!#"%$'&
( *)+-,./10/2354
6!7#8:9<;=>9?9:@AB8DCFEHGJI37K=MLNAO9:@QPH=SR3ITU7VGW8XRYZ9:@37#[H=<8:9\;CH]Q8^7K_:RFCH]Q=SREHCH]38XRY
9:@37#K`a`abc*`edf=SAO9SAg8h@Qij;V9:@37VGW;k9SAU_S;KTmlMT n3GeP3AB;a]Zoqpm@F;KCHra85sVR/9tR+dHABTuTwvK;CH]F8kxHym@F;KAB=
RYX9:@37{z|C9t7V=tC3;k9SAURFC3;VT-lMT n3GeP3AB;a]}yZRFGeGeAO9<9t7K7~RYX9:@37~ym;KC3;a]Ag;KCij;V9:@37VGW;k9SAU_S;KT
vR3_tAU79nwxYRF=MR3Ia9S;VAgCFABCHs9:@37KGYRF=%REH=qEH8^73o
5D5?N5DNQ!kNV!N#NV1} Wh}
Mq
/Kk#3kH
o%aABCH]e;VTBTfPHRF8*AO9SAOF7XABC9t7KsV7K=<8

m n
1
m

xL1@37K=S7
4

Ag8\R3]H]wxa9:@F;V9%8*;V9SAB8*Yun

1 o
12

oMpm@37/EH;a]F=SAuTg;k9t7V=<;KT
Ag8?AgC38h_:=SAgIH7K]eAgCW;#_tAg=S_tTg7Ho%pm@37/]FAB;asVRFC3;VTg8
;KCH]
ABCD
GW779';k9
opw@37
8:AU]37K8
x7:K9S7KCH]37]I37^nFRFCH]
x5;KCH]
x57*AC
V9t7VCH]H7K]
BD
DA
A
CB
IH7^nFRFCH]
xFGW7Q
79%;V9
o
B
P
A F7KC#9:@F;k9
xFP3=SRKF7X9:@F;k9
o
CD = CP = DQ

CAD = 60

o%aABCH]e;VTBTfPHRF8*AO9SAOF7N=S7V;KTf8^RTuEF9SAURFC389tR/9:@37-7EH;V9SAgRFC
x +

L1@37K=S7

btc

 
x
6

 
x
2

2x
3

]37KCHRa9S7K89:@375TB;=SsV7V8:9ABC9t7KsV7K=ZTU7V8h89:@F;KC#RF=7KFEH;VTa9SRX9:@37=S7V;KTCFEHGJI37K=


o pL17VT F7NPH7RFPFTU7N;K=S7N8^7V;V9S7]';K=SREHCH]e;-_tAg=S_tE3TB;=9<;aITU73o%z|CW@3RLGW;KCan1L-;knF8\_S;C
8*A #P3;KAB=<8RYPH7RFPFTU7/7VCHsk;asV7-AgCQ@F;KCH]38h@F;ar7V88hR#9:@F;V9MCHRW;K=tGe8_:=SRF8h8hQ>R3IHR3]nWAB8
;KTuTURL17K]/9tR'8h@F;ar7-@F;CH]F8%LNAO9:@'GJRF=S7D9:@F;CWRFCH7NPf7V=<8^RFCe;V9%RFCH_:73o
oK7k9
IH7-;-YgEHCH_S9SAURFCeYU=SRFG + 9SRW + xaL1@37K=S71
5
AgC9S7sV7V=<8kfxL1@AU_*@e@F;K8M9:@37XYRTBTgRLNAgCHsDP3=SRFPf7V=<9SAg7K8k
U;

YRF=%7K;_*@

f (n + 1) > f (n)
n +


UIa
Y RF=;KTuT

f n + f (m) = f (n) + m + 1
m, n

aABCH]e;KTuTfPfRF8*8*AgIFTg7;VTBEf7V85RY

f (2001)

AB8M9:@37-8^79?RYmCHRFCHc*CH7Ksk;V9SA F7





  

q
M
V V HH

oepw@37W;KTO9SAu9SEf]37'YU=SRFGRFCH7WRY9:@37/F7K=>9SAU_t7K8-RYq;C;_tEF9t7Kc*;KCHsTU7K]+9t=SAB;CHsTg7
ABC
GJ7K7k9<8/9:@37RFPHPHRF8*AO9t7!8:AU]37!;k9
o a=SRFG
xMPH7K=SPf7VCH]FAg_tE3Tg;K=<8
;KCH]
;=S7
D
D
DE
DF
]3=<;L-C~9tRj9:@37jRa9:@37V=19>L1R~8*Ag]H7V8Ko H=SRKF7!9:@F;k9/9:@37TU7VCHs9:@{RY
Ag8#9:@37 8h;KGJ7
EF
L1@AU_*@37^F7V=F7K=>9t7:1Ag8\_*@3RF8h7KCo

o _tRFCFY7K=S7VCH_:75@F;VTBTa@F;K8;\=SREHCH]D9S;IFTg7LNAu9:@
_*@F;KAB=<8KoZpw@37K=S7\;K=S7
]H7kTU7Ksk;V9S7K8Z9SR
9:@371_tRFCFY7K=S7VCH_:73opm@37X[f=<8t9M]37VTg7sk;k9t7-_*@3R3RF8^7V8\@nAB8\RF=%@37K=8^7V;V9;=tIFAO9tn
=<;=<ABT nopw@37K=S7Kc
;KYB9S7K=hx9:@37
]37VTg7sk;k9t7-8:Au9<8
PFTg;_:7V8M9SR/9:@37-=SAgsV@a9?RYf9:@37
]37VTg7sk;k9t7xFYRF=
(k + oq
1)z|C'PH;K=<9SAg_tE3Tg;K=^x9:@3k7N8h7_tRFCH]e]H7kTU7Ksk;V9S7N8:Au9<8MCH7*V9k9tR19:@37D[f=<8t9o -R
1
R31_:_tEHPFAU7K]WIKneGWRF=S7X9:@F;KCJRFCH7-]37VTg7sk;k9t73o
_*@F
;KAB=Mk_S
;CWnIH7aABCH]#9:@37-8h7k9%RYH;VTBEf7V8
YRF=L1@AU_*@/9:@AB8?AB8?PfRF8*8*AgIFTg7Ho





o H=SRKF7D9:@F;V9q9:@37N8^7KFEf7VCH_:71]37V[HCH7]WIKn
yn+1

y0 = 1


q
1
2 4
=
3yn + 5yn

;CH]
BYRF=

n0

_:RFC38:Ag8t9S8\RFCFT nWRYfAgC9S7sV7V=<8Ko

q
o vVEHP3PfRF8h79:@F;k9
x
x
;=S7
8*Pf@37V=S7K8MRYHEHCFAO9q=<;]FAuEH8M;K=t=<;KCHsV7]/ABC#8*PH;_:7
1 9t.R.Ef._*@3B
8^R#9:@F;V9?7K;_*@W8hPH@37KB=S7N
7V8DN7:K;a_S9STN
n'9>L1RJRa9:@37V=<87*V9t7V=tC3;VTBT noXK7k9
IH71;/PfRABC9
REF9S8:AU]37e;KTuTZ9:@37K8h7e8hPH@37K=S7V8kxZ;CH]+Tg7k9\9:@37
PfRABC9S8NRY%_tRFC9S;_S9DIH7 P x
x
o
Cq
. ]H
. .7VCHRa
C9tN
1 Ag8
pm@371TU7VCHs9:@QRYm9:@3719<;CHsV7VC9?YU=SRFG
9SRe9:@3N
7/8*Pf@37V=S7

7K]
IKn
o H=SRVF7X9:@37NP3=SR3]FEf_S9MRYf9:@37-FPEH;KC9SAu9SAg7K8
Ag8?CHRaB9iGJ1RF=S
7D9:i@F;C#N
9:@37NPH=SR3]Ef_S9MRY
t
t
i
i
9:@371]FAB8:9<;CH_t7K8
o

P Ci



D7:K9L17sA F79:@37P3=SR3IFTg7KGe8YU=SRFG 9:@37

RF=S7K;KC ij;V9:@37VGW;k9SAU_S;KT
lMTOnFGWPFAg;]NL-=<Au9<9S7KC %P3=SAuTHb b wxFK`a`aHo Msk;KABC/G/n-9:@F15
;KCHra8%sVRN9tRedHABTuT3vK;KCH]38xym@F;KAB=
RYX9:@37{z|C9t7V=tC3;k9SAURFC3;VT-lMT n3GeP3AB;a]}yZRFGeGeAO9<9t7K7~RYX9:@37~ym;KC3;a]Ag;KCij;V9:@37VGW;k9SAU_S;KT
vR3_tAU79nwxYRF=MR3Ia9S;VAgCFABCHs9:@37K8h7-P3=SR3IFTg7KGe8?YRF=%REH=EH8h7Ho

%$

15!#"
o%FRF=;-PH=<AgGW7

 

!D !N#NV1} Wh}
? Z
#
p
p

RYf9:@37XYRF=tG

&('*),+!- /.10 2435676*

/8

12k + 1

= {(a, b) | a b

;KCH]W
p

= {0 1 2 . . . p 1}

p - (4a3 + 27b2 )}

xTU79

x 0 0
xkL178*;knN9:@F;k9
;KCH]
;K=S7D7E3AO;VTU7VC9AuYF9:@37V=S7
FRF=
(a0 , b0 ) ;KCH]
Ag8X;W(a,
CHRFCHb)
c *7V(a
=SR!,7VbTg7K)GW7KC9 p

8:Ef_*@Q9:(a,
@F;k9 b)
o
0
4
p | (b0 bc6 )
aABCH]#9:@37-Ge;KAgGe;KTfCFEHGWIHc7V
=MRYwpAgCH7KFE3A ;KTg7KC9Mp7kTU|7V(a
GJ7VC9S8Mac
AgC ) o

:




o#aABCH]+;VTBTZYgEHCH_S9SAgRFC38
8*;V9SAB8*YunAgCHs
f (x
xy
Y RF=M7^F7V=|n
;KCH]W7^Ff7K=|:n  
x L1

@37Vy)
=S7 = gA f8%(x)
9:@37N+
8^79M
RYw+
;KTuTff=S(y)
7K;VT



x

{f
(x)
|
x

}
CFEHGJI37K=<8Vo
opm@37NYRTuTURLNABCHsYU;a_S9<8\;K=S71rCHRL-C'AgCe;-GW;k9:@37KGe;V9SAg_t8\_tRFC9t7V8:9
U;'pw@37-CFEHGWIH7V=?RYwPH=SR3ITU7VGW8%9t7V8:9S7]1L-;8
UIa;a_*@'P3=SR3IFTg7KG

n4

L-;8?8hRTOF7K]eIKnW7*K;_S9STOn#YREH=M_tRFC9t7V8:9<;C9<8Ko

U_<QRF=17K;_*@ P3;KAB=/RY\P3=SR3IFTg7KGe8kxq9:@37K=S7QAg8'7*K;_S9STOn RFCH7!_:RFC9S7K8t9S;KC9NL1@3R8^RT F7]

I3Ra9:@'PH=SR3ITU7VGW8Vo

%8h8:EHGeABCHsD9:@37-CFEHGJI37K=?RY_tRFC9t7V8:9<;C9<8?Ag85sk=S7V;V9S7K=q9:@F;CJRF=M7KFEH;VTf9SR

xF[fCH]'9:@37
GeABCFAgG'EHG;VTBEf7eRY
YRF=ML1@AU_*@J9:@37V=S7e;VTOL-;n38X7*KAg8t9S8D;W_:RFC9S7K8t9S;KC9?4n
L1@3RQ8^RT F7]
;KTuT39:@37-PH=SR3ITU7VGW8Vo n

/8
e

xVTg7k9
;CH]
YRF=ZPfRF8:Au9SA F7\=S7V;KT
o RF=
b7Vn=<8
1b
CFEHGJI37K=<n8 x3 x S =
x a1x +ax 2 +x +a
x n xL1@37KT=S7X=9:@3b71
CF2EHGW IH
;=S7-PH;VAg=LNAg8h7
bi
]FAB8:9SABCH_S9o a1 a2 . . . an b1 b2 . . . bn

U;QAgCH]/9:@37-CFEHGWIH7V=?RYm]FAB8:9SABCH_S9%=S7K;VT *7K=SR37V8\RYf9:@37-PHRTOnFCHRFGeAB;KT

f (x) = (x b1 )(x b2 ) (x bn )

UIa H=SRVF7X9:@37XAgCH7KFEH;VTBAO9n

1
n1

n 
X

j=1

aj
S

bj

n
X

j=1

aj
x bj

1
n1
n
X
o
T
aj
>

j=1

bj

 o K7k9
I37+;C ;_tEF9t7J9t=<Ag;KCHsTU7x%;CH]TU79
IH7QAu9<8'_tAB=S_tEHGJ_tAB=S_tTU73o K79N9:@37
Pf7V=tPH7KCH]ABC
AU_tE3TB;=%TuAgCH7NYU=SRFG
9SR
GW779
;k9 O o5K7k9
IH7-;1PHRAgC9MRFC
x3;KCH]
P
TU79
I37e9:@37WYR3Ra9XRYq9:@37JAPf7V=tPHBC
7KCH]AU_tE3TB;=DO
TBABCH7WYUD
=SRFG
9SR+9:@37WTuAgCH7
o OH=SRKF7
QABY
P
9:@F;V9\
Ag8XRFCJ9:@37eREF9S8:AU]37eRY
;CH]
xH9:@37KC AB
x x
;K=S7
Q
O
2QP
B
=
P
BC
D P Q
_:RTuTBABCH7K;K=o

o\K79
IH7D9:@37
6
pRF
n=%7*K;KGWPFn
RF=S]H7V=o%F
TU7x
U;QRF=;/sA F7KC

P3=SABGJ7-_tREHC9SAgCHsDYU=SRFG
x
x

9:@37-8*GW;VTBTg7K8t9P3=SABGJ7
AgC'ABCH_:=S7K;K8*ABCHs
2
x
o

p1 = 2 p 2 = 3 p 3 = 5 . . .

