. the ssskr r. dcal&r hydros$tl" leactron, .rd "-l'-1:.'lr*tl"'
to
22 lnch

tly h r 3,00 1!. tly R.2.00 1n. trrC.24,0in.

t?y 24 bolr!

''
5. 5.

:"ffi;:3df,?il,;ioi?o':;oii

dl&re!' rle assue.r *.,;,;,;--';,:,:;jil,I,;;i"" " *" - T":t;;;;T"i;", .'".,

3. elr2 - (Lr2)(0.s63 + 1.0) - .?82 4. fo! th crttlcat s.ctlon !t 15,875

:Ti",*'" cobP.rlB favolablv $lth (thlB

24)

. ,.",o-

raBbr te.ctloD - L8,B6o_(U2a\ G/4) (zz2) <szsj 7. bendlEt Dooent at crlttcal lecrlon

Auo,ablc bott road on scior =

"oo,"roro!

;;; rii.-iiii-tl,(,lj:'i:1,;,':.l;i(ii:ffiiiio.l.,";;

1",,.n ", "(20,!oo)j0.443) -'ir,ruo ]'o.nrn " - 18,800 _ 8,330 - ,o,rro,*.n*,

18.43s) (uA-s2)

8. cdlcutatld thlck!rcse for taillat fl

12,o0o

- (18,860) (Ll2) (24,o - 18.438) - (ro,53o)(r/2)(22,00 - 52,500 - 18,750 - 33,850 tb. tu.

(33850)

/(r/" u.,rii.t,,

JT'r]il"""' %'
:,
usrirr

uc/r'

calculatsd lhlc*ness !o! lolrglrudlnat nub 6E!.s6 (12,000)(r.5) - (33.850)lQ/5)(2,42r(s,2)

10. rv16e

..t - 2.65 tryt.2.75

1'l.
1n.

(UA_52)

estbateit ftange

aI - 2.00 h c. 15.875 + 2(2,00 + 1.875) R - 1.875 1n A - 24,525 + Z(t.25) h - (3)(2 -.563) .4.31 .ay 4.50 1!.

dlDcns1ons

e.z _ q,aa & 8I - 2,15 tn.

24.625 1n,
27

-I25 tn.

663 APPiNDIX

Bllnd Flange for l8-Inch Manway Flange

I,

!r@

uG-34

(c)(2)r t -

rld/s + t ' 78!nrc/sd3

',

F&'

uc-34(J)

( 2r.13-r

SZ

Fro6 shect IO: n

' 453'000 Ib' :!'c' QI2) (24 '625-2L'133) ' r'745 16' d ' G ' 21'$3 1!' B ' 184'000 lb'
17,500

3. rroD shcet 1: s -

Psi (sA-181 c1'6s

?O

forSlot)

r- 525 pri t!op.!.tu!.. @! g.rr.., #'rat tqge.ro:. Fl"tD r z?'aD

pcrrurc,

DESICT COIIDIIIOI{S

- O.3o

UG-34(d)

2.359

rddlat cortoslo! lltotaoce 5. Sk.tch of bllniM!!8'

2.359 + 0.061

2.422

u6 2-112 thlcls"63

2-114

b. dla., sPot face fo! Euts I-5l8 lD. dla.

2-Ll2 La,

1/4 tn.

a,zt6
AT,LOI'A3II STRESSES

II'IESS

CAI,CI'IJITIONS

lolgl.tudtral

- (fu) /(r.e !!dl.el fLrs. .tr!!!, sR - (x)/(!t") hub

.tt.!3r

S"

!raa6!t.l fhng. !rr...,

S-

- (nt/

3,Zoo

664

APPTNDII

APPENDIX

66!

Dolo Shca for Relnforcement Calcula ons (UG_37. .40)

1. sh.u ..-.fl..t-{ !p.cl fy)

Manway Rinforcement Cslculations for l8'Inch D' Alternate Method: Load Calculations Based on Nozzle and Vessel O'

d..cllPtlod:

d..lar p!!!su!. ,.. .. .... .. p 525 e.r. loht .fflc1ncy , ,.. .,.... E 0.85 Drtbuo .llor,!bt. lticls ......,.,..... ,..,...., s 17.500 prt corroslon alloe.rc. 0.063 1n. lDltd. r.d1us of .h.Il,--elr-rr-qr erora r.Cr--, e- .lsr,-^t.-n .Fh.-1o.1 ---r.a&.-(!p.clfy) .bcfolc corro.io! atlorarc. 1. lddcd ..,,.,., a, L, K.D t8 1p. .. !oEl 1 thlchr.!3, .xclulive of corroslon ltloelnc. . . . . . . , . ....,..,. 0.687 ln. Elnlelr !qut!.d thtches3 (!.fe!cnce uc_27) .! .hc.r 4 . ... ., ,... . t! 0.550 1n.

