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AP Psychology Per. 3
A. History of Psychology
a. Definition of psychology
i. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental
processes
ii. Behavior: an action of an organism
iii. Mental processes: internal, subjective experiences inferred
from behavior
1. Ex. sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs,
feelings
b. Psychology is a way of asking and answering questions
c. Pre-scientific Psychology
i. Aristotle
1. Thought soul is inseparable from the body
ii. Descartes
1. Descartes + Socrates + Plato: mind separate from death
2. Dissected animals, thought brain contained spirits
iii. Bacon
1. Founder of modern science
2. Suggested an order in nature
iv. Locke
1. Modern empiricism: knowledge originates in
experience, science relies on observation and
experimentation
d. Psychological Science Born
i. Wilhelm Wundt
1. Lag time measured for tasks and response
2. Thus tried to measure mental processes
ii. Structuralism
1. Edward Bradford Titchener and introspection
2. Wanes as introspection proves to be unreliable
iii. Functionalism
1. William James and functions
2. Why an organ does what it does => evolutionary
adaptation
3. Mary Calkins and Margaret Washburn
e. Psychological Science Develops
i. Varied definitions of psychology
1. Wundt/Titchener/James: introspection
2. Freud: responses to childhood and unconscious
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thought processes
3. Psychology: the science of mental life until 1920’s
4. 1920-1960: Watson and Skinner redefine as “scientific
study of observable behavior”
a. Behaviorism
5. Humanistic psychology
a. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
b. Response to Freudian psychology and
behaviorism
c. Importance of current environmental
influences and meeting our needs for love and
acceptance
6. Cognitive revolution
a. Expanded upon ways that people perceive,
process, and remember information
7. Modern definition
a. The scientific study of behavior and mental
processes
B. Contemporary Psychology
a. Psychology’s big debate
i. Nature vs. nurture
1. Plato: character/intelligence inherited
2. Aristotle: everything externally through senses
3. Locke: reject innate ideas; “blank sheet”
4. Descartes: Some ideas are innate
5. Darwin and natural selection
6. Common topics
a. Treatment of depression: biological or mental?
b. Sexual behaviors: innate or external?
c. Gender differences: biological or social?
7. Solution: nurture works on what nature endows
b. Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis
i. Biopsychosocial approach
1. Biological, psychological, social-cultural factors
ii. Psychology’s current perspectives
1. Neuroscience
2. Evolutionary
3. Behavior genetics
4. Psychodynamic
5. Behavioral
6. Cognitive
7. Social-Cultural
Psychology’s Subfields
iii. Industrial/organizational psychologists
1. Applied research: practical problem solving
2. Help companies select/train employees, boost
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morale/productive, design products, implement systems
iv. Counseling psychologists
1. Help people cope with challenges by recognizing
strengths and resources
v. Clinical psychologists
1. Asses and treat mental/emotional/behavior disorders
vi. Psychiatrists
1. Offer psychotherapy, prescribe drugs and treat physical
casuses or disorders
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d. Why Do Psychologists Study Animals?
i. Fascinating
ii. Understand differences in learning/thinking/behaving
iii. Learn about people through similarities
e. Is It Ethical to Experiment on Animals?
i. Irony of testing animals based on similarities then ethically
defending experimentation based on differences
ii. Right to place human well-being above animal rights
iii. Safeguards to animal rights
f. Is It Ethical to Experiment on People?
i. Ethical principles including consent, protection, information
g. Is Psychology Free of Value Judgments?
i. Values affect what psychologists study
ii. Preconceptions can bias observations and interpretations
h. Is Psychology Potentially Dangerous?
i. Concerns about growing influence of psychology
ii. Power to deceive, purpose to enlighten
Short Answer:
Multiple Choice:
2. Stock market gurus’ comments that the market was overdue for a correction after a fall
in stock prices are most likely an example of:
A) Overconfidence
B) Introspection
C) Magic
D) Hindsight bias
4
called:
A) Functionalism
B) Self-examinationism
C) Structuralism
D) Freudism
4. Contrary to the modern definition of psychology, the science was defined until 1920
as:
A) The science of mental life
B) The study of life
C) The one and only way of achieving enlightenment
D) The science of behaviors
5
Crossword puzzle activity
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Puzzle: http://www.variety-games.com/CW/Puzzles/1388041582-puzzle.htm
2 3 4
Solution: http://www.variety-games.com/CW/Puzzles/1388041582-solution.htm
5 6
Brain Crossword
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10 11
12
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14 15
16
17 18 19
20
21
22
23
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EclipseCrossword.com
Across
2. A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated
images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures
within the brain.
6. controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and
expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
8. A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral
hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as
those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
10. Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or
to Wernicke's area.
11. cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, & protect neurons
13. The brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage
(especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain
development.
15. A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while
the brain performs a given task.
17. The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres
21. Two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked
to emotion.
22. Behind the forehead; involved in speaking & muscle movements and in making plans &
judgments
23. Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions;
rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking,
and speaking.
24. The area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and
movement sensations.
Down
1. A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating,
drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and
is linked to emotion.
2. The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
3. A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
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4. An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s
surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
5. The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it
enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions.
7. A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive
MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function
9. At the top of the head and near the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
12. The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing
sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
14. At the back of the head; includes visual areas, which receive visual information from
opposite visual field
16. On the sides of the head (just above the ears); includes the auditory areas, each of which
receives auditory information mainly from the opposite ear
18. The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the
sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
19. An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
20. Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere,
that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Short Summaries:
5.1
• MRI’s reveal brain structures
• EEG’s, PET, and fMRI’s scans reveal brain activity
• Scientists use these to explore the connections between the brain, mind, and
behavior
5.2
This section talks about the older brain structures. For example, it
goes through the parts of the brainstem, the cortexes and the limbic
system. Each part of the brain is described in terms of location and
what each function is. It explains why we act the way we do, such as
the role certain parts play in our emotions.
5.3
This section mostly talks about the cerebral cortex and the different
parts of it. Everything that makes up the cerebral cortex helps us
with our life functions. There are four lobes that control speech,
hearing, etc, and cortexes that help with movement and processing body
touch and sensations.
5.4
• Cerebral Cortex = the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers
the cerebral hemispheres
o the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center
• Expansion of cerebral cortex means:
o relaxed genetic controls and increased adaptability of organism
• People have larger cerebral cortexes, resulting in:
o increased capabilities for learning & thinking and increased adaptability
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5.5
• Glial Cells (glia) = cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, & protect
neurons
o guide neural connections, provide nutrients & insulating myelin, and mop
up ions & neurotransmitters
o may participate in information transmission & memory
o proportion of glia to neurons increase as animal complexity increases
• Human cerebral cortex has a huge surface area, increased by many folds
• Each brain hemisphere divided into 4 lobes (so total of 8), geographic parts of the
cerebral cortex separated by prominent fissures or folds:
• 1) Frontal Lobes = behind the forehead
o involved in speaking & muscle movements and in making plans &
judgments
• 2) Parietal Lobes = at the top of the head and near the rear
o receives sensory input for touch and body position
• 3) Occipital Lobes = at the back of the head
o includes visual areas, which receive visual information from opposite
visual field
• 4)Temporal Lobes = on the sides of the head (just above the ears)
o includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information
mainly from the opposite ear
5.6
• Different areas of the cortex control specialized functions
• Motor functions can be caused by electrical stimulation
• Motor cortex (Output)
• Controls voluntary movement
• One side of cortex controls the opposite side of the body
• Fingers/moth = largest space
• Neural prosthetics – the thought of something activates an electric appliance
• Sensory Cortex (Input)
• Right behind motor cortex
• Receives sensory info
• Association areas
• Cerebral cortex that does not include motor, sensory, auditory, and visual cortex
• Integrates info
• Frontal lobe damage – difficulty judging, planning, processing new memories
(Phineas Gage)
• Parietal lobe damage – interferes with mathematical reasoning
• Temporal lobe – interferes with ability to recognize faces
5.7
• Aphasia – impairment of language
• Reading process
o Words register in visual area
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o Relayed to angular gyrus, which transforms words to an auditory code
o Code received and understood in Wernicke’s Area
o Sent to Broca’s area, which controls motor cortex to create pronounced
word
5.8
o Plasticity – Brain’s ability to modify itself after damage
Losing one sense increases sensitivity in other senses
Blind people respond better to touch
Deaf people respond better to sight
5.9
• Left hemisphere focuses on verbal
• Right hemisphere focuses on visual perception and recognition of emotion
• Each hemisphere contributes individually to the brain
5.10
• right-handers process speech on the left hemisphere
• ½ of the left-handers process speech on the right hemisphere
• As age increases the number of lefties decreases
Diagrams
Label the Diagram:
Match the lobe name to the color (Red, Yellow, Light Green, and Light Blue).
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Answers to Diagram:
Red = Frontal Lobe
Yellow = Parietal Lobe
Light Green = Occipital Lobe
Light Blue = Temporal Lobe
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Brain Structures and Their Functions
Practice Questions:
1) The _____________ lobes receive sensory input for touch and body position.
A. Frontal
B. Parietal
C. Occipital
D. Temporal
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A. reveal brain activity
B. only work on animals
C. shows brain function
D. reveal brain structures
Answers: 1) B, 2) D, 3) D, 4) A, 5) C, 6) C 7) D, 8) A, 9) C, 10) D.
Key Terms:
Environment- every external influence, in terms of our behavior differences
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Behavior Geneticists- people who study our differences and weigh the relative
effects of heredity and environment
Chromosomes- the genetic structures of cells containing the cellular DNA that
bears in its proteins
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)- a nucleic acid that carries genetic information
about the cell
Genes- a segment of DNA, the basic unit of heredity
Genome- a full set of chromosomes; all the inheritable traits of an organism
Identical Twins- siblings born of the same egg, split into two
Fraternal Twins- twins born of separate eggs
Temperament- the natural predisposition of emotional excitability in a person
Heritability- the capability of being inherited, the extent to which variation among
individuals can be attributed to their differing genes
Interactions- the effect of one factor (such as the environment) depends on
another factor (such as heredity)
Molecular Genetics- the branch of genetics that deals with genes at the molecular
level, or “bottom-up” genetics
Evolutionary Psychology- the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind,
using principles of natural selection
Natural Selection- the principle that inherited trait variations that improve survival
and reproduction will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Mutations- random errors in gene replication that lead to changes
Gender- the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people
define male and female
Summary:
Nature vs. nurture is the biggest controversy in the study of what makes us who
we are. Our genes and our environment come together to define the things that make us
different from one another. As a reference point for how much genes play a role, human-
chimpanzee DNA similarity is 99.4%. Throughout the study of heredity versus
environment, behavior geneticists often use two types of studies: twin and adoption.
While, with 850 US twin pairs given questionnaires in 1976, identical twins were much
more similar than fraternal twins in many ways, identical twins also reported being
treated alike more often. The personalities of adopted children tend to follow those of
their biological parents, though their values and attitudes tend more towards those of their
adoptive parents.
Although genetic differences help to explain individual diversity in traits, they
don’t necessarily account for differences between men and women, or between people of
different races. Our enormous adaptive capability is the most important of our
similarities. As a species, our shared biology enables our developed diversity. Genes do
more than just code for particular proteins, they also respond to environments in a self-
regulating manner. By itself, the gene does not cause depression, but it is part of the
recipe. The goal of molecular behavior genetics is to find genes that influence normal
human traits. Genetic tests can now reveal at-risk populations for at least a dozen
diseases.
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Natural selection has shaped our human traits in its acting across the course of
human evolution. Men are universally more uninhibited in terms of sexual interactions,
according to many studies and surveys on the general subject. This is most likely due to
the fact that, while a woman normally incubates and nurses one’s infant, a male can
spread his genes through other females. In our ancestral history, women were better off
pairing wisely, men widely. Men tend to be more inclined to take risks than women,
because of their predisposition to impress women and thus spread their genes. Even
taking all of this into account, women and men are much more alike than they are
different.
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Nurture Nature
Crossword:
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11. the way changes are formed in gene
replication
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Crossword Answer Key:
1. GENES
2. BEHAVIOR GENETICS
3. IDENTICAL TWINS
4. GENDER
5. NATURE
6. TEMPERAMENT
7. MOLECULAR
8. HERITABILITY
9. ENVIRONMENT
10. NATURAL SELECTION
11. MUTATIONS
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personality. Parental nurture can be compared to nutrition. Whether we
get our protein from chicken or beans, we need food. Similarly, it doesn’t
matter how early or late we were toilet trained by our parents, just that
we have someone who cares about us.
Peer Influence
At all ages, people conform in order to be
accepted. But children also select peers who
share their same attitudes and
interests. Parents are important models for
education, discipline, responsibility,
orderliness, charitableness, and ways of
interacting with authorities, while peers are
influential in learning to cooperate with others, achieving popularity, and
finding appropriate styles of interaction with people of a similar age. By
choosing the neighborhoods in which their children live, parents can
exert some influence over the peer group culture that helps shape
children.
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2)Manners
3)Interests
4)Cooperation
5)Responsibility
6)Religious beliefs
7)Interaction with similar age groups
8)Interaction with authorities
9)Popularity
10)Charitableness
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7.2: Cultural Influences
Cultural Influences
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Japanese decent. Therefore internal cultural differences are
minimal compared with those found in Los Angeles, where
the public schools recently taught 82 different languages.
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their family, clan, or company, and define their identity
accordingly—not as "me" but as "we." People in collectivist
cultures, such as Korea, place a premium on maintaining
harmony and making sure others never lose face. To
preserve group spirit, people avoid direct confrontation,
blunt honesty, and uncomfortable topics; they defer to
others' wishes and display a polite, self-effacing humility
(Markus & Kitayama, 1991).