n 10

xFTg7k9

I37X9:@37-8*GW;VTBTg7K8t9qAgC9S7sV7V=%8*;V9SAB8*YunAgCHs

2 r n2

n 4 + 1 < pr

YRF=
x x
x
o H=SRVF719:@F;k9
;KCH]+]37V[HCH7
) ;k
9:@37V=S717:AB8:9<8 Nsx = (sp1 p2 xF 8* Efp_*r1
@/9:@F
9%CH1RFCH71RsY = 1x 2x . . . x pr 
] AOAU]37K8
o
j 1 j pr

p1 p2 . . . p n

UIa\8:AgCHs9:@37N=S7K8:E3Tu9MRYmU;:x[fCH]';KTuTfPfRF8:Au9SA F7XAgC9S7sV7V=<8
p2m+1

< p 1 p2 p m

YRF=L1@Ag_*@

Nj


`

  
  



6!7/@F;F71=S7K_:7kAOF7K]W;/8hRTBEF9SAgRFC#9tR H=SR3ITU7VG 1RYw9:@37/``a` mEH8*8*AB;C!ij;k9:@37c

GW;k9SAU_S;KTFlMTOnFGWPFAg;] <``1 3
%L1@Ag_*@1;FRAU]F89:@37D_t;VTU_tE3TuEH8EH8^7K]-AgCN9:@375Y7V;V9SEH=S7K]
8^RTuEF9SAURFC SK`a` e
Fo

 o H=SRKF7D9:@F;V9
1

+p

YRF=

0<x y1

   ! " #$&%'!)(*+-,-%/.0%213-0%546"87'," 9;:5,)," =<
p

1 + x2

1+

y2

1 + xy

6!7PH=SRVF7{9:@37{ABCH7EH;KTuAu9|nEHCH]37K=Q9:@378:TBAgsV@a9STOnL17K;r7K=_tRFCH]FAO9SAURFC389:@F;k9
;CH]
o
x y FRF0= x xy x1
Tg7k9
x

x y0

F (x, y) =

pm@37VC
F (x, y) =
=
=

L1@37K=S7
G(x, y)

pm@EH8x

F (x, y) =

1 + xy

1 + xy

1
1 + x2

1
1+

y2

p
p
p
1 + x2 1 + xy
1 + y 2 1 + xy
p
p
+
1 + y2
1 + x2
y(y x)
x(x y)
p
p
p
+
p
2
2
2
1 + x + 1 + xy 1 + x
1 + y + 1 + xy 1 + y 2
(x y)G(x, y)
x



p
p
p
p
2
2
2
2
1 + x + 1 + xy 1 + x
1 + y + 1 + xy 1 + y



p
p
= x 1 + y 2 + 1 + xy 1 + y 2


p
p
y 1 + x2 + 1 + xy 1 + x2
 p

p
p
= x y xy(x y) + 1 + xy x 1 + y 2 y 1 + x2
p
1 + xy(x2 y 2 )
p
= x y xy(x y) + p
x 1 + y 2 + y 1 + x2
!
p
1 + xy(x + y)
o
p
= (x y) 1 xy + p
2
2
x 1+y +y 1+x
(x y)


1 + x2 +

zU9%AB8?CHRL7^AU]37KC9q9:@F;V9

!
p
1 + xy(x + y)
p
1 xy + p
x 1 + y 2 + y 1 + x2



p
p
p
1 + xy 1 + x2 1 + y 2 + 1 + xy 1 + y 2

F (x, y) 0

AuY

xy 1

opw@371]H7V8*AB=S7]'=S7K8:E3Tu9YRTuTURL-8Vo


ab
D7:K9qL171=S79SEH=tCe9SRe=S7K;]H7V=<
8 F8^RTuEF9SAURFC38M9SRePH=SR3ITU7VGW8\PH=SRFPHRF8^7K]W;CH]W8h@3RF=<9:c
TBAB8:9S7]QYRF=\9:@37JK`a``+z|C9t7V=tC3;k9SAURFC3;VTqlMTOnFGWPFAg;]+AgC
RF=S7V;fo#pw@37K8h7eP3=SR3IFTg7KGe8L17K=S7
sAOF7VCWABC SK`a` WFab aab N;CH]W_:RFC9SABCFEf7]eABC SK`a` WF a
` oin'9:@F;KCHra85sVR
9tReq7RF=SsV7 ;sV7VTgRFPfRE3TgRF8kx q9:@37KC38x3=S77K_:7NYRF=PH=SRVFAg]FABCHsXEH8LNAu9:@#8^RTuEF9SAURFC38Vo

  

   
 

, 

( ! 5!
n a b (mod n)
ab 1 (mod n)
 " < e6!@37VCj9:@AB8#PH=SR3ITU7VGL-;8'sAOF7VCjAgC SK`a` qab
x9:@37_tRFCHsk=SEf7VCH_:7
L-;K8?8:9<;V9S7]#AgCH_tRF=t=S7K_S9STOn';8
o
ab 1 (mod n)
ab 1 (mod n)
   +
 
  $,"   ,  , 
-! , $   *$+ %  ;:5,-+ %' ,, , <
 o


a
?79t7V=tG'AgCH7e;VTBTZAgC9S7sV7V=<8
8:Ef_*@J9:@F;V95YRF=5;KTuTABC9t7KsV7K=<8
;KCH]
n
ao
b
=S7VTB;V9SA F7VT neP3=SABGJ7D9tR
x
uA Ym;2CH]WRFCFT n#ABY

FRF=;Can#AgC9S7sV7V=

|zgMRF=%7^F7K=|n'ABC9t7KsV7K=

n2
a

xa9:@371sA F7KCW_tRFCH]FAO9SAURFC'AB8\7E3AO;VTU7VC99SR

=S7kTg;k9SAOF7kTOn'P3=SABGJ7X9SR

n a2 1 (mod n)

z|CH]H7K7]wxF9:@37/sAOF7VCJ_:RFCH]Au9SAgRFCeAgGeP3TuAU7V85zgtxH;KCH]J_:RFCaF7V=<8^7kTOnwxFABY|zg@3RTU]F8kx9:@37VCWYRF=
;Can'ABC9t7KsV7K=<8
;KCH]
=S7VTB;V9SA F7VT n'PH=<AgGW7X9SR
xL17-@F;kF7
a

a b (mod n)

;CH]
K7k9

==

ab 1 (mod n)

==
==

ab a2 1 (mod n)

a2 ab (mod n)
o
a b (mod n)


   ymRFCH]FAO9SAURFCW|zgAg8\7KFE3A ;KTg7KC9q9tR

xVYRF=7^F7K=|nNAgC9S7sV7V=

  2 ;:5,6. &!*&4
i

:

qI37X9:@37NYU;_S9tRF=<A :;k9SAURFCeRY

n = pe11 pe22 . . . pe` ` ei 1

|z<zgFRF=7K;_*@

=S7kTg;k9SAOF7kTOnNPH=<AgGW7?9tR

ABC9tR'P3=SABGJ7V8Ko

pi a2 1 (mod pei i )

 
!-vVEHP3PfRF8h7e9:@F;k9Nzg@3RTg]38VoQ6!7WPH=SRVF7Q|z<zghozU9DAg817VCHREfsV@!9SR

:_ RFC38:AU]37K=
o vVEHPHPHRF8^7W9:@F;V9
AB8/=S7VTB;V9SA F7VT nP3=SABGJ7W9tR
ozY?8^RFGW7+RY%9:@37
PH=<AgGW7K8 i x = 1x
x
]FA FAg]Ha
7
x{8*;kn
x
x
x p1 ]AOAU]37
;KCH]
p 2 p3 . . . p
k=S7VTB;V9SA F7VT n1aP3=SABGJ7
x p2x p]33R-CH.Ra.9.]FA FpAg]H` 7 xk9:@37KC a
B
A
q
8
p
a
a + pe11 pk+1 pk+2 p`
9tR k+1o?dF. .ne. zgp
txa`L17-@F;kF7
n

dHEF9JL17;KTB8^R

(a + pe11 pk+1 pk+2 p` )2 1 (mod n)

oN7KCH_t7Fx
(a + pe11 pk+1 pk+2 p` )2 a2 (mod pe11 )
o
e1
a2 1
DR(mod
L 8:EHPHpPH1RF8^)7N9:@F;V9\z<zg%@3RTU]F8kxH;CH]WTg7k9
IH7/=S7kTg;k9SAOF7kTOnWPH=<AgGW7-9tR
o\pw@37KC
n
Ag8=S7VTB;V9SA F7VT n/P3=SABGJ759SR#7V;a_*@
opw@EH8kxIKn#z<zgatxVL17X@F;F7 2
YRF=
a
pi
a 1 (mod pei i )
;Can xAgGeP3T nFABCHs9:@F;V9 2
o
e1
e`
i

@F;F7

a 1 (mod p1 p` )

vVEHPHPHRF8^7-CHRL 9:@F;V9
e1 e2
e` 8*;V9SAB8*[f7K89:@371sA F7KCW_tRFCH]FAO9SAURFCo
n =
zY
xZ9:@37VCmxIKn
z<zgtpxw1L1p7W2@F;F 7 p`2
9:@F;k9Ag8x
o
pei i ) 
ei 3
yZRFCaF7V=<8^p7kTOinw=
x 22
YRF=;CaneR3]H2]#AgC
9S7sV17V= (mod
o
a xa
a
zY
9:@37V1Cm(mod
x3IKnez<zg8)
txaL17N@F;kF7 2
9:@F;V9qAg8x
;KCH]
ei
p
>
2
2

1
(mod
=739tR
i
oqymRFCaF7K=<8h7VT nmx 2
YRF=q;KCan#ABC9t7KsV7K= pi =S)7k Tg;k9SAOF7kTOn#P3p=SiABGJ
o
ei = 1pm@EH8x
8*;V9SAB8*[f7Ka89:@37-1sA F(mod
7KCW_tRFCH3)
]FAO9SAURFC#ABYw;KCH]WRFCFT n#aAuY
]FA FAg]H7V8 3 opw@337
n
2 3
REF9t_tRFGJ7V8\;K=Sn7
x x x x x
x
o
n {2 3 4 6 8 12 24}


a

 4 !  &! 
   +
 
  $,"  ,  ,
-! , $  *$+ %  ;:5,-+ %' ,, , <

o/

H=SRKF7{9:@F;V9!9:@37}8^79RYePfRF8:Au9SA F7ABC9t7KsV7K=<8 L1@Ag_*@_t;KC3CHRa9jIH7
=S7KP3=S7K8h7KC9S7]e;8?;-8*EHG RYZ]Ag8t9SAgCH_S9%PH7K=<Y7_S9%8hFEH;K=S7K8MAg8M[fCFAO9t73o
vVEHPHPHRF8^7DL17-@F;F7-;-PfRF8:Au9SA F7XAgC9S7sV7V=
N = a21 + a22 + + a2m

;CH]

LNAu9:@/9:@37XYRTBTgRLNAgCHsDPH=SRFPH7K=>9SAU7V8

2N = b21 + b22 + + b2n

x
x
x
x
x
K; =S7JPfRF8:Au9SA F7WABC9t7KsV7K=<818:Ef_*@!9:@F;k9XCHRFCH7QRY9:@37
L1@37K=S7
YU=<;a_S9SAgRFC3a8 1 . . . ax m b1 x . . . bnx
AB8\;/PHRL17K=?RY gABCH_tTBEf]AgCHs 0
YRF=
AO9:a
e
;KTuT x x ax /aLN
@ /b bx /a b /b
oe6!
7 8h@F;KTuT9:@37KCP32=SRKF7'9:@F;k9X7^F27K=|n+=AgC19S7sV7V=