*:f+:+:i*tr!lsr,-_cr!!b""1d.d.,.,t ""1@,

1.

roral(load

i:r5!iliig,r'"-

rld

of !'rEfolcaleEt
or retiro'!c'eit

. . -

333'000 1b. 192,300

''

""'tfi.9i HTlJ:li",S:$,*'a ,.'.'""til,?i ?fi:l:;:li ii::tt.;'*' salr'!hlcraeE6 .. -* E*i"tJd ""-t. ".u['j..'i,;'e6su!' ln Dozzl
(s25) (18) (1.72)

]!.

10,310 1!. 9,450 h rb. 16,260 rb. cot!.

'. "'.Ti!o8i ?;;"b'?i:,;llo;i"'o' (.500) (z) (1.72) (15,000)

v'63'r r'au

tbtckncss

.
. .

15, 000 h 1!.

25,800
1.5,860

1!. co!r. lb, .6t. $' cor!. lb. .5t. t!. cor!' h.2 cst'

".''iii.!Li"i"ti,$l-;:llii;,'": :":":::* iio:iioi - is,iso r.rzl'10,310+ e'550

.xc.33 lhlcla.us

.,.,..r
5A_106. clad

!_r,

0.137

2. Nozzl.

ln

" t- Lo.it to b csrrlcd by rdd'd r'hfolc'Dent 333.000 - 192'300 - 15'660 iillooo - rsz'loo - 19'850 (h ' 1'72
8. Are! tcqul!.d of add'd !'b!o!co'dt
124,840/17,500

19,E50 124'840 120'840

1D')

lrtellal

! r.&t.s ar..l plpe. E :ri!ur! .11@rbt. srr.l3

ur.d

.
,o'b o! . .-.^. ('75) ('7s) (2) (1/2)

?.13

(Sch 40)
r.5.000

ln3td. dl.roete! of flnt6hed oping h colrodd cordltlon . .. . ,.. .,... d roElnat thlcltless a(clualv of colloslon aUorance , , . ...,...,,..... t thich.sr r!qu1!ed for hoop .t!.Bs (UG-27). ,. ..,. .. .. ..... ,.. ,..... . '

17,0 1n,

'' -* :i.'fi"*"";inl',i'i:* '**ii"vi-il4' :ttt?l

10.

rD bv 27'5

r'e1d6

'

'

7't2 ta'Z

:
.

+*16.l!_
134,400

.." - rci:+fu:ilt

ln. .304 ln.

.500

StllDarh of lebforclacnt rdded (7,58) (u,s00) tudth of 6ta of r!bfo!c'D!Dl' h "---"(i:5t(.e87) (Eh16
oa
(

lb.

Skerch

of lltnforceE.rt slrh

dtuen6lopE

and,eldlnr detall

(Uw_15._15._18)

'
'

1.72
1'25

1r'

tover's)

bE

1.72 1n.

2.5) (.500)

p1u6

rdd.d

'.*. ' l:ti

tr, =.SoO

t-r.=.'b4
,60
tl+ DIA

o'tal t"ovc'l road calcd.lEeil to hev' t'1'td 1n th'

snlo|Al!

(52l) G7.37512)(L8) fo! t'lDStrcDAth ot Detal ,! vcss?l vall ivs11abl!

(,13?) (34-18) (17'5oo) StlcEgth. of nozzle 'sll
38,350

lb.

'vru!bl' str.dSth of rdil"d lctufolc'oc[t

fo! reinfotc'ocot

19,860

r!,

lotal 6t!$tth - I9?,-0!!-l!. the load calculated to b.cau6e the total 6tt'ngth trced6 the il.31F 16 GatlgfactorY hsr,e :(16t.d 1n th. lcta1 r'oov'o t

134.400 1b.

c66
APPENDIX

&,
ln Dished Head Relnforcement Calculatlon for 4'Inch Nozzle *ca of !'lhfolc'Dent

Dota Sheet for Relnforcement Calculadons (UG-37, .4())

1. sh.U or H..d (sp.cltv) o..cllptlonr dbhd, 27 tach crorrn r.dlus.