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behavior one's personality and norms and roles
attitudes
Review Exercises:
Put an “I” for traits common among Individualists and a “C’
for traits common amongst Collectivists:
Independent
Interdependent
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American Culture
Korean Culture
Multiple Choice
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Norms, Personal Space, Individualists, Collectivists,
Independent, Family Self, Grammar
1 2
7 8
10
ACROSS DOWN
2. These people find 1. The coordination and
satisfaction in advancing their commitment of a team of
groups' interests, even at the women and men to produce
expense of personal needs. something, no one of whom is
4. These people give capable of producing it alone.
relatively greater priority to 3. This is enabled by our
personal goals and define shared capacity for culture.
their identity mostly in terms 8. Our languages vary, but
of personal attributes. they reflect universal
5. Most Westerners now raise principles of THIS.
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their children to be THIS.
6. Behavior seen as
appropriate in one culture
may violate the THESE of
another group.
7. Thanks to our mastery of
this, humans can preserve
innovation.
9. Scandinavians, North
Americans, and the British
prefer more of this, while
Latin Americans, Arabs, and
the French are accustomed to
less.
10. A feeling that what
shames the child shames the
family, and what brings honor
to the family brings honor to
the self.
Key Terms
Word Bank: Culture, Norms, Personal Space, Individualism,
Collectivism
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: the buffer zone we like to maintain around our
bodies
Answer Key:
I, C, I, C, I, C, C
Multiple Choice:
1-B, 2-A, 3-D
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7.3: Gender Development
Gender Similarities and Differences
Men and women are very similar, and among your 46
chromosomes, 45 are unisex. Woman have more body fat,
less muscle and are 5 inches shorter hand the average man.
Women enter puberty sooner, express emotions freely, and
smell faint odors. However, they are more vulnerable to
depression, anxiety, and eating disorders. Men are more
likely to commit suicide, become alcoholic, be autistic, and
to be color-blind.
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socially dominant and more likely to be leaders. Yet
compared to women, men are more autocratic leaders and
more likely to speak their opinions. Men are also more likely
to act powerful by being assertive and dominant; it is these
sorts of behaviors that perpetuate sexual inequality in salary
and leadership positions. However, these gender differences
can lessen with maturity.
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relationships.
Gender Roles
A role refers to a cluster of prescribed actions and the
expected behaviors of people. Our culture’s gender roles,
our expectations about the way men and women behave,
shape the way men and women behave and act as members
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of society. The diversity of gender roles over time shows that
culture rather than biology influences these roles. Gender
ideas have varied greatly over time and across generations.
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account for a child’s gender identity. The gender schema
theory states that children learn from their cultures a
concept of what it means to be male and female and adjust
their behavior accordingly. Children have very rigid
stereotypes about boys and girls that peak around age 5.
32
Review exercises
Fill in the blanks:
1. More women are diagnosed with _____________________
more men with _________________________________.
Key Terms:
Word bank: gender schema theory, gender role, X
chromosome, role, gender identity, social learning theory, Y
chromosome, gender-typing, testosterone
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male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the
male sex characteristics during puberty.
34
Answers
Fill in the blanks:
1. depression; antisocial personality disorder
2. aggressive
3. men; women
4. chromosomes
5. women; men
6. biology; society
Key Terms:
1. X chromosome
2. testosterone
3. Y chromosome
4. role
5. gender identity
7. gender typing
9. gender identity
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Reflections on Nature and
Nurture
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and social-cultural influences is called the
______________ (1) approach.
Answers
1. biopsychosocial
First a zygote
Attatched to the uterus
Then an embryo
then a fetus
Then proportion
With arms and legs
Then facial features
Like hands and feet
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Bravely bold Sir Robin
Had an irresponsible Mom
During pregnancy, she drank alcohol
Then the teratrogens entered Robin’s placenta
And killed many of his brain cells
This is why when Robin was born, he was not quite right
He was a victim of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
40% of women who drink bear babies with FAS
And is the leading cause to mental retardation
Disproportioned
With a very small head
Brain damage
And abnormities
Learning deficits
And depression
Bad motor skills
And neurotransmitter problems
Rooting reflex
and breathing
Detecting cents
And voices too
And cries of hunger
That drive his mother crazy
Zygote: the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops
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into an embryo.
Embryo: the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through
the second month.
Fetus: the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
Teratogens: agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus
during prenatal development and cause harm.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused
by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable
facial misproportions.
Rooting Reflex: a baby’s tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch,
open the mouth, and search for the nipple.
Bravery Review…
When Bravely Bold Sir Robin was conceived, he was first a _______, then a
_______, then a ________ about nine weeks after conception. After that stage,
Robin developed (in order), proportion, _____ and legs, then _____, and ______ and
feet. Because His mother drank during his pregnancy, Robin’s brain cells were
________ by the millions. This caused learning ___________, disproportion, and
slowed _______ skills. 40% of babies born with _______ _______ Syndrome develop
mental ___________. Then, when Robin was born, the first thing that he began to
recognize was his mother’s ________. He could even recognize the scent of his
mothers ________ _______. His ______ reflex allowed him to search for ______ to
suck on for milk. Then he recognized her sweet, soothing __________.
Word Bank:
retardation rooting fetus
voice
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Period 2
4/14/08
Adolescence and Adulthood Study Guide
Modules 10 and 11
Module 10: Adolescence
Key Terms:
Adolescence: the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty
to independence.
Puberty: the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of
reproducing.
Primary sex characteristics: the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia)
that make sexual reproduction possible.
Secondary sex characteristics: nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female
breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.
Menarche: the first menstrual period.
Identity: one’s sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a
sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.
Intimacy: in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary
developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.
Summaries:
10.1 Physical Development
During puberty, primary sex characteristics (the reproductive organs and external
genitalia) and secondary sex characteristics (nonreproductive sexual characteristics such
as a girl's breasts and a boy's deepened voice) develop. For most girls, menarche happens
within a year of age 12. For most boys, spermarche occurs by about age 14. Individual
onset of puberty varies, depending on heredity and environment, and other people's
reactions to early or late maturation can influence adolescents' adjustment. During
adolescence, frontal lobes mature and unused neurons and their connections are pruned.
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10.2 Cognitive Development
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral thinking: preconventional morality
(selfinterested, based on reasoning that attempts to avoid punishment or gain concrete
rewards); conventional morality (law-abiding, based on reasoning that existing laws must
be upheld), and postconventional morality (self-defined, based on abstract reasoning
about what is ethical, right, and fair).
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Middle adulthood (40s to Generativity vs. stagnation In middle age, people
60s) discover a sense of
contributing to the world,
usually through family and
work, or they may feel a
lack of purpose.
Late adulthood (late 60s and Integrity vs. despair When reflecting on his or
up) her life, the older adult may
feel a sense of satisfaction
or failure.
Stage Description
Preconventional morality Obey either to avoid punishment or to gain
concrete rewards.
Example: I better share this toy or Mommy
will be mad.
Conventional morality Cares for others and upholds laws and
social rules simply because they are the
laws and rules.
Example: If you drive too fast, you will
break the law.
Postconventional morality Affirms people's agreed-upon rights or
follows what one personally perceives as
basic ethical principles.
Example: I don’t care if it is the law, it’s
not right and it’s not fair!
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Summaries:
11.1 Physical Development
Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output begin to decline in
the late twenties. Women outlive men and outnumber men at most ages past early
infancy. In late adulthood, especially after age 70, hearing, distance perception, and the
sense of smell diminish, as do muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina. Life-
threatening diseases such as cancer and pneumonia increase, but short-term ailments
decrease. Neural processes slow, but physical exercise can stimulate the development of
some new brain cells and connections. With age, the incidence of dementia increases, but
dementia is not a normal part of the aging process. The ability to recall new information
declines during early and middle adulthood, but the ability to recognize such information
does not. Older adults recall meaningful information more easily than meaningless
information. Today's view is that fluid intelligence (the ability to reason speedily and
abstractly) declines in later life, but crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge and
skills) does not.
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a. male facial hair
b. female hips
c. male deepened voice
d. female ovaries
3. The process of developing a sense of identity during adolescence was highlighted by:
a. Piaget
b. Kohlberg
c. Erikson
d. Pavlov
5. A researcher who administers a personality test to the same children every three years
as they progress though school is conducting a (n) _____ study.
a. case
b. experimental
c. cross-sectional
d. longitudinal
6. Which of the following is true about the physical development in adult life?
a. Most adults are clearly aware of the first signs of physical decline.
b. Sensory ability and reaction time reach their peak by the mid-twenties. c. The outward
signs of advancing years are psychologically stressful for adults in every culture.
d. None of the above
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8. Mark thinks he should obey his teachers only if they are carefully watching him.
Kohlberg would suggest that Mark demonstrates a (n) _____ morality.
a. conventional
b. preconventional
c. postconventional
d. unconventional
Answers: 1. D, 2. C, 3. C, 4. A, 5. D, 6. B, 7. B, 8. B, 9. C, 10. A
MODULE SUMMARIES
MODULE 12+13: Intro to Sensation and Perception and Vision
A. Section 12-1: explains the difference between sensation and perception and
bottom up and top down processing.
a. Sensation
i. The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system
receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
b. Perception
i. The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information,
enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
c. Bottom-up processing
i. Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the
brain’s integration of sensory information.
d. Top-down processing
i. Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as
when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and
expectations.
B. Section 12-2: Explains the difference between absolute and difference thresholds.
Describes how although we can sometimes sense stimuli below our absolute
threshold, the effect is too small to make us susceptible subliminal messages.
a. Absolute threshold
i. The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50
percent of the time.
b. Difference threshold
i. The minimum difference between two stimuli required for
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detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference
threshold as a just noticeable difference. (Also called just
noticeable difference or jnd.)
c. Weber’s law
i. The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must
differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant
amount).
d. Psychophysics
i. The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of
stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of
them.
e. Subliminal stimuli
i. Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
f. Signal detection theory
i. A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint
stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise").
Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection
depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation,
and level of fatigue.
C. Section 12-3:Explains what sensory adaptation is. Ex: when we are exposed to a
certain sensory stimulus for a long period of time, we become no longer aware of
its existence because of sensory adaptation.
a. Sensory adaptation
i. Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
D. Section 12-4:
a. Inattentional Blindness
i. Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed
elsewhere.
E. Section 13-1: Defines transduction. Explains how the hue and brightness of a
light depends on its intensity and wavelength.
a. Sensory transduction
i. Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the
transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and
smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
b. Wavelength
i. The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak
of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips
of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.
c. Hue
i. The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of
light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.
d. Intensity
i. The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive
as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude.
F. Section 13-2: Describes how the eye processes light. (And explains the major
46
structures of the eye) 1. Light enters through the cornea 2.The iris contracts to
controls the size of the pupil (which decides how much light to let in). 3. The lens
changes shape to focus light rays on the retina where receptor cells convert the
light energy into neural impulses.
CONTINUE
Macula
i. Accommodation
a. The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus
near or far objects on the retina.
ii. Acuity
a. The sharpness of vision.
iii. Nearsightedness
a. A condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than
distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the
retina.
iv. Farsightedness
a. A condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly
than near objects because the image of near objects is focused
47
behind the retina.
G. Section 13-3:Describes the difference between rods and cones and other
structures of the eye.
a. Parts of the Eye:
i. Pupil: the adjustable opening in the center of the eye trough which
light enters
ii. Lens: the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes form
to help focus images on the retina.
iii. Iris: a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the
eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
iv. Cornea: Where light enters through
v. Retina: the process by which the eye’s les changes shape to help
focus images on the retina
vi. Fovea: the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s
cones cluster.
vii. Optic Nerve: The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye
to the brain
viii. Blind Spot: The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye,
creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there.
ix. Rods: retinal receptors that detect black, white and gray; necessary
for peripheral and twilight visions, when cones don’t respond.
x. Cones: retinal receptors cells that are concentrated near the center
of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions.
The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensation.
H. Section 13-4:Defines feature detection
a. Feature detection
i. Nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the
stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.
I. Section 13-5: Defines parallel processing and its role in visual information
processing.
a. Parallel processing
i. The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the
brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions,
including vision. Contrasts with the step-bystep (serial) processing
of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
J. Section 13-6: Describes two theories on color: Young-Helmholz trichromatic
theory and the opponent process theory.
a. Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory
i. the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—
one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which when
stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color.
b. Opponent color
i. Red vs. green
ii. Blue vs. yellow
iii. White vs. black
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c. Opponent-process theory
i. The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue,
white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are
stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by
red and inhibited by green.
K. Section 13-7: Explains the concept of color constancy.
a. Color constancy
i. Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if
changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the
object.
49
M.
Review Quiz:
Matching: Pair the definition with the appropriate letter
11. Henry walks into a room that smells strongly of paint varnish. After a couple of
minutes however, Henry no longer notices the smell. This phenomenon is best described
by:
A. Weber’s Law
B. The difference threshold
C. Sensory Adaptation
D. Selective Attention
13. The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next is
called________
50
14. The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors – the most sensitive
to red, one to green and one to blue—which when stimulated in combination can produce
the perception of any color is called ___________
15. Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination
alters the wave lengths reflected by the object is called _________
Answers:
1. G
2. F
3. J
4. A
5. I
6. E
7. D
8. C
9. H
10. B
11. C
12. Transduction
13. Wavelength
14. Trichromatic theory
15. Color constancy
14-1 AUDITION: Audition is the sense of hearing. Sound waves consist of bands that are
either compressed or expanded air. Ears detect these changes in air pressure and turn
them into neural impulses, which is then created into sound by the brain. Sound waves
vary in frequency and amplitude, which we perceive as differences in pitch and loudness.
14-2 THREE REGIONS OF THE EAR: The outer ear is the visible portion of the ear.