=
6 6=
4N
P2
S
_
; CNIH7?=S7VPH=S7V8^7VC9t7K]N;8;\8:EHGRY]FAB8:9SABCH_S9mPf7V=SY7K_S9Z8hFEH;K=S7K8Vo
P >
(2kN +1)2

k=0
A F7KC/;KCan/8:Ef_*@-AgC9S7sV7V=

0 r 4N 1

Ag8MTg7K8*8%9:@F;C

o?vVABCH_:7

xKL17NGW;n/L-=<Au9S7

P =

xkL17\L-=<Au9S7

P
r1
P

AgC-9:@375YRF=SG

P = 4N q + r

(2kN + 1)2 (mod 4N )

xkL1@37V=S7

;CH]'9:@37-TB;V9<9S7K=%8*EHG

k=0

r1
X

(2kN + 1)2 + 4N t

k=0

YRF=8^RFGW7NPHRF8*AO9SAOF7DABC9t7KsV7K= xaAuY
o%zY
xL17UEH8:99S;r7
xL1@37V=S7
t
r1
r=0
P = 4N t
o
t = q K7k9
P 2ui
P 2vj +1 I37X9:@37-IFABC3;=|nW7:aP3;C38:AURFCWRY opw3
@ 7KC
t=

r1
P
P
P

(2kN + 1)2 + (2ui +1 a )2 + (2vj +1 b )2

k=0
j,
P =
P ui +1
Pi, vj +1

2
2

(2
a
)
+
(2
b
)

i,

pm@EH8x

AuY
AuY

r1
r=0

j,

_S;CWIH7N=S7KP3=S7K8h7KC9S7]e;8?;-8:EHGRYZ]Ag8t9SAgCH_S9Pf7V=SY7K_S9M8hFEH;K=S7K8Vo
Uz P
9=S7VGW;VAgC38%RFCFT nN9tR-8h@3RL9:@F;V9Z9:@37K=S7D7*KAg8t9S8q;DPHRF8*AO9SAOF7\AgC9S7sV7V=
;8q;aI3RKF73o
N
AB8?8*Ef_*@';-CFEHGJI37K=hx38*ABCH_:7

;
H
C
]
o
2
2
2
2

d EF9
H
29
29 = 2 + 5
58 = 3 + 7
N o

ez|CX9:@375PFTg;KCH7%L17@F;F7
=S7K_S9S;KCHsTU7V8ZLNAu9:@NP3;=<;VTBTg7VTa8:AU]37K8VoZpm@37\8*Ag]H7V8
RYq]FAB8:9SABCH_S95=S7K_S9S;KCHsTU7V8DTuAU7'RFC+]FAB8:9SABCH_Sn
9\TuAgCH7V8KoXpm@37'IHREHCH]F;=<AU7V8NRY9:@37#=S7_S9<;CHsTg7K8
_tEF9?9:@37#PFTg;KCH7/AgC9SR+_tRFC3CH7_S9S7]Q=S7sAgRFC38Ko =S7KsAURFCJAg88h;VAU]e9tRQIH7
 NABYAO9@F;K8D;k9
TU7V;8t9DRFCH7eRY9:@371F7K=>9SAU_t7K8NRY9:@37
=S7K_S9S;KCHsTU7V8-RFC+AO9S8NI3REHCH]3;K=|no/pm@37V=S7W_S;CIH7
CHRFCHch_tRFCaF7*#=S7sAgRFC38kxH;K8ML17VTuTm;K85=Sn
7KsAURFC38MLNAO9:@WGWRF=S7N9:@F;CQRFCH7/I3REHCH]3;K=|nQ_tEH=|F7Ho
H=SRKF719:@F;k9?9:@37#8:EHG RY9:@37#CFEHGWIH7V=<8NRYZ9:@37-F7K=>9SAU_t7K8DRY;VTBTZCFAU_t7#=S7sAgRFC38AB8Tg7K8*8
9:@F;C
o

0+ + !

9  ,

 ,"$$  +< +


  $,"   ,  ,  -! ,=  + % ;:5,-+ % ' ,,  ,=% 46"87',"  ;: ,
40n

F;_*@DF7K=>9t7:NRYF;DCFAg_:75=S7sAgRFC-Ag87kAu9:@37V=_:RFCaF7:NRF=_:RFCH_S;kF7x;8ABCN9:@37\[wsEH=S7V8
IH7kTURLOL1@37K=S7D9:@37-8^@F;]H7K]eP3;=>9Ag8%9:@37NABC9t7V=SAgRF=%RYf9:@37-=S7KsAURFCW_tRFC38*Ag]H7V=S7]ho



. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .
.... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ....
.... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .

. .
.... ....
.... .... .

..................................................
..................................
...............................
..................................... .
....................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
.................................

....................................................................................................................................
.......................
......................
..........................
.......................
.........................

yZRFCaF7:

ymRFCH_t;F7

&5,-  5" !  5!*& 

_tRFC9S;VAgCH7K]JAgCW9:@37'I3REHCH]3;K=|n!RY;#=S7sAgRFC
x
FRF=?;'8:AgGeP3Tg7#_tTURF8h7]Q_tEH=|F7
9:@375P3;KAB=
LNAuTBTaI375_t;VTBTg7]N; C
 o IHREHCH]F;=|nNPH;VAg=
Ag88h;VR
AU]
(R,
9tR#IH7
UC)
=S7V8hPH7_S9SA F7VT n
ZABY
Ag8AgC38:AU]37
U=S7V8hPH7_S9SA F7VT n'REF(R,
9S8:AU]3C)
7
*o?K79
R
C
I37D9:@37X8h7k9RYwIHREHCH]F;=|n'P3;KAB=<8?RYfCFAU_t7X=S7sAgRFC38Ko?K79
I37D9:@37X8h7k9RYwIHRC
EHCH]F;=|n
B
PH;VAg=<85AgC
L1@Ag_*@J;K=S7'REF9S7K=hxw;KCH]JTg7k9
IH7-9:@37#8h7k9L1@O
Ag_*@J;=S71ABC3CH7K=opw@37KC
AB8
B
I
9:@37J]Ag8 |RAgC95EHCFAURFC RY
;KCH] o+Ra9t7#9:@F;V9\9:@37W8h7k9
Ag8NCHRa9D7KGePF9|nmx8:AgCH_t7'B9:@37
I Ag8;'CFAg_:7#=S7KsAURFCQ;CH]Q;VITBTRYAu9<8XI3REHCH]3;K=|n!_tEH=|F7V8
RFCFTOnQ=S7KsAURFCeLNAu9:@WABCF[fCFO
AO9t7#;K=S7K;/
;=S7XAgC3CH7V=MIHREHCH]F;=<AU7V8Ko
FRF=M;#I3REHCH]3;K=|nQP3;KAB=
x3Tg7k9
;CH]
I37-9:@371CFEHGWIH7V=<8DRY
_:RFCaF7:-F7K=>9SAU_t7K8\;CH]J_tRFCH_t;Fb7X=
F7K=>(R,
9SAU_t7KC)
85RY Bx3=S7K8*Pf7Kv_Sb9SAOF7kTOnwcxabL1@AU_*@WIH7kTURFCHsD9tR#9:@37
IHREHCH]F;=|n_tEH=|F7
o F;_*@QF7K=>9t7:!RY9:@37QR
sA F7KC =S7K_S9S;KCHsTU7V8/_:=S7V;V9S7K817*K;_S9STOn RFCH7
C
_:RFCaF7:1F7K=>9t7:';KCH]QRFCH7#_tRFCH_t;F7NF7K=>9t7:wo5yZRFCaF7V=<8^7kTOnwxw7V;a_*@J_tRFCH_t;F7NF7K=>9t7:eRY;
=S7sAgRFCJ_tRFGJ7V8MYU=SRFG ;DF7K=>9t7:#RYZRFCH7-RYf9:@37-RF=SAgsAgC3;VTf=S7_S9<;CHsTg7K8Vopw@37K=S7kYRF=S7Fx

  $,-

cb = 4n

bB

RF=?;eI3REHCH]3;K=|n+P3;KAB=
F
xmI3Ra9:@J8*Ag]H7V8DRYZ9:@37/YRTBTgRLNAgCHs17EH;V9SAgRFC
7*PH=S7V8h859:@37#8*EHG RY9:@37#;CHsbTg7K=
8D;k(R,
9?9:@3C)
7-F7K=>9SAU_t7K8XRY x3L1@37K=S719:@37';KCHsTU7#;k97K;_*@
F7K=>9t7:1Ag8\_*@3RF8h7KC#9SReI37X9:@37-;KCHsTU7XAgC9S7K=<AURF=9SR
C
R

vb 90 + cb 270 =

zU9%YRTuTURL-89:@F;k9

vVAgCH_t7

L1@37K=S7

(vb + cb 2) 180
(vb + cb ) 360 (vb + cb 2) 180

vb c b =

Ag8?CHRFCHc*7KGePF9|nmxL17-@F;kF7
X

bB

4
4

AuY
x
bO
uA Y
o
bI

ABY
x
bO
BA Y
o
bI

(vb cb ) 4(k 1) 4 = 4k 8

gA 8%9:@37NCFEHGJI37K=MRYZI3REHCH]3;K=|nWP3;KAB=<8?ABC
o
FkRF=7V;a_*@!I3REHCH]3;K=|n!PH;VAg=
RY;eCFAUB
_t7'=S7sAgRFC
xZ;k95Tg7K;K8:9RFCH7eRY9:@37
C)
F7K=>9SAU_t7K81RY
AB8-;'F7V=<9S7*+RYMRFCH(R,
7JRY
9:@37QsA F7KC =S7K_S9S;KCHsTU7VR
8Ko+vVABCH_:7J7^F7K=|nQF7K=>9t7:
RYq9:@37JsA F7KC C=S7K_S9S;KCHsTU7V8-;P3Pf7V;=<8NABC7:K;a_S9ST n+9>L1RI3REHCH]3;K=|n PH;VAg=<8xmL17W8h77'9:@F;k9
o
k 8n
aABC3;KTuTOnwxa9:@37N8*EHG RYf9:@37-CFEHGWIH7V=<85RYf9:@37DF7V=<9SAg_:7V85RYw;KTuTfCFAU_t7-=S7KsAURFC38MAg8
X

bB

(vb + cb ) =

bB

2cb + (vb cb )

2 4n + 4k 8 40n 8

,

, &!=+

o
1
AgCH]X;KTuTPH;VAg=<8RYYgEHCH_S9SAURFC38 ;CH] YU=SRFG 9:@37?8^79RYa=S7K;VTCFEHGJI37K=<8
f
g


9tR1Au9<8^(7kTBYf8:Ef_*@1)9:@F;V9
YRF=q;KTuTH=S7V;KTHCFEHGWIH7V=<8
f
x
+
g(y)
=
xf
(y)

yf
(x)
+ g(x)
;CH] o

 ,"$$  +< +


  $,"   ,  ,  -! ,=  + % ;:5,-+ % ' ,,  ,=% 46"87',"  ;: ,

9:@F;V9

2

zU95AB8X7K;K8<nJ9SRQ8^7K719:@F;V9\AuY
AB8N_tRFC38:9<;C9?9:@37VC
o %8*8*EHGW7
(x)
Ag8?CHRFCHc*_:RFC38t9S;KC9o m7VP3TB;af_tABCHs
IKn
AgC#9:@3f7sAOF=
7VCWg(x)
7EH;V9S
AgRFCm0xaL17-@F;F7

f g(x) + g(y)

g(x)

o
= g(x)f (y) yf g(x) + g g(x)

;CH] x39:@37/=<AUsV@a9?8*Ag]H71GeEH8t95I37/;KTB8^RwxH;KCH]
vVAgCH_t719:@37-TU7kYB9\8:AU]371AB858<n3GeGJ79t=SAg_\ABC
x
y
L171R3Ia9S;VAgC







o |b
g(x)f (y) yf g(x) + g g(x) = g(y)f (x) xf g(y) + g g(y)

p3;rABCHs

x=0

AgC#9:@371RF=<AUsABC3;KTw7KFEH;k9SAURFC/L17-sV79
f g(y)

= ay + b

;KCH]
o}v7k9<9SABCHs
ABC~|-sA F7K8
o
L1@37K=S7
= sg(0)
y = 0
f (b) = b
3EH;V9SAgRFaCJ=
bZf
LNAO9:(0)
@
CHbR L
A F7K8
y=0

g g(x)

= ag(x) + bf (x) bx + g(b)

z|C38^7V=<9SABCHs-;KCH]W AgC9SReb:xL17-R3I9<;KABC

g(x)f (y) + ag(x) + bf (x) = g(y)f (x) + ag(y) + bf (y)

RF=M7KFE3A ;KTg7KC9ST nmx



g(x) b



f (y) + a

g(y) b



;CH] o
x7_S;KTuTBABCHys%9:@F;V9

m
AB8CHRFCHch_tRFC38:9<;C9^xL175_*@3R3RF8h7
y
pm@37VC#L17N8^7K7XYU=SRFGfZLNAO9:@
9:@F;V9
YRF=%;VTBT

y = y0

L1@37K=S7

YRF=%;VTBT

g(x) b = A f (x) + a

A=

8:Ef_*@D9:@F;V9

x

f (y0 )+a 6= 0

x

xL17-@F;kF7
g(y0 ) b o?K7k9<9SABCHs
B = Aa + b
f (y0 ) + a
g(x) = Af (x) + B

x

f (x) + a

o%z|C38^7V=<9SABCHs9:@Ag8MAgC9SR/9:@371RF=<AUsABC3;KTw7KFEH;k9SAURFCmxL17-R3I9<;KABC
o

= xf (y) yf (x) + Af (x) + B

sAOF7V8
xfL1@AU_*@+8h@3RL-89:@F;k9
Ag8X;
3EF9<9SAgCHs
y
=
A
f
x
+
g(A)
xf
+]B
TBABCH7K;K=YgEHCH_S9SAgRFCo\dFne :x Ag8?;VTg8hR#TuAgCH7V=
;=oM
D(A)
RL'x;/
Ag=S7K_S9M_:RFGeP3EF9<;V9SAgRFC/nFAg7VTgf]38
g
f x + g(y)

f (x) =

YRF=%;KCanW_tRFC38:9<;C9

c
(x c))
c+1

c 6= 1

;CH]

g(y) = c(y c)

 "&!

o
1
K79
IH7/9:@37e_tAB=S_tEHGJ_t7KC9t=S7';CH]
9:@37eRF=>9:@3R3_:7VC9t=S7eRY;C+;a_tEF9S7
) o H=SO
9t=SAB;CHs( Tg7
RKF759:@F;V99:@37V=S7N7:AB8:9PfRABC9S8 Hx xa;KCH]
RFC#8:AU]37K8
x
x
ABC
D E
F
BC CA
;CH]
xF=S7V8hPH7_S9SA F7VT nmx8:Ef_*@/9:@F;k9
;CH]
9:@37NTBAB
ABCH7K8
x
xF;KCH]
;=S7-_:OD
RFCH_tEH+=S=SDH
7KC9o = OE + EH = OF + F H

 ' ,,, " ,5 ! "
  :5+ : , 9 ! ,=&!*498 $;,=%!%
 ! 2,* !+%! !%  ( !
 ,5 !3 <,  , ,  
-, ! !, $! 8 ,* $+ + %,-  + $; : ',*<  + %
AD BE

CF

........................................................
................
.