d.slgn pr.s!u! .,.,.............,_

4 lnch tpuckt rldlus

525

rolnt rrlcr".cy . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . : ::: ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' P E E'<ite .lro$sbte . .....,,,................. ".,""",... ",.,... :,'''''''''''''''''''''''''''' s corlos1on ellorance . .....,.,.....,.. c rnsl.e redlu. or she11, o! ,,",." ;;;';;;;";: ;_.;;;;;"'.. tphellca]

p.{l h,

t7.500 prl
0.063

'''"Eli?iL;?,:i"i:!;t':*ii' '. ..i::i!l(;:,i;.: f!l"-,ift.;''!et.torc"e" ,. ".i::i!},::;":"1:;iii,f;:il hcrd e'r'1'chlct$esa

4. Iolit crrrl.d by lotzle tr1l 'lu' to P!t'6ur (525) (4.50) (b) 6t!en8th of nozlle erU outBlde of h'rd thlcv'lle63 5.
1n

. h .

56,600

Ib.

3t,200 tb.
5,110 Lb. 2,350h

not'le

;:$": .' .: H*lll"L!i";'i1"""1:'x;:uc-37(b)' uA-4(d) :: ::

E

radlus (!p.crfy) beror corro6r.or itro,aac add.d ,. ..... .. ,. ,. ..

Ib.

1s

' r, !t. 1

"""'

:: t'#*
t! ll*
15.000

(.2?4) (h) (2) (r5,Ooo) 5,140 + 4,020

8'220b Lb. 11,000 9,160 10,400 13,850

6. 6tt.Ee!h of Dozzl. r.11 rvrtl'bl' fo! r'1Efolc'Deal ('3!' h'1) "' .'i,iii"iielito--

z,rso)c')

]b. .3t. lb. .o!r. Ib. crt.

cxce88

t-t! 2. Nozzl """"1"" eat.riat used: saplss ,tett ptpe. S4_106, clade B, schedule 80 Da:(letrD aUoralte st!!3s .. ,...,.. s lns1i'e i,rsDete! of frEtshi, .".,,;;.;;.;;;;.; ;;;;;;;;.....:..: d DcelDar. thrck..s. e*.lusive or ..r;""r"" "rr*"--^:-,hlcknes. rqu1led

thlckle6.

''

.rE!ffi:E - i-#-4j+Ar=-sEi

load to b.

crrrl.d bt tildcd rebfotc'ocnt

5E,600

33:333 : 8i:i331*;13!'10,400/15,000

{4,740

lb, corr. b. Itt

rr.! t!qu1r.d of tildcil tclafolc"

!!

0.694 6q.

p.r

a'eldt Fc! of rclDfolc.lcnt u!.d: ts 5/8 tnch f1l1'! of h'rd cxtcnsto! on Eo22]' Inlld iiJa.'.iii'i-rr""

3.9s1 1p.

ldcldEr aor21.:

(.525) ( ' 625) (' 5) (4) (.625) ('274) (2)

.781

.342 sq.
18,810

tq. b. b.
lb'

,.

'' "sric--s'l' '- - GE{"',u -.##Ifi.rrtft%, .L *# .

o*"
:..

.,

**,"'iiXl,i']lllll......:.

:..

vtil!.h of r!.. o! t.bfotc'o'!t'

<2.5)

"ii98il tii,iSS'i'iS?i,iili3',
(274) i loril crlcul.t.d to h|vc 'ttl!!'d 1r !b' E !!I t'Dovil G2s\ /.rl2' (27 + 1.25)(4.50) .r?.nrrh of Dc!41 h herd rve1llble to! lelnfolc'ocnt - -i,z-igl
<t. poz

0.565 14. 33,400

sr@s!,

Ib.

t'50)(17t5oo)

14.

.!rc!8th of Dozzlc aall tv'tlablc strcaEth of !.ld.il r.l.folcr[clt b.ciuse th. tot.l strGrtth of thc dlsis! ls .!!l3f'ctorY

to! t"nfo!"o'Dt

13,050 1b. 9,150 1b. 18.810 lb.

411020

41,020 10. !ct.1 itlcntth th lold of 33'400 tb' lb' Gxc'ed6

. ^to

APPENDIX
,

MATERIAL SPECITICATIONS Tubes

Seamless CARBoN

STEEL ASMB SA-179 cold drawn' ASME SA-210' sPecifY grade'

APPENDX E

r,ow ALLoY

T**

i:MB it-?33;

,o**

o"u".