The middle ear is the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea. The inner ear
consists of the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. Through a mechanical
51
chain of events, sound waves traveling through the auditory canal cause tiny vibrations in
the eardrum, which the bones of the middle ear amplify and relay to the fluid-filled
cochlea. Rippling of the basilar membrane, caused by pressure changes in the cochlear
fluid, causes movement of the tiny hair cells, triggering neural messages to be sent (via
the thalamus) to the brain’s auditory cortex.
52
14-3 CONTRAST PLACE AND FREQUENCY THEORIES: Place theory proposes that
our brain interprets a particular pitch by decoding the location where a sound wave has
stimulated the cochlea’s basilar membrane. Frequency theory proposes that the brain
deciphers the number and rate of the pulses traveling up the auditory nerve to the brain.
Place theory can explain how we hear high-pitched sounds but not how we hear low-
pitched sounds. Frequency theory can explain how we hear low-pitched sounds, but not
how we hear high-pitched sounds. Some combination of the two explains how we hear
sounds in the middle range.
14-4 PINPOINT SOUNDS: Sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than
the other. Using parallel processing, the brain analyzes the minute differences in the
sounds received by the two ears and computes the source of the sound.
14-5 HEARING LOSS: Conduction hearing loss results from damage to the mechanical
system that transmits sound waves to the cochlea. Sensorineural hearing loss results from
damage to the cochlea’s hair cells or their associated nerves. Diseases and accidents can
cause these problems, but age-related disorders and prolonged exposure to loud noise are
more common causes of hearing loss, especially of nerve deafness.
14-6 COCHLEAR IMPLANTS: Cochlear implants wired into various sites on the
auditory nerve transmit electrical impulses to the brain. These devices can help deaf
children to hear some sounds and to learn to use spoken language. But cochlear implants
are most effective when children are very young, which means that parents must make
this decision for their deaf children. In opposing the transplants, Deaf culture advocates
maintain that deafness is not a disability – Deaf people already have a complete language,
sign – and that sensory compensation, which enhances other senses, gives Deaf people
advantages the hearing do not have.
53
Module 14: Key Terms
- Frequency: the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for
example, per second)
- Middle Ear: the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones
54
(hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the
cochlea’s oval window
- Cochlea: a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves
trigger nerve impulses
- Inner Ear: the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and
vestibular sacs
- Place Theory: in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the
auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
- Conduction Hearing Lost: hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that
conducts sound waves to the cochlea
- Sensorineural Hearing Loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor
cells or to the auditory nerves, also called nerve deafness
- Cochlear Implant: a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating
the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
Matching
1. Audition
2. Frequency
3. Pitch
4. Middle Ear
5. Cochlea
6. Inner Ear
55
7. Place Theory
8. Conduction Hearing Loss
9. Sensorineural Loss
10. Cochlear Implant
___A. a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger
nerve impulses
___B. a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory
nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
___C. the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and
vestibular sacs
___D. the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for
example, per second)
___E. hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory
nerves, also called nerve deafness
___H. hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound
waves to the cochlea
___I. the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones
(hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the
cochlea’s oval window
___J. in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve
matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
Study Guide: Module 15 – Other Important Senses (Pg. 224234)
By: DJ Shelton, Bubba Paguirigan, Kelvin Wang, Gracie Varda, and Caitlin Heising
Module 15: Summaries (Psychology: Eighth Edition in Modules by David G. Myers)
15-1 TOUCH: Our sense of touch is actually for senses— pressure, warmth, cold, and
pain— that combine to produce other sensations, such as “hot”. Of these, only pressure
has specialized receptors.
56
QuickTimeª and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Fig. 15.1 Warm + cold = hot When ice-cold water passes through one coil and comfortably
warm water through another, we perceive the combined sensation as burning hot.
15-2 PAIN: Pain is an alarm system that draws our attention to some physical problem.
One theory of pain is that a “gate” in the spinal cord either opens to permit pain signals
traveling up small nerve fibers to reach the brain, or closes to prevent their passage. The
biopsychosocial approach views a person’s experience of pain as the sum of three sets of
forces; biological influences, such as nerve fibers sending message to the brain;
psychological influences, such as the situation and our past experiences; and social-
cultural influences, such as cultural expectations and the presence of observers.
Treatments to control pain often combine physiological and psychological elements.
QuickTimeª and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Pain perception: A cool look at a hot topic At the University of Pittsburgh, Johnstown,
physicist David Willey used eight cords of wood to construct the world's longest firewalk. After
explaining heat-diffusion principles that permit firewalking, he then joined several others in
putting his feet where his mouth was. (Think of a cake baking in a 350-degree oven. Touch the
aluminum cake tin and you'll get burned; briefly touch the cake—like wood, a poor conductor
of heat— and you'll be okay.) Both photos: David Willey
57
another.
QuickTimeª and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Sensory interaction: One sense influences another When a hard-of-hearing listener sees
an animated face forming words being spoken at the other end of a phone line, the words
become easier to understand (Knight, 2004). Courtesy of RNID: www.rnid.org.uk
15-4 SMELL: Smell is a chemical sense, but ther are no basic sensations for smell, as
ther are for touch and taste. The 5 million olfactory receptor cells, with the approximately
350 different receptor proteins, recognize individual odor molecules. The receptor cells
sens messages to the brain’s olfactory bulb, then to the tempora lobe and to parts of the
limbic system. Some odors trigger a combination of receptors. An odor’s ability to
spontaneously evoke memories and feelings is due in part to the close connections
between brain areas that process smell and those involved in memory storage.
QuickTimeª and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Fig. 15.5 The sense of smell If you are to smell a flower, airborne molecules of its
fragrance must reach receptors at the top of your nose. Sniffing swirls air up to the receptors,
enhancing the aroma. The receptor cells send messages to the brain's olfactory bulb, and then
onward to the temporal lobe's primary smell cortex and to the parts of the limbic system
involved in memory and emotion.
15-5 SENSE: by means of millions of position and motion sensor s all over our body, our
58
kinesthetic sense monitors the position and movement of our individual body parts. Our
vestibular sense relies on semicircular canals and vestibular sacs in the inner ear to sense
our head’s— and thus our whole body’s— position and movement, letting us maintain
our balance.
QuickTimeª and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
QuickTimeª and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
The intricate vestibular sense Thank your inner ears for the information that enables your
brain to monitor your body's position. Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works
Module 15: KeyTerms
Gatecontrol Theory: the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that
blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the
activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger
fibers or by information coming from the brain.
59
- Sensory Interaction: the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the
smell of food influences its taste.
- Kinethesis: the system for sensing the position and movement and position of individual
body parts.
- Vestibular Sense: the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of
balance (based in our inner ear).
T/F
___ The gatecontrol theory refers to the taste buds monitoring levels of spiciness and/or
bitterness in our food.
___ Sensory interaction refers to bodily senses interacting with each other, as in smell
enhancing/hindering taste.
___ Kinethesis refers to the part of our nervous system that controls the movement of
specific body parts.
___ Vestibular Sense refers to the inner ear helping us keep our balance and keep our
head straight.
Answer: F – T – T- T
Module 12
sensation: the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and
represent stimulus energies from our environment.
bottom-up processing: analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the
brain’s integration of sensory information.
signal detection theory: a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint
stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute
threshold and detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation,
60
and level of fatigue.
priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s
perception, memory, or response.
difference threshold: the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50
percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference.
(Also called just noticeable difference or jnd.)
Weber’s law: the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a
constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).
inattentional blindness: failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed
elsewhere.
Module 13
transduction: conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming
of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can
interpret.
wavelength: the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.
Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of
radio transmission.
hue: the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as
the color names blue, green, and so forth.
intensity: the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or
loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude.
pupil: the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.
iris: a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and
controls the size of the pupil opening.
lens: the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on
the retina.
accommodation: the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far
objects on the retina.
retina: the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones
plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.
nearsightedness: a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant
objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina.
farsightedness: a condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects
because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina.
61
rods: retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and
twilight vision, when cones don’t respond.
cones: retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that
function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color
sensations.
optic nerve: the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
blind spot: the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because
no receptor cells are located there.
fovea: the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.
feature detectors: nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus,
such as shape, angle, or movement.
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory: the theory that the retina contains
three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which
when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color.
opponent-process theory: the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-
blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and
inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.
color constancy: perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing
illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.
Module 14
audition: the sense or act of hearing.
frequency: the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for
example, per second).
middle ear: the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones
(hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s
oval window.
cochlea: [KOHK-lee-uh] a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound
waves trigger nerve impulses.
inner ear: the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and
vestibular sacs
place theory: in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the
cochlea’s membrane is stimulated.
frequency theory: in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the
auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.
conduction hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that
conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
62
sensorineural hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells
or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.
cochlear implant: a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the
auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
Module 15
gate-control theory: the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that
blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity
of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by
information coming from the brain.
sensory interaction: the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell
of food influences its taste.
kinesthesis: [kin-ehs-THEE-sehs] the system for sensing the position and movement of
individual body parts.
vestibular sense: the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.
Module 16
visual capture: the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses.
figure-ground: the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out
from their surroundings (the ground).
depth perception: the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that
strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.
visual cliff: a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.
binocular cues: depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the
use of two eyes.
retinal disparity: a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the two
eyeballs, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two
images, the closer the object.
convergence: a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge
inward when looking at an object. The greater the inward strain, the closer the object.
monocular cues: depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either
eye alone.
phi phenomenon: an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on
and off in quick succession.
Module 17
perceptual adaptation: in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even
63
inverted visual field.
perceptual set: a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
human factors psychology: a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines
interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.
extrasensory perception: the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from
sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.
64
5. In the following picture, is the guy spearing the elephant or the antelope? You can
tell because of….?
6. According to gate control theory, you only experience pain if the signal passes
through the ________ and goes to the brain.
7. _______+ _______ + ________ = flavor. This is called sensory interaction.
ANSWERS:
1. Extrasensory Perception
2. Color constancy
3. Binocular
4. Interposition
5. Antelope; Relative size; Relative Height
6. Spinal cord
65
7. Smell; texture; taste
1. Through bottom-up processing, we detect lines, angles, and colors, and form them
into a full image. Through top-down processing, we use our understanding of the
title to direct our attention to certain details.
2. The eye.
3. The Ear
66
4. The sense of smell
67
5. Grouping
68
69
Sensation and Perception
MATCHING REVIEW
a. When your mommy hears you placed. In the other, one quarter
whimper in another bedroom, is placed. You can tell the
it’ll catch her attention, while a difference easily. If you had 5
louder sound on the street may quarters in one hand, and six
not affect her. quarters in another, you wouldn’t
b. A positive image is flashed in be able to tell the difference. You
front of you. When a neutral can only detect the difference if
image is shown to you your other hand has 10 quarters.
immediately after this flash, you This is…?
will think it’s more positive. This
is because of …? 1. Sensory Adaptation
c. You live on a farm with stinky
animals. After awhile, you have
diminishing sensitivity to that
odor because of…?
d. In the following picture, you see
an image because your brain
forms it. You have grouped
everything. This is 2. Signal Detection Theory
called_______.
3. Gestalt
4. Weber’s Law
70
5. Priming
71
72
73
ANSWERS FOR CROssWORD PUzzLE
ACROSS
3. Sensation
5. Accomodation
7. Cochlea
8. Lens
9. Selective Attention
DOWN
1. Perception
2. Acuity
4. Nearsighted
6. Place Theory
Module 18.1
Objective 18.1: Consciousness and Information Processing
Summary:
Psychology began as a study of one’s consciousness or awareness of ourselves and the
environment around us—later turning into the study of behavior. Conscious awareness is
what enables us to communicate our mental states to others, though it is not the only
component of this process. While you are consciously thinking, our unconsciousness
simultaneously occurs. For example, when one sees a car drive by, they know it is a car,
but subconsciously they know that it is a certain make or model of car.
74
Starvation
Review:
75
Module 18.2
Objective 18.2: Biological Rhythms
Summary:
There are four types of biological rhythms, also known as periodic physiological
fluctuations. These four types are called annual cycles, twentyeightday cycles, twenty
fourhour cycles, and ninetyminute cycles. When on an annual cycle, a person may
undergo appetite, sleep length, and mood swings. For instance, seasonal affective disorder
may occur when one lives in a dark and gloomy atmosphere, causing depression. An
example of twentyeightday cycle is a female’s menstrual cycle. The twentyfourhour
cycle changes ones alertness, body temperature, and growth hormone secretion. Lastly,
the ninetyminute cycle occurs during change of sleep stages.
Review:
1) What is a component of a twentyfourhour cycle?
a. Depression
b. Attentiveness
c. Menstrual Cycle
2) How many biological rhythms are there? What are they called?
3) What happens during seasonal affective disorder?
76
Module 18.2
Objective 18.3: Circadian Rhythm
Summary:
Circadian rhythm is the human’s biological clock, a 24hour cycle. One’s body
temperature is at its highest during the day and it’s lowest before going to bed. Brightness
of light affects the circadian clock by turning on lightsensitive retinal proteins, setting off
the suprachiasmatic nucleus (clusters of cells controlling the circadian clock). The longer
one is awake, the more chemicals produced, causing sleepiness.
1) When is one’s body temperature at its peak?
a. When they first wake up
b. During the late afternoon
c. In the middle of the day
2) What are the clusters of cells control the circadian clock called?
a. Syprachiasmatic nucleus
b. Pineal gland
c. Optic nerve
3) What affects the circadian clock?
77
Module 18.2
Objective 18.4: Sleep Stages
Summary:
Around every 90 minutes of sleep, we pass through a cycle of five distinct sleep stages.