............
..
......... K
...........
A
.
.........
........................................................................................................................................

... ....
..................
... ... ...........
...... ..............
.....
.. ..
..... .. ...... ... .....
.....
.. .....
..... .... .... .... .... ........
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
. . . ..
... ....
....
....
.. ... .. .. ....
...
..
...
....
.. .... .... ..... ........
.
.
.
.
.
...
.....
. ... ... ..
.
...
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
....
...
. .... ... ....
..
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
...
....
...
... ...
.
..
..
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.....
...
... ...
...
.
..
..
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.... E .
...
...
.. ..
.
..
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
...... ..
...
... ...
.
..
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
..
.
...
..
...
...
.... ..........
.
.
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
..
.....
... .......
...
...
.
....
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
..
F ................... ..... ...... ................... .... .......... .....
..
...
...............
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.... ...
... ..
............. ... ........
...
..
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.... ...
...... ..................
...
.....
..
.
.
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
H
.
.
.
.
.....
... .............. .... .................. ... ...O
..
...
..
.
.
.
.
.
............ ...
... ......
............. ..
...
...
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
............
.. ......
...
.
....... .... ...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
..
... ...
... ...............
.
... .
.
.....
... ....
............ ....
..
....... ....
...
... ...
...
.....
.............
..
.. ..
.......
... .. ....
...
....
....
.
.. .. ............
..
...... ...
...
.. .. .......
..... ....................... ........ ...
....
0
...
...... ...
.
.. .. ......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..... .
.
.
D
........
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
.
.
...
...
..
.. C
B ........
A0 .......
... D
....
....
...
.
..
...
...
...
.
.
.
.
...
...
....
.
..
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
...
...
.
....
....
.. ...
... .....
...
.....
... ...
.... ....
....
.....
... ...
.....
...... ..... ....
... ... ...........
....... .....
.........................................................................................................................................
........
...
.....
........
H 0 ............................................................................................. K 0



K7k9 IH7M9:@375_tAB=S_tEHGJ_tAB=S_tTU75RY
ozU9ZAB8ZL17kTBTarCHRL-CX9:@F;k9w9:@37\=S7 f7_S9SAgRFC
C
4ABC
R

Y
B
A
B
T
g
A
K
7
5
8
F
R
C
\
o
D

a
R
S
9
X
7
:
9
F
@
V
;
9
K
;
CH]
0
0 ;=S71RFCJRFP3PfRF8:Au9S7-8*Ag]H7V85RY
H
BC Ag8-;a_tEF9S7*oK7k9
BC
I37_S;KEHH
8h7
IHO
7e9:@37JPfH
RABC9-RY%ABC9t7V=<8^7K_S9SAURFCRY
;KCH]
4ABC
D
BC
x0 K;CH]NTg7k9
;CH]
IH758:AgG'ABTB;=<TOn-_:RFC38t9t=SEf_S9S7]1RFC
;CH]
xK=S7K8*Pf7K_S9SAOF7kTOnZo
OH
6!7-8h@3RL 9:@F;k9qE9:@37-PHRFAgC9<8
x x
8h;k9SAg8:Yun/9:@371_tRFCH]FCA
AO9SAURFC38MABC#AB
9:@37-P3=SR3IFTg7KGo
D E F
xw9:@37'=<;a]ABEH8-RY o
aAB=<8:9^x
+ FH = R
pm@AB8YRTuTURL-8OD
YU=SRFG + DH = OE + EH = OF
K
x

Y
RF=q7:K;GeP3Tg7Ho%RL
0
0
OD
+
DH
=
OD
+
DH
=
OH
=
R
_:RFC38:AU]37K=9:@37PfRABC9S8
;KCH]
x
0 L1@AU_*@1;K=S7X]Ag;KGJ79t=SAg_t;VTBT n#RFP3PfRF8:Au9S7\9tR
0 ;KCH]
=S7K8*Pf7K_S9SAOF7kTOnwxHRFC
oK
pm@37VC K 0 0 AB8\;-=S7_S9<;CHsTg7DLNAu9:@e_t7KC9t=S7
L1H
@3RF8^7N8*Ag]HA
7V8
;=S7JPH;K=<;KTuTU7kT9SR ;CH] AKK
o %H
8-;Q=S7K8:E3Tu9^x
GJ7K7k9<8
;V9 O 0 x9:@37JPfRABC9
AH
BC
AO
BC
L1@AU_*@/AB8M8<nFGWGW7k9t=<AU_S;KT9tR
;aI3REF99:@37XGeAg]Hc:PfRABC9 0 RY
U8h77D
9:@37N]Ag;sk=<;G/ho
D
A
BC
8:AgG'ABTB;=/P3=SRFPf7V=<9|n@3RTg]38'YRF=19:@37 PHRAgC9<8
K
;
H
C
]
k
;
1
9
1
L

@
g
A
*
_
@
;KCH]
0
Ex 0
GJ7K7k9
;CH]
xH=S7V8hPH7_S9SA F7VT no%vVAgCH_t7
x F ;K=S7/_tRFCH_tEHBO
=t=S7VC9^xfym7^CO
; 8
AO BO CO
pm@37KRF=SCA
7KG nAU7kTU]FAB
8

BD 0

-7VCH_:7x

D0 C
CD

DB

CE 0
E0A
BE
EC

AF 0
F 0B
BF

= 1

F A

= 1

dFn!9:@37+_tRFCaF7K=<8h7+RYMyZ7^; 8-pm@37KRF=S7KG+xAu9DYRTBTgRL-8X9:@F;V9
x
x;CH]
;=S7
AD
_:RFCH_tEH=S=S7KC9Mu9:@37^ne_t;KC3CHRa9%IH7XPH;K=<;KTuTU7kTx8:AgCH_t7
x x
;=S7N
RFC/9:BE
@37N8h7skGW7KCCF
9<8
x
D E F
BC
x
xF=S7K8*Pf7K_S9SAOF7kTOnho

CA AB

 !

o
p37KC!sk;CHsk8t9t7V=<8X;=S7'8t9S;KCH]FABCHs'RFC+; f;k958*EH=<YU;a_t7Ho-pm@37e]Ag8t9S;KCH_:7V8NI37c
( 9:@37K)G;K=S7/;VTBTm]FAB8:9SABCH_S9o\vVABGeE3TO9S;KCH7REH8:TOnJ7K;_*@JRYw9:@37KG8^@3R3Ra9<85;k99:@37#RFCH7
>9 L177VCe
;GWRFCHsX9:@37#Ra9:@37V=?CFABCH7NL1@3ReAB8?9:@37/CH7V;=S7V8:9o q9%TU7V;8t9?@3RL GW;KCanQsk;KCHsk8:9S7K=<8MLNABTuT
IH7-8h@3Ra9%;k9:

   +

  $,"  ,  ,
-! , $  *$+ %  ;:5,-+ %' ,, ,o

RY9S7KC
pm@37WP3=SR3IFTg7KG _t;KC IH7e8:9<;V9S7]!GW;k9:@37KGe;V9SAg_t;VTBT n!;8XYRTuTURL-8k
8h7k9
PfRABC9S8AgCN9:@37PFTg;KCH75Ag8sA F7KCopm@37D]Ag8t9S;KCH_:7V8%I37k9>L17K7KCN9:@37VG ;=S7;VTBTF]Ag8t9SAgSCH_S9oqFRF=
7K;_*@+PfRABC9
xHL17e_:RTgREH=5=S7K]Q9:@37'PHRAgC9
CH7V;=S7V8:9\9SR
o
P (Q 6= P )
aABCH]#9:@37NTg7K;KP8:9
PfRFS
8*8*AgIFTg7NCFEHGWIH7V=?RYw=S7]ePHRAgC9<8KQ
o S
DRa9S7D9:@F;k9AuYw;-=S7K]'PfRABC9
Ag8M;8*8*AgskCH7]'U;K8%9:@37N_tTURF8h7K8t9CH7kAUsV@3I3REH=>Z9tR19>L1R
]FAB8:9SABCH_S9\PHRAgC9<8
;CH]
ABC Qx39:@37VCW9:@37/;CHsTg7
G'EH8:9\IH7#sk=S7V;V9S7K=%9:@F;C
P1 G'EHP
P9:1@3
QP
2 IH7'S
2CHRFCHctAg8hRF8^_t7VTg7K8SM9t=<Ag;KCHsTU7

x
H
I
K
7
t
_
V
;
H
E
^
8
7
:
8
X
9
:
9
3
@
e
7
U
T
F
R
H
C
V
s
V
7
:
8
D
9
:
8
U
A
3
]
e
7
g
A
+
C
J
7
U

60
oqzU9mYRTuTUPR1L-P8m29:@F;k9ZCHRX=S7K]XPfRABC9_S;C-I37\;K8h8:AUskCH7K]9SRXGWRF=S7%9:@F;CX[F7\]FAB8:9SABCH_S9
P
QP
1
2
PfRABC9S8MAgC
o
S
K7k9
I37\9:@378^@3RF=>9t7V8:98^7KskGJ7VC9ZLNAO9:@/7VCH]Hc:PfRABC9S8
x
oyfTU7V;=<TOnwx
AB
;CH]
;K=S7D
IHRa9:@1=S7K]o6!7;K=S7XsVRABCHs?9SR18h@3RL9:@F;V9Z9:@37K=S7D7*KA
Ag8t9S8qB;V9TU7VS;8t9RFCH7GJRF=SA7
=S7]JPHBRAgC9o %8h8:EHGJ7-AgC38t9t7V;a]'9:@F;V9^x3YRF=\7V;a_*@JRFCH7/RYm9:@37/=S7KGe;KABCFAgCHs17VAgsV@a9?PfRABC9S8x
Au9<8q_tTURF8h7K8t9ZCH7VAgsV@3IHREH=ZAg8q7kAu9:@37V=
RF=
oqz|CDFAg7L}RY9:@375P3=S7^FAgREH8R3IF8^7V=|;V9SAgRFCmx
B
GeEH8t9I375;8*8*AgskCH7]D9tRXYREH=PHRAgC9<A
8
x
x
x
;CH]
GeEH8t9IH75;K8h8:AUskCH7K]X9SA
R
M
M
M
M
B
1
2
3
4
9:@37/=S7KGe;KABCFAgCHs-YREH=MPfRABC9S8x
x
x
x
oym@3R3RF8^7-Tg;IH7kTBTuAgCHs-8:Ef_*@e9:@F;k9M9:@37
;CHsTg7K8
x
x Nx 1 xN
;=S27eN
8:Ef3_:_t7KN8*8*4A F7VT n!;] ;_:7VC9^x;K8N;K=S7#9:@37e;CHsTg7K8
Mi xa
AM
i
=
1
2
3
i+1
LNAu9:@#9:@37-PfRABC9S8
;KCH]
RFCJRFCH718:AU]37/RYw9:@37NTBABCH7
x3;CH]
N
M
N1
AB
M4
;CHi] BNi+1
RFC#9:@371RFP3PfRF8:Au9S7N8*Ag]H73
o 1
N4
pm@37 ;KCHsTU7V8
;KCH]
;K=S77V;a_*@sk=S7K;k9t7V=9:@F;KC
o
Mi AM
N;Ki=SBN
60
pm@37V=S7VYRF=S7x
;CH] i+1
717V;ai+1
_*@#Tg7K8*8%9:@F;KC
o

V
7
H
C
:
_

7
x

M1 AM4

N1 BN4

(M1 AB + N1 BA) + (M4 AB + N4 BA) < 360

q9%Tg7K;K8:9MRFCH71RYf9:@37N9>L1R'8*EHGe85RFC'9:@37NTU7kYB9%8*Ag]H7
Ag8Tg7K8*8Z9:@F;C
xV8*;knwx
o
180
1 BA
=SRFG @37V=S7'RF
Cmx3L17-L-=SAOM
9t7 1 AB
;KCH] +NABC+
PFTg;_:<
7'R180
Y
M1
;CH]
xYRF=q9:@37N8h;r71RYmI3M
=S7^Au9|no N
NvV1AgCH_t7
;CH]
xD9:@37
;KCHM
] A TB<
Ag7#RFM
CQRFBCH718*Ag]H7/NRB
Ym9:@3<
7/PH7KN=SPfA7VCH]FAg_*c
PfRABC9S8
E3Tg;K=NIAg8hA7_S9SRF=NRM
Y
x;CH]+9:@37JPHRAgC9<8
;KCH]
TBAg7
RFC9:@37QRa9:@37K=X8*Ag]HAB
73o -7VCH_:7xIH7K_t;VEH8^7 B ;CH] N TBAg7
RFCQ9:@37'8*;GW7#8*Ag]H7'RY
xw9:@37'PHRAgC9<8 Mx x Nx
AB
;=S7+_:RFC38h7_tEF9SA F7eF7K=>9SAU_t7K8#RYM;!FEH;]3=<ABTBA
;V9S7K=<B
;VT<o NvVAgCHM
_t7
AB8\9:@37/8h@3RF=<9S7K8t9?8*Ag]H7/RYm9:@37-9t=SAB;CHsTg7
x39:@37
AB
Ag8?;_tEF9t73oqvVAgCH_t7
Ag8MCHRa9q9:BN
@37XTUA
RFCHsV7V8:9
;CHsTg7
BN
A
M
A
8*Ag]H7 AgC9:@37 9t=<Ag;KCHsTU7
xX9:@37;KCHsTU7
AB8
ANRM
;a_tEF9S7Ho?pm@37V=S7VYRF=S7x39:@371AN
ABC9t7VM
=tC3;VTZ;KCHsTU7
Ym9:@37
BN
M
FEH;]3=<ABTB;V9S7K=<;VT
AB8Tg7K8*89:@F;KC
ovVABGeAuTg;K=ST nmx
ABN
M
180
9:@37/ABC9t7V=tC3;VT;KCHsTU7
Ag85Tg7K8*8\9:@F;KC
o5pw@EH8kx
180
Ag8?;1_:RFCaF7:N
#M
EH;aA]F=SAuTg;k9t7V=<;KT>o
ABN M

180

X ..