SAMPLE OF VARIOUS MATERIALS FOR PROCESS EQUIPMENT

llrcs AIIoY STEEL ASME SA-213'

NICKEL AND NICKEL ALUI,flNUM

specify grade'

grade' ASME 5A-268' sPecifY

A[oY ASME 5B-163' specify alloy and and ASME SB-234' specify alloy AND ALLl4I\ruM ALI'oY
temPer'

temper'

coppER AND coppER

ALLoy

iiil| |i.lll, |fl-1,il llli ill lilill.

Welded
CARBoN

resistance welded' STEEL ASME SA-214' electric

SA-249' specify grade' HIGII Au-oY STBEL ASME

ShelIs,Chonne|s,Covers,F|ootingHeods,TubesheEts,ondF|onges
PtPe CARBoN
G^rade B or Grade A' STEEL ASME 5A-106 seamless' A' ASME SA-53 Grade B or Grade

SA-335' specify grade' I-ow AILoY STEEL ASME

IIIGH

A[oY STEEL ASME

54.-376' specify grade' ASME SA-312' sPecifY grade'

ALUMnfl,\4 AND ALUMINT'M

A[oY'

and ASME SB-241' specify alloy

temPer.

668

Coppen AND coPPER

ALLoY' ASME SB-42'

.

ASME SB-43, sPecifY temPer'

ato
Plat

APPENDIX
Foryings

671

CARBoN STEEL. ASME SA_2g5 Grade C for plates up to 2_in. rhick.

ASME SA-S15, specify grade. ASME 5,{_516, specify grade.

CARBoN STEEL.

ASME SA-105 Grade I or II' ASME SA-181 Grade I or tr' ASME 5A-266 Class I or 2'

Low Au.oy STEEL. ASME SA-204 fuebox quality, speciry grade. ASME SA_203 Grade B firebox quality ior plates to 6 ft thick. ASME SA_387, specifi grade. ASME SA.357
IIrcH Au.,oy STEEL. ASIVIE SA_240, specify type.
NTCKEL AND

L,ow AND IIIGH Au-oY

SrBEL' ASME SA-182' specify gpde' ASME 5A-336, sPecifY class'

ASME 58-160' specify temper' ASME 58-164, specify temper and class' ASME 58-166, spcify temper'

'

NICKBL AND NICKEL

AIr-oY

Nrcrcr Ar,roy. ASME 58_162, specify ternper. ASME SB-127, specifu temper. ASME 58-168, specig temper.

ALUI"ff.IUM AND ALUMINUM

ALLoY' ASME SB-247' specify alloy

temper.

and

Bolting
Stu/s artd Stttd Bolts

Al-ulvrtrutvr AND AruMtrnM

Aury.

Emper.
CoppER AND CoppER

ASME SB_209, specify alloy and

Arioy.

ASME SB_ll, specify type. ASME 58_96, specify alloy. ASME 5B-169, speci$ alloy and temper.

Au,oY STEEL. ASME SA-193, specify grade'

NICKEL AND NICKBL ALt

oY

ASME SB_171, specig altoy. ASME 58402, specify alloy.

Castings
CARBoN STEEL. ASIVIE 5A_216, specify grade.

ASME 58-160' specify temper' ASME 58-164, specify temper and class' ASME 58-166, sPecifY temPer.

ALu\,m{uM AND ALUMINUM

ATLoY ASME SB-2 I 1 '

temDer.

specify ailoy and

Nurs
CARBoN STEEL. ASME SA-194 Grade

ASME SA-352.

2H' minimum requirement'

grade'

l,ow Alroy STEEL. ASME SA-217, specig grade.

ASME SA_352, sperify grade. IIrcH ALLoy STEEL. ASME SA_351, specify grade.
CoppER

AIIoY STEEL. ASME SA-194, specify

NICKEL AND NICKEL

ALLOY. ASME 58-160, specify temPer.

' ASME SB.IS'

ALLoy. ASME

58_61 valve bronze.

specify temPer and class. ASME 58.166, specify temPer.

ASME 58-62 cast brass.

GRAY

IRoN. ASME SA_278

specifY alloY and ALUm{uM AND ALUMn'rL'4 ALLoY' ASME SB-211,

rcmper.

Class 30.

ALUTTNUM AND ALUMTNUTVi ALLoy. ASME 58_26.