Stage one is very similar to being awake and only lasts a couple of minutes. Alpha waves
are present at this time; slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state. During state one, it is
common to experience images resembling hallucinations. At this time, hypnagogic
sensations occur. This is when your body suddenly jerks. Next is stage two. Sleep
spindles, bursts of brainwave activity, occur in this stage. One can easily be awaken
during this stage, but you are now asleep. Stage two is also where sleep talking can begin.
The third stage lasts about thirty minutes. This is a much deeper sleep where you are hard
to awaken. At this point your brain emits delta waves; slow brain waves associated with
deep sleep. Stage four is the deepest sleep of them all. At this stage, one can experience
episodes of sleepwalk or wetting the bed. During stage two and three, you enter REM
(Rapid Eye Movement) sleep. During REM your heart rate rises, breathing becomes rapid
and irregular, and your eyes move around behind the closed lids.
Fig. 18.7 The stages in a typical night's sleep Most people pass
through the five-stage sleep cycle (graph a) several times, with the periods
of Stage 4 sleep and then Stage 3 sleep diminishing and REM sleep
periods increasing in duration. Graph b plots this increasing REM sleep
and decreasing deep sleep based on data from 30 young adults. (From
Cartwright, 1978; Webb, 1992.)
Review:
1) Around how many minutes does it take to pass through a sleep cycle?
2) What is it called when you body jerks during stage one?
3) At what stage(s) does REM occur? List the three changes that occur to
your body at this time.
78
Module 18.2
Objective 18.5: Why Do We Sleep?
Summary:
Every human needs sleep to survive. Sleep takes over around one-third of our lives
(around 25 years!!!). Sleep patterns and duration vary from person to person. They can be
culturally influenced and such things as light, work, hobbies, and past times can impact
one’s amount of sleep. Those who get more sleep are more efficient and accurate than
those who sleep less. While people may make up for a short sleep the night before,
sleeping for a long period of time the day after does not necessarily help. It is a consistent
sleep schedule that does the job.
Review:
1) What is the best kind of sleep one can get?
2) About how long does sleep take over ones life?
3) Why is a good night of sleep a smart choice for someone who has a test the next
day?
79
Module 18.2
Objective 18.6: The Effects of Sleep Deprivation
Summary:
Sleep deprivation experiments reveal slowed reaction times and increase errors on visual
tasks. Some examples of sleep deprivation include:
1) Struggling to get out of bed in the morning
2) Feeling tired, irritable, and stressed out during the week
3) Often falling asleep during boring meetings or lectures
4) Often feeling drowsy while driving
5) Often needing a nap to get through the day
Sleep loss can also affect us in a more subtle way such as a weaker immune system that
fights off viral infections and cancer. Sleep dept can also alter metabolic hormonal
functioning causing obesity, hypertension, and memory impairment. Some other effects
are:
1) Slowed performance
2) Impaired creativity
3) Concentration
4) Communication
Review:
1) List some examples of sleep deprivation.
2) Sleep Deprivation can ____ reaction time and ________ visual errors.
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Module 18.2
Summary:
The major disorders of sleep include insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, night terrors,
sleepwalking, and sleeptalking.
Review:
1) What are some ways to prevent sleep disorders?
2) Do people remember their night terrors? Why or why not?
3) Sleepwalking and talking is most common among what age groups?
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Module 18.2
Summary:
People usually dream of ordinary events and everyday experiences. Most dreams occur
during REM sleep and are most vivid then. Dreams that do not occur during REM tend to
be vague, unmemorable images. Dreams are marked by negative emotions 80% of the
time. According to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream is called manifest
content. A common dream one has is to be falling, but suddenly awoken when about to
hit the ground.
Review:
a. Vivid
b. Emotional
c. Bizarre
a. 2
b. 5
c. 8
d. 10
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preoccupations?
a. REM sleep
b. Sleepwalking
c. Night terrors
d. Manifest content
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Module 18.2
Summary:
Review:
1) Freud’s ____-___________ theory proposed we dream because of a deeper,
hidden meaning.
2) Dreams help us sort out the day’s events is part of the ___________-__________
theory.
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3) REM rebound is the tendency for REM sleep to _________ following REM sleep
deprivation.
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Module 19.1
Summary:
Hypnosis is a social interaction in which the hypnotist suggests to the subject that certain
perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. Researchers, after
many experiments, now agree that the strength, stamina, learning, and perceptual abilities
of those under hypnosis are like those of motivated unhypnotized people. For example,
hypnotized people can perform “the amazing human plank,” but this can also be
performed by extremely motivated unhypnotized people as well.
Review:
1) What are some examples of what people do under hypnosis?
2) What are some examples of feats that researchers now agree are
impossible to accomplish?
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Module 19.1
Summary:
Review:
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88
Module 19.1
Summary:
Hypnotically refreshed memories combine fact with fiction. Hypnotists can plant ideas in
the subject’s pseudomemory by asking leading questions. Research has revealed that
most reports of UFOs have come from people who were inclined to believe in aliens, are
easy to hypnotize, and have undergone hypnosis.
Review:
1) True or False: Memories recalled under hypnosis are 100% fact.
2) True or False: Those who have reported UFO sightings are easily susceptible to
hypnosis.
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Module 19.1
Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Force People to Act Against Their Will?
Summary:
Martin Orne and Frederick Evans found that hypnotized people could perform dangerous
acts if told to do so. After doing dangerous acts, patients had no memory of them and
denied performing such acts. Stanley Milgram found that authoritative people can force
hypnotized and unhypnotized people to perform unusual acts.
Review:
1) Explain what happens after a person is hypnotized to perform a dangerous act.
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Module 19.1
Summary:
Hypnotherapists simply try to help patients heal themselves. Hypnosis has helped people
alleviate pain, asthma, and stress-related problems. It was found that hypnosis helps a lot
with obesity. But it was also found that hypnosis didn’t help with drug or alcohol
problems.
Review:
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Module 19.1
Summary:
Hypnosis does alleviate pain. Dissociation is a theory of hypnotic pain relief. The theory
happens when the sensation of pain dissociates from the emotional suffering during
hypnosis. Another theory of hypnotic pain relief is selective attention when people
choose when to feel the pain. Hypnosis doesn’t block sensory input, but it does block
one’s attention to the stimuli of the sensory input.
Review:
2) True or False: Dissociation occurs when we combine the pain sensation with our
conscious awareness
3) True or False: Selective attention is when we focus our attention on other things
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Module 19.2
Summary:
1) Hypnotized people may carry out posthypnotic actions when no one else is
watching.
2) Brain scans show that people hypnotized to see imaginary things will show higher
brain activity during those things.
3) Brain scans show that people hypnotized to alleviate pain will show less brain
activity relating to that sensory information.
Review:
1) Brain scans show _________ brain activity when hypnotized to see imaginary
things.
2) Brain scans show _________ brain activity when hypnotized to relieve pain.
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Review Question: Answers
Module 18.1
Objective 18.1: Consciousness and Information Processing
Module 18.2
Objective 18.2: Biological Rhythms
1) B
2) Four; Annual Cycles, Twenty-Eight-Day Cycles, Twenty-Four-Hour Cycles, and
Ninety-Minute Cycles
3) Depression
Module 18.2
Objective 18.3: Circadian Rhythm
1) C
2) A
3) Light
Module 18.2
Objective 18.4: Sleep Stages
1) 90 minutes
2) Hypnagogic Sensations
3) Two and Three; During REM your heart rate rises, breathing becomes rapid and
irregular, and your eyes move around behind the closed lids.
Module 18.2
Objective 18.5: Why Do We Sleep?
1) Consistent sleep schedule
2) Around onethird of our lives or around 25 years
3) You are more efficient and accurate
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Module 18.2
Objective 18.6: The Effects of Sleep Deprivation
1) Struggling to get out of bed in the morning, feeling tired, irritable, and stressed
out during the week, often falling asleep during boring meetings or lectures, often
feeling drowsy while driving, and often needing a nap to get through the day.
2) Slow; increase.
Module 18.2
Objective 18-8: Sleep Disorders
1) Relax before bedtime, use a dimmer light, avoid caffeine, sleep on a regular
schedule, exercise regularly, hide the clock face so you aren’t temped to check it,
etc.
2) No they don’t because they occur during Stage 4 of sleep.
3) Children and adolescents.
Module 18.2
Objective 18-9: What do we dream?
2) C. 8
3) D. Manifest content
Module 18.2
Objective 18-10: Why do we dream?
1) Wish-fulfillment
2) Information-processing
3) Increase
Module 19.1
Objective 19-1: Hypnosis
1) Forget the number six, think foul odors smell good, etc.
2) See the back of their head, talk to dead people, etc.
Module 19.1
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Objective 19-2: Can Anyone Experience Hypnosis?
ACROSS
3) Hypnotic ability
DOWN
1) Suggestible
2) Range
Module 19.1
Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Enhance Recall of Forgotten Events?
1) False
2) True
Module 19.1
Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Force People to Act Against Their Will?
Module 19.1
Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Be Therapeutic?
1) B
2) A
Module 19.1
Objective 19-2 continued: Can Hypnosis Alleviate Pain?
1) True
2) False
3) True
Module 19.2
Objective 19.3: Hypnosis as Divided Consciousness
1) Increased
2) Decreased
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Learning Review Sheet
Definition of learning
a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.
Associative Learning
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learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical
conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
Ivan Pavlov
Classical conditioning
a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus
that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates
and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.
UCR
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned
stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
UCS
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—
triggers a response.
CR
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now
conditioned) stimulus (CS).
CS
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an
unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Acquisition
the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned
response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
Discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus
and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned
stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an
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unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in
operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
Thorndyke
Law of Effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more
likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
B.F. Skinner-invented the operant conditioning chamber
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and
closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or
diminished if followed by a punisher.
Primary reinforcers
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an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Secondary reinforcers
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary
reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer.
Immediate reinforcement
A reinforcing stumulus, that immediately follows behavior. (conditions quickely)
Delayed reinforcement
A reinforcing stimumus that is delivered with a delay after behavior, (takes longer to
condition)
Positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is
any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
Negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative
reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.
(Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
Continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Partial reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response
but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
Schedules of partial reinforcement
Fixed interval
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a
specified time has elapsed
Variable interval
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at
unpredictable time intervals
Fixed ratio
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a
specified number of responses.
Variable ratio
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an
unpredictable number of responses.
Punishment
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
Latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Overjustification Effect- extrinsic rewards for previously intrinsically motivated
behaviors, becomes reason for behavior, so behavior decreases
Observational Learning
learning by observing others.
Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
Albert Bandura
demonstrated that we are likely to imitate actions that go unpunished
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Mirror Neuron
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or observing another doing
so
Prosocial Behavior
positive, constuctive, helpful behavior
Module Summaries
Module 21: Classical Conditioning Learning Objective Summary
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learn by watching others' experiences and examples.
Classical conditioning, the organism forms associations between behaviors it does not
control; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior (automatic responses to
some stimulus). In operant conditioning, the organism learns associations between its
own behavior and resulting events; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior
(behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences).
Thorndike's law of effect asserts that rewarded behavior is likely to recur. Using this as
his starting point, Skinner devoted his life to exploring the principles and conditions of
learning through operant conditioning.
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set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules, after an unpredictable number. Fixed-
interval schedules offer rewards after set time periods; variable-interval schedules, after
unpredictable time periods.
In observational learning, we observe and imitate others. Mirror neurons, located in the
brain's frontal lobes, demonstrate a neural basis for observational learning. They fire
when we perform certain actions (such as responding to pain or moving our mouth to
form words), or when we observe someone else performing those actions.
Bandura and others demonstrated that we are likely to intimate actions that go
unpunished. And we tend to imitate models we perceive as similar to us, successful, or
admirable.
Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior is prosocial
(positive, constructive, and helpful) or antisocial. If a model's actions and words are
inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe.