...
..
..
......
..
.................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
..... ...... ..
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
........
.
... ....
........
...
..
........
...
...
..
........
...
...
..
........
..
..
..... .................
.
...
..
............ ...
.
..
..
.
........ ...
..
..
..
.... ........
.
...
..
... .....
.
..
....
..
....
.
..
.
....
..
.
....
.
....
..
.
.
....
.
..
.... .
..
.... ..
....
...
.....
.
...
..
.. ......
..
.
...
....
..
..
...
.
..
....
..
....
.
..
....
..
..
.
.
....
....
...
..
.
.
...
....
..
..
.
....
.
..
....
..
..
....
....
.
..
....
.... ....
.... ....
... ...
.... ..
.... ......
..... ...
. ... .
...... ....
.
.... ..
... .......
............................................................................................................
...
..
..
...
..
....
...
..
..
....
..
..
....
...
....
..
.
...




yZ@3R3RF8h75PfRABC9S8
x x x
;=tIFAO9t=<;=<ABT n1RFCN9:@375=<;knF8
x
x
x
V;a]FX
M A N B AM BNo
P =SR3]Ef_:7K]+IH7^nFRFCH]e9:@3U
H
7#EH
=SAuTg;kY9t7V=<;KT>o m7_S;KTuTw9:@F;k9
M AB + N BA < 180
pm@AB8?ABGWPFTBAg7K8%9:@F;k9
;CH]

U AB + ABV > 180

XM N + M N Y < 180

K7k9

x
x
xm;CH]
oez|C
=@F;kN
= M N A
x
3
L17#
F7 AB = ABM
x3L1@Ag_*@JABGWPF=TBAg7KBM
8\9:@F;k9 N
x
4N
AB < N B
AN
AB
;CH]wxDAB
9:@EH8kx
o
z|C B < Nx5
L17 =
@F;k
F7
ABV
=AgGeN
4BMxMN
xqL1@AU_*@
P3TuAU7VAB
8/9:@F;k+9 AN B < 2a
;CH]wx\_tRFC38^7Kc
M
N
>
BN
M
BN
>
BM
N
FEf7VC9STOnwx
o %C3;VTUR3sVREH=
8:TOnwx
M N Y =
BM
U AB < 2
;CH]
o 7VCH_:7x N + M BN > 2

XM N > 2

2+2 > ABV +U AB > 180 > M N Y +XM N > 2 +2

xFL1@37K=S7
Ag8?9:@37/PfRABC9\RYZAgC9S7K=<8h7_S9SAgRFCQRY
dHEF9
@F+
;CH] + oW=
6!7J
;kF7W=
;Q_:AZM
RFC9t=<;]FAg_S9SAURFCoJpwZ
@EH8kxAgCH]377K]mxZ9:@37K=S7J7*KAg8t9S8N;e9:@AB=S] AN
=S7K]
PfRABC9BM
o
pm@37DYRTBTgRLNAgCHsD7*K;KGWPFTU7X8h@3RL-89:@F;V9q;NYREH=>9:@#=S7]#PfRABC9CH77K]'CHRa9%7:AB8:9^xa8^R
9:@F;V9
MAg89:@37G'AgCFABGeEHG8^REfsV@a9opw@37\9>L1RD9S;KCHsV7KC9_tAg=S_tTg7K8ABCN9:@37\[wsEH=S7D]A 7K=
8*TuAUsV@a9ST n1ABC/8*A *7HoZpm@37D;_tEF9t7X_t7KC9t=<;VT3;CHsTg7K8;=S7Dsk=S7K;k9t7V=9:@F;C
ovVA XPfRABC9S8%RY

;=S7 UEH8:9;NIAu9REF9S8:AU]37\9:@37D_tAg=S_tTg7K8xV9>L1R1PHRAgC9<8;=S7\9:@37D_:7VC9t=S7K60
8%RYF9:@37D_tAB=S_tTU7V8kxaRFCHS7
PfRABC9qAB89:@37XPfRABC9%RY39S;KCHsV7KCH_neRY39:@37N_tAg=S_tTg7K8x;KCH]'RFCH7XPfRABC9qAB8?RFC19:@37-_tRFGWGWRFC
9S;KCHsV7KC99tRX9:@37X_tAB=S_tTU7V8;V9;N]Ag8t9S;KCH_:7?L1@Ag_*@-Ag88:TBAgsV@a9STOn/sk=S7V;V9S7K=Z9:@F;C-9:@37=<;a]ABEH8%RY
9:@37DTB;=SsV7V=_tAg=S_tTg7Hopw@37NRFCFT n19:@F=S7K7XPHRAgC9<8qL1@Ag_*@NLNABTuTHI37XGe;=tr7]#=S7K]#;=S759:@379>L1R
_:7VC9t=S7K81;KCH]!9:@37JPHRAgC9NRY9S;KCHsV7KCH_no|zYM8hRFGJ7JRYq9:@37J]FAB8:9<;CH_t7K81@F;KPHPH7KC9SR IH7
7EH;KT|xHRFCH71_S;Ce8*TuAUsV@a9ST nePH7K=>9SEH=:I#9:@37-PfRF8:Au9SAgRFC38\RYm;CanePHRAgC9<8%LNAO9:@3REF9M_*@F;CHsABCHs
9:@37-CH7K;K=S7K8t9%CH7VAgsV@3IHREH=<8Vo

;: ,, :

...
. ...............................
...............................................
.
........
.........
.
............
.....
...
... .........
......
........ ....
....
.....
..
.... ..... ........
...
..
....
....
.... ... ....
.
.
.
.
..
... .. ..
...
...
.
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
...
... ... ..
.
..
.
.
.
.
..
....
.......
...
.
...
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
..
........
...
..
...
....
.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
.
....
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
..
.
.. ...
..
...
..
...
..
.. ....
.
..
...
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
....
..
..
..
....
...
...
..
....
....
....
..
....
...
....
....
....
........ ....
.....
... ...........
........
........
............
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
................. ...................
. .......................
.......

 , &!5"

 o
CHRFCHc*7KGePF9|nQ8^79
RY=S7K;VTCFEHGWIH7V=<8Ag8D_S;KTuTU7K]Q;
K8^79?ABYZ9:@37
)x
A
B3
x
x
x
x
;CH]
_:RFCH]Au(9SAgRFC38
a6;
AgGeP3T n!9:@F;k9a9:@31 7Wa8^27KFEfa7V3CH_:a7V48 a5 a6 A;CH] a1 + a2 + ;a=S37e=
AU]37KaC49SAg_t+;VTaEH5P+9SR
(a
,
a
,
a
)
(a
,
a
,
a
)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Pf7V=tG'EF9S;k9SAURFCo/RF=\;'8h7k9
RY=S7K;VTCFEHGJI37K=<8xwTU79
]37KCHRa9S719:@37']FA 7V=S7KCH_t7
X
D(X)
8^79
x
o H=SRKF7D9:@F;V9ABY
;KCH]
{|x y| : x y X}
;=S7NABCF[fACFAO=
9t7-{0
8h7=
Ef7KaCH0_t7K<
85RaYZ1=S7V<;KTwaCF2EH<
GWIH 7V =<8M}LNAO9:@
B = {0 = b0 <xF;bCH
<AuY b2 <
1 ]'
Ag8?; }K8^79^xa9:@37VC
o

.  4 46,*5

D(A) = D(B)

B3

A=B

.  4: &!   $+ 

 

Soepm@AB8-=S7V8*E3TO9AB8-]FEf7'9SR =S]RF
8kxv; =R
<nwx;CH]vRF 8Vo

8hRTBEF9SAgRFC ]Ef7'9SR
EH
=S7K]FA|x *;_*rRF8^_*@wxF;KCH] wEfIH7kTw;P3Pf7V;=<8?ABC
 5b /b

:xH
 ab` fo






:

, , ;:5 ,- &!5" +

o 
z|C9:@37JPFTg;KCH7'L17J;=S7JsAOF7VC9>L1R _tAg=S_tTg7K8NABC9t7V=<8^7K_S9SAgCHs
( ;KCH]
;V9
o H=SRVF7Q9:@F);k9N9:@37K=S77:AB8:9NYREH=-PfRABC9S8#8*Ef_*@ 9:@F;k9-YRF=/7^F7V=|n~_tAB=S_tTU7
9tREfX
_*@ABCHs#9:@3Y7#9>L1R!sAOF7VC _tAg=S_tTg7K8X;V9
;CH]
x;CH]!GJ7K7k9SABCHs/9:@37eTuAgCH7
;k9
;CH]
xa7K;_*@/RY9:@37TuAgCH7V8
x
x A x;KCHB]
P3;8*8^7V89:@F=SREfsV@/RFCHXY
7DRY9:@3RF8^C7
AC AD BC
BD
YREH=%D
PfRABC9S8Vo

   +

  $,"  ,  ,
-! , $  *$+ %  ;:5,-+ %' ,, , <

pm@37#YREH=\PfRABC9S8XRYq_:RFC9<;a_S9RYZ9:@37/9>L1R+sA F7KC!_tAg=S_tTg7K8\LNAO9:@W9:@37VAB=_tRFGWGWRFC
9S;KCHsV7KC9<85@F;kF7X9:@37N=S7E3Ag=S7K]ePH=SRFPH7K=>9nwx3;K8%L17LNAuTBTfCHRLPH=SRVF7Ho
K7k9
I37#;e_tAg=S_tTg719:@F;k9?9SREf_*@37K859:@3719>L1RQsA F7KC+_tAg=S_tTg7K8;V9\PHRAgC9<8
;KCH]
AR!sA F7KB
;CH]!GW779S
89:@37'TuAgCH7
;V9PHRAgC9<8
;CH]
o/pm@37VC
9tREf_*@37V8D9:@37/9>L1
C
_tAg=S_tTg7K8X7kAu9:@37V=I3Ra9:@+7*XY
V9t7V=tC3;VTBT n!RF=5I3RaC9:@JAgC9S7KD
=SC3;KTuTOnZo#z|CQ9:@37/Tg;k9<9t7V=5_t;K8^7xf9:@37/9>L1R
sAOF7VC~_tAB=S_tTU7V8/GW;n IH7Q8*AO9SEH;V9S7] AgC38:AU]37
RF=1REF9<8*Ag]H7
o pw@37QTg;k9<9t7V=-8:EfIH_S;8h7QAB8
ABTuTBEH8t9t=<;V9S7]!ABC!9:@37J]FAB;ask=<;KG
@3RL17^F7K=hx
9:@37W=S7V;8hRFCFAgCHs#9:@F;k9DYRTuTURL-8XAB8D;KTuAU]!YRF=
;CanWRa9:@37V=%8:Au9SEH;k9SAURFCmxKLNAu9:@3R EF9;Can'GJR3]AB[f_t;k9SAURFC38Vo
...
....
....
....
.....................................................................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...........
....
...
...........
.........
....
...
.........
........
....
....
........
........
.
........
.......
....
.......
..................................................
...
.
.
.
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...........
....
....
..
........
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
........
...
.
..
.
......
.
.
.
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.......
.
..
....
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..... ...
...
....
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
.
......
....
..
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
..
..
.. .... ......
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
. .... ....
..
..
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
. ... ....
...
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
..
...
.. ........... .....
....
..
.
.
..
.
.
.
..
.... ... ............... ............ ..
..
.
.
.
...
...... ...
...
.... ...... ...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
... ...
.... ...
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....................................................
...
...........................
... ... .... ....
.......
.. ..........................
..
.
.
..........................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
....
.
.
.
..........................
...... ........ .... ..... ......
..
..........................
.
..
...
.......................... .... ........ ..... .... ..... ..... ...
...
........................................ ........ ...
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
...
........ ...............................
.
...
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
... ... .. ...
..........................
..
.
.
..........................
.
...
...
.. .... .... ....
.
..........................
.
.....
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..........................
.... ..
...
.
..
..........................
.... ..
.....
..
..
......
..........................
.....
..
.............................
....
.... ..
...
... ....
....
. ...............
.
...
..
.. ......
.. .....
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
... ..
....
...
...
....
... ... .....
...
...
...
....
....
... .... ....
...
....
....
....
..
..... ....
....
....
....
........
...
....
.
.
.....
.
.
....
..
......
.....
....
....
....
.... ......
......
...
....
....
....
......
.......
....
...
.......
....
....
....
....
..........................
...
.........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.............................................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
...
..............................
......
......
.....
....
....
..................
.......
.......
... .............................................................
....
........
.......
..........................
...
...
..
........
..........................
....
.........
............................................. ............
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.................................. ...
..
.
......................................................................
.... . ...................
..........................
....
..........................
....
....
...
....
...
...