APPENDIX

AND UNDER THE ASME BOITER APPROVAT OF NEW MATERIATS

PRESSURE VESSEL CODE

A. Code PolicY to ASME 1. It is ttle policy of the s""ti* Boiler and Pressure Vessel.Commiftee '' n onlv such Specifications that have been
;d.il;.'i;;il.ion
in

APPENDX F REQUIRED DATA FOR MATERIAL APPROVAL IN THE ASME SECTION VIII CODE

2.

for Testing and Materials adopted by the Amencan Society will normally be for lt is expected that requests foi Coat approval For other materials' Sp#fication. materials for which tn.r. ,.'t'nSiV to develop a Specification which can request should be rnuO" to 'CiTN{ Le^oresented to the Code Codmittee'

B.

MechonicolProPerlies

fumish the material'-the inquirer shall Together with the Specification for sfess values for to but" ailoyalte the Committee with uO"qout" ouil-on-*ttl"h ible' The data shall include values of ultimate inclusion in the applicable stress and stress-

l.

strength' il;;;;dd."l.futh, reductio;i;a' elongation' creep and welded joints over the.lang:-1f-.temperatures rupture strength of base metar etty at which the materiut i, to u" ot"O' ue'fuiii the tensile properties strouto toushness in the proposed
healt

Seriice experience in the

Committee.

'ung" temp;;a;iunge

ii"titt

Ott"tiu"o'

treatment that is required to produce Adequate data,on the notch temperatures must he furnished' contimpluted witl be usetul to the

sfess-strain curves (tension design temPerature desired'

2'Ifthematerialistobeusedinvesselstooperate.underextemalpressure, of titp*1ti*l shall be fumished for a range

"t

C.

WeldobilitY

intended data on the weldability^of material The inquirer shall furnish complete tests and performance 'qlalification for welding including <lata on piocedure secton w-etaing tests shall be or made in accordanc" *itr' t'" "qliitt"nis which the material is to be used'

i" made over the full range tr friJt""tt

Pertinent information, such

il;ount ffi;;;; D. PhYsicol Chonges

to ar ul t'"ut tt"ut-"nr.Jequ]red: -suj::etibility given' material shall be in *elding the or "*p"ti"nt"

672

characteristics and the degree of -^i It is important to know the structural stability i"tpttutut". of new materials' The retention of properties *itft "-pJt*t treatas forming' welding' and thermal influence of fabricution p'""ui"i totft of the material Jo"iiltty' .-d ti'tt":At:: ments of the mech*i""f p"p"tt[t ' encouni"r'"i" a degraclarion in eroe-el::.Tav be coolor heat Eeatment' *n'ges of exposure tered. Where particot' t"tp"'ut*"

;fi.i,ilil;il"'i"irv

6f4
ing r0tcs, combinetions of mechanical working and thermal treatmenh, cotion practices, and so on, cause significant changes in the

material.

properties, microstructure, resistance to brittle fracture, and so on, it is of prima importance to call attention to those conditions which should be avoided seryice or in the manufacture and fabrication of parts or vessels from

E.

Potenls

The inquirer shall state whether or not the material is covered by patents and whether or not it is licensed and if licensed the limitations on its manufacturt.

APPENDIX

G
G

F.

Code Cose

In exceptional circumstances, the Code Committee will consider the issuance of a Code Case effective for a period of three years permitting the use of a material provided that the following conditions are mec

OU NOC-T NE F O R P ROV I D I N P ..-DATA .

l.

ments described in B.

The inquirer provides evidence that a specification for the material ic before ASTM. The material is commercially available and can be purchased within tho specified range of chemical and tensile requiements and other require-

FOR CODE CHARTS -FOR EXTERNAL PRESSURE DESIGN

The inquirer shows that there will be a reasonable demand for the materif by industry and that there exists an urgency for approval by meang

of a Code Case.

conditions for delivery, heat teatment, chemical and tensile requ Ements, bending properties, testing specifications and requirements, workmanship, finish, marking, inspection and rejection.
5.
The inquirer shall furnish the Code Committee with all the data specified

The request for approval of the rnaterial shall clearly describe it in ASTM Spelincatiol including such items as scope, process, manufacturc,

foll,

inB0oE.

675

676

APPENDI

aPPENDIX

677

reliable data.

develop or evaluate the required data. Consequently, the SGDE recommends thc following procedures to be followed in providing the SG with adequate and

On occasion the ASME Boiler and pressure Vessel Committee is rcqucsrctr ((r provide for a new material chan for external pressure design such ai thosc irr Appendix V of Section VIII, Division l. The SGDE/SCD requires reliable rlttu upon which to base the construction of charts. The SG is not in a position to

l.
2.

The nrinirnurn specilied yield strength or yield point (statc which) as given in the specifications for the material. Stress-strain curves representative of the material at the following temperarures:

1,

The compiling and evaluation of material data are rightfully the responsibility of the Subcommittee on hoperties of Me1ds. The threc

(a) Ambient (room) temperature. (b) The highest temperature for which coverage is desired' (c) One or more intermediate temperatures as may be desirable
facilitate interpolation on the chart. Temperatures at some multiple of 100'F are preferred'
The shess-strain curves should extend to at least the 0'37o offset point (to ensure being able to obtain reliable values of the tangent modulus to O.2Vo offset). Consideration should be given to extending tests to higher values of strain for possible future use with stress intensity values in the elasto-plastic range. (This is much less expensive than to run additional tests at a later date.) Stress-strain curves in compression are preferred. It is recomrnended that compression tests be made in accordance with ASTM Specification E-9, Standard Methods of Compression Testing of Metallic Materials' Stress-strain curves from tension tests will be acceptable if there is sufficient background of information to show that there is no substantial

to

2.

the SG Strength-Steel and High Temperature Alloys, and the SC Strength-Nonferrous Alloys.
Upon receipt of an inquiry for a new chart, the secretary should refer the inquiry ro the appropriate SG of SCp. The SG shall ditermine whether or not adequate data are available or whether the inquirer shall be requested to supply the required data. The SG should screen and evaluate the data and forward them to the SGDE with their commenrs or recom_ mendations. The Materials SG should clearly identify the material and define its use as to product form and, where applicabie, any restrictions on the method of fabrication of the completed pressure vesiel (i.e., heat

subgroups involved would be the SG on euenched and Tempered Steel,

3.

heatment or welding limitations). It is sugested that, to expedite processing of inquiries, a specific individ_ ual might in some cases be designated as the member iesponsible for liaison with SGDE. This member would be responsible for the transmission of approved data to SGDE.

difference between the stress-strain characteristics of the material in

3.

tension and compression. Data should indicate whether tension or compression tests were made. The expected properties of the material at the temperatures described above, for material having the minimum specified properties, are as

description of the data required for proper preparation of the design charts _ _A follows. It is felt that these are minimum requirements for the preparation of reliable charts. The use of so-called typical stress-strain curves based on a statistically significant volume of data may be satisfactory if the region between the proportional limit and the yield shength is accurately reprisented. The developrnent of the tangent modulus in this region is a critical step. It is suggested that this description be prepared in a form suitable for attachment to any requests for material data from an inquirer. A copy follows of a description of the method used to derive the material curves on the charts directly from the laboratory stress-strain curves. It was felt
that this procedure might enable the Materials Subgroups to better evaluate our data requirements. The balance of the lines on the chart are functions of the geometry of the vessel, and so do not change with material of construction.

follows:

(a) Yield strength or yield point (state which). (b) Proportional limit. (c) Elastic modulus (state whether by the dynamic method
4. 5.

or from

stress-strain curves). The condition of the material as stated in the specifications, for example, annealed, hot finished. cold drawn. temper. and so on' Stated whether intended for welded construction. The above data should properly include the effect of the heat of welding on the properties of the rnut".iut. It it acceptable in such cases to use data for the material in the
annealed condition
.

6.

DATA NEEDED BY THE SG EXTERNAL PRESSURE FOR THE PREPAMTION OF CODE CHARTS FOR EXTERNAL PRESSURE DESIGN
For the use of the SG on Strength Properties and the SG on Nonferrous Mate_ nals.

The inquirer should supply data from at least three specimens at each temperature and that these specimens should preferably be taken from more than one "production lot" or "heat."

,.Q

^i

iiri .t:
ir

APPENDX

H
"i?

CORROSION CHARTS

I
i:t

i:t

trl

t"t
I

I rl 1"t

t"l
|

8l
31

l;t
l3l tl

rl

t^t
3l

!l il

't"l tI

,t .:t

't"l
.-".;*,
'" ,,",^, .,

"

'

"..

:Y:l;:li":i "'"" """"^'".'"''"'"

""

Corro3ion chorls courtesv

o( t}E Nooter CorPototio'' St l-oois' Mo'

678

679

': l.

:X:l'..i::

,,i..'-:''l':

6l

tt

iI

;tl
ri

':

ti

rlll r ll'i il i

'1.'ll

il I i

i !

;
.:-ll

ill:il:lilt
ti
i
t::
t^""

lr ti lit
i
tw I
,G

li

li tl
ti

i
.i

ii

rii ^",1

*l :l

Ti

;r*l%

"l .!l iil

Ti

it tl

IT

il
680

t; t:

68r

;{

APPENDIX

VARIOUS ASME DESIGN

EQUATIONS
l l
I

i..
:l!:9,
l

lrl

ll
l

642
683

+l* +l& EE qt aa v) &l a.t {l

u'^

El sl

ol +l* 6dt l
r..t |

ql ol
ill =l vl

+l&

I :l 8
c.l
I

qt ol
JI[.l
I

t-.

nl al ol*
@l

oll

^l

C]

-:t wl

q,l

U^ \l

/rl

cr

il r-l c-l

?l

RI

xl ..

oqlg

o16
lle.l I

el

Tl
EI

AI

{il

Fd
li

9^ ='d fte

sl?
ta(

l.E le

*F $l? IE la

l&

lo -lg

11

ul*

q)

afu
fr.

sl+ nl? Hl; lo< la< lo

n[ nle ;l: Klt

l\ lr rr lE
lc^l

r* ls "l;
lll @lo

ro

(l)^ !.= v (ir

re lt lft rl? rl? Rl? lu lH

lH

gII FII

sl*

lft
R
ri)

3
cil

rq l* lt la ld ^lEl; El* dlL

lr-

lu lR

El* Fl+
tca

> t> \ .it., !1 ld

lc.l

t?

lR

l+

ltrl
l?r
lc.l

g, F* F,

gest

$e

E E --^S* E E $ *EEl" H* Bg $e :t $Eg 'l tE .i

:l

685

6U

Toble

J.l

Roundobouf
S

lt

Full X-Royed

FULL
F
L

POT

X-RAY

X RAY

SEAMLESS SEAMLESS

SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
L

FULL
X-RAY

SPOT
X_RAY

J, E.

t.o

.85

t.o
looo/o

t.o
too,/o
Ot

HEAD

s, .R

too%

loo%
I.O

APPENDIX

JOINT EFFICIENCY FACTORS

SHELL

,=
qQ
Y,',

J.E
5r

t.o too%
t.o

l.o

.85

too%
t.o

rco%
t.o

looY.
.85
too%

2!) J.E 2
z
9

too%

o/ IOO/o

too%

Toble

J.2

Roundqbout ls Portiol X-Royed

n
L

SEAMLESS

FULL
X'RAY

SPOT

X.RAY

SEAMLESS SEAMLESS

SEAMLESS sEAMLESS SEAMLESS

L

FULL

POT

X-RAY I,O

X. RAY

LJtrAN

J. E.

t.o

t.o

.85

I,O

too%
ia
6

too%
t.o
too%
.85

too%'
l.o

rco%
LO

too% .85

J.E
s,
''E-

t.o
rco%
.85

,=
29

too%
.85 too%

too%
.85

na%
Q5

SHELL

=ii
o

J.

E,

== tz

no%

too%

rco%

too%
697

Tobb

J.3

Roundqbout

lr

Spor X-Royed

ll-

NO

X-RAY
SEAMLESS
L

5EAIVLEsS SEAMLESS

FULL
X-RAY

SPOT X-RAY

HEAD

J, E. sf .R

.85

LO

t.o

too%
LO
^-O/ 6) /o

63 lo .85 too% .85

6)./o
R5

APPENDX

J.E
>=
q
u-,

^t^

SHFI

roo%

zi" J.E

.85

.85

56

too%

too%

too%

SIMPLIFIED CURVES FOR EXTERNAL LOADING ON CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

Toble

J.4

Roundobout ls Not X-Royed

SPOT SEAMLESS sEAMLESS
FU

tA
D

SEAMLESS

X- RAY

tL SEAMLESS SEAMLESS

LL

SPOT X-RAY

X- RAY

J. E.
TI-EAD

t.o
6U /o

.85

t.o ^-o/ 6) /o
85

t.o

too%
t.o

^- o/ 6a /o
.85
tww /o
taao./

cio J.E
qHFI
g<D
I

t.o

== J.E

80%
.70 too%

^-o/ 63 /a
.85 too%

too%
.85

2 i,"

R5
lOOo/o
689

fi
1

G6 2
688

too%

.,Vr|!-.'dp...

"

f{tr

| I tttl

| | ttl

t.o

,,",,'_

Nr

M,

/\,'^ /No : \:

\"
3

z
Bending str$s =

J
Mambrane 3tres =

I(,

[,| tt".ottd"tMcD

#,

K,lNv,i)ld"Tll'l"ll

= -_//
/
0.001
0.

7l-

t0

0.q)1
1.0
|

0.0

0,r0

'1.0

10.o

Figut

K.

'' ,/D-r
t'{o.crt tl6 a @"/ tn)
duc to

an ex".nol cir.",mfrronr'ror mon,.nr ,,L on o circuro. cyrnd"..

figurc

K,2 ,

.mbrono forct N6,a

(d"/'{i.) luc

to on

trLrnol mofieni i'lc

on o cird,,lor

qlindr'

690

691

'.,Mm*--

.,

?rL!!4.

.rrlllltrtr

rrtttttl

| | lll

llrr

t4s
Mo

0.t 0

'".,,**j"ilj;*N
\o
Bendins strels =

c q {
ff, t,nr',

"

lr,rr.,,

* \t

Mombrane stress = 0.01

*"t*,,,, to.rtr7lffi

\T \\''1

0.001

0.10

0.001

0.10

0.0

1.0

r = --js-

,E_r
ro.,girudinor mom.nr

F'o'rrcK'3,{om*r,{k,(d./roducroon.xtlmor

/lt

on o cir.oror cy'indor.

Fig!ru

X.,t

lrt mbrsn tor.e NF,a

(d"t/r.)

'/D.r
doe to on xlrrnol nomcnl 14 on o circulor Eylindar.

692

693

."'!M'RF'*..-

t.o

I -

| | | lll

=\

\
D!,lT
0.10

Eenditg rtre$ =
0.01

tr,

{it(,

N
'lo

Bonding gtre$ =

,(, (ttt',

,00f

;a
\
2(x)

T
'6m

0.001

0.r0

1.0
-

I tl
to.o
0.10
1.0

I ttl
a=

,/DF
Fi$r. K.5 Lnding
mornnt

7"1./6)T
rodiol lood on o cirorhr cylinder' 't'l'/Pon longi|vdlnol

longihdinol arb, ,t{a/P on

frunwrn <uit.

t{(&A du. lo on od.rnof rodiol food P on o .ir.ulor qlindf'.

tl/p

on

Figir. K.6 oxi., l,|,/P on lrolsrt. qxb.

Bcnding mdnGnt

ir(,,it.lu.lo on.xtornol

694

695

'!U;|F

F*--

., --,

"a?.e!.r,ry@!

1.0

I tt

tl

tttl

\.",

ri

t--

lvlembrane 9tr6ss = 0.01

I(, (Nt c.6flnft

0.00t
0.10
1.0 0.001

0.10

1.0

,/aA
Figuro

K.7

rrtemhrone iorce r.,h,a

./87
p on a cirorlor cylind.r

t/p

due io on

.x|rnsl rodiol lood

(rqnw.r.. orh).

Figure

K.8

,rt mbrcnc lorc6 N(,rI/P due io on sxi.rnol rodiol lood

P on

o cirsrlor <ylinder (loqgiludiml

arir).

696
697

-,wF6'-*Converrlon to SI Unltr Multiply English Units

Bv

.,.._.-*".- *rr'w'|
To Get SI Units
Metr

Factor

Ilch
U.S. gallon Foof
Pound mass Pound force psi pressure Bar

APPENDIX

Btu
Horsepower (550
Fracture toughness (ksi

ftlb/s) V-in)

0.0254 0.003785 0.02832 0.4536 4.448 6,894.8 100,000 1,055.056 745.7 1.1 x 106
cF

Metef Metef
Kilograrn
Newton
Pascal Pascal

Joule

Watt
Pa

Vm

CONVERSION TABL

"F

- 32)/1.8 'c
To get

General Conversion Units

Multiply
Foot3

By

Factor
7

.48

U.S. gallon
psi Foot

Bar

14.50

Mile

5280

Conversion to English Units

Multiply SI Units
Meter

By Factor
39.370
264.201
35.311

To Get Enelish Units

Inch

Metef Metef
Kilogram mass
Newton
Pascal Pascal

U.S. gallon food

Pound mass Pound force psi pressure

2.205
0.225

0.m0145
0.00001

Bar

Joule

0.0m9478
0.001341

Btu
Horsepower (550 ft-lbh)
10-6

Watt Fncture toughness Pa

\6

0.9091

ksi

Vin

"c

l.8c +

32

T'

699