Questions:
1. A response is learned most quickly and is most resistant to extinction if it is
learned under conditions of __________ reinforcement followed by __________
reinforcement.
a. Partial, continuous
b. Secondary, primary
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c. Continuous, partial
d. Primary, secondary
2. B. F. Skinner elaborated on what Thorndike had called:
a. The law of effect
b. Observational learning
c. Latent learning
d. Shaping
3. The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that
do not signal an unconditioned stimulus is called:
a. Acquisition
b. Shaping
c. Discrimination
d. Generalization
4. In what form of learning is behavior said to be influenced by its consequences?
a. Observational learning
b. Classical conditioning
c. Latent learning
d. Operant conditioning
5. Maria developed an intense fear of snakes five years ago when she was bitten.
The fact that today she can again be around snakes without distress indicates that
her fear has undergone:
a. Spontaneous recovery
b. Discrimination
c. Extinction
d. Generalization
6. The fact that learning can occur without reinforcement is clearly demonstrated by
studies of:
a. Shaping
b. Latent learning
c. Spontaneous recovery
d. Operant conditioning
7. The highest rate of operant responding are associated with the ________ schedule
of reinforcement.
a. Fixed-ratio
b. Variable-ratio
c. Fixed-interval
d. Variable-interval
8. Stimulus-stimulus associations are to _______ as response-stimulus associations
are to ________.
a. Latent learning, observational learning
b. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning
c. Operant conditioning, classical conditioning
d. Acquisition, extinction
9. For purposes of effective child raising, most psychologists favor the use of
________ over _________.
a. Shaping, modeling
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b. Reinforcement, punishment
c. Spontaneous recovery, extinction
d. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning
10. In order to quickly teach a dog to play dead on command, you would be most
successful using _________ rather than __________.
a. Negative reinforcers, positive reinforcers
b. Partial reinforcement, continuous reinforcement
c. Latent learning, shaping
d. Immediate reinforcers, delayed reinforcers
11. Who invented the operant conditioning chamber?
a. Watson
b. Bandura
c. Skinner
d. Pavlov
12. A child’s fear at the sight of a needle is:
a. Conditioned response
b. Unconditioned response
c. Conditioned stimulus
d. Unconditioned stimulus
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Questions:
13. A response is learned most quickly and is most resistant to extinction if it is
learned under conditions of __________ reinforcement followed by __________
reinforcement.
a. Partial, continuous
b. Secondary, primary
c. Continuous, partial
d. Primary, secondary
14. B. F. Skinner elaborated on what Thorndike had called:
a. The law of effect
b. Observational learning
c. Latent learning
d. Shaping
15. The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that
do not signal an unconditioned stimulus is called:
a. Acquisition
b. Shaping
c. Discrimination
d. Generalization
16. In what form of learning is behavior said to be influenced by its consequences?
a. Observational learning
b. Classical conditioning
c. Latent learning
d. Operant conditioning
17. Maria developed an intense fear of snakes five years ago when she was bitten.
The fact that today she can again be around snakes without distress indicates that
her fear has undergone:
a. Spontaneous recovery
b. Discrimination
c. Extinction
d. Generalization
18. The fact that learning can occur without reinforcement is clearly demonstrated by
studies of:
a. Shaping
b. Latent learning
c. Spontaneous recovery
d. Operant conditioning
19. The highest rate of operant responding are associated with the ________ schedule
of reinforcement.
a. Fixed-ratio
b. Variable-ratio
c. Fixed-interval
d. Variable-interval
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20. Stimulus-stimulus associations are to _______ as response-stimulus associations
are to ________.
a. Latent learning, observational learning
b. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning
c. Operant conditioning, classical conditioning
d. Acquisition, extinction
21. For purposes of effective child raising, most psychologists favor the use of
________ over _________.
a. Shaping, modeling
b. Reinforcement, punishment
c. Spontaneous recovery, extinction
d. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning
22. In order to quickly teach a dog to play dead on command, you would be most
successful using _________ rather than __________.
a. Negative reinforcers, positive reinforcers
b. Partial reinforcement, continuous reinforcement
c. Latent learning, shaping
d. Immediate reinforcers, delayed reinforcers
23. Who invented the operant conditioning chamber?
a. Watson
b. Bandura
c. Skinner
d. Pavlov
24. A child’s fear at the sight of a needle is:
a. Conditioned response
b. Unconditioned response
c. Conditioned stimulus
d. Unconditioned stimulus
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Crossword Clues:
Across:
7. Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more
likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
8. Positive, constructive, helpful behavior
12. The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
14. In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after
a specified number of responses.
15. In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned
stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
17. Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or observing another
doing so
18. A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral
stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that
anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.
19. Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in
classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
20. In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at
unpredictable time intervals
21. An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
22. The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an
unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in
operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
Down
1. Extrinsic rewards for previously intrinsically motivated behaviors, becomes reason for
behavior, so behavior decreases
2. In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
3. A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.
4. The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with
an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned
response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
5. Father of classical conditioning
6. The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
9. A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or
diminished if followed by a punisher.
10. Learning by observing others.
11. Anything that strengthens behavior
13. In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with
an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.
16. An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer
and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
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Memory Review Packet
By Isaac Yao, Alan Chu, Jessica Yu, Kelsey Liu, Alfred Chen
• To remember any event, we must get information into our brain, retain that
information, and later get it back out.
• (3)_____________ is the processing of information into the memory
system.
• (4)_____________ is the retention of encoded information over time.
• (5)_____________ is the process of getting information out of memory
storage.
The modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory incorporates the
concept of the working memory.
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Since Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model, we have learned that short-term memory is
more than passive rehearsal.
How We Encode
112
Automatic Processing
• Without conscious effort we can process space, time and frequency due to parallel
processing.
• Some conscious processing can become automatic such as reading and driving.
Effortful processing
• Effortful processing requires attention and effort, but is durable and retrievable.
• Rehearsal or conscious repetition helps create long-term memories.
• Hermann Ebbinghaus found the amount remembered depends on the time spent
learning, an overlearning increases retention.
• Next-in-line effect-forgetting the information presented before we present.
• Information is processed best an hour before sleep, not immediately before sleep.
• Spacing effect-learn better when rehearsal is distributed over time.
• Serial position effect- first and last items are recalled more often than the middle.
What We Encode
Visual Encoding
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Matching Terms and Definitions:
12.Chunking
Module 26: Retaining Information
• We have two kinds of sensory memories: Iconic (Momentary sensory memory of image
stimuli) and Echoic (Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli)
• Both types have extremely short lifetimes, about 3-4 second, because we are virtually
flooded with sensory stimuli everyday (so we ‘make room’ for incoming sensory
information)
• Short-term memory (or working memory) is the transitional stage between sensory
memory and long-term memory
• Relative to sensory memories, short-term memories last a long time (about 12-15
seconds)
• We can recall about 7 items (give or take 2) that are in short-term memories
• If short-term memories are rehearsed enough, they turn into long-term memories, which
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stay with you (practically speaking) forever
• Long-term memories are not stored in just one central place; they are all over the brain
because of the way they are encoded (visual, audio and semantic)
• What we encode for long-term memories and what we actually experienced are two
completely different things
• Physically, memories seem to be stored in the synapses in between the brain’s neurons
• Further proof that memories reside in the synapses is that if LTP (long-term
potentiation) is blocked then learning becomes difficult if not impossible
• If an electric current is passed through the brain after LTP, the old memories are intact
but very recent memories are cleared away (a blow to the head will do the same)
• Stress can literally ingrain memories into the mind; the more emotion, the more vivid
the memory becomes (conversely the duller the emotion, the weaker the memory)
• This is because of the stress hormones make the brain go into a flurry of activity,
leading to vivid memory recall (any event causing stress, like a first kiss or natural
disaster, can lead to powerful memory recall)
• However too much stress will cause the brain areas related to memories shrink and
block older memories
• People with a type of amnesia (loss of memory), in which they cannot form new
memories, can learn new things like riding a bicycle or reading a story over and over
(faster each time)
• They cannot say they know they learned something, they have no explicit memory
(memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" [also
called declarative memory]) of the deed
• So they will say they cannot ride a bicycle but when they do get on, they can ride it with
ease (assuming that they learned it after they lose the ability to make new memories)
• The explicit memories seem to be stored in the hippocampus (a neural center located in
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the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage), which is lateralized
• Explicit memory of images and locations are located in the left hippocampus and
memory of verbs and words are located in the right.
• If the hippocampus is lost, then recent (month old) long-term memories disappear, but
older ones are still intact (further proving that long-term memories are stored in different
locations)
• Implicit memories are stored in the cerebellum, which is the part of the brain controlling
body motion (Thanks to implicit memories, classical conditioning is possible)
• Since the cerebellum develops and matures before the hippocampus, it is little wonder
that memories of learning how to walk/crawl are not explicit but implicit (and memories
before three years of age is forgotten)
Key Terms
-recall
-recognition
-relearning
-priming
-déjà vu
-mood-congruent memory
Outline
I. Recall/recognition/relearning
a. Memory is the retention of learning
b. Retrieval= process of getting information out of memory system
i. Recall=a measure of memory concerning ability to retrieve
information not in conscience awareness (Example: fill-in the
blank)
ii. Recognition=a measure of memory concerning ability to identify
items even if one can not recall them (Example: multi-choice test
question)
iii. Relearning=a measure of memory concerning the amount of time
saved when learning material for a second time (Example:
reviewing for a final)
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II. Retrieval Cues
a. A retrieval cue is some supplementary
information that you associate with a
memory when it is created
b. Priming=the activation of associations in
one’s memory
i. Priming is often done unconsciously
i. Example
Questions
1. Memory is__________.
2. The three different types of retrieval are
a.
b.
c.
3. The activation of associations in one’s memory is…
a. retrieval
b. déjà vu
c. priming
d. mood congruent memory
4. What kind of retrieval was tested in question number 3?
5. What is the difference between state dependent memory and mood congruent
memory?
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Module 28: Memory
4/11/08
28.1
• Information in short term memory stays there temporally and will be forgotten
eventually, unless encoded to long term memory.
• Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885)
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• Forgetting Curve – how much we learn, yet how fast we forget the info.
Forgetting Curve:
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• Even if we encode information in our long term memory, sometimes we have a
hard time to retrieve the information; hence, we forget it eventually.
Retroactive Interference:
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• repression: in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
28.2
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• Injustice happens. Some innocent people have been falsely convicted.
Some guilty people have evaded responsibility by casting doubt on their
truth-telling accusers.
• Incest and other sexual abuse happen. And it happens more often than
we once supposed. There is no characteristic "survivor syndrome"
(Kendall-Tackett & others, 1993). However, sexual abuse can leave its
victims predisposed to problems ranging from sexual dysfunction to
depression.
• Forgetting happens. Many of the abused were either very young when
abused or may not have understood the meaning of their experience—
circumstances under which forgetting is "utterly common." Forgetting
isolated past events, both negative and positive, is an ordinary part of
everyday life.
• Recovered memories are commonplace. Cued by a remark or an
experience, we recover memories of long-forgotten events, both pleasant
and unpleasant. What is debated is whether the unconscious mind
sometimes forcibly represses painful experiences and, if so, whether these
can be retrieved by certain therapist-aided techniques.
• Memories "recovered" under hypnosis or the influence of drugs are
especially unreliable. "Age-regressed" hypnotized subjects incorporate
suggestions into their memories, even memories of "past lives."
• Memories of things happening before age 3 are also unreliable. People
do not reliably recall happenings of any sort from their first 3 years—a
phenomenon called infantile amnesia . Most psychologists—including
most clinical and counseling psychologists—therefore are skeptical of
"recovered" memories of abuse during infancy (Gore-Felton & others,
2000; Knapp & VandeCreek, 2000). The older a child's age when suffering
sexual abuse, and the more severe it was, the more likely it is to be
remembered (Goodman & others, 2003).
• Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting. If a false
memory of abuse becomes a real part of one's history, both the accuser and
the accused may suffer. What was born of mere suggestion can, like an
actual trauma, become a stinging memory that may drive bodily stress
(McNally, 2003). People knocked unconscious by unremembered
accidents sometimes later develop stress disorders when haunted by
memories constructed from photos, news reports, and friends' accounts
(Bryant, 2001).
28.3
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• Ways to improve memory:
• Study repeatedly to boost long term recall
• Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material
• Make the material personally meaningful
• To remember a list of unfamiliar items, use mnemonic devices (memory
aids that use vivid images or organizational devices)
• Refresh your memory by activating retrieval cues
• Recall events while they are fresh, before you encounter possible
misinformation
• Minimize interference
• Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to help determine what
you do not yet know
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124
125
Answers
Module 24
1. learning
2. flashbulb
3. encoding
4. storage
6. retrieval
7. sensory
8. forgotten
9. permanent
10. active
Module 25
Answers: 1-g, 2-e, 3-a, 4-h, 5-b, 6-l, 7-k, 8-j, 9-c, 10-f, 11-I, 12-d.
Module 26
Module 27
1. The persistence of learning
2. a. Recall b. Recognition c. relearning
3. c. priming
4. recognition
5. state dependent memory affects how well you remember things while mood
congruent memory affects what type of things you remember.
Module 28
7. Unwanted memories.(persistence)
(harry bahrick)
126
9. The forgetting curve shows how much we learn, yet how fast we forget the info.
10. Proactive Interference is the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new
information.
11. Retroactive Interference is the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of
old information.
12. When old and new information compete with each other that interference
occurs.(positive transfer)
13. In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-
arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.(repression)
14. Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined.(source amnesia)
TEST YOURSELF!
Questions-
1. If you were told to find another word using all these letters, SPLOYOCHYG, by
excluding letter combinations, how would you be solving the problem?
a. Prototypes b. Heuristics c. concepts d. algorithm
2. While you are trying to figure out the above word, you finally figure out that the
answer is psychology. How did this happen?
a. Confirmation bias b. Fixation c. Insight d. Déjà vu
3. When someone does not consider seeing a problem in a completely different
perspective, this person is being…
a. Stereotypical b. Dyslexic c. Fixated d. Dumb
4. Most of us see the number sequence 2-4-6 as “counting by two’s” while the actual
rule is any three ascending numbers. How do we come to the conclusion that we
127
are counting by two’s?
a. Functional fixedness b. insight c. cognition d. confirmation bias
5. Our tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence is…
a. Belief perseverance b. confirmation bias c. fixation d. concepts
Answers:
1. d
2. c
3. c
4. c
5. a
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words. Sign language also contains phonemes.
Morphemes:
Definition: The smallest unit of language that carries
meaning.
Some morphemes are also phonemes. Many
morphemes contain two or more phonemes. Morphemes
are sometimes words, and are also prefixes are suffixes –
ex. The “ed” in watched or “pre” in prenatal.
Grammar:
Definition: A system of rules in a given language that
enables us to communicate with and understand others.
Grammar contains syntax (the rules we use to order
words into sentences) and semantics (the set of rules we use
to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences).
A rule of English syntax is that adjectives come before
nouns, but in other languages like French and Spanish,
adjectives come after nouns. Semantics helps us know that
when an “-ed” is added to a word like “jump” that the event
happened in the past.
129
24 + Language develops rapidly into
complete sentences
One-word stage:
During this stage, children learn to associate words with
images. They begin to use sounds to communicate meaning. They
generally learn a new word once a week and will use single words
in place of a sentence. For example, if a one-year-old says
“Cookie!” instead of “Can I have that cookie?”.
Two-word stage:
Children learn at a pace of one word per day. Their speech is
characterized as “telegraphic speech”, containing mostly nouns and
verbs. They are able to put words in an understandable order.
Once children move on from this stage, they rapidly engage
in sentence-making and soon understand complex sentences and
basic humor conveyed by double-meanings.
B.F. Skinner: Operant Learning
He believes language development can be explained through
three principles: association (an image with a sound), imitation (of
words and syntax modeled by others), and reinforcement (smiles
and encouraging words when the child says the correct word).
Hearing children with deaf parents do not learn to speak with as
much ease and quickness as those with hearing parents, but do
learn to sign at a normal pace.
130
language development. Children learn to make up sentences they
have never heard before and arrange words in different orders.
They do tend to overgeneralize grammar, however. For example,
once they learn past-tense words generally end in “-ed” they will
apply that to every word in the past tense (holded instead of held).
Chomsky believed language would just naturally occur. He
believes all languages are similar in that they have universal
grammar (they all contain nouns and verbs, subjects and objects,
etc.). All people start to speak mostly in nouns rather than
adjectives and verbs.
If children are raised in isolation, they will not learn
language. But if a group of children are raised alone, they will
create a language of their own. Deaf children will also create their
own language if not exposed to signing.
Chomsky believes we are born with a “language acquisition
device” that allows us to develop language quickly and naturally.
We learn the surface structure of our home language, which
consists of phonemes, morphemes, sentences, words, and rules
with which we combine them. We then learn deep structure – the
meaning of the words and sentences.
+
It takes both environment and genes to speak language.
131
Cognitive Scientists: Statistical Learning and Critical Periods
Infants are able to discern word breaks in speech by
recognizing how often syllables are grouped. Babies as young as
seven months will detect a difference in phrases by the pattern of
syllables within them.
The best years to learn a new language are during your
childhood and early adolescence. Grammar and accents are learned
with much greater ease. This is why implants for deaf children are
much more effective when implanted from age two to four.
Both hearing children of hearing parents and deaf children of
deaf parents learn language in the same way. But deaf children of
hearing parents often learn signing later, and thus can never sign
like native signers. They also show less brain activity in the right
hemisphere in comparison to native signers.
Test Yourself!
Multiple Choice:
1) When Suzie’s mom asks her, “What happened to all the
cookies?”, Suzie replies “I eated them.” What principle of
language development is she employing?
a) telegraphic speech
b) overgeneralization
c) linguistic determinism
d) syntax
132
a) the left hemisphre
b) the right hemisphere
c) the parietal lobes
e) the frontal cortex
Short Answer:
1. Compare and contrast Skinner and Chomsky’s
views on language development.
2. Describe the various stages of language
development.
ANSWER KEY:
Multiple Choice:
1)B
2)D
3)B
Short Answer:
1. See B.F. Skinner: Operant Learning and
Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar.
2. See Summary of Language Development table.
Language Acquisition Debate: behaviorist view of the malleable organism versus the view
that each organism comes biologically prepared to learn certain associations (nature-
nature debate)
133
He believed "verbal behavior came into existence when the vocal musculature became
susceptible to operant conditioning."
Linguist Noam Chomsky believed behaviorists' view of how language develops was
oversimplified.
He believed that language occurs naturally, stating that we have the capacity for
developing language natural and quick, because we are born with a language acquisition
device.
Chomsky argued part of his stand by citing evidence that there is a sort of universal
grammar that underlies all human language and statistical learning.
Statistical Learning – ability to detect speech patterns
QuickTimeª and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf argued that language determines thought and that different
languages impose different conceptions of reality.
Linguistic determinism – Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.
Bilingual people are more prone to Whorf's theory, who has shown that two different
languages can embody two different ways of thinking or two different personalities.
Most psychologists today, however believe that language influences what we think.
Language transforms experience.
Review Questions
A. Generalization
B. Reinforcement
C. Classical Conditioning
D. None of the Above
A. Analyze critically
B. Advance the critical period
134
C. Understand the relationship between sight and sound
D. Detect speech patterns
Review Answers
1. (B) Reinforcement
• Most psychologists now define intelligence as What are the three qualities that define a
the ability to learn from experience, solve being as “intelligent”?
problems, and adapt to new situations.
1.__________________________________
135
2. __________________________________
3. __________________________________
_________________________________________
• To reify intelligence is to treat it as though it _
were a real object, not an abstract concept.
136
4. Spatial artist List one major difference between Gardner’s
and Sternberg’s theories:
5. Bodily-kinesthetic dancer
6. Intrapersonal (self) psychiatrist
7. Interpersonal (other people) leader _________________________________________
_
8. Naturalist naturalist
137
o to predict them and how they Your Turn: Summarize the intelligence
change and blend theories in this chart to the best of your
3. To manage emotions ability
o to know how to express them in Theory Summary
varied situations
4. To use emotions to enable adaptive or Spearman's
creative thinking. general
intelligence
(g factor)
Thurstone's
• Although the academic ability revealed by primary
intelligence tests is important, our skill in mental
everyday living cannot be measured by abilities
traditional intelligence tests
o This is where emotional intelligence Gardner's
comes in multiple
List an activity, quality, or trait that you have intelligences
that could not be measured by a traditional
intelligence test Sternberg's
Triarchic
_________________________________________
_
31.3 Intelligence and cr ea tivi ty
- ________________________________________
138
intelligence
Greater intelligence may lead to
- ________________________________________ experiences that exercise the
brain and build more connections
139
others.
• Perceptual Speed:
o The correlation between intelligence
score and the speed of taking in
perceptual information.
• Neurological Speed
o In question: do the quicker processing
and perceptions of highly intelligent
people reflect greater neural processing
speed?
140
• Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon, began by
assuming that all children follow the same
course of intellectual development but that some
develop more rapidly.
Module 32: A sse ss ing
o on tests a "dull" child should perform as
inte ll igence ( p. 442 -453) does a typical younger child
o a "bright" child as does a typical older
32.0 Intr oduction child.
• An intelligence test is defined as a method for • Mental age is defined as the chronological age
assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and typical of a given level of performance.
comparing them with those of others, using o Binet and Simon set out to measure the
numerical scores. mental age.
o Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon o The average 9-year-old has a mental age
started the modern intelligence-testing of 9.
movement. o Children with below-average mental
o Lewis Terman of Stanford University ages
revised Binet's work for use in United i.e 9-year-olds who perform at
States. the level of a typical 7-year-old
o Terman believed his Stanford-Binet struggle with schoolwork
could help guide people toward considered normal for their age.
appropriate opportunities, but more than
Binet, he believed intelligence is Review: Fill in the missing words
inherited.
Mental age is the
• During the early twentieth century, intelligence __________________ age typical of a
tests were used to "document" assumptions given level of __________________.
about the innate inferiority of certain ethnic and
immigrant groups.
• Intelligence test scores have been expressed as 32.2 Modern tests of mental abilities
an intelligence quotient (IQ) • Aptitude tests are designed to predict what you
o established by dividing mental age by can learn.
chronological age times 100. o The WAIS (Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale), an aptitude test, is
What two people started the modern the most widely used intelligence test for
intelligence-testing movement? adults.
1. __________________________ o The SAT is an aptitude test
_ • Achievement tests are designed to assess what
you have learned.
2. __________________________
_ What’s the difference between aptitude and
achievement tests?
32.1 T he origins o f intelligence _________________________________________
tes ting _________________________________________
141
__ ability if they can predict future
achievements
32.3 Principles of test construction Give one example of how a researcher might test
• Standardizing is the process of administering a reliability
test to a representative ____________________________________________
o Sample of future test-takers to establish _
a basis for meaningful comparisons of
scores.
o The distribution of many physical and 32.4 T he dynamics of
psychological attributes forms a normal intelligence
curve (also known as a bell-shaped • The stability of intelligence test scores increases
curve) with age.
a roughly symmetrical shape o By age 4, scores fluctuate somewhat but
- most scores cluster begin to predict adolescent and adult
around an average, scores.
- increasingly fewer fall at o At about age 7, scores become fairly
the extremes.
stable and consistent.
Intelligence test scores form a
normal curve
• Mental Retardation:
- In past six decades, the
o Marked by people with intelligence
average score has risen 27
points—a phenomenon scores below 70, the cut-off mark for the
known as the Flynn diagnosis of mental retardation,
effect. - Vary in their abilities
- Vary from near-normal, to
requiring constant aid and
• A test is reliable when it yields consistent
supervision.
results.
• Down syndrome is a form of retardation with a
o researchers establish reliability through:
physical cause—an extra copy of chromosome
comparing the consistency of 21.
test-takers' scores on two halves o High-scoring people tend to be healthy,
of the test
well-adjusted, and unusually successful
alternating forms of the test academically
retesting on the same test.
Circle the right answer:
• A test can be reliable but not valid. The consistency of test scores testing
o A valid test measures or predicts what it intelligence, decreases / increases with age.
is supposed to.
o Content validity is the extent to which a
Key Ter ms ( in red )
test samples the pertinent behavior
- as a driving test measures driving Intelligence test a method for assessing an
ability individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them
o Predictive validity is the extent to with those of others, using numerical scores.
which the test predicts a behavior it is Mental age a measure of intelligence test
designed to predict performance devised by Binet; the chronological
- aptitude tests have predictive age that most typically corresponds to a given level
of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as
142
the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age validity and predictive validity.) (p. 448)
of 8. (p. 443) Content validity the extent to which a test samples
Stanford-Binet the widely used American revision the behavior that is of interest (such as a driving test
(by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s that samples driving tasks). (p. 448)
original intelligence test. (p. 443) Criterion the behavior (such as future college
Intelligence quotient (IQ) defined originally as the grades) that a test (such as the SAT) is designed to
ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) predict; thus, the measure used in defining whether
multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On the test has predictive validity. (p. 448)
contemporary intelligence tests, the average Predictive validity the success with which a test
performance for a given age is assigned a score of predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is
100. (p. 444) assessed by computing the correlation between test
Achievement test a test designed to assess what a scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called
person has learned. (p. 444) criterion-related validity.) (p. 448)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) the Mental retardation a condition of limited mental
WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or
contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of
subtests. (p. 445) life; varies from mild to profound. (p. 452)
Standardization defining meaningful scores by Down syndrome a condition of retardation and
comparison with the performance of a pretested associated physical disorders caused by an extra
standardization group. (p. 446) chromosome in one’s genetic makeup. (p. 452)
Normal Curve the symmetrical bell-shaped curve
that describes the distribution of many physical and
psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the
average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the
extremes. (p. 447)
Reliability the extent to which a test yields
consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of
scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms
of the test, or on retesting. (p. 448)
Validity the extent to which a test measures or
predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content
143
144
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o Conversely, fraternal
twins differ more and the results are much less similar
o Their brains are virtually the same in areas associated with verbal and
spatial intelligence
o With more time and experience, genetic influences are more significant
than environmental influences
• Heritability
o Heritability means that you can attribute genetic factors or heredity to a
certain percentage of a variation in intelligence in a study
This refers to the extent that the differences (among those studied)
are due to one’s genes
2. ___________________________
o Siblings within poor families have similar test scores more so than the
affluent
• This means that environmental conditions can override
genetic differences (like malnutrition and the slowing of
cognitive development)
However, this is the only real significant difference in environment
than can influence one’s intellect. In other words, there is little
difference between a normal and an “enriched” environment
Schooling and intelligence is conducive to prolonged schooling
• Gender Differences
o The textbook cites differences between the verbal and math skills of men
and women but only to acknowledge that such differences are “exciting”
and newsworthy.
Thus, the examples and studies that are cited to apparent difference
in math or verbal excellence are only for discussion and readers’
personal reference.
This section also includes Emotion-detecting ability, which is an
Emotional intelligence that allows one to perceive, understand,
manage, and use emotions
• how to be empathetic and understand others’ emotions
Review. Complete the statement:
High-scoring people are more likely to attain high levels of
________________ and ________________.
o Others argue the opposite of such argument, saying that although there is a
bias the test is not responsible for the unfairness but only for uncovering it
o Scientifically, there is a bias if the test can only predict a certain portion of
the individuals (taking the test)
• Influence of labeling
o Stereotype threat is when people perform worse or better depending on
performance expectation or social influences
o People box themselves into thinking that they are only so smart or if they
feel threatened when they take a test
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What two occurrences happen when a person falls under stereotype threat:
1. _______________________________
2. _______________________________
Ans wer K ey
31.0
The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations
31.1
Forming close friendships
Gardner has eight theories while Sternberg only has three
31.2
Giving good advice/ being empathetic
Intelligence theories:
Theory Summary
Spearman's general A basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied
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33.1
genetic factors; heredity
33.2
similar
33.3
education; income
33.4
changes performance and self-perception
Module 34: Introduction to Motivation
I. Instinct Theory
a. Genes predispose species-typical behavior remains as strong as ever
b. To qualify as an instinct, a complex behavior must have a fixed pattern
through-out a species and be unlearned
c. Early instinct theorists simply named instincts, not explained them
Glossary of Terms
Module 34 Quiz:
Multiple Choice
1. After spending years in the ocean, a mature salmon swims up its home river to
return to its birthplace. This behavior is an example of:
a. homeostasis
b. drive
c. instinct
d. incentive
2. For someone who is hungry, eating a hamburger reduces:
a. drive
b. instinct
c. homeostasis
d. set point
3. Students work hard in school to obtain high grades. This illustrates the importance
of:
a. homeostasis
b. set point
c. refractory periods
d. incentives
Fill-in
Module 34 Answers:
Multiple Choice
1. (c)-Instincts
2. (c)-Drive
3. (d)-Incentives
Fill-in
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V. Taste Preferences
a. Body chemistry and environmental factors together influence not only
when we feel hunger, but what we feel hungry for—our taste preference.
i. Our preferences for sweet and salty tastes: genetic and universal.
ii. Culture affects tastes too
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b. Adaptive tastes
i. Spices most commonly used in the recipes of hot climates, where
food—especially meat—spoils more quickly
b. Bulimia
i. A disorder marked by repeated binge-purge episodes of overeating
followed by vomiting or laxative use
ii. Weight fluctuations
iii. Caused by generally similar stimulants as Anorexia Nervosa
VIII. Biopsychosocial
a. We are biologically driven to eat, yet psychological and social-cultural
factors strongly influence what, when, and how much we eat.
Glossary of Terms
Glucose The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major
source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel
hunger.
Set Point The point at which an individual’s "weight thermostat" is supposedly
set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and
a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.
Basal The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.
Metabolic Rate
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Module 35 Quiz:
Multiple Choice
1. Destruction of the _____ causes the mouse to _____
a. lateral hypothalamus; overeat
b. lateral hypothalamus; start eating
c. ventromedial hypothalamus; overeat
d. ventromedial hypothalamus; stop eating
2. Anna is extremely afraid of becoming obese even though she is underweight.
She often checks her body in the mirror for any signs of fat and refuses to eat
most foods because she insists they are fatty or high in calories. She exhibits
symptoms of:
a. anorexia Nervosa
b. bulimia Nervosa
c. abnormally High Set Point
d. abnormally Low Set Point
3. Recipes commonly used in countries with hot climates are more likely to
include _____ than those in countries with colder climates
a. carbohydrates
b. fats
c. proteins
d. spices
4. In an attempt to lose some of the weight she gained from binge eating,
Melissa uses laxatives and exercises until she is exhausted. Melissa most
clearly demonstrates symptoms of:
a. anorexia Nervosa
b. hyper-metabolism
c. bulimia Nervosa
d. high set point
2. Eating disorders may have a _____ component, but cultural pressures, low self-
esteem, and negative emotions seem to interact with stressful life experiences to
produce these conditions.
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Module 35 Answers:
Multiple choice:
1. (c)-Ventromedial hypothalamus; overeat
2. (a)-Anorexia nervosa
3. (d)-Spices
4. (c)-Bulimia Nervosa
Module 36: Sexual Motivation and the Need to Belong
XI. Sexual Motivation: motivation to procreate or maintain the species (Note that
sexual motivation is not simply for procreation)
a. Neurological factors
i. Role of brain (hypothalamus and the pituitary gland)
ii. Role of sex glands (testes and ovaries)
iii. Hormones (testosterone and estrogen)
b. Behavioral factors: organisms seek pleasure and avoid pain
c. Cultural/social factors
i. Society determines what is sexually attractive
ii. Factors of sexual attraction differ among cultures
d. Evolutionary factors: sexual motivation as necessary for the propagation
of the species
Glossary of Terms
Refractory A resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve
Period another orgasm.
Sexual A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.
Disorder
Estrogen A sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males.
In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation,
promoting sexual receptivity.
Testosterone The most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and
females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the
growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the
male sex characteristics during puberty.
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Module 36 Quiz:
Multiple Choice
1. During which phase of the sexual response cycle does the refractory period
begin?
a. Plateau phase
b. Resolution Phase
c. Excitement phase
d. Orgasm
2. When asked what is most necessary for a happy and meaningful life, most
people first mention the importance of satisfying their _____ needs.
a. Sexual
b. Achievement
c. Belongingness
d. Physical
3. Our ______ is said to be a gauge of how socially accepted we feel.
a. Erotic feelings
b. Set Point
c. Basal Metabolic Rate
d. Self-Esteem
Matching
Excitement Phase
Muscle contractions- increases in breathing, pulse,
and blood pressure rates
Module 36 Answers:
Multiple Choice
1. (b)-Resolution phase
2. (c)-Belongingness
3. (d)-Self-Esteem
Matching
Excitement phase: the genital areas become engorged with blood, a woman's vagina
expands and secretes lubricant, and her breasts and nipples may enlarge
Plateau phase: excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates
continue to increase
Orgasm: muscle contractions- increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates
Resolution phase: The male enters a refractory phase. The female has a much
shorter refractory period
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Module 37: Motivation at Work
Glossary of Terms
Module 37 Quiz
Multiple Choice
1. After studying artists who would spend hour after hour painting or sculpting
with enormous concentration, Csikszentmihalyi formulated the concept of:
a. Strength based selection
b. 360-degree feedback
c. flow
d. personnel psychology
2. Mr. Walters has many years of experience as a personnel officer for a large
corporation. He does not review most job applicant's reference files because
he is confident of his ability to predict their future work performance based on
his direct face-to-face conversations with them. Mr. Walter's confidence best
illustrates:
a. Interviewer Illusion
b. 360-degree feedback
c. Personnel psychology
d. Task leadership
3. Managers who build teamwork and effectively mediate employee conflicts are
said to excel in:
a. Structured Interviews
b. Social Leadership
c. Achievement Motivation
d. Direct Management Style
Module 37 Answers:
Multiple Choice
1. (c)-Flow
2. (a)-Interviewer Illusion
3. (b)-Social Leadership
YOUR TURN…
Scenario:
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
I Theories of Emotion
James-Lange Theory
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(1)
(2)
Cannon-Bard Theory
Arousal and emotion occur together in response to a stimulus.
▪ Heart starts pounding AS you feel fear
Stimulus is simultaneously routed to brain’s cortex, causing subjective
awareness of emotion, and to sympathetic nervous system, causing body’s
arousal.
(4)
(3)
(5)
of arousal
Sometimes arousal from one event spills over into next event.
▪ Schachter & Singer, 1962: Subjects “caught” the emotion of another after
being unwittingly aroused by an injection. Subjects who were aware of
the effects of the injection were not affected by the emotion of the other.
e.g. Sam and Diane from the TV show Cheers kiss passionately after
fighting.
Perception of
Stimulus
(7)
(8)
Emotion
Other Theories
Robert (9)_________________________
▪ Emotional reactions can be quicker than our interpretations of a situation
Feel, then think (on some occasions)
Subliminally flashed smiling or angry face can prime us to feel better
or worse about a follow-up stimulus
▪ Emotional shortcuts exist through the brain, which bypass the cortical
areas involved in thinking; Brain comes in later and can take over.
▪ Enables quick, precognitive emotional response
Richard Lazarus
▪ All emotion requires some sort of cognitive appraisal of the situation, even
if we are not consciously aware of it.
Dimensions of emotion
Emotions seem to be placed on two dimensions:
▪ Valence (pleasant vs. unpleasant)
▪ Arousal (high vs. low)
+ Valence
Pleasant
relaxation
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Joy
Low High
Arousal Arousal
SadnessFear
Anger
- Valence
_______________________
___________________________________________________
_______
▪ Strack, et al (1988 – simply activating smiling muscles by holding a pencil
in one’s teeth is enough to make one enjoy cartoons more
IV Experiencing Emotion
Izard (1977) isolated 10 basic emotions (joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness,
anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt)
Fear
Fear is adaptive = alarm system that prepares body to flee danger
Can learn to fear almost anything through conditioning and observation
Biologically prepared to learn some fears more quickly than others
▪ Adaptive (for our ancestors) to learn quickly to fear that which can
realistically cause harm (spiders, snakes, etc)
▪ There are things now (cars, bombs, etc) that we are less predisposed to
fear
▪ AMYGDALA – limbic system neural center deep in brain
Plays key role in associating various emotions with situations and
(23)_____________________________________________
_________
If damaged, individual may understand association, but will
demonstrate no emotional effect
▪ Genes and experience help shape fearfulness or fearlessness
Anger
Individualistic societies encourage “venting” of anger, called
(24)_______________ (emotional release); Collectivist societies view
anger as maladaptive/threat to the group
▪ Catharsis can be temporarily calming if it does not leave one feeling guilty
or anxious; but ultimately it usually fails to fully eliminate the anger OR it
may even amplify the anger and underlying hostility.
Think about a time when you’ve been mad at someone. Does talking
about that person and venting your frustration make you feel better or
worse about it? It may make you feel better in the short-run, but
ultimately it may make you think about it even more and thus dwell on
it.
▪ To deal with anger:
Wait… bring down physiological arousal
Deal with anger directly by either confronting source of anger,
exercising, playing an instrument
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Answers
1) Physiological Arousal
2) Emotion
3) Perception of stimulus
4) Physiological Arousal
5) Emotion
6) Cognitive label
7) Physiological Arousal
8) Cognitive label
9) Zajonc
10) Sympathetic
11) Parasympathetic
12) Bad
13) High
14) Low
15) Right
16) Left
17) Eyes
18) Mouth
19) Happiness
20) Anger
21) Are
22) … forced facial expressions will lead to feelings that reflect that
expression
23) … producing the physiological responses
24) Catharsis
25) Feel-good, do-good phenomenon
26) perception that one is worse off than those to whom he compares
himself
• Definition of stress
o Stress is a way in which people appraise and cope with a situation, or
stressor
o Stress therefore depends on how the individual interprets a situation
• Walter Cannon discovered in the 1920’s systematic responses to stress
o Adrenal gland secret hormones __________ and ____________
o This is considered a part of the sympathetic nervous system, called “fight
or flight”
• Hans Selye developed his theories regarding what he called General Adaptive
Syndrome, GAS, and its three faze
o 1) Alarm Reaction (mobilization of body’s resources during stress)
o 2) _______ (coping with stressor, the longest phase)
o 3) Exhaustion (after long periods of Resistence, the body has depleted its
resources and can result in serious health problems)
PROVIDE YOUR OWN EXAMPLES OF EXHAUSTION DURING GAS
• Stress also leads to __________, where ventricles to the heart close or are
obstructed, by helping build up plaque on ventricle walls
• Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman during stress research and experiementation
classified people as:
o Type A (who take on obstacles and consequent stress when faced by a
challenge)
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Module 42
Key terms
Problem-Focused Coping__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Emotion-Focused Coping___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_
Biofeedback_____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Aerobic Exercise__________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_
• There seems to be a correlation between stress levels and the amount of religious
attendance
o Frequent religious attendees tend to live longer
o Although there is a correlation, it does not mean that being religious
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Answers to questions:
Problem-Focused Coping: attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor
or the way we interact with that stressor.
Aerobic Exercise: sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness
1) increases
2) strongest
3) Cause stress and relieve stress
4) All of the above
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Module 43
Smoking
Section Summary
Risks
• Tobacco kills about 5 million people per year
• You have a 50% chance of dying from smoking if you start
• Eliminating smoking would increase life expectancy more than any other
preventative measure
• Smoking harms nearly every organ of your body
• Smoking correlates with ____1____, ____2_____, and _____3____.
• Smoking’s bad mkay
Why do people start?
• More common among those who:
o 4
o 4
o 4
o 4
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Key Terms
Pediatric Disease-Usually begins during adolescence
Dependent-Need for a drug to avoid withdrawals
Tolerance-Needing Larger and larger doses to get the same effect
Nicotine Withdrawal-Craving, insomnia, anxiety, and irritability associated with a lack of
nicotine in the blood stream
8) Which of the following is the most noticeable nicotine withdrawal symptom?
a) Insomnia
b) Atherosclerosis
c) Increased Serotnonin Levels
d) Reduced Appetite for Carbohydrates
9) Smoking triggers ________ levels of epinephrine in the blood and ________ levels of
dopamine in the synapses.
a. increased; increased
b. decreased; decreased
c. increased; decreased
d. decreased; increased
Obesity
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Risks
• Fat is an ideal form of stored energy, high in calories for when food is scarce
• Being slightly overweight is only a slight health risk-Fitness matters more
• Significant obesity especially in children can increase risk of diabetes, high blood
pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis and types of cancer
• Greater risk in people with potbellies than those with fatty thighs and hips
• Being overweight takes off average of 3 years
Social Effects
• Stereotyped-slow, lazy, sloppy
• Many see as a matter of choice/lack of self discipline
• Obese women make average $7000 less per year
• Obese people are less likely to be hired
Physiology
• Typical adult has 30-40 billion fat cells-range from deflated to full
• Obese people, twice normal size and divide, up to ___10__ billion fat cells
• Dieting causes fat cells to shrink not disappear
• Once fat, less food is required to maintain weight, fat has a lower metabolic rate
• Set-weight increases, body tries to keep weight steady
• Dieting/Starvation causes increase in hunger decrease in metabolism body adapts
to burn fewer calories
• After first 3 weeks of dieting, weight loss slows way down
• Overweight people predisposed to sit still, eat more, and have a higher set-point
• Genetics play a huge part. Adopted kids have closer body types to birth parents
than adopted
• ___11___ is protein produced by brain to eat less and be more active
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Losing Weight
• Most people regain weight that has been lost
• Surgery is an option
• Accepting weight is OK too.
Key Terms
Set-Point-Body weight thermostat, tries to regulate body weight through hunger and
metabolism
12) A classic experiment, obese patients whose daily caloric intake was dramatically
reduced lost only 6 percent of their weight. This limited weight loss was due, at least in
part, to the fact that their dietary restriction led to:
a) A proliferation of their lymphocytes
b) The inhibition of their dopamine reuptake
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Answers
1. Depression,
2. Disabilities
3. Divorce
4. Get low grades
Drop out of school
Feel less in control of their future (locus of control)
Have parents/friends who smoke
5. Norepinephrine
6. Epinephrine
7. Dopamine
8. a
9. a
10. 75
11. Leptin
12. c
Brook Seaman
Contemporary Research on Personality
Module 46
46.1 The Trait Perspective
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Traits are a way of classifying different types of people. Psychologists have been
working with traits for years to help put people into groups based on their personalities.
The simplest form of this is categorizing people into two main groups, introverts and
extroverts, and sometimes adding stability as a second divide (as seen in image). It has
been shown that extraverts seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is
relatively low. Biological factors play a big role in personality traits, especially between
boldness and shyness. Trait inventories are used to test a wide range of traits and more
specifically classify people. These are also useful because they can be scored objectively
by a computer, unlike many modern psychological tests. Today the “Big Five” traits are
more commonly used to characterize people. These five traits are: conscientiousness,
agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion. Many people have different
personalities depending on the situation however, but this stabilizes as one grows older.
Overall, personality traits waver, but dominant traits are present in everyone and can be
seen most of the time in a familiar atmosphere.
Key Terms:
Traits-Characteristic
behaviors and unconscious
motives by which people are
grouped and categorized
Factor Analysis- A
statistical procedure that has
been used to identify clusters
of related items.
Introversion-The tendency toward being predominantly concerned with ones own
mental life
Extraversion-The tendency toward being predominantly concerned with what is outside
the self
Temperament- Our emotional reactivity
Personality Inventories- Long questionnaires covering a wide range of feelings and
behaviors
Key Terms:
The Spotlight Effect- The false idea that everyone notices and evaluates everything that
we do.
Self-Esteem- The feeling of self worth.
Self-Serving Bias- Our readiness to perceive ourselves favorably
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Module 46 Review
1) Which is NOT one of the “Big Five” traits used today? (pg 619)
A) conscientiousness
B) agreeableness
C) optimism
D) openness
E) extraversion
5) Most people with low self-esteem think of themselves as worse than average people.
(pg 635)
A) True
B) False
Answers: c, b, d, b, b, a
Symptoms Therapy
Review Activities
2. The DSM-IV is
a. a personality disorder
b. a common manual used to identify disorders
c. a new technique used to detect brain waves of
people with schizophrenia
d. another name for the DMV
c. Culture
d. Context
(3) Phobias
b. Characteristics
b. Characteristics
i. Examples
B. Observational Learning
D. Natural Selection
E. Genes
F. The Brain
a. 25%
b. 50%
c. 20%
d. 90%
1. persistent
5. C. 20%
nd
2 Period AP Psych
4/10/08
Philip Homnack
Hilary Taber
Laurence Varda
Dissociative, Personality, and Mood Disorders +
Schizophrenia
Bulleted Summaries
Mod 51 Schizophrenia
• Nearly 1 in 100 people are schizophrenic.
• 24 million people worldwide have the disorder.
• It is typically found in teenagers and people in their early twenties.
• Schizophrenia includes disorganized thinking, disturbed perceptions, and
inappropriate emotions/actions.
• Disorganized thinking contains fragments of thought, thoughts out of context,
and delusions.
• Delusions are most commonly false thoughts of persecution or a heightened
sense of grandeur.
• Insignificant stimuli can easily distract those with schizophrenia from important
situations.
• Schizophrenic hallucinations are normally auditory hallucinations.
• They take the form of domineering voices.
• They can tell people to hurt themselves or that they have hurt others.
• Also, hallucinations can come in the forms of vision, touch, taste, and smell, but
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they are not as common and hearing voices.
• Schizophrenia can make people have inappropriate emotions, such as crying
when others laugh or sudden bursts of anger.
• It can also make the people have loss of emotion and become apathetic.
• It can bring on compulsive actions like rocking, swaying, or rubbing of an arm.
• Catatonic schizophrenics can go for hours without moving and then become
suddenly agitated.
Mod 50 Mood Disorders
• Mood disorders present themselves in two different forms, Major Depressive
Disorder and Bipolar Disorder.
• Depression is said to be the “common cold” of psychological disorders.
• It is in response to loss of something important,
• Lasting two weeks or more, Major Depressive Disorder presents itself with
symptoms such as lethargy, feelings of worthlessness, or loss in interests.
• Lasting two years or more, Dysthymic Disorder is the “down in the dumps”
mood that continues daily.
• Bipolar Disorder is a disorder filled with extreme highs and lows.
• Mania is the state in which the person is filled with temporary extreme euphoria
and optimism.
• Going back and forth to depression and mania is what defines Bipolar disorder.
• Unlike major depressions, this disorder affects women as much as men.
• Accompanying depression are many behavioral and cognitive changes.
• Women are twice as vulnerable to major depression as men.
• Preceding depression is often stressful events related to work, family, or other
relationships.
• Although scientists realize that there is a connection between mood disorders
running in people’s genes, they haven’t found what exactly that link is.
• Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that, while it increases arousal and boosts
moods in normal people, is scarce in those with depression and prosperous in
those in mania.
• Serotonin is also scarce in those suffering from depression.
• Studies have recently shown that there are neurological signs of depression.
• There is less activity going on while the subject is depressed.
• The frontal left lobe, while active in positive states, is inactive while in negative
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states.
• Depressed people are likely to explain bad events in terms that are stable,
global, and internal.
• Depression comes about in a circle, something triggers it and the subject goes
through four phases.
• Stressful experience, negative explanatory style, depressed mood, and
cognitive and behavioral changes.
• If that first trigger comes back, then the cycle starts over again.
Mod 49 Dissociative and Personality Disorders
• In dissociative disorders, the subject experiences a sudden loss in memory or
change in personality or identity.
• This happens when a situation becomes too stressful or overwhelming.
• A sense of being detached from one’s body is not uncommon, also feelings that
the situation is “unreal”.
• Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) is defined as the presumed massive
dissociation of self from ordinary consciousness.
• This can result in people having two or more personalities that control that one
person.
• Most of the time, memories fail to transfer from one personality to the next.
• The psychoanalytic and learning perspectives see this as a method of dealing
with anxiety.
• Another theory about DID is that it is a form of posttraumatic stress disorder, a
way of coping with the trauma of another event.
• Personality disorders are ones that impair a person’s social functioning.
• There are three clusters of disorders all expressing different things.
• Anxiety, eccentric behaviors, and dramatic or impulsive behaviors are the three
different types of disorders.
• Known as sociopaths or psychopaths, a person with antisocial personality
disorder displays symptoms such as lying, stealing, fighting, or uncontrollable
sexual behaviors.
• Made up of biological and psychological strands, antisocial personality disorder
does not yet explain why these people act the way they do.
Key Terms
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Chapter 49
dissociative disorders: disorders in which conscious awareness becomes
separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings.
dissociative identity disorder: a rare dissociative disorder in which a person
exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple
personality disorder.
Dissociative amnesia: a disorder characterized by abnormal memory
functioning in the absence of structural brain damage or a known neurobiological
cause; severe cases are very rare.
personality disorders: psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and
enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning.
Somatoform disorder: is characterized by physical symptoms that mimic
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disease or injury for which there is no identifiable physical cause or physical
symptoms such as pain, nausea, depression, and dizziness.
Conversion disorder is a condition where patients present with
neurological symptoms such as numbness, paralysis, or fits, but where no
neurological explanation can be found. It is thought that these problems arise in
response to difficulties in the patient's life, and conversion is considered a
psychiatric disorder
antisocial personality disorder: a personality disorder in which the person
(usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends
and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.
Chapter 50
mood disorders: psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes.
See major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder.
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major depressive disorder: a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in
the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly
depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure
in most activities.
mania: a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state.
bipolar disorder: a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the
hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania.
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(Formerly called manicdepressive disorder.)
Explanatory style and
depression:
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Chapter 51
schizophrenia: a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and
delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and
actions.
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delusions: false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany
psychotic disorders.
Hallucinations: A sensory impression in the absence of any external stimuli; can
arise in respect to any sensory modality visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile or
gustatory.
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1) Psychological Therapies
a) Psychoanalysis
i) Aims
(1) Uncover repressed feelings/confront them
(2) Releases energy from id-ego-superego conflicts
ii) Methods
(1) Free association
(a) Resistance > interpret it
(2) Dream interpretation
(a) Latent content
(b) Censored meaning
(3) Problems
(a) Lengthy
(b) Transference
(c) Not a science/ interpretations
iii) Psychodynamic Therapy
(1) Examines past and present relationships
(2) Confronts feelings and thoughts
(3) Shorter than analysis
(4) Interpersonal psychotherapy
(a) Current relationships is the focus
(b) Even shorter than psychodynamic therapy
b) Humanistic Techniques
i) Boosts self-fulfillment, awareness, and acceptance
ii) Focuses on the present and future, not the past
iii) Conscious thoughts
iv) We are responsible for our feelings
v) Promotes growth instead of “curing” the illness
(1) Clients not patients
vi) Client-centered Therapy
(1) Carl Rogers
(2) Non-directive therapy
(a) Active listening
(b) Therapist gives unconditional acceptance
c) Behavior Therapies
i) Ones behavior/response is the problem and self-awareness alone is not a cure
ii) Classic Conditioning techniques
(1) Counter conditioning
(2) Exposure therapies
(a) Calm response is paired with a stimulus that provokes an inappropriate response
(b) Systematic desensitization
(c) Virtual reality exposure therapy
(d) Progressive relaxation therapy
(3) Aversive Conditioning
(a) Substituting a negative response for a positive one to a harmful stimulus like alcohol
iii) Operant Conditioning
(1) Token economy
(a) Rewards for doing good things
(b) To unlearn problems
d) Cognitive Therapies
i) Thinking colors feelings
ii) Depression
(1) Think happy > are happy
iii) Stress inoculation training
(1) Restructure thinking in stressful situations
(2) Attitude is everything
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AP Chapter 55 & 56
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A) Tolerant
Reaction
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Negative
Behavior
Dispositional B)
Attribution
55-5) People often stand up for what they believe in, but more
surprisingly, people will often come to believe in an idea they
stand up for.
Actions
A)
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ANSWER KEY
55-2)
A) situational attribution
B) unfavorable reaction
55-5)
A) attitudes
55-6)
Larger
55-8)
Inconsistent
Changing
56-1)
Mimic
56-3)
Approval
Disapproval
56-5)
Social Facilitation
Social Loafing: letting others in your group do the work for you
Less
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Module 57.1-57.5
The three components of prejudice:
It is an attitude with three parts: beliefs, emotions, predispositions to action.
Beliefs are the stereotypes, usually vastly overgeneralized.
Emotions are fear, hostility and envy
Action is discrimination which is considered unjustifiable negative behavior.
Scapegoating:
Bad times always lead to scapegoating. We as humans like to find ways to justify and
rationalize everything that happens. During turbulent situations ingroup bias and out-
group prejudice spike and the result is a scapegoat. Bill Buckner a Red Sox first baseman
during the 1980s, let a groundball go through his legs in the 10th inning of game 6 of the
1986 World Series allowing the winning run to score. The Red Sox lost the game and
game 7, losing the series. Red Sox fans quickly blamed Buckner as the reason for their
team’s loss. Buckner was the scapegoat so Red Sox fans could boast their self-esteem and
live with the fact the Sox had lost the World Series yet again.
57.6 – 57.10
57.6- Aggression:
Any verbal or physical behavior intended to hurt or destroy, whether done reactively out
proactively. Aggression stems from a combination of biological and external influences.
spend prolonged amounts of time playing violent videogames are generally more
aggressive. Most research has disproved that videogames are an outlet for release of
tension and aggression.
57.10 Conflict:
Destructive human interactions that have the potential to produce negative results for
both parties.
Social Traps- A situation in which we harm the collective well-being by pursuing our
own personal interests. This can be seen in global warming, where each individual car
owner emits greenhouse gases and doesn’t cut back consumption, and the sum total of
emissions causes a huge problem. Psychologists are exploring ways to improve
communication, regulations, and awareness so that people can more easily cooperate.
Enemy Perceptions- Humans have a tendency to demonize our adversaries. “They” are
evil and untrustworthy. This view of enemies helps fuel aggression.
ZZPD 237 of 246 Social Relations
Guide Outline:
- 58 introduction summary
- 58.1 Attraction summary
- 58.2 Altruism summary
- 58.3 Peacemaking summary
- Key Terms
Summaries:
- Introduction
o Prosocial Psychology is the study of our positive social interactions,
namely attraction, altruism, and peacemaking
- Attraction
o Proximity is one of friendships greatest predictors. The more you see and
get to know someone, the more likely you are to befriend them.
o Sometimes known as the mere exposure effect, within limits mere
familiarity breeds fondness.
o Curiously enough ones similarity to you also increases your fondness of
that person. Evolution could be a culprit in this phenomenon because in
early times one must only associate with its own kind for survival.
o Physical attractiveness does play a role in what we think of people. First
impressions are often greatly influenced by attractiveness; many studies
have proven this as fact.
o Beauty is in the eye of the culture
o Beauty has some things that remain constant through time and culture
(such as a young appearance) and some things that don’t.
o The more you see a loved one the more the physical imperfections are not
noticed
o Similarity in personality is generally the norm, opposites do not usually
attract.
o We like people who like us
o Emotions have two ingredients physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal.
Thus if aroused before we see someone we may think different of them
than if we were in a usual state.
o In relationships equity is important. Both sides need to share their time
o In relationships Self Disclosure Is also important the more intimate details
you share the closer you feel to that person.
- Altruism
o Altruism is the unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
o When people are in big groups they are less likely to help someone in
distress, possibly because they think others will do it.
o When some situations are present, it is more likely that someone will help,
for example: the victim appears to need help, the victim is similar to us,
we have just observed someone helping someone else, we are not in a
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242 of 246
ACROSS
1 Action when a freedom is threatened
3 Unjustifiable belief
5 Unselfish regard for others
7 Revelation of intimate details to another
9 Slant toward favoring your own group
11 Increased preference toward a stimulus
13 When you are less likely to help someone because of those around you
14 Love for intertwined members of our lives
17 “Them”
18 Often affects first impressions
19 The love present at the beginning of a relationship
20 System that tries to maximize benefits and minimize costs
DOWN
2 Proportionality of given and received emotion in a relationship
3 “Us”
6 Idea that love is best sustained when the couple shares many commonalities
7 The explanation of emotions when a goal is not attained
10 Belief that the universe should be fair
11 Most significant component in attraction
15 Situation where rational behavior of parties leads to mutually destructive results
16 The blame outlet
245
246