zU9qAg8?7KCHREfsV@19tR'_tRFC38*Ag]H7V=9:@37DTBABCH7K8
;KCH]
o?K79
GW7799:@37-_tAB=S_tTU7
;ask;VAgC#;V9
x;KCH]#TU79
GJ7K7k99:CA
@37-_tAB=S_tTU7 CB
;CA
sk;KABC';V9
ovVAgCH_t7
(AXY
CB
(BXY )xIKn-9:@37 FRQL17K=RY39:@3C7
TBAg7K8%RFC )
xVL17D@FP
;kF7
CP
CQ;K=S7Q8:AgG'ABTB;=hxAgGeP3T nFABCHs
FRAgC9DpmXY
@37KRF=S7KGopm@EH8CA
x9:@37e
9t=SAB;=
CHsCX
Tg7K8 CY =
;CHCB
]
CAB
CQP
9:@F;V9
o
CAB = CQP
M=<;kL9:@371TBABCH7
9S;KCHsV7KC9M9SR
xFLNAu9:@
TOnAgCHs1RFCW9:@37/8*;GW7/8*Ag]H7/RYTuAgCH7
CR

R xABGWPFTOnAgCHs'9:@F;V9
;K8
o pw@37KC
o
XY
=;k9 CQP
yZRFC38:AU]37KB
=Z9:@37\9>L1R1@3BCR
RFGWRa9:@37k=
9SAg7K8CAB
xa_t7KC9t=S7K]/
;CH]
x=S7V8hPH7_S9SA F7VT nmxVCR
9:@F;k9kGeP
;P Q
RFC9tR9:@37M9>L1RXsAOF7VC1_tAB=S_tTU7V8Kol?CH75RY9:@375@3RFGWA
Ra9:@37k9SAg7KB
8Z9t=<;KC38*YRF=SGW8Z9:@37?TBABCH7
9S
R
CR
9:@37NTBABCH7X9S;KCHsV7KC9%;V9
9SReRFCH71RYf9:@37K8h71_tAB=S_tTU7V8kxF;KCH]'9:@37-Ra9:@37K=M@3RFGWRa9:@37k9|n#9S;r7K8
9SRe9:@371TBABCH7-9S;KCHsVP7KC9\;V9
9tR'9:@37'Ra9:@37V=\_tAg=S_tTg7Ho1dwRa9:@e9:@37V8^71ABGW;sV7/TuAgCH7V8;=S7
CR
Q_:RABCH_tAU]375LNAu9:@-9:@37XTuAgCH7
PH;K=<;KTuTU7kTF9tR
@37VCH_:7xa9:@37^n'
xKL1@AU_*@1Ag8x9:@37V=S7VYRF=S7xF;
PQ
_:RFGeGJRFC#9<;CR
CHsV7VC 99SR/9:@3RF8^7-_tAB=S_tTU7V8Ko




 o

0+ + &! ) AB8eK_>7nF9 _tTuAAU_/AAuY5;.CH.]. ARFCFT njIH7!ABY;7V;a_:_*RF@ CaFF7:7K =>9tPH7:RTOnFsVRFCm_t;Kx C{nI37;K48h8:o AUskCHH7K=SRV]~F7Q;9:PH@F;V;kAg9=

A1 A2 . .R.YwA
=S7Kn;VTwCFEHGWIH7V=<8\8^R19:@F;V9
(bi , ci )

YRF=%;VTBT

;CH]

LNAO9:@

Ai

|b

Ai Aj = b j c i b i c j

   +  $,"  ,  , -! , $  *$+ %  ;:5,-+ %' ,, , <

i

j




1i<jn

 
  

vVEHPHPHRF8^719:@F;V9M9:@37K=S7#;K=S7#PH;VAg=<8
RY=S7K;VTCFEHGJI37K=<8D8h;k9SAg8:YunFABCHs/|bho/z|C
R =S]H7V=DYRF=
F
9SR I37J_>nF_tTuAU_(b
xAOi9X, 8:cE
i )Q_t7K8X9:@F;k9^xYRF=X7V;a_*@
x
x x
=_tRF4C38^.7K._tEF
. 9SAOF
n7
TBAg7'RFC+;e_tAg=S_tTg7HoNpw@37K8h7#PfRABC9S8D;=S719:i@37e
9:@37'PHRAgC9<8 A1 Ax 2 . . .x An x
A
A
A
A
1
2
3
i
F7K=>9SAU_t7K85RYZ;/_tRFCaF7*#FEH;]3=<ABTB;V9S7K=<;VT
o5dFn#9:@37/_tRFCaF7K=<8h7/RY F9tRTg7KG/n 8
pm@37KRF=S7KG+x3;-8*

E J_tAU7VC9M_:RFCH]Au9SAgRFC'YRFA
= 1 A2 A3 Ai 9SReIH7-_>nF_tTuAU_Ag8%9:@F;k9

A 1 A2 A3 Ai

A1 A2 A 3 Ai + A 2 A3 A 1 Ai = A 1 A3 A 2 Ai

z|C#AU7LRYZbtx9:@AB8%9t=<;C38:Tg;k9t7V8?ABC9tR

(b2 c1 b1 c2 )(bi c3 b3 ci ) + (b3 c2 b2 c3 )(bi c1 b1 ci )

= (b3 c1 b1 c3 )(bi c2 b2 ci )

zU9%AB8\7K;K8<n/9tR1F7V=SAuYun#9:@F;k9q9:@37NTB;8t9M7KFEH;VTBAO9n#Ag8?;KC'AU]37KC9SAO9nZo
yZRFCaF7V=<8^7kTOnwx-Tg7k9
IH7_>nF_tTuAU_ko RF=
x x
x x-8^79
A1 A2 . . . A n
i = 1 2 ... n
;KCH]
U

'
;
3
]
V
7
H
[
F
C
u
A
S
9
g
A
F
R
Q
C
*
8
f
E
V
s
V
s
V
7
:
8
S
9

7
Q
]
K
I
n
F
t
9

R
g
T
K
7
/
G
n
5
8
m
p
3
@
7KRF=S7KG/ho
A A
b i = A 2 Ai
ci = 1 i
ACF
1A
2 IH7V=<8
6!7-CHRL_*@37K_*r-9:@F;k9q9:@37EHGW
x
8*;V9SAB8*Yuneb*o
zY
xF9:@37KC
x bi cx i x
;=S7N9:@37/_:RFC38h7_tEF9SA F7XF7K=>9SAU_t7K85RY
A1 Ao 2NA
9:@371_>nF_tTuAU3_M
FEH;i ]3<
=<ABTBj;V9S
7K=<;VnT
7KCHi_t7FA
x3jIKn F9SRTU7VG#n 8Mpw@37RF=S7VG!x

A1 A2 Ai Aj

A1 A2 A i Aj = A 1 Ai A 2 Aj A 2 Ai A 1 Aj

%AOAU]AgCHsNI3Ra9:@e8:AU]37K8\IKn

A1 A2

Ai Aj = A 2 Aj

nFAg7VTg]38

A1 Ai
A1 A2

A 2 Ai

A1 Aj
A1 A2

= b j ci b i cj

;8\]H7V8*AB=S7]Zo
6!71;K=S7-TU7kYB9LNAO9:@#9:@37/_t;K8^7V8
;CH]
oRF=
;KCH]
x
i=1
i=2
i=1
2j n
9:@371]H7k[fCFAO9SAURFC38\RY
x
sAOF7
bj cj

bj c1 b1 cj = bj 0 (A2 A1 )cj = A1 A2

;8\]H7V8*AB=S7]ZoqvVAgG'ABTB;=<TOnwxAuY

i=2

;KCH]

3jn

xa9:@37VC

A1 Aj
x
= A 1 Aj
A1 A2

b j c 2 b 2 c j = b j 1 0 c j = A 2 Aj

pm@37-P3=SR3RYwAg8\_tRFGWPFTU79t73o

``

1' $$,"   "  4

 ,"$$ = <  +  $,"   ,  , -! ,=  + % ;:5,-+ % ' ,, ,=% 46"87',"  ;: ,
o

K7k9
x x';CH]
IH7PHRF8*AO9SAOF7{ABC9t7KsV7K=<8j8:Ef_*@ 9:@F;k9
(
o H=SRKF7/9:@F) ;V9\9:@37V=Sa7W7:bAB8:9<8X;e=Sc7K;VTCFEHGWIH7V=
8*Ef_*@J9:@F;k9\9:@37#9:@F=S7K7
cCFEH>
GJI32b
7K=<8 > 4a
x
xF;CH]
;VTBTw@F;F7X9:@37kAg=qYU=<;a_S9SAgRFC3;KTfP3;=>9S8M
AgC#9:@37NABC9t7V=|;KT 1 2  o
a b
c
,
3 3




  



FRF=%7K;_*@#AgC9S7sV7V=
An =

xL17-]H7k[fCH7NABC9t7V=|;KTB8
1
3

n+
a

n+
a

Cn =

2
3

Bn

n+
c

1
3

;K8?YRTuTURL-8k

A n B n Cn

n + 31 n +
=
,
b
b

2

n+
c

2
3

RF=\;KCanQ=S7K;VTCFEHGWIH7V= xH9:@37/YU=<;a_S9SAgRFC3;KTZPH;K=<95RY
F
TuAU7V8ABC 1 2  ABY;KCH]!RFCFT nJAuY

a
,
3 3
YRF=8^RFGW7 o
9:@37K=S75Ag8q;C-AgC9S7sV7V= 8:Ef_*@N9:@F;k9
1
2 9:@F;V9Ag8x
i
i + < a i + 
A
i
pm@37-9:@F=S7K7/CFEHGWIH7V=<8
x
xH;CH] 3 ;VTBTZ@F;F7-9:@37kAg3=%YU=<;a_S9SAgRFC3;KTmP3;=>9Si8\AgC 1 2  AuY
a
b
c
,
;CH]QRFCFTOnWAuY
YRF=?8^RFGW7 x x o5pm@EH85Au9LNABTuTm8*

E J_:7-9tRW3 PH=S3RVF7
i j k
j _*
9:@F;V9q9:@37V=S717*
KAg8t9 A
x i x B8:Ef
@#C
9:@Fk;k9
o
ABCB9t7Kj sV7K= Ckxa9:6=@37K=S7-7*KAg8t9S8M;C'ABC9t7KsV7K=
aAB=<8:9L17-R3I3i 8h7Kj=|Fk7D9:@F;k9^xYRF=%7KA
;_*i@#
8*Ef_*@
9:@F;V9
opHR 8h77Q9:@AB8kxqL17 UEH8t9#@Fj;kF7+9SR CHRa9S7+9:@F;k9-9:@37!Tg7KCHks9:@~RY
Bj Ck 6=

9:@37+AgC9S7K=|;VT

Bj

Ag8 n +

2
3

n+
b

1
3

1 xL1@ABTg7Q9:@37]Ag8t9S;KCH_:7I37k9>L17K7KC ;KCan
3b
Ag8 (k + 1) + 31
k + 23
2
1
Ck+1

=
<
c
c
3c
3b

;KCH]
9>L1RQ_:RFC38h7_tEF9SA F7/AgC9S7K=|;VTg8
Ck
U8:AgCH_t7
ho
pHcR >_:RF2b
GeP3Tg7k9S7~9:@37PH=SR3RY>x1AO9WLNABTuT1IH7{7KCHREfsV@}9SR 8^@3RL 9:@F;V9J9:@37K=S77:AB8:9
AgC9S7sV7V=<8 ;CH]
8*Ef_*@/9:@F;V9
_tRFC9S;VAgC38
o 3E3AO;VTU7VC9STOnwx9:@37K=S7-;=S7NAgC9S7sV7V=<8
Ai
Bj
i
;CH]
8:Ef_*i@#9:@F;k9j
j

FRF=

i+
a

j0

1
3

j+
b

1
3

;CH]

j+
b

2
3

xa9:@37K8h7NABCH7EH;KTuAu9SAg7K8?;K=S717KFE3A ;KTg7KC9q9tR

3i + 1
a
3i + 2

3j + 1
b
3j + 2

i+
a

2
3

x;CH]NL17?L-;KC99tRN[fCH]-AgC9S7sV7V=<8 x
DRL'x
Ag8qABC-9:@37ABC9t7V=|;KT
0, 12
a/b
i j0


h8 ;k9SAg8:YunFABCHs'*o#pm@AB8N_t;KC I37W]3RFCH7FxmYRF=\
AgC38t9S;KCH_:7xIKn!=S7VPH=S7V8^7VC9SAgCHs
1 ;K8D9:@37
0,
2 YRTBTgRL-8V
EHCFAURFC/RY3;\9>L1R3cS9S;VABTg7]N8^7KFEf7VCH_:7RYH_:RFC38h7_tEF9SA F7VT n-;a] ;a_t7KC9ABC9t7V=|;KTB8;K8
0,

1
2

= ...

1
, 2
25 26

1
, 2
13 14

1

2
8

1
4

2
5

4
, 5
10 11

...

pm@37e7VCH]Hc:PfRABC9S8XRYq7V;a_*@JABC9t7V=|;KT;K=S7#YU=<;_S9SAURFC38D;K8AgC!txwYRF=58:E3Au9<;aITOn+_*@3RF8h7KC
;CH] oM|FRF=q9:@37NAgC9S7K=|;VT 1 2 ;KCH]'9:@37NAgC9S7K=|;VTg8\8:Au9SEH;k9t7K]#9tR/9:@37-Tg7VYB9MRY 1 2 ix
[4, 5]
, ]
4 9:5@37
9S;r7 j
;KCH]
x x x
YRF=?9:@37#AgC9S7K=|;VTg8DT nFABCHs1[9SRJ
m YRF=
i
=
0
j
=
2
m
=
0
1
2
.
.
.

=SAgsV@a9/RY 1 2 x9<;ar7
;KCH]
YRF=
x x
o
m
m+1
=8hRF2GJ
. .9:.@37
pm@37/CFEHGW[IH47V,= 5 ] TBAg7K8\iABCJ
7-
ABC9t17V=|;KTwTBjAB8:9S=
7]e2ABCQ :xH
;CH1]J@37KCHm
_t71Au=
9M8h;k19SAg8:2[w7V8?
AgCH7KFEH;VTBAO9SAU7V85a/b
YRF=8hRFGJ7 ;CH] opm@AB8\_:RFGeP3Tg7k9S7K8%9:@37-P3=SR3RYSo

`ab

13 ,9SR
" &Au9< 8^ 7k" TBY  4 8:)Ef_* @ YgEHCH9:@F_S9S;kAg9^RFx
C
Ag8%]H7k[fCH7K]/YU=SRFG9:@37D8h7k9qRYHCHRFCHc*CH7Ksk;V9SA F7
FYRF=7^F7V=|n
CHRFCHc:CH7sk;k9SAOF7 ABC9t7KsV7K=
x

o
5
AgC9S7sV(7V=<8

x
x ;KCHn]
F (4n)
=
F (2n) + Fo (n)
F
(4n
+
2)
=
F
(4n)
+
1
H=SRKF7!9:@F;V9^x\YRF=e7V;a_*@PHRF8*AO9SAOF7AgC9S7sV7V=
x\9:@37
F
m o
CFEH(2n
GJI37K+
=MR1)
YwAgC=
9S7sVF
7V=<(2n)
8
LN+
AO9:@ 1
;KCH]
AB8
m
m+1
n
0n<2
F (4n) = F (3n) F (2
)




  



 ,"$$ = <  +  $,"   ,  , -! ,=  + % ;:5,-+ % ' ,, ,=% 46"87',"  ;: ,

6!7/@F;kF7
YU=SRFG9:@37-[f=<8t9\sA F7KCQ7KFEH;k9SAURFCmxH;KCH]'L1718h77X9:@F;V9
AB8
F (0)
=IKn#
0 9:@371sAOF7VCJ7EH;V9SAgRFC38Kopm@37NYRTBTgRLNAgCHs9<;aITU7-8h@3RL-8MF9:@37
E CFAUEf7VT nJ]H79t7V=tG'
H
AgCH7K]J
;KTuEf7K8\RY
YRF=

0 n 16

F (n)

n
F (n)

YRF=

0
0

1
1

2
1

3
2

4
2

5
3

6
3

7
4

8
3

9
4

10 11 12 13 14 15 16
4 5 5 6 6 7 5

=SRFG9:@37-[f=<8t9\sA F7KCQ7KFEH;k9SAURFCmxfIKneAgCH]Ef_S9SAURFCmxL17/R3I9<;KABC
x
k
FxH(2
)CH=
fIKk+1
x x x
xL1@37V=S7
g
A
%
8
:
9
3
@
#
7


U
A
3
I
F
R
3
C
a
;
t
_
t
_
f
A
^
8
K
7
F

f
E
V
7
H
C
:
_

7
3
]
V
7
H
[

7
W
]
n

k = 0 1 2 ...

f1 = f 2 = 1

{fn }n=1

fn = fn1 + fn2

YRF=

n3

z|C!YU;a_S9^xZ;JsV7VCH7K=<;VTYRF=SGeE3TB;eYRF=
Ge;knI37WsAOF7VC!ABCQ9t7V=tGe8-RY9:@37QaAgIHRFC3;_:_tA
@F;K8%9:@371IFABC3;=|n'=S7KFP3(n)
=S7K8h7KC9<;V9SAgRFC
CFEHGJI37K=<8kZABY
n

L1@37K=S7

n = k 2k + k1 2k1 + + 1 2 + 0

i {0 1}

YRF=M7V;a_*@

xa9:@37KC

F (n) = k fk+1 + k1 fk + + 1 f2 + 0 f1

|b

pm@AB8'YRF=tG'E3Tg; Ge;knI37QF7K=<AB[f7]~8:AgGeP3T nIKn_*@37_*rKAgCHsQ9:@F;k9/AO9/8h;k9SAg8:[f8/9:@37 sA F7KC

7EH;V9SAgRFC385]37V[HCFAgCHs
o
6!7\CHRLPH=SRVF7MF9:(n)
@F;V9
YRF=Z;VTBTCHRFCHc*CH7Ksk;V9SA F7?AgC9S7sV7V=<8 oZ6!7
F IH
(4n)
PH=SR3_t77K]1IKnNAgCH]Ef_S9SAURFC1RFC F (3n)
xk9:@375CFEHGW
7V=RY3]AUsAO9S8ABCN9:@375IFABC3;=|n-=S7VPH=S7V8^7VCn
9S;k9SAURFC
RY o}6!@37VC
x%L1m
7@F;kF7
RF=
xMAgCIHRa9:@~RYML1@AU_*@~_t;K8^7V8
n
m x3=
nTg7-=;IH1
;K851_S;CWI37-8h77VC'n
YU=SRF=
G9:0@37D9S;IF
RVF7Ho
F (3n)D=
F
(4n)
RL TU79;KC+AgC9S7sV7V=
IH7#[a7]Zo %8XREH=5ABCH]FEf_S9SAgRFC@n3PHRa9:@37K8:Ag8xfL17
m
;8*8*EHGW79:@F;k9
L1@327VCH7^F7K= @F;8mY7L17V=H9:@F;KC
]FAgsAu9<8ZABCAu9<8IFABC3;=|n
F
(3n)

F
(4n)
=S7KP3=S7K8h7KC9<;V9SAgRFCo#yZRFC38:AU]37K=\;Can+PHRF8*AO9SAOF7/n
AgC9S7sV7V=
L1@Ag_*@!m
@F;K8N7:K;a_S9ST n
]AUsAO9S8
n xVL1@37V=S7
m
AgC/AO9S8MIAgC3;K=|n#=S7VPH=S7V8^7VC9S;k9SAURFCopw@EH8kx
m1
m1 o?dFn
n = 2 o \8:+
9:@37NAgCH]Ef_S9SAURFCW@nFPfRa9:@37V8*AB8kx
AgCHpsNb:xL17-0R3Ia
9S;VpAgC < 2

F (3p) F (4p)

F (4n) = F (2m+1 + 4p) = fm+2 + F (4p) fm+2 + F (3p)

l?C'9:@37-Ra9:@37K=%@F;CH]

F (3n) = F (3 2m1 + 3p) = F (2m + 2m1 + 3p)

_t;K8^7V8V

pHRjP3=SR3_:7K7]YgEH=<9:@37V=XLNAu9:@ 9:@37!_t;VTU_tE3TB;V9SAgRFC RY

F (3n)

xqL17!_:RFC38:AU]37K=X9:@F=S7K7


kN o
m

o
m1
p @33p
m
7VCX9:<
@3752CFEHGWIH7V=RYF]FAgsAu9<8AgCD9:@375IFABC3;=|nN=S7KP3=S7K8h7KC9<;V9SAgRFC1RY
Ag8TU7V8h8Z9:@F;C
xF;KCH]#9:@371IAgC3;K=|ne=S7KP3=S7K8h7KC9<;V9SAgRFCWRY
]HR37V8?CHRa9M_t;K=t=|n'ABC9tR19:@F;V3p
9MRY
o
m1
3p

32

`a
vk9S;K=<9SABCHsXYU=SRFG

*xKL171_S;Ce;KPHPFTOnWb;KCH]#9:@37VCJ9SResV79

F (3n) = fm+1 + fm + F (3p) = fm+2 + F (3p) F (4n)


k1 o

o
m1
m
p @327VC'9:@371<CFEH3p
m
GWIH<7V=?2RYZ]FAgsAu9<8?AgC#9:@37/IAgC3;K=|nW=S7VPH=S7V8^7VC9S;k9SAURFCJRY
Ag8\7*K;_S9STOn
3p ovk9<;=>9SAgCHs
xV;KCH]9:@37\IFABC3;=|nX=S7VPH=S7V8^7VC9S;k9SAURFCNRY
_t;K=t=<AU7V8 ABC9tR59:@F;k9RY
m
1
32m1
YU=SRFG ;CH]#EH8*ABCHs-b:xL17-_S;KTg_tE3Tg;k9t7 3p

F (3n)

= F 2m + 2m1 + 2m1 + (3p 2m1 )


= F 2m+1 + (3p 2m1 )
o
= fm+2 + F (3p) fm = fm+1 + F (3p)

g8*ABCH_:7

DRa9SABCHs9:@F;V9

e;KCH]EH8*ABCHs~|:xDL17 [HCH]9:@F;k9

fm+1
< fm+2
m 2
o
F (3n) < F (4n)

k o m
ho
m1
m
2Agm1
pm@327VC'9:<
@3713p
CFEH<
GWIH37V=?2RYZ]FAgsAu9<=
8?Ag2C#9:@3+
7/I
C3;K=|nW=S7VPH=S7V8^7VC9S;k9SAURFCJRY

Ag8\7*K;_S9STOn
x ;KCH]'9:@371IFABC3;=|ne=S7KP3=S7K8h7KC9<;V9SAgRFCJRY
3
_t;K=t=<AU7V8
AgC9SR#9:@F;k9?3p
RY
o
m
10
3 2m1
vk9S;K+
=<9SAB1CHsXYU=SRFG ;CH]'EH8:AgCHsNb:xL17-_t;VTU_tE3TB;V3p
9S7

F (3n)

DRa9SABCHsD9:@F;k9

= F 2m + 2m1 + 2m + (3p 2m )


= F 2m+1 + 2m1 + (3p 2m )
o
= fm+2 + fm + F (3p) fm+1 = fm+2 fm1 + F (3p)
fm1 > 0

;CH]#EH8*ABCHs-:xL17X[HCH]#9:@F;V9

F (3n) < F (4n)

opw@Ag8?_:RFGeP3Tg7k9S7K89:@37
z|Ce7K;_*@'_t;K8^7xKL17N@F;kF7X8^@3RL-C19:@F;V9
F (3n) F (4n)
AgCH]Ef_S9SAURFCePH=SR3RYSo
K7k9
]37KCHRa9S7N9:@37-8^79M_:RFC38:Ag8t9SAgCHsNRY 9tR3sV79:@37K=LNAu9:@';KTuTwPHRF8*AO9SAOF7XAgC9S7sV7V=<8
AgC'L1@3RF8^7/E
IFABC3;=|nJ=S7VPH=S7V8^7VC9S;k9SAURFCe9:@37 8;K=S071AB8^RTB;V9S7]JgGJ7V;CFABCHsN9:@F;V9?CHR'9>L1R 8
;P3Pf7V;=?ABCQ;] ;_:7VC95PHRF8*AO9SAURFC38ShoNRF=57:1K;GeP3Tg7Fx
x
xwIFEF9
o6!17
1

E
2

E
3

/
E
LNABTuTfCHRLPH=SRVF7X9:@F;k9
AuYm;CH]eRFCFTOn#ABY
o
= F (4n)
aAB=<8:98:EHPHPHRF8^7#9:F@F(3n)
;k9
oQzY
xm9:@37VC n E
o
nl?
EE3Tu9SABP3n
(0)
DRL;8*8*EHGW7X9:@F;V9
oM
CWG'
T nFAB=
CHs 0 IKn
BF
9:@F(3n)
;k9%Ag8x = FABCJ
IAgC3=
;K=|naFtxf(4n)
7K;_*@
g;CH]Q9:@37#TU7V;a]AgCHns >M0AB8X=S7KPFTg;_:7K]IKn
o'nyZRFC38h37Ef7KC9ST nmx 11
AB8NR3Ia9S;VAgCH7K]
01
1
11
F (3n)
YU=SRFG
IKn/=S7VP3TB;a_tABCHs7K;_*@
ABC#bIKn
ol?C-9:@37DRa9:@37K=
fi+2
@F;CH]wx F (n) Ag81R3Ia9S;VAgCH7K]YU=SRFfG i+1
IKn=S7KfPFi+1
Tg;_tAg+
CHsW
7K;_*@ = fi+3ABC|bIKn
o
F
(4n)
F
(n)
fi+1
fi+3
pm@EH8x
o
(4n)
yZFRF(3n)
CaF7V=<8^=
7kTOnwFx
8:EHPHPHRF8^79:@F;k9
AB8;CHRFCHc*CH7Ksk;V9SA F7 AgC9S7sV7V=8:Ef_*@ 9:@F;k9
ozY
RF= n
x%9:@37VC
oRL ;8*8*EHGW7Q9:@F;V9
F (3n) o
=K7kF9 (4n)I37W9:@37J
nCFEH
=GJI3
07K=-Rn
E =S7KP3=S7K8h7KC9<;V9SAgRFCjRY
Y?]=
AUsAO9S18-AgC!9:@37+nIAgC3;K=|n
o
n
\Pf
RFC~27:K;G'AgCFm
ABCHsW9:@37QAgCH]Ef_S9SAURFCjPH=SR3RY\;IHRVF7FxL17!R3I38h7K=|F7J9:@F;k9N9:@37!7EH;V9SAgRFnC
R3_t_tEH=<8XRFCFTOnJABC!yw;8h7eb#;KCH]+RFCFTOneL1@37VC
oD6!7
F
F (3p) = F (4p)
CHRa(3n)
9t7/;KTB8^=
R'9:F@F(4n)
;V9^xHAgC+yw;8h7'bFxFL17'@F;F7
3
x
1
L
@Ag_*@
m1
m1
m2
p R<
AgGeP3TuAU7V8M9:@F;V99:@37-8^7K_:RFCH]WIFABC3;=|nW]FAgsAu9?
Y 2 Ag8 o/3
pm@3<
7V=S7V2YRF=S7x3/2
AgCWym=;K8^27/bFxaL171@F;F7
AuY?;KCH] RFCFT n AuY
o{dFn=S7V[HCFnAgCHse09:@37JABCH]FEf_S9SAgRFCjPH=SR3RYM8*TuAUsV@a9ST nmxL17
n

E
p

E
_:RFCH_tTuEf]H719:@F;k9\YRF=?;KTuTZCHRFCHc*CH7Ksk;V9SA F7/AgC9S7sV7V=<8 xH9:@37'7EH;KTuAu9|n
n
F (3n) = F (4n)
AgGeP3TuAU7V8%9:@F;V9
o
nE

`
6!7'@F;F7'P3=SRKF7K]!REH=\_tTg;VAgG 9:@F;V9
AuY;KCH]+RFCFTOnWABY
o
n I3
ABC3;KTuTOnwxL17DLNABTuTwPH=SRVF7N9:@F;V9^xFYRF=?7V;a_*@eCHFRFCH(3n)
a
c*CH7Ksk=
;V9SA FF7-(4n)
AgC9S7sV7V=
x9:@371CFEHGJ
7K=?ERY
m
AgC9S7sV7V=<8
8:Ef_*@/9:@F;V9
AB8
oqvVAgCH_t7
xL17
m
m+1
n

E
0

n
<
2
f
f
)
m+2
m+2 = F (2
LNABTuTw@F;kF7NPH=SRVF7]#9:@371]37K8:Ag=S7K]e=S7V8*E3TO9o
6!7XP3=SR3_:7K7]'IKn#ABCH]FEf_S9SAgRFCeRFC
oFRF=
x9:@37XCFEHGWIH7V=%RY
8*Ef_*@
m
n 8:Ef_*E@+9:@F;k9
9:@F;V9
Ag8
YRF= m
xZ9:@3=7e0CFEHGJI37K=XRY
m
0 n < Ag2
1 =o fD2R L [+
m;KC =AgC19S7sV7V=
EGW7Fx;8N9:@37
xq;CH]n ;8*8*EH
m 8
0

n
<
2
2
=
f
m

2
AgCH]Ef_S9SAURFC @nFPfRa9:@37V8*AB8kxm9:@F3;k959:@37eCFEHGWIH7V=XRY
8:Ef_*@Q9:@F;V9
AB8
RFCH
Es/9:@37'ABC9t7KsV7K0=<8 n < 28*kEf_*@
YRF=;VTBTAgC9S7sV7V=<8
LNAO9:@
o n%GW
f
k
0 k < m
n E
9:@Fk+2
;V9
m ;=S7-9:@3RF8h718*Ef_*@'9:@F;V9
m1 x39:@37/CFEHGWIH7V=5RYwL1@Ag_*@
0

n
<
2
0

n
<
2
Ag8
BEH8*ABCHs#9:@37'AgCH]Ef_S9SAURFC @n3PHRa9:@37K8:Ag8Shoepm@37e=S7KGe;KABCFAgCHs
8:Ef_*@+9:@F;k9
fm+1
n[H
E9>L1RIAgC3;K=|n
K
;
S
=
W
7
:
9
3
@
F
R
h
8
J
7
*
8
f
E
*
_
!
@
:
9
F
@
k
;
9

o
w
p
3
@
J
7
<
=
:
8

9
n
m1
m
0
]FAgs
Au9<8nRYZ<;KCa2nW8*Ef_*@eCFEHGJI37K=
G'EH8:9?I327
xH;CH]'n9:@3<
7-=S27KGe;KABCFAgCHs1]AUsAO9S8\=S7KP3=S7K8h7KC9
10 o1pm@EH8xw9:@37eCFEHGWIH7V=DRYq8:Ef_*@
L1@Ag_*@QAB8DTU7V8hn859:@F;KC m2
AB8
;eCFEHGJI37K=5ABC
E
2
gEH8:AgCHs\9:@37AgCH]Ef_S9SAURFC#@n3PHRa9:@37K8:Ag8%;sk;KABCahopm@3759tRa9<;KTFCFEHGJI37K=RY
8*Efn_*@-9:@Ff;kn9
opm@AB85_tRFGWPFTU79t7V8%9:@37-P3=SR3RnYSo E
n AB8

0n<2

fm+1 + fm = fm+2

1' $$,"   "  4

? o

pm@37#9<;CHsV7VC9S8N;V9
;KCH]
9tRJ9:@37W_tAB=S_tEHGJ_tAB=S_tTU7WRYq;KC
( 9t=SAB;CHsTg7
; _tEF9S7'
a
GW)7799:@37#9S;KCHsV7KC9X;k9 B ;V9 A;KCH]
x=S7K8*Pf7K_S9SAOF7kTOnZoWpw@37
CGeAg]HT
TBABCH7K8
;KCH] ABC
GW7795;k9
xm;KCH]
Ag859:@37#
c:PfRABC9U
RY
9:@37/TBABCH7K8
AP 
BU
;CH] AT GJ7K7k9%BC
;k9
xF;KCH]
AgP
8%9:@37NGeAgQ
]Hc:PfRABC9MRY
o

CA

U; H=SRVF7X9:@F;k9

ABQ = BAS

BR

UIa?79t7V=tG'AgCH7xaAgC/9S7K=SGW8?RYw=<;V9SAgRF8?RYw8:AU]37DTU7VCHs9:@F8kx9:@37D9t=<Ag;KCHsTU7V8%YRF=L1@Ag_*@19:@Ag8
;KCHsTU7XAg8?;-Ge;KAgG'EHG o

   +

  $,"  ,  ,
-! , $  *$+ %  ;:5,-+ %' ,, , <
z|C

xTU79

4ABC
o#dFnW9:@37/9<;CHsV7VC=
9:ch_*A
@3RF=S]J9:@3=
7KRF=SB
7KG+x

=sV7kC
L 7#
1
9
o
= o
K7k9
]3T
7KCHRaBC
9S7?9:@3=
7D_tT
AB=S_tEHCB
GW=<;=
]FAuEHBAC
8%RY
pm@37NR
AB8^RF8h_:7kTU7V89t=SAB;CHsTg7
sAOF7V8 4ABC
BCT

BT =

BC
2 cos

........................................... .......
..............
..............
.........
...........
........
.......
.......
.....
.
.
.
....
.
..............
.
................ .......
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
......... .... .... ...............
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
..... .. .. .. ... ....
..... ... .. ... .. .....
..
..
..... .... .... .... .... ........
...
..
.. .....
..... ...
. ...
..
..
..... ....
..... ......
.
.
..
...
.
....
.
..
.......
..
..
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
. ....... ..
.
.
.....
.. .................... ... .........
....
..
..........
.....
.....
.... .......... ..... .......................... .. ....
.....
... .....
... .........
.....
....
...
.. ..
... ...
........... ..........................
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.. ..
.
.
.
.
.
... ..
.
.
.
...
.. .....
.......... ................... ...
.
.
....
.
.
.
... ...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
... .. ..
.
... . ....
......
.......... ............
......
...
... ......
.....
.... .......... .............
.. ......
...
......
..... ......................
.. .
..
.... ..............................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
...
..
.
.
.
.
.....
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
.
......
........
..
........
.
..
.........
.
.
.
.
.... .
... .........
...
....... ..
... ..........
.. .......... ....
...........
...
.
............................................................
...
...
.
...
..
.
.
..
...
..
...
...
..
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
...
..
...
...
...
...
...
..
..
...
.. .....
.
.
...
...
... ...
...
... ...
...
.. ..
...
.. ....
.
.
... .. ...
... .....
.........
....
.. ..
.. ...

= R tan

dFn9:@37 V;kL

RY?vVABCH7K8-AgC
xL17
4ABT
@F;kF7 AB
o
sin AT B oNK7k9
=
= BAT
BT
sin
BAT
DRa9SABCHsD9:@F;k9
xL17-sV7k9
ABT = +

sin( + + )
AB
=
BT
sin

\8*ABCHs9:@37-=S7kTg;k9SAURFC38
x
xF;KCH]
x
AB = 2R sin BT = R tan
+ + = 180
L171R3Ia9S;VAgC
o
b
cot = cot + 2 cot

`,
D7:K9^xfL17'8h7k9
;KCH]!;KPHPFTOnJ9:@37+V;kLRYvVABCH7K89tR
;KCH]
4BAQ
opw@Ag8\sAOF7V8 ABQ =

4BP Q

BQ
QA

sin

;KCH]

BQ

sin

PQ

sin AP B

sin( + ) o
sin( )

sin( )

AB8'9:@37G'AU]3c*PHRAgC9eRY
xML17@F;F7
opm@EH8x\9:@37 =<;V9SAgRF8
Vv AgCH_t7
Q
AP
P Q = QA
AgC 9:@37J9>L1Rj7KFEH;k9SAURFC38/;aI3RKF7Q;=S7!7KFEH;VT<ojpm@AB8'sA F7K8 sin
sin( + ) xMRF=
=

sin( )
x
sin( + )
sin( ) o N7KCH_t7Fx
=
sin cot + cos = sin cot cos
sin

sin

TU7V;a]AgCHs9tR
o%z|C#9:@Ag8MTB;8t9M7KFEH;k9SAURFCmxL17XEH8^7-|b9tR'sV7k9
sin

cot = 2 cot + cot

cot ABQ = cot = 2(cot + cot ) + cot

zU9{YRTBTgRL-8kxIKn8<n3GeGJ79t=|nmx 9:@F;k9
o
pm@37VC
g8*ABCH_:7/9:@37e_:Ra9<;CHsV7VC95cot
YgEHCH_SBAS
9SAURFC+AB8X8t9t=
=SAg_S9STOcot
n+]HABQ
7K_:=S7K;K8*ABCHs/AgCQ9:@37
ABQ
RFPf7VCeABC9t=
7V=|BAS
;KT
ho6!7-@F;kF7-P3=SRKF7K]WU;ho
ij;KAgG'A t(0
ABCHs , 180
Ag8e)7E3AO;VTU7VC919SR GeABCFAgG'A tABCHs
xL1@AU_*@~_t;KC{I37 ]3RFCH7
cot
EH8*ABCHsXYRF=SGeE3TB;/*ovVABCH_:7

:

cot + cot

:

=
=

L171@F;F7
cot

sin cos + sin cos

sin sin
2 sin

1 + cos

= 4 tan

%PHPFTOnAgCHs9:@37 5i ?i

cos( ) cos( + )
2 sin x
1 + cos
4 sin

sin

sin sin
2 sin
cos( ) + cos

+ cot
1 tan2
2 tan

7
2

tan

z|CH7KFEH;VTBAO9nwxaL17-R3I9<;KABC

cot

7 tan

1
tan

1
2 tan

o
7

FRF=7KFEH;VTBAO9nwxVAu9ZAB8qCH7K_:7V8h8*;=|nX9:@F;k9
;KCH]
o
= = 90 /2
7 tan 2 = 1/ tan 2

p @37V8^7-_tRFCH]FAO9SAURFC38?sAOF7
m
;KCH]
o N7KCH_t7FxFIKn
sin
9:@37JV;L RYvVAgCH7V8kxF9:@371;sin
CHsTg7 = AB857/4
;/GW;ABGesin
EHGL1=
@37VCe
9:@37/=
=<;k9SAURF14/4
85RY8*Ag]H7-Tg7KCHs9:@F8

RY
;K=S7
4ABC

o
a:b:c =

.    ,*

2:

2:1

pm@F;k9M_tRFGWPFTU79t7V8%9:@37
YRF=9:@Ag8MAB8h8:Ef7Hov7VCH]eGW7nFREH=CFAU_t7N8^RTuEF9SAURFC38x
sV7KCH7V=<;KTuA :;k9SAURFC38xF;KCH]W_:RFC9S7K8t9%Ge;V9S7K=<Ag;VTg8Vo

: