",

~,t'!Jl l~l ,;,~ni'l~u~

!P(I¥~rll:y".

mim'!lo,

11 1:I!11~rodllJ)c1iiQil1
While a w~at-!.h:~-~ the a~[!:ckmL( !LI'I<i ~>,i It)' dn1;,of .;tl5'SI"m, ilOOiJ1: pclV({[ltY lus 1Ix<'li roooun;:d 11'1 ~ ppcm,nll~ gellder~m:Il!u:'lIJlWlfru., dfl5er'S( ru.un~ p;,,_~;'I1l!; th;1i~ it In~~ (1r!tll, OOCIlli pr'tml~ed ~m I~ ((Ill{~P'(,I .rmileaclor ~nd of ma~~.~nlrc:d nOll.('1l'iS, el \'ol<il;iI· h~il'l.S ;lnd ~f}""lIlc)'. ''''''ili't db\.'ialls limU3J~(lJ'lJ$- f.Of

} lL_"f~n'i

~ h

1l'!'1o;I1p1( ''QI j"Otr<!o 2;

ru~I"I'c'l'3WC; W

0i~1I'Ling.·oi ~¥c:t1,y' .Ilr.l,ruib

".lJ:. '1'l:I~ 5 m Dt'!ftIDop~lI~ltt.pon,. ~~e:w ~ 'o..\!d~rn~nl '~tnmm~

,iii Qh;j1Jt._er r§!I:
l'll~m

:)ddr't~'5!1'!,g,Ih~ g~lI&r dimel'!$Ion~ fifpo~Tn)T

-ofl!.lN D:['

• N,c"", 1:"~uk~

\Vod;mg

fculC:1l1mc;l~~i~ hil~'~ been ~"e~ l@ po\~~It:rtil l\U5 d~S(u:s!J,~OP whdt 1f:'''.Yo!;"lUr (hfJ'.. r>:,m kin.ds dm~

D,r-,

or

Agency, Well-being &: Inequality

-ons on. t.he Gender Dimensions ,of P:ov,ert_y
; -. ,·'11

lll~O," 'l/ji~~t_i'id.I':h;m!iC1'H)!d, 1~i1_til:£ Scm:l~~d Tr:opici5, 'P'kl~,

~~~, M_. lW'>. 'tlow wdllS ~Ld 11\'';; '~3.ruM:S (Ii[ ii!.1'!! ~IIQC1~Um~3

and ge!l!: r3to: di:ff~~~lll ImpliClltao~~ rOf pt\hr)' 111 ! hn$ Ih'lp!l'r. I W'l!IIU liO 'i1!-!p90ife "'il3!. thli~ cilrr~~l::m

:!_pp~3~hu elm lell!.i:S :l)b.ou.t dl~&Cm:!lcrd,meF'lS!t'ln~ o:f po1-fe~r;lnd hOW'lhcyron be used hl,muM ~rl.>al!lCr gel1cl~r-\1Jv.ll'Irtn!i::*,in po'-~rl'J' ~flIl\>':Si$; h,1Irulrlillg poll'!l f('IX d'~C:U5";mgCiilll,i'rcnl w:l}'S (lFlookin!j; Jl POw.!~y ~~dftrougi'a'lhe edea ofdtlpmt.<l,tilm.p~jll;eny rnl'lllh!lll: ~ ~ .. n ,t. terms- Qi an "c:ru:I$:' per:s~~~\'e whiih Fm:lI.I~ (In ~h-t,,~O!~,d 'OI,H(J~IIJI.es L~rd~pn';,'llUQlIo. ,the welllltO "l:l;lLc:t\ baSlen~O!;d<s imv¢ bt.'len me.t~ or t~C;(IrnIh~ ~\!111 From ~ 'm~'~s' l;c,~p~w~'e which 'CHi:llls a (!I..c~rn ~'1th [he: ~equ~(', 01 reS<1UI!'(~S lb~ d L$pom.l ~..; .t-1~ poor am:l m Ih~ ..([O'ro- th .. t}!/!t!u l(I wh;~h hllSK necds(:ould Ih!alv-e bixn met, A~n«rfl wilJh Hi.dlsI~'mu(h m.(!r<!~ m~~I): ie tf;}l1sl[l~~ ~ntO i!ll~r:!·'!r·eTlllri.ol'\~, "'h~rh ~o rodrw; 5Cd-( 'SiiI~mr~111l D.a:rn: nttds umUlel C()r.;cem \~itnliI'ltillli'lS in I~fI'I'lJth mo~i' Iik~l, to u.ul$b:.e lr•• :,r::t~....!1n:UOf!·~ o ' Wi~Ld~ f~IJ$l,1Ii'I ,~~p:Ulding ~'esoli.lrM· 31111-1.£· th~ dis· iP0'.!:3! of "he poor. In t!'De~U::(lsecJUons,..,f tillS, ~~~ide WI; "'iii be- im'~~tigIHi.l'l(g~Gw: msighu pro ...dod by a i 'm~m~':liS W\lU $ a'l'l ~;nM pE'ri5~u~'t i'l1[Olhe iliOnde. di"h~n:SU!Ii\s,@rpooeuy. til ~,iLtIQn .liIowe .... a "t'r, tbirrJ ~,pprNd'l wmdd ~. to -Nrtccp~I.I~li:::~lWveri], ;IS an m$ep~~b!e ilelnr{:)Il~IIlil'!:i.:t'.\,'e:!t!. ~lIS and ends, ~n tn~ C'iI_S;¢, PO!I;Cft',f O:nf(lm.pa~5 both lh~ n<:~cl~ lli'1.d pHl;IrI,UtS; O:fp-oo~ !X~pk ;)~~\fU ~5 ~h,. Hn'l,~gl,{!~ "",hich mOrit d(l~!11~'.;:"~:-<~tl'Ofi~. t~1 lh",I11\_ S\ll..h ~ oor!~~p,tI;lh~::J,\!!,l-'I'I 'Wt~J.icl ~:I'J.' Dl wr~' difl'~!1 eru llppr-o.acn ~[' ,th(!- ~1,l'('SlH~il ~~. CJltJ. JJ:ld ,1,~'~rr.ifd !~ M:lHCC ,(lL'I 'poiLeY ~~d we u:~!' !!~€Xr1",lflig n rem
..\ 11,15(

> ',-

,'r'

"-1-:-

rll~:l1'idi r¢!iul~',Dc.!I-et~P~I1l _fI.N,o rn

1I!Jo!i']!l '[)~w~lj)pmi!:lU ~til0ll'l. -Wmld Ihllk

R

i~~k

:sw.~

lO,

RM~

P-o-w'!:"~"

'!;t:.W'<!l; ~ veld ~, S~lfg)l IPj;PmgJeSll ami 'h.. ]I.c:flp~. !1h."lIk Obrln 1[l~nk otIl4 r.a!1~ci'Pali,qn.

IB1n1

a.n
in the ids
bulUetin

III [he' {;~mdLlQimg_ ;5(;ClCOI1i~

:2 ili1!!e 'Me,ans' PiBIfSPCictWy,ei

P:O'!II'EltrtyClindl ~fi!e)(HWI,e
nu~
_::1t:~~S' :)SP'«', be;;t \ilft~ [illS pr-o"'L-e~ the l-'t",:;!,~~~ ~x.:r(:'I!.LI;'1g f~~ t hI ,~~~. ~,'!1 !J1; L ~~lLlidmg jm!,::;.:-:::., :-.:~ ab.....I.': :: .e ilC[lI.~1
!o ~cm","-·m Iinc~h'~:S :nr~~J.JIU~'of

eeonomists

hJ\"( ~(I1(

:n"q

wlti'L

':ce

l'.1i1r t~I'I,~'>(j

$ 'm,nQwn.e5 U'n~Cl
!it !'l~ru5QlI'[US

{!~ec~M' 'rtilUS!llIl"~~ !)f w~U.:be~ng ~i'~ri:tU!~ ilil the Ii~l ilils~~Jl'toe. rQl" OlIillwrini!!:, ~htgen. der dlim¢!ll:$,!00'1$of pQ\'¢r~y t~ $pt;!~ Q~~ I)v s.e~. (] 990\1), '8I'Gclall~~ d!t3J~ln&wiilh poorcro~i~ l!i
1l'UI~

at

!r;0lS!

~(HlJ~!lIII~p[ioo as well ;RS ~n'~~1'Igme$lI~ dut shonr~Us 111, en'liIerr rcifl'OCl ~"'U~y: $oonfiiilb in
~1!'I,,(ilJ't1¢I«)l\~\l,mp~u)f! t!'\il!1~l~l¢ d~~o

shonr;l1.!$

~1i'I

iXlMe liIr;~~)i

hep~til.i'll:r ~~.

~ fiOWllil1id~1y ree:()Ilr\C~lIl1S. ~t

or

tlii.er,e au:;tdl,l';tlfllilg&li

in c!llnl:!'nt~tillg

0lI

5U.(:h. 'Q;l['

1'~lJame~en;

<'IS:

lii.ll,U'rilkn"!..h~i1lth and :avoi~3I!l.~

'Fbi:;'Ls e",i-

t po\'tW;f SlF.!l~1}l' ~h.~~ni':F.ll&l !1uIWWOI'I·ed b)<

~>lIpil211d(~ePOOl'.

mrJl!~

l1li£

mai!:.in:s.
CJiI:)

er

'ali~:ll'l alflillr· 5&i'rl,@; lie gll;llId~~

than (OoC~i~S ~p,,~ly on $J:.!bj~(~Iv.t ~~lilY lq1jthe: ~ (O'vm ·oif ph:a'iill:lr'c. sa.tisfaeli<!n •. d.t5~rt; rulfl]~lIl", wh~d'liel1n be ·moU:l.d!ed.by esoeilll,col'u:liliiMdng and :I. rts!~~di 'ltceeptmce of misrorll!m( (p 133). TIlt Dooblem wilh using Si!llbjtnivt mca.su~ W c:a~~'1!,Irt' g,tmh::~ di~mm5.1.o:tlis pc¥C1iII;), is that ~uh'IJr:JI1 rnles. nO:rm.S ~.nd vi~li.!~ :n(!t. only l.eoo tl:! dbri~!II~ ~ u::nnellL~,w~,U~bein, tn :rnany ~iel'les ... bul a'l$!ci ItO'

m·orrbi.dilty, Ol!liI!.Il!:diU"ealiofilll!l

:a:chi.cYemCit1iI:S ~~lhe(

;n~

or

r.'hordallls, in ","cUbe:in~ A gem;lr,r ~~pu!:iv,~ inlroCillJi~~oli!d~m~ dJ~sjI,aM~l1Ires lmO dl'b; cqunkHil, IhC'~SS\1!r!'If!l~ Ilifil.dCl'pil'lfllli,& lil,lool1l'Ldcollil!l!Jmp~i:olll ~5 'lII\~U ~:S' "~tll.bc~llg mC;!~'UC5 'i!; th:a:t :.h.QUMIS ilJl !';itht'r r~'l1ool 'PO~'erili':&Ih{!I1i[Z!lslll, inC)omdi:OlII~!IlmpUml i It.ul:sl:lle ifnlO!ll:trm:bnl~ i1:'l ~hol-c~ IliIrl ne nul'lir~~iI?d in ~nonb!1s III ""'~II.b¢In.~, Gelld~r.'il'll~Il~;:$ cerl~ln dis1'U1m:tu~u!'lto ~bii£s<Oq!m~Cfrl.

(~'IIC::C and ollr~ m!llil~rE.$hltlilll

" Willi 'li:1JtI'I'i1ldl

~m:iai u:lm:h,
I[

d:kVlisio:rus, cil'tl:;m,l'n"

of ·d.~ ~Pec~<liCillI3:r i""k oJ ,equhy in. du !\I~1li1g ~fi';1i:'1ym.eIfl~{ 149). (po

Wlllll~~O!:'i1g),j1:'lS!t ;,ecag-nutOUi

'oJ' WOflltrn. ~e~Lves

IT!lr'.m:e.

me~mc!'!l or :ind~ruon; ~nd , i~e :i(;!Gilt ftlliliz;t·

In.

.,Ih Irn.c

Focus; em 'hum~II'i!1(hc:-alOIS ofwc~l~!lKbng IIw$ been iiSsOCi~ledin the de-vc!leplTilena.c.ommunity Wiith :ou'Ch..~en(ie$ as ~ht U~Df and lis, less t~,cll(l ~ht m~rrik~t as key wuteto Ilurnllifi<¢ntre.d dgl>\l:k1p. me-n.t.1t se~c.Stl1e poo:r as d~l'Irij\'cd or ItheDlIsk op· ponllll1dt~ to ifid 'iong" 1n.e:a.~rrhJi' ami CHi11iw: ·!i....lS· f :l!I~ l ~e.sul~ the mlI!dij:s~nb!l.lI.tOTl ol tmmome. ~IS· or .:Lnakum~1lI ~p3bihli)~:aIild.'calls, fw I 00 mbl.IQa ti'O'l'!

nt

far 1,nMilIllIoe"~r~o.u!SehoM m~(l-,meJc~llmpfLon ~lSur(s ~fp.o\!ftty ill't 1l!S(d, cvid.cfltt ~hi1i[ /::III!:' grou, ,~rQlJ$Chcld:s hiiS, 1bw({~RWrnC ~mfl h :mQthCif ~"I<lP ca~ ~rul~lt)' be ~aru:1lLas cvi:dl:lIIC"C' l1U!, msle mcmbc~s. (lof ~hos¢ hOUSl:hol&, £lJlI~ Ilm1"£fpurt'h;ls-Iii ~~r, Similarly ~d~ (nat 'c'm~ g~pof
n:1tn is less !'!"1Il ],~-IlI.o"!I.Irish.oo lhall:l :[lll.mh.ergroup USiIJIly '~OIllMilmes e~d!';nn thar they come: rro:m
IO","lCf-II1CO".m.t

lru:

hOl.!$>Cnokls, Ji~''t~. 'b],~rtd huge,

poll&nli~l.

(If

ol il, analhtlr'!N.lly,.
!MT':. m iil:oorn~ ltd lhE:",~m!Jina· 1m cd _H.be:trl,g ~~ ~~rhit~ry lil}' or Lii£~ Ind!~~

,~r ~h~e·x:chJ5foll of I.~~ poor ffom th.e rml~ll r Q

m"lI'~l

op;p(m!JI'ilLU~ ~l'Id$,l\1i~t:

r.llppo:n:

IOmtl:n-

d:~\'UlDp;['mlil'l~. WiIlil!:! the jm!iC1l00! use of dlC: m;I'rob:.ofl. is 'seen ~$ (r,e!'l~II'Il.,g iii'! (f!:il!bli~ cflviro:nmcll1~
3m1@i'I

~~~ n:1easing 1lCOj'ple's 'crtallvhy aru:l t~lcrut ,p1Jblrc can pia), ~TI impOt1:~1'Il role ill 00'111. oQOrur!.~Ir-

bers, SimOnI}!' il!'\l'idt;ru;1! (meg-roup or 'I'!'omeil'l (hat w~~ less wdl-llqY!Fi:;!hod ~h;lJn !It'!:olht'!' VO"'IliJ) O'f ",Om~n does 111m n.etw~ll"iil)'COMlil!utt: ,(!.vl'CIe:fiN l~nn (ili~ye:lm~ [rom ij).wer-inC)om~ ~h.old.'!l" ln f~i:t, IU: ls pos£ible~n :S(lm! co'tue:.<1S ~r remi<de mt:mOcr5 of hou5I':Mkils ,,,nth high~T illltomt toO be 15,"'tIl·mJUrish~d, th ..n 1IIU~.e II'Dl&mlriers,rirorn.po<JRf
heuseholds.

!l\!i(f~llce th;;ll ODl.~ 8I"<mp hoo,seh.o~d5 11!15 ~.owe:'r in.oom.e (61::1111 :anmh£r!!iIOIl,p ~'~b 1,iI~ '~ir)' ~,mlJ1.e :!lbmu ~h!llIJ!ll'~I~fwl!:lI~~inG.'~njoyed by'M re:nruate mllm· o

,or

·~ftl.opmcnlInd-gM
lllld. 1m; 'efnrl~ ~liKd ,3$ 3. veclO:i:' .n 'perml~ polky

ntg mn~el irn,ll'll'rrC(lions mai II'lIJIlI::igil1lg thdruits of 'OCOOOrniC growth ~n th~ il'lt!!:rm.s of an (~E ell'S. c!"J,"S~i{lnilll EISIln L993), Such a poohc,! aplProaoh

The blSic OOI'Iil,na<!rUI!l that pi~p!::s ~~tempu I~O cO'fl(t:ptu~I~c: lnc ®~Ildc[ diiIMrni~.ons, of P'O'-rtrty ""
whc:tlher it is ihwllg)i Ule "chotoe" eeneemsol eeonomic 'tllU$UftS (lor ~Ih.e 'wcllb!l:n'!g' cencerns of itUrn3J1O ~TidL(;i[M:S- ~ltms fit'm the an~,I.>'llcinJi' d~5l.iTlCI. btu trnpiric~ny sealiil~l!$1S;jl~:ration oJ lh~ ~~~ force;~ tl1~t rrof<ll~ :sell'l:ily.~m !h.e Q.l1~ hillnd. and dt~rRrnma;LIOn, Ofi. th¢ Q~.h,tf, 1[1 'PflliL.o.ple. il
"!OlIld bil$lC

nd

'I~S

~n tk1i:

~'hid'l V,lRijl'il pOll· k ~11l~lh OlDer

JW~\~"l'lt~g~-s ~. ,~R :m1l;~m.:Ir~d

~] ,ill

or

re:c~ni~~ the ¢1«!I,IS!OIU~nd :~gmtntliil~.Qllii which r!'j;araeLen.:5~ ·i't~l' !'Mrk(\'S ~c'ld m~ke: lh,'Il;m ~n. 'in:-:o.~pltabl,~c n~llr.oll'nU:T;ll for the diselii fraRC'hised ~¢(,HOI'I!j, oi soc L('lfy.blJt n's .1bill~) to c:."(Jil:m:Iilh~;s, ~~\Slu to r~coglliti(l~t of ~l:il &~nli1:rdimO:~iLoRs of :hc~ pn~W\1im"rill d~pend Qil ~Ih.<;;ln~IJ!\I";!~ ~~r'iI:·
,of [he ase'f'Ltn~ tlcmrU~~to !:::OUl:l[~r I]]:.ubt ~ :1~l.p~r£lllCUon:&.
!i,~

whd IXI"'"

be po~bk !,o~u'!M CO"l'!So!.'l1IIU (Or hO\loschokl

,r;e~uire f:!.' rewe!" I or ~ub;s ~hlm, '~$l!y sender;

4, G!,efIH:lle'lf O:is,jiUI'iI'otilllll1e:S .Ainall,s:i 50

A&.... ~

mn lP,oveny

I!O

h~d,·iba;llOd iil'lch~nd !@II(d~.,.,trn~~'

~~n~ ei'lrll~f. oon''illi~~llt ~1;lp!IU;"!!il:lltion~ (Or po.'crty ~'re.~miP~iLilly IilUle,ccl't!l'lid Thu5 llrow~ ~.~r !he iUSI!lI'I'IPllo(}:I'I UI1.d.:rpHlITmg. both iJnc(f,rne/

Joini. dr~Cl or g,~mfer di.serimilil~lio!'l and :lbrolUlt pa~·eny ",,"ool.dhe lint exac~fb1il~wn. or t~ndE::~

or Ui' Iil:old ,cOlll'llllllll tFor pndi>r, in.fqlllilliltl!S of well·beillllf>: ~hc: s~m:if:rdltm'MIOIlI, Qfpo .... r:ny is; con"~i!'I'I~d 'iNM:h lh~ m:te:mCitu'im. be~..... d.e ItWO. O~h,er li'lhl!l:.s: ,eel!l Ming ~qu.aL Le.'Welltd ~ IOii(~t~~. ;lSSUIf!'!.t' dtM the

~'Iloomt and find

well·bt~"t'lii

l:\rrdt!Ui~Orge-i'lch::'rLcwrUll!~tlts:rn

;lnd r~nd i.900ffi\l;·'lilht~d

••

choice el "~lid$' M~I'I.'rI.,t:t. t!t:~, ~\1IiI:i!~O' t~m~d ~ h i~ mrm!:~!Ii. .mtmsth'C:$ .... '"nh !M m~~li.!rabl~~mI~11L~ m:nk~Nlhk The ~1!:I1J!!'UO.1'l of pt'Y''l1'rly ""fiil'! hm.t~. held ~nrom!1:" .J~ in fhf: pol!;errty line appXOili!i:h, n:II!Ulphfl~i I:HJ,th lh~m"'iIJ~1Jlr"m~m all W€~I i1!S the II:Is,tulmmlll biases ol i'r~dii.imnl '~OODllQllI1i($.. The
mcaSIlr!!!lU!'I'iI:[ hl as gie:lileraHy ull.:e:s. lh~ ~o~m, 01 n-du(~n,g lilt, ~$Itrm.u~,or ~'erly ~o :\ s'i~gle SCllbr wMlt lime [OCI!I$ on holl~liio,1d i1i'l'O@!'f!ie plWlI~gcs dv. m~r\:let ~ ~Ilit m.3i1'li~sdv,l~i~!i!~'! tch~ninfl m

gndu ~mm,eitn1:¢S, 11\o'~II·b!i':il1i&Qluoomts 'liek~ 1 biillses.~I'I '~h~ d:~~nbu~ior.'lof 00&;" needs f¢$¢Uf(:':;5 mher Ihm li'Iutri~iOfl, The ~~m
ilisrott4ted

;it kJJSl

IT!akt o'bjtctllo!l~ ~ m the f-i~

dJ!I d~m~ll$iOIi'l$

~r

(l99Oa).: 'E!>pct!~JI)I'

with "m~llIs'il<lS
j,'\!n\]
;lJ

'be.::o-m~ mcrea-SllJ:l,flty
Ihil:p'Qduc~i!lj!.j'
iL ISMW

dil.~rCi are ad"'ill'lt"!

(JOOCll'm wdl

of

poor~l.'t'$

laoom, ooeaust

widdy :re<:·
:~t

II?!lrnmei~~
liJj,O'l'bld!!!}I;

;)I~

m.no
od~

~rldl

ogHlitll dutlhi& is the pciJ'I'i.'lry' rncoml!:->!l'a:r;rlin,g

I,han fo.c:Ullil1l;g PUft

drwujh m"d~

Whidi

lis &~nde:r bi~$; Sl n(:e tulie' <lm::rnpt is glllll:~lIl!iili}' ts di;smbJ:!l~cl ~fr\()'[b-S. i'!o,,~'ho!d m~m1x:f$~lldi tn~ ~};~~flt to ,ry;;hic'h g~ll~r milq,9al~ut,_sinb!l&IC nf~tIl~ Fumilit!Ct!' M>e 3 re-atllt't I)f ~h;$ di$!lribu~iOfi, 5hirl~LIIlhe !l:ooo!:p.tt.lJlI~[ion of rne:lIlS (rom. 'ililoomt' ~O'·p .. i.'a~e cons.ump,ucm' ..... 'hit'h indud'OO the w!J:!~ of:>¢U.p:rOO'I,;!{N CQiiI;$!J~~iol'l~, ;tOO e::I:;PIlIlSL'!J1l ofthE: ooooePll(l inclu& commonprQP· en}' r~-OOIlir~ a.OO5t:l!t~ provi:dtd ~5 a~l mpr~· sl!nt al~~mpl:s.IO(llVl:if(jOll1lt •. :rnfirklllliIlM, or ~!ladi· t~Ol:'I~! !l'i!e3Slll~$HQW~\~~" 'W'hil~rnp~ Qr 11h:~ !:elpanded VOlr$ICl-ns3ir¢ It! p.Ti:l'icip[e, mt~$i:!i1ibk()n ~t illdii'o'id1J!l1..h~)' ~'t in pf~c~i,tt ! rOo!:y.stcl, '01"1 housebiio~d~!1:d me~s1i.lrof~This p!!uly u'fteC!ll 'tile rom· p.tl~!I~ed mU!;;U;~llIiie'n;t pmDI~ms, assOC~"L~d wilih ImpI.Iling, th~ 'Yalue ofh,Ol!Sflilo!di OOI:Iwmptiolli. to Indh,ldU>IIi liousehold!'iu';mbi:if$- It is: iI'iS~NCllJ!.'t foor ins~aooe:.that two. recent SlLudWs. OO!Z' un'8{!ngh:de5h R~nt
IO~iScefnam

oos!c 1iIi!!.'!& :Ut mu. I~illso ftfi!Cl:S

l1owoeqllg~abl)'ltIouSl!::ttotd it'lOOmt

~llbd[ ,~pCil5llJiin l1ilililc:h of'ditc wcnltl, This.!!S ,elfid~nit In 'tm \'!Jodd Bainl() Olrnl'lt p!JV~ny :!;1'I'i1i!("g)' . which p;ooritiu-s l~bour-jf!q,eM~ 8fO""'1h.g~Tl(r"'tt.d: prnmll1filr !'hmu:gln Ihc 1TI;l.,llel, but sup~tdl by pubhc ilWof:St~m:s·il'! !hehumaflc~rit:1I Qftlle po«, Such. .m approach h~'S ,he ~d"'Ol.nII!o&€ or nil3:tkillJ,f; ~o\:J!;ny an~~1 I/O groWilWI raeher ll1~n a~ ilJurr~ ~iho~t.11$511C1':t~~illl lIJddlrt5$ing. lhll1' ,g~llI.der

rQ:rtm 0(' ,p~~a$liH't. s w'l'Iich can be: mou'ld R$~OO ~CiCC'ta~ I?ro<b~nlIw~!h willlg '!fCilmtillis wil~~'bcinc,g; militatUli3g,aiMI, IiJ!QO

t1:Jtg~mkr d1illll~n~ rules, notms :and, \,':.

diimeT:l.'£;oosof pcweny, howe~'er. '!Alilld~:I?el1ldl

~ers as """,lias wilid"l k helps ~c p:ro.TlKlt~.

on lhe <Lnwl n:l.miQTioShl:pi!; k~wttn &~DlIrlJil:~ diVisiorus o'£llaoour.,iDlcorne and \'.!¢n~bt.:irl& ",,'hidl il. C1'l!C(lI,I[,!.

or 'the Si'peCl'iCrulitr' m;1!n:g¢mtifl~S:'~!l' 1."iI'

Th.~ .fOCI.I!5WI
'hllmoll

nt

3: l1he 61ds PerspeeU,ei

amidwen"being

[Plow.e!",

su.m a.gef;lei~ as de
mar~el as tht,·1l;ey rot
menlo II~~

bcti'iassooi.a.t«lin.

_pot

An 1I1!il'IiD~~i"'t IIpp"!'O~~h tC! Ith~ 1iIi!1i~~!l.Ire'nin:1'!~ (' 0

aL 1990)i~1'tt! 'I~ otner In ~he: P'hi~ippililts Uiatfdal;! ~Iat. iW2l.bolh <tu£mpIiDlg to imp~~~ ho~hold (O'I\$.U.mp~iO'n w ddIer,elUml!mbers wMle m.lkinl ~lIowaltil:u fo'!' ~htirtlfti!VI;g, ot!lt!1]' IiOQ~~iIt" d mt'nlS, (otl!1di i!'l~he (l.anglilidesh ,c;-ase. 'f1~~ [Ml'e 'Wl'IS "rome diiSCfrmlnratio!"l1l,g..tn~t males by !hc heuseIwtd' (po 11 SS) ~ml ili'llh~P'hilip~c(l~. dlt,i11 c~lo·
(pm t.1 i:1ig shOrtr!d~s."~rn~~uiil~)'I bOriit Illy' all fil]£mbersof lh!!: i:rres;pw'i'l't ~'V('l'dl C~llorte ...dt:qjJ;lia:cy' (~ ] 3). 'rIliII11lt-tbe oolltciusio'l'! for ~hli!:' hUippiliits P simly might be oonlildcr~dI p~urilb!~ ~vid.:;rtC!l:fur gelll~1' b.i~-$ illl, IMiDlI ra~tiu~:J~~old di$[lI'iibuILWI o!~~sic raouKle~ i:!lllllu~.h ",,\~l'::oer' and ~8S COIlIsis,lIN'U in Ihe $()utht~ Mit1:'lc@nle:l:~ ~ ':hellndin-tS

hUIDallindi('.a:tots ~T!d was 'J!Iront'P~ed! iby:1! ,"UJ:loe:m. 'I!.'ii[illlh~ Il!I::m.a1fe3lliu~ Ikrl'!Or ~!c Metis !:ather U:l!m \!.Iilh ~lte pmfllial 'V;lilul!: f~ic: ¢'"nli~i.tllTl~nl:S, to pill i~ o o:r, ,ali!oi:ht~wa,: w1Ihshactf.alls iifl oo;tc;~~ nth« ~h~!'!~TI: tJ;];OOIm:S, \Vhill~thi:s has sOl'!lI!!:llm.es pmrnpttd tho: COm!b.i1l3' 1'i.(k1l ,O'r iliu.'i@mmell$lIfl1blc ilfldk:ators or '"..'f,lVocilil:& in\'o :3! ~h1ir mctlSlUr'l: ~hrou:gh tnt !M!e of O1!I'bilflli]' w~lg)l!:; - ~..5Un. the Pny,s,1nt Qu~.H!y of Lir" lnd~x" {~mtii<s 1979) and: (tiu: 1l!1,'IIf!laU! DC'ioJ\tloprnt<nl ]n.del'!
pov'I1iI'il),'1w fO(JU!ltdOIll, bjS~~

a5a ~9h Qf' ~ ml!l jI.fld ~'1ili.lm:l1:l('3:pil:ln!t1.

o{ I'I1Illli~~~V-WRlHljj lltt I~lh;~ e:l!d~ ~

pCfl'!l!.!cI1lilill;S.lll

~~dit.:

. ror rtlell.sillg p:optd wion. em il~li' ~ in

:ing 1"I'lia;rI~tt =mpe .....nEil

dtvdQll1rwm. \Vhf&: kiel !s StjiTl M aula

of «WtOIl1l1C
UOOifiiitlll:£ diUII1ICleriz!:

CU-NDiP ~99.Q'i)- lnl$

p(~~Wf;

~$ M1:

t$~irliti.iL

Thili '~l'I.d1

r~!'I!InM

~r

'for ~tWildesh ,~~e iPel~i\l'¢.IDi!,'t!fl :~ of ~m ~11:1l: c.vWc'!'!oe ~hraJt we w~ll ~c: i!:~liIi"8 $u!'m~i,l'Ig, tlttftmc gClildtr m~li!~ ~.f:I, 1Ii'I.Q.t1t~lily 'i\i\~II.3tl :lIili
notrihill:1!t1I.
1I.IS~.mg
f;~atUS_ n~ hn&1'adesh i"irndlin.li!:$!lb~~$ eil.b~'r lil;at fh~ :lsStlmpa.tOIllIl lhlll ~oonolmi~[$ ;ilir.e
ii1I[\Ii:

calli :also be <fptt:ali'!.'ln3iiolma!lavC(tOl:' ofk~j \ft-il~.beirng il'!;dic-;llOfS, "''II'ni.dh Pfimilil po]ic~' ~kciJ"S w mC{II;alrn OOlin'!'i11u:e and ucnru., in the dif!C:crmt dii'1:Lotns~ 'of pa,Y(",!y..whtiHl"",'hi:~~ po~. S!iMyoOOfllbt~d. ~'!Ie flO~ rcd1l.!c~.ble to uch (il~~r {Kiliibccr ~9f.l.9'), (~Ji1;t aF lh~nujo:r ..dVaIi113g~or wtlHI~mg ilildica~orn is tlii:;'!:[ lllit}, ar-e. mll:1i$!lI~<i dlrc'::lt'y 1m, IRtlm:iil'l'id!1lilll, du: Itvtl ill ",,;ilid'iJ~" ;i;rI,y is. ~U;!ny 'E)!periCl'l«di, a"d n:qlJJirt br (,(VoItf liiswmpli.e:ns ir'l ~ht ln~efpu~'II.bcm,or ~!~hs I[hm do 1:I000000o!di~lbi1lscd! ~~r~ Thty <li1so, l!eil1d,llltem~\l;Ic:s,mofC
wll,y ~oi¥!i!d'cr di~nl&atiolll ii'll ",,",ar.11l3;~liou$thold .•~,~ !!i!diC!!.tOf.ll do l'Iil}'L A:na~J;u:~d~'l.ll'lll!glli, and Iilillt ~h~t g,y ~

CIW~iOn un E~,

IhI: ,wl!usi

l~

~1C.rl' .1iD hOl>pita_ll)l~f:IJli'iroM stc~h.!)IiI>!i,Qr~~ i

[his probl.eom 'Jii,liDI&,r

t~!®h~ ~O' ~~

rnJ!SS, f o

(hili :~,

i~l'eQQ~~o:r~"

,II Gem:der DfsjII An'a1~:Siiis _

&'w(Sl~~w

nil,woo

tbt

'CI:!i3,1. !ife·lhr(':'I~¢nil'li!l

iiJi~ Ithe

of PQo\~nw <1lr'li·~
<1iSS!LtIll]l.llJ!!:tn ~

l2

11:I«I\,i~hl~~ ~!ffiQng, the Il'OOr. H~

SOCIC~)'

..'tr. Ihe rmcr:s Ihilt Crcille uu::q;uainlil:$ of "<eil'tl1i. ~n:d QP\!I~llc;1l 1.1fI ,ill

prt'l'f'1lU du:' aru.t0:rrt3tic U~!!I$b{If Sih(llrlf~I~:S'fn~IiI,C'Q(me uno lh~ ''i'!i~derr!illg of ,e1l:iiSl~IlI.~il!!c(j'"yalLly.. ]1 is onl}, linr.ollgn ~ (m~"':;,:lsp.e;!:ifi~ ~J1io11rr.5,i!~ (If ~hese fOf,"i!5 !t~Ul ~~ooQom~ po.ss~btt ~o d~lermin:e wiftelhflr' ser:tder'~I1e.~Il!!llil.les; ~fl"",cn,·, " ~n~!aJt(df$tt, ~:ll'.a(jerb.1i~!!!iI! or ~r.~r~'" ,he: probl~1I'I\!l Qf5Uf('i~y. 11'1 the rO!l(l\O,~;ng ~dqnS W!i: v.oin be otms,Ldcll'irtgIDJl'lc ex. i!mpl~, or how ~rld&f di!;luJnllLI.I~es :a.etl,lj~1lI incOme. effol'l and 'Wt!H)erng worik. i!LI d1li~iIt:nt regions,

vlf ~ndlf'r aJ1id may

ltO:l:t

~mbodli' qui'tt, dllffe~en~seeial W1(l1r11fl$ <lind rn.tli~Ji:ll~ p,n'l,(tlCC:Sto lbOGe W:li'li;:l1i, Cf~al.e ille:qu<llil~!:S

hif&Eili by (~m::ll~ ~h.t~ l:!l ul:'illke~,1' t~ 'bti: <!J g,r:eiil~ deal @f difitre-noe. One o:f ~I'ttltIllIinrea!iiOlll!' way re'lilu te~h~ad«i h.cu!:5Jt:!.a1:ds, 11;1£, mcr,g~d as :1J1lI e in<l~':!lO:r. of ~ht g,tmder' di_n!lli-ons oJ pO\i'\l:ifty ~'S, p1:'ec!sdy ~u$t of I,l:!~il' \'1siDililY !Ill hotl~hoidb;lls!!d
m~;a$UfC$

'!:l'!ptci0l1'l'Cy

n:jiOl'l!l1 disUi d'o bl.ltioo, (I~ jx.fc.t ;u;lq As r3r~

are ~'Qlt~tmM, kia, rolb

t~killg ii1(:Of)'1i.IliI[ 00 rt~lc.h~<Lde:d Itolll>elitol\cls. '\I!'t ~~'OO.ld ~i,nbe: nQ:r:lC tht: Wiise;r ::IM~n !'v,Omt'l1'S iCCiW s
l:o I't~olcl,il'!omnt
wmpol.l1:!:i to Q1tl!ii ;~in~ Wll:

or

tnCOimt-po\!e:~l~; :I1!O\\~!.l~'r.

5(1'i;II,liI

tMyiiu'~~lC

(~"!o''''''lld iby So

W(luh:!: know n.Odliillig ib~t th~ ~iS~i!'iblilhon. .o( inMlTIt or m~um;p[n.OJ'Ii il:!. hOu'Eihoi& bdow ~l:1e ~!¢fl)' line whgch wt'r.en~dlOO b}' men. or wcu.'btln,g ill'td~ato:rs (tfft[ 01: w,ar rOil: ex" pllOO'lH,1!l ,coruil!:clion btl'I'I:,(C!1! ~h.c~n~idltntt el the pmrer~y l[1::;!OOU1f~!1' !!r,d,~nder ineqlliil:Ii~,~ \7I'riQ!.IIS
Th:¢~
m!;3$l:.IftS

the ,~r:.lp1i'ik
{1lrlhef !t'.iciel'!!

5, D:isjuliliCblJli',es Beiw,eeliill hlCOMl'

andWeill~lble~m9

to d'te 1.IIti1:'l'l:3i~.e or 1if!.C'(';[~ng the OOstC Il~,(& of ~m;1 iMh'l'id1.ltds. a:nd.llh~r~r~ ~I;,eir..·.l!lidt[y 3i~01mC0l5!!1~~ of ~i.'flI)' 'LIhunu~ciy vest5 01:1 ~b~i ~b"llil)' 1:0 Clipr ~'U'I'C ~ht magniUl.de' ilInd dislriblltti.w!. (J£ ShOrl [[Ills i~l1tIldl1,1'idllal well.b!:i:ra,g..The mlpl~1 dlilill $U1g" g,iliIilSt'h3l wnde' Sl1)~h melsures 00 ~ppe.llJr .0 Ciipl'!Jrl~ 1 lHie ~ellce: off sbon;f\i!!s; gfil we~I-~ililg.. dt~ do nm :neoessarii]y C~~lU[t: ditir d~lit'ribu~looam(llnl!l indumdt.!~Is. spID:nk.;1lll~ull I.ni:!l ~ liltir &1!M~r di1nnl!,~JtIQn. Th~d~Unt~i!:lriE bfJW~e!il.lf!~ and ~l1dci: imllquili]iltes i,$ diM:'fimibae c'oltf:l, Olit .h~gM' ~l!g[Jit~d ~~is ,or empiri~a! ~irn~~:;U&, Globalt-y. it is stil] .he case '~hal.the; m3jor~Aror the world's pooar 31't C@IlCtmrlll.ed in lih~ Th ntl \!I,brld. [n mr:lIi areas ~Ild !:Mtarollnd Iilaif of: Ih~m"rif; to be (oond in ~tll A5.~, lIhfl h~d 1::00000nl. il'td~K (lIlJ)(l~ny il'l ]9615 in dil.~pO!in~r' regicmsof !b~WQ:!'~d ,(\\b:dd Ball'~ ),990; 29')r::IlIl.led sOuth fliIl;i~, II@ h~\~ lb.~ ~'1iillestpef' tl:if1t<l&~ (If ~;t peo:p!~ below~ht povef~y liM (:5] P'fir c!!ld, (O:lloo'!!d by sub-Sllih'1r011'1 AffriCl! {''i 7 :per ,eem). f'Q.lI~ i).y ~h,timiddle (,iJM ami Ill)Ttilem Africa 01 ~I' Otiii!t) and fi1i'ltlliy UJlilil, Amn:r'.L(';l!:l!nd, tb!! Cll'i!:D~.3!n(19 jl(1' ('.tIU).
Tht~ {:~re5
Ill1dt l~ Iell

IIn.~melcon$umpUol1l I'e$OUI!'OC& ar-e llI1I~lll'ty il'Mans

!.l!n.de<r·fh',~1nitQ'l'It!lji~':Ji~WI1~ilU:g!l~~,mOrl'illil), and! if,l{:l!1l:1 rlW:lt31i1.:;):ue "dlm; used!asbraul il!!l.!tC';IUO:I'Il £ "<t~Io king ~cause dlt:y sllmrm'r~e. ~~~ 10 the J:..~.Y StQ1.:!n:::es 'Illh..}'5ical sumMA !lCiro~ ~bl!: ~l'ul3!![Ion o (Sw~~. 19as~ S€1l 1990). Tht: O\'Eirnll JJeng.tn o:F lire: '~:peci~nc:y ~PFllli'$ to hil~ :aJ !'eI!:>anabk 'COfWl\iticn wtttl tllill weill!ll of iI rqia.lI. Ar.nt;m.g dlLt !XlilRr (~ries. ,overall ;ti1~e~pecitalllCYjl'l ~tndir.ug ol'tkr i5 $1;Ib-Sab;1l!"an Mri.cill {<i6.53ye<lrs); Sotllb .&i:ll (55 )~.lIJrs~; NOrth JIIfn~~ {:56·61 }'e~ts): EasllSomb. L:niI'lAmer:ie!!furibbein {M~ 72 Y!l::I!:'cs), TIl,e dii$lItggin:~~£d lir~ 'e~!.3incj;e:s ,or wnmen ilJ'Id ;men also r~~~ thils «dcr; in ~eflllt$ O'f 3bw:lllJ!1; ",d. be~1'!&I' oolih $e~~rjpea!" ~{I be WQlI':Sl 0'.1] 11lSillb. S!lh.ar~n Afncaallle, Sou.dll. Asi(l wMch ave 3100 the :poD(iIUUI: Itgi!l)lllO i1'l ~om~ tenns. H'O~'eve!t.wtuile
in t.1I!:plaillin,g \~mtl'l:lIiid
~\lity

or nlO!l!raIi!.y

wre

>tX,ptCl.IJIC}I:.

$tl'lr:;llll\Qs.,

>ludi ;S!Lib-:regn.Of:l \~II.~ilil' ,,,,:hi, Lltrlll;!;Or P'O'i.tri: rlll'i'QS {i.>t' .r:ai~.Ol IX! ':hJ!' 19&);:), ""

em ,A:'firn 3(;M pl~jfi5 ot£ I,he In

Ih~JII mlIlK(mic

d~ni.1.mdwbk dsofmlii~1 m
N;l;1 ioo~ 199h Mairi!:(liI ~1l1i: p3~t~;m 1:0,be aF dilft'mn:[~ls illl: ~ ~m~.iSlliJe'Wl:i,i!l~ feiLrt'.rsl~gbi@l~gj

tMl Asiill. (00-64 ye\lll'$)~ ~

ruht (6~~6!B y,~Olrn,):

d~hte hiD!og1~ ~t~,~~w¢ hll

']00 m..itlion, mIisI

th~ sw,uheof

m;

gotcS.;a g;r.l!i![ dtal (!ifflhe VI..../' in, 1I0001li,lI,(well·b!!1f1l8 Qf mtifl ilIC'IrOSS diITeT¢[ll H:g,iom Ii'll!:

dg(fc~!I:~

'Ii.on of (h6l:' :sh.Mr~ilf;, lib!!:

oJ lliml!sfJh"lds w~~1"1 ill1ic~iTt!tshnnril~~~ l~ro$$ wo:rl\:;llbtll, !.'<ef)!' Ii~Lleabo~l ~h_il:sene~rdi$tri~:11IQS~

us s()ltl.~tthj,ng 3bG~l Itilm m3,~l'Iio

di~ec:I, CS~i1fnaI[~

~Id 'be Itho!:: poercellll~e oJ WU:rl'l£itl~Ildgirl!; irll tht popuLnion, below Im:ptwl:rly line, HGw~r, U1_III~ a,stg,.l'Iif1.u'I'I1ly brg<: ffii)l!gh. nililmlx~ or hoo~h()ld5 below 11h,~ l)(Wert)' h rt~ an~ iX~,~.dat~d '~!1I~iR:~Y ()'f

u'lJrld, it ~$d~r' ~h3l C....en ~~!ih:U5.tI~gh~.y3W~~led levc! II am !itO( r.l!llJ;' lCro1:!nl (ti rcl:!liV'e di'ff!ll:(;l'I. till!s i!l'l 11'I:e'~r'WCil'll.bd!!!g. lila IJer'lmO( wn.dtl' dime!". mtia~ it'! 1i~~~~pea!Ui.CJi,. is illrliJX!litli!F!.t to, i~ in millid ~I;~t IFIl::Ile i!illIDtmQft~ln}' ~~Il~ ~o' be!i¢Mr"IIF hi!!i'h:il:rth:l'l'l dJ~~.of femlli.:: (a pll~t~lIin blYly behtlj'cd! to. h~vc'O!! bl(lIOi!lJ(1l:1 r'3I~lM:r thii $Oci;l~ ~!S.) 50 th3~ ~~m ~t!ll.(fo livt 1()lIg,Hd'illtl m!f;!,! r tn muml tll~~or'd. GI([Ib"U~tliLe I:ife e:>ii~c13Ii!()' ;!l ~j~11:i. ~$ 6:5 .yt~:!'$ fOll" \!,I"O!'JU:!F1 lI1nd! 62: rQx m~1Il1 (UNDP 1995):r11Ki thi$ ~!~~m of l1!ig,h~r· ~l!:mflI!iIi lir~ ex,pcCllmeyprcll;lJul!; in, rnO$~ or d'gtlilig~H!lcom~ !.ts ~n<!!s ptXlrer palil:S or 'liLt: '!NOrw. ~i<b""~'!ter:"~he

or

WM!Calttw.:i,l: ,(: p~t"llil'!!tO!!-pufiil g,elld~1r :rdathnlls, p<lUU!i.dli~ p~I' itl!loo'b!tkln m Wttll-bdn,g,

or

The

bcng mdlQoo~
!lllil~

'I!:vitm~t&!r

mn

or' ID:!rii;c!llll in liiW16 <lIC'(I.!f!l ~'rrI ~h

~!It.wt.~3J,~

or

1,l;;''lthilil, 1l1~ ~r~1\rniliu Ihan alicllhi~'~rnh,Qr 19912; 5m.liln:r !!!t (

;1'I(!t~n (lilt!:

gondCir ~ l'er
IJ~11W'I

'U1:I'i~1w.:!1l! ~11 b~ 1111 C~v.

.:IJ

(;~m

d~MiIol!! ~ 5«' S

;""'~-_r--""" .............. __

I ."

kdy

~iii< ~

:v,e~~
1$

mmlJ f'~5.t~ns. ~wl'l)' s em,Erged ;!l& :Jin

Olil5

of poeen Y

i[y In houSiehold·· 'tl'il)'_ Howe 'cr.,

~~pw:alllq' does: nO!! oll'fOrm 10 LIlli: '~omd d,gnc lJuliffi o:f p;i)'i,I'(n.y or of (i;,f(.'i':tllltloiCls 'iOf hFt I~pd· ~llIe~ fn ;1$ gender di'riCfl:nlilik in liJ~ ~rtmcy As· :au iCllilltC;;J1td. Wf;l!nc.n &rc !l'OOSI dISldi'o'ml;a.§'ld in

rtgI(lnii

dls'll:i11il"!JI~O:o gcnder (lI"mn'~i3I-1l 'in lire' o!

conoemN{ liNDP ~99S) II

II,inuml!e'r

re~i:f'!'ollifSlU.cJICSrmm of S'S;\ eeumnes pmooicte lAuch: t"oid~lIct Qr 3, b.as in If,"'O\I ii' of boys; LIl (;tel Ilhen' wa!l t!\li·

de.nct Or boo~h gCMi!:I n~Ylr;llily 'in I'II1UilJi.oniilJ

t Muschoids. we Ul. v,.'Oml!n1> access ~o mum :;inC€ wt

~ dli~lribtlD.iQ:rI qr

SaLllh Mil'! followed! b)' t-iO"Ith ArrlCll and ~~_ Tneyar(!; le~l d:i!sad\'iilnl.3ged in So\lb-53hnan AlrtC!J rOIl~fd Illy Scuth.e'lll8.tIiEu! Asia_

i!i:hokis 'below by mto. ~h~im:idellcc

tnt

n~geogmphiOlil

d~.rilJ1lJtion of:sex

m<IIini)l.l

'Provide

di$lnbulioli or :l b~as If! £oj"\,()ur cd .gi'r1is, pilnirubdy in WCs!t Afnc;! (S·ycd:bc:.rg 1990')I,Yhe~edall, does. ~ for ll!i~ areas, pDVl!;ny a,ppe!lfS; I!O! be mot.· lIte.d wi:ih gre3'E¢f if'!lU~hol!..$¢hohl, illli~;qulliity (HiIdd"a: an'CI~bur 1990:l:lw.i 19(5)_ ibroaa rondlls~QhI!i 3bolll. dil¢ ~eli!~h:ms!ilp gtlflider" Il'Iro:I:'I'I;~ :1'1!1ld wci[~·bcllilg(coin woe draw rrem. (1iI1S: :ln31)~.i~ A$ wt ha\1\!: nOled. ~noomv rom1!lmplioll. mUS'~res. ~!!Ild to bI:: co,1~.ected~l Ih~ llI.oosehoM '~vil on Ilh~;&srumpIiOl:llth~l S'lJ.(hiRoorneI I.lonsumptiml ns diSlri't~I:r~~danum.g lho1Ji5eholdl·mem· ~al.
~IWC1l'n

l.'!rre;!' ~ W~)' (or g,

or

Mqwhly Vui.ous. ::~nt!f, Slt'X f3lOCl:s.

m.mt)' and IIIf.m.t

iill~rs.Or

~othe key ~ lihli: pepulanon

(H/E'If.III.

well·

i~[1i1 of

~Iuble «IIT'II:A.mong Ihe poorer •.=I!'rl(lin~ order !.~'"$.}.~ South Asia ~I"$); &sllSou~h· ;la (64~8 rens); 7~ yc:a.rs). Tille \\lO,ou:rn,and mell orlllbwtUle well· ,

III (hi: 198(5) ...... h.i.:'h sl.lIelcnes rrom 3ifoCa5o:fmntn~rn Ift!frica iic~OSS l'he middle e3!SIt !!1i1.d the IWtithe:m plains ilf l!he II'ldi31'1 sl.lo<onUfiei:'iI :and. inel'uding China ami which ¢I'!com~, '1li1lt'£ different le",d~ of f\"illiaDl.ilI.illt;;Qme, ~utlli1g. that i'IL-4:ltili'S oth~iI" l.luntCQt1IQrni~ rc~()~!,C!l'$ am Impl\leal~. (Uni~t!d, ~;1Jl!OOS ] 99 i~ MOtnsli!;n and Tffi;I;'nSlend 198:1). .\:Inkcd llm!~lJlirlil.]' o:f S1eX r:uhu llre TC"~~ to die bl<l~~ern be ,e~ptm~ on the basi.-sof blO!lDgte~!sv:: to iffel'trma 1$in ,b.m~ O'f sll.n'li~'al. l"e( 00 SI~m· ...uu IS thtwet&kt of SilXial rWQrs ~~wdghmg snd rt\!l:trsi~ biologi('lll paw:'I'i'lS kll ~ITtt iit,gw:nS ~.lrn.t"
despilili biiJlogielUy

fl!lI1h~r ~h,1.~IiiCC' lih;!l. there me d.i.stLDl~I~~~onll. 3fl.di lSu,b-r;q;L"O:nal p:];i~em~ 10 gendler' iltt<f1!iiillilksin. "~I~ ..bi?uliIgWi~idft ha,,'e \'(:'1')1' hllde to' do 'lNiith lpatl«ttS, ofporverly: There is ~ bell of ml~lin~ sel(; nltlOS O.e. t;.'IlLos ,()'"\rtr lOS mab pel" ] 00 rcmaks

or

on the in:ln.·hou5<hold d!SlnbultanOr well.~inB,is

,ilC~lI31l

ben in proponion

to

Ih~ir litt!t~t ~lrn 'inronm.lioaII

only rn~n' "fs\I(;h ~1Il. :!SSumplion. is Qiolaled in. prnCIJi:cc_ LtplO1:'l. fur one, has :su.gg:c;steidthn th.~

ill'ltl'a=ho.lIseh.oldi

dil51![uilutiolll

of 160001and

rtcc-:-mal p;aucrns

III

the

rest

,~ world. W't M~"( the phc'iiomciIlOli of mOre '111.3:n LOCI illion m!!smg \lIO~m.en·(Sen 1990b)._ .In.[aCl, m the swathe of lJ:J:lI!soolint; sex ranos C'OhncidCl!,wiah ,,-'h:u Ca~ldwdl (]982} has Olilled. nhe 'P<i!I~K.J;,a!;?:nrulini!:illl·pJtlfitocal bth' ~ggts.tung thai. l'oea] !imd.er· rcl,;r~i'Qnsor wh:u: v.'e mif,ht call 'nog!_O!i!il ~ri ..n;:hit$' p~;ly ,3 ~ig,n,iru::1MU role in rnt«lb!:il'1g '[he ~rnmlbitiQ1'I economic re'5om~ ;l'I~(I mdJ~'gch.!1101 of v.'i!n-bcing:,

or

rhe (i\'Ldeme tor' gender difFerentialil In 'basic ~"tlll:..-ing IIIdh;;I\'Ors 1$ ~~ "~·ell·docll'menleod, COM:~t· mt or marked ill other lregiorl~ and I!'!!d«d 5<l1i!W'
. ~mes
IXCU.fS In .he:

roe~"e,rse dIK-C:!10r'l. Siudl£S. rrom

.1

.::....l.Ilh~As.i.lli roond some milder £onru;ordillCrim.l· :uuon. withlrllhe lurnS( holdl.us.ually "g)lin~t ('nil..:lr.:n I01lhe~ th:m 3d1t11t$. ril:lrnllih: nu1uf aihan lIIilIl!; .ltld higJ'U'f bj:liIho!deu: I':il!IMf IN1:IIo'l'!'er·{Deo'r.a:ltkar 1'991: SlJnalll~T·t~~!.]988). In L:llin AmtmClJ and
[~1J': Carribbtan

~cnde:f b~

th~I-e '~as alS'o som!l i!:1l'iidl!:l'I.l3e .or in ffa'lOlIl!' of oors ~s E~ra~ m:urition is or ;::~~css f~ll'llIlt ml).f~
S.

sIlLdllJef'll'i IJhe: world. is ~lIIrpliisin,~t,'c~"to,'ahe' 3$:5umption ,(!If n.~~dI·b:l$'~)ddt$u~:b!.lliOfl ',ei'ilcept In. No:litl"l liild!ia, Bangbd¢~h <lIld P;JIti.s.t~II'I· 099 HO'!'i'i!:\lt'~.[hiS :lihmild nm be lillie!:!'! lO Ml.ggtSl thiil dl:viiltions (:~omthe ~1Jm,p:(ion of equuJ.ble di$IR'Ollltiom w:tthtn lillie ih.ousebal!cl are a m.qno:r: r,~gu)filiI :a~I't.iuio.n sin« the ;liM-as ttferred re ron:tain. as we n.otcd tarUer, 3 slgJllflCant pmpol1tcm dr thl! wor1d~ poor, Mo~wvcr.reeem dlata from IIh.elQ9l. crrusus" sl.l!l8~.s.lhal mc-q.ualtlies in:5e:>: ratios hkel)' t:o bta ooTLsequenc~ 01 !YO"'-ln_ggutd¢r IneqW'litits m mortality ts~(~!il1y among younger d\i1.dren, M\'l: .spn:adJ lOOI.nii'] &OlIliu:irn StaleS or lndia ,alia aW, irn.(lrcmd ;anlQ:rtg.'~rt:1' C3~. hooschCIIT&«Drat Hlfl.d Srn 199sl r-Urlhc'rmon; Upton's oondllllSiOO . pprll!'S lQ be based p:rLmanJr 0111the. fUlIIllS ·of hlcrnUI1\e r'rom Soi.UIi! ASIa (HmiS$. ]986) 3'00 sub·Saharan AifncOI (S\r&!Derg 1991» ~nd l3'kts no accolJnt .of tile bn:l3'der diSll"lbumm or rt1l3Stulin.e 5'e'X.r.uios OUISlclt thC' 1rn.i ..UI 5uooominenl. \. nile thcu were very i~\J.r susdies of Illu!I.ho1,1n:hold goooer 1J:lequ.alLlIoi!~ of lh~ kln.dI rournl in these !wo S\.!b<1'illllll~n!~. ~M P'e'rs,i~[ence (If ~Ulffl,t' $It);; ratios in thilS, bro\1d.er f;w31:li1:e or eounmes n,Q'ted ellrlier SUg&l!fits d'l.lI{ lIne: m!m-hQ,\l~bold. d'~tribtl· UOII'I oi' wt-U~re CO'l'!lll'lll!te~lo be bi:ase>d. 3ga'~n~s~ rCi!'l\a~e1'IU!i'J'ibi:ir5 It'! lMse 's~ie:liC$ lO Ihe Clilmt of l'runc:lling (nel'r S"unri1..-al Ch,lIi1iCU,I
c").

1'<;11' 3 dl~UIO'"I\ r.ml"~CQifi!~xl ~

hI)' m Ih~ Ra=~~'~ 'lIgriu'I;)i'i d\;ll1l[l:' :md

.t¥ooe:;r PO'Aft"!' a com;pim .... smd:i' m XJ",rd\>r>l.S!~m "C

.mI·_ 1)PI'I.1I,t~~IS.

Ol!;&ml

U:rnn"C:!:54tji. 1992

1.5

. ""',

HQWe!,l\!/Jf.it is ~Jl$Od~~ lhln mmu~u ~ ~mlu ine;qll.:lIlines iirl w.ell·~ing d» IW\ try d'l~lTIBith?~ ~!l:U us II ,FjPi:.!! di1'~' :a'QQut 'povmy' ptf~. The reluctance !I;l! m05t o-!b$tNet$ ~o'draw thtoonduston 61:1

(l"1J~

pl!n~n >1M g~;l~er ?\!lb!',;;rnQ"I:l51ttli'

~!U

lh:a~highcr rates cd kmale lJilibourr~OXC(' IlllnICi,'

dht

1b1l~ill

w~U-bi:lng Lhn warnEll, 3rre'ric:hfili" !.h<lln m&rI~n S"!II!!;J$alnarnrl OO'I'!~ :~nd ~rc( im '1M $(nJ;~h Amn cOlnt-e:llI,.rnd d'1~~his:h.ti3.~I\t womenilli. I'I;Oli.n~'rn
Indi3, are 'pt)!Y""rt'il'
~hll!1

or

ci~IItl.d.Wiith. beth gre~u:r fe~tt

~rIJiJ.d~ lihta:1'i!i'i. ~Ilelio:rdlli!JnI

illJ !ibt

$Q,1,l~h(:m.

process., wOJ:k :;i~

l@mlIS,

S~~lts wtl',e "S$O,

0'

~~rl'U:¢

0"1'1gend!lI

illl.e:qUi3!U'[i.es11:1

~ndflr di~r~l"i(nlials 11:'11 'i'o'~II· 'bem:& lIim ~mrt:i,y a prorluei.,r &~Ild'r di.ffe!:"el'l.'I~;1!S in,
~;]le"\'l:'

rev.'

t'niUi tOVoI Ca5t~ WOlIl(<r! ~lIm~&t'l>

""~thl@Wtr ~XCCM 'Ft:rn>!lc m.on!!.li\)' a.M With, rnto:re 'kmilii:~1!e' ~ ]:a~'loo-More; ru~nl.ly. Dr,~e; and &eli! U 995) ~"t sttQ,\WI ~hal i'l'l 'd:t~ 11l1(!iarn ~@Il!wo!t dtoC • negative :!~~~[~lm bctwtc;n ftmal!! bbo1!.lr rMclC p;:l~cticiplli~ionmi~e);(eSS f~!TiUIlt ~lityh.Q!d$"t~'t:n ~

·a!,nofi(lm,)! and! 3150

to"!'ltrol

~oldll'l( d~Ldt ~

m~n~
'EV¢II~

llr!C'

when lregiom!l\>lncaMe5

3u

held ~an[.

kr,ei~lr, o:fFe!ilU'l'
~m in$~~

PO'll',~rI.}': \!Jh'l!i! 0l.:Ir' ai!1!ilIl)'Si$a1w ~!J8g:~;m l~~n:f4}:r-e i:> lh>ll, 1,Q(11Ji o:;Qnstrm:UOI1S of ~nd~r r-ellllllqtt~ pl~)l an imp~fU'l,!'i!~ il'i.te['.l'tl1ling rele ihelw«n h~doJd
l'1:1flCIII1Il 1lo1!lnrl

This :suggl!-SiSIJul~Wim:p~;S,

~o g:i!:n.t.aloE

labour-

~tnd wcH·be~n,g :iO

lhl~, 'Ollllllr,(

haspre-

iilillC'.l\sliv.egl'I,W';'Qik 1'f.'i3,1 n;i\i',e po:sili~~ implicatiOIlS rOO' wClm":ll~·,b'I~i.rn~dl"be<~ng bm we need ~~, dis· w ~i!l'l,gUllsb Wl'l'i'i!:t:Dl ~m~fO'I'emtn!;$ im wo:mtW$"'tf~=
b~ing ",,'nidl,!!N':: ~
v-ah.I!~ 00
:(1[1 ~~(:'~"

trmm~h! IOIlk~ up One f'O! l~oo"Ulr ~ wluic!Th ( ;and wid

Lilat'llo'h, :3JOOIlU ~

mr.ttn~i. OO"l'll~UlI:l1toc-S, not. O'[IJy ill! Soh<llpin,g priO'J'ii,tie5 and p1:r:::~pti~" !IS rw~edby 1h\l,l~h{tl1:i,g, "'~IIlIII1ie.' bUl ~l'so, i~ sila 1'ing ;ll!oeatli\l!l:bdll,\~lour
1

(bnmho~sei1ol~$~M imp:oo\l\em.cli'lts'll\l{hich
roim::tdt !!nd- m.li)'

1!!'lT(~dI tW'lltOmi.'I:

~!1llillltJt ll1i!i'[ illCrt1lSlCd! fl,g.e"~

~nd! P'I';i}fi.i!(\t'j.

IlIf~rily

Tht l~ Mi!:d 'rIOt have (Ufftr't:ltt~mph.

'within ~, lllI.m'5n(

calj.olls ~r &~~r"'respo.n.st~'t.

po"·,tlty :5ltGl.lcgits, ifh.e;

,and hl,o~me'

16 DlllsJiundil:ue.s eetwee:n La'biour

preci[(i[:OCS OfglllKl~~irlcQ;u~lillcs ~I'I tp:lli"'iULcm ...n:d d wtiU bd_lU_gilll~hc ,ernl>S<ulnul'l! COnif:il:~,Eih~~l(Irm.or wome:n's ¢,Qonom:i;c"cl.iI.l~y ~:p~~r$ ~@H1il1:~,fieal>ll'l' B ~~rillgMl this: 'Clu.esIOCJln- hi ctr!.ail!Lp<lflS. o:f I.h~ worM, pa;nt~u1.\lirLy ~1lI. Ihe 'p:tlria~c:hiH'IlIu·i~I)oC~I. pl'!lrilililca~' bErt II1med !loove, p6Wffiiful nmmsaOOu[ r~iFIl3itc PJ1oprl'C'[)I seJf\I'·(l ~o COII!~!:Ol![D'! \'j\()menrs abihilY 1.0 aisoo5f.: of lhei~ilIWi1 IlliOO'J.:!;~. !C~'I'I!'I!l:lIil'lg itin!o lho~ 'lIIf~aS o~ ~l1t laOOlrJ:' ;!m.a: comi1fl.Odnr mark!!!1 w'hidh !lir~ coruicit'rtdi rniolit eOIDp.atib!e with tiiit~T sech.lis,~.OJ'I \'Wllill!li! ':hi!: p-J'tdncl:i or the hO.U5eli!o~(I. \Vben: such m.9l1I'llS do fQoap:rev.ail" women mil.}' be round in ,li ~~~g¢1"r~!Il&ll or ,tcQnOmlC ;l.Oli;Yi:[it-!l·ilIl1'1.di
aeross a 'Wilder 5'l!ll)floclltiom'i. Th~ hl~ n~.,of eeooQ.mOC:~chVll")!u:c:or(l;ed ~Qj!' wam1llr.l~n w,b-Sah~rnl) AfriC1l C:OOl,Far«! U,),SoiJl.iih A:si3, lurid ill'l5VUlil· (~ smus ohhelrn:h~iFl sli,dx!;m~in~ml C'fl(mp.ar«llo ~I'i!(;'!'!.Qli!hem. sta!.c5, 1l1Ui5~TI)lU:S111M only' d'l.~ gi-elI[er'
~mv"OI\ftm.C1UQr
wcmem, ]11

A~tli,o.ilgh me.asin~ ofpoveflYW~~~

roomd l:(l·1t:>e oor p

I~c~1~llil!t ",,!<un~1lI are filollomk:J~~ ~,c~~'!rem(-a:n~ lh!il iRvtMm<!:nl:S· !It'i !heir' pnys!.ca] 'WC!tHitins, h~ ~ proouctivity Mldf to ~itotnm,!Istlii.o:1:d!l:(ooom)' bli.ll tl dloe..snm. m:~~:;.arH)'~mpar that ~h£ye;a:;rcise em·
[wi QYef I,heir O~'R bOO-ul. Even in [tg~(il1l5wilh. a high 'mc:id~ll.a; f J~~k cw.m.~..cc:o;u.nt r~nTljng amd! o ,enl.e"P!ii~, sueh ~. \!ku Mrlie!l, &tllder:rnym.T.m.ieltri~s ~nt cvid~1it in (he lbilnty ~o Cm'lfrn;;!md I:!b.oo"!' IX"Wtt'. seU ~nd others. RI:I'bi!n:s U 9'88) noteS Iftm'\! Ibl~ lIis>yrnmtlO)' OCC'-!.'"$Ul tbe ~t ,Alfric~f1 OQ];Ilext bcCl.us-:::~ 1vus.b3li1d:s :1M seaiermales nll,l;e niOfl-·rc=

·is ~lIl:fi,i!:it fel1l<ai.lt ~

(follllrnil
~~!

to' ~~ll:: W(l.meill~

oolnor

notell~
;::omplill [l'Iloo~,

C Ll'roc.1ilrlg:hu over~M boo!llir Q:f'i\O<i.!''eS< a!\d r~mlt me:lIlIbc'r$. 'J;'llOtrulit'l$ olbil~\i(jl!,!s 00 wo:rli; 0111:nus.

art rnos
r~p~~in
sJ)IX~
Ih¢

band'sileldililg:<, or an wmpo1lJl'Id Dolch1:Wiwhi.dl <!In; cootrollOOi by ~he· !fIi.w rm.\~riCI5 ~ '!h.t ilIfl1.QW1t or bbQiJr ihey na\re left fo.T liu~ir own,aOOOiJM ..CWol'ilks.Fli.!rlih.!i:rmll~C. ~h;::lr'3.tteSS to. air,ea, tll00ur ill oOIl5n~j1'tm;l bJ,1 lh~ir !3:~ko[ mh.!lrndl 04 I,h~ ~hilll
fH)w,er l1ic:«:mry 1.0 ~1I!;l<Iil1l IQ:l'I!I;'~(1im'C:~iI'l'[rnG~:ii.

mrna $t\I
loui'lidim
m~!i!!~

rCllU

~aldlliWiI
ofijJ1!:idtt;

::l!!irie!;!h,1I!i:'C~ to

~h~

ftdd~bged

S!:3Jg('s

or

~~i!iui1$ f~ l[,t(~p~llItbom ;;!mn,gtmKms bca,....~1'1 W{lm~l'I,b~u L~iCse ' il'I'\'o~.\!C I.n~ il:ll!e:J:'o ~~mpC1tlll r«lis~ilbUW)f1 of wo-tI'ltm~, OWifil bboUf ratlulr than;!n t'nh~nt-4lO1in~lll of ~lnil'irb'bour ~!idt'~ .>IN:

U'o):'~ !1!l
d~;lW$';u

fnuu.ln

;<)j~~;:!S, also ill m~'!'~t!ing, btu

Inenl;s, 'I\flilltfi.\!t; to

~iI'I.

ConSlll;qlllC'!mtly.eYen hI

;l;~,

p:rOO'ltOf- Thq,S

l'iru, ImiPttC~!'1mrts :~(i!r(he dicsllribulHNI

v.'iltil'C' W>(Imeil~

OWfi ,,«Q1,I1lI~

well-MIIlg. .$;:1iIo Ibal &tl1lder di~[\e;rm~iailsm Iiaboo'uJr rQ:rc~pi!ri!tCIp4!ion f!l,t~S ::ut! lIfIud~ IiIl~ dtl~ty :Ih~I'J;oo wuh :gender diiHr;~:rJi~i:l!:!lIII lire; EXpcCU!!RCr
gl!:ncic'r' l!i!!eql!l,lIli!ti~s ilrl b~5~t
!W1le$

iYf

(l99h)

slIncl.'ionecli, ~nil:)" IJP~Hil!~ tU:U:lII1;~ fir~a~!::,~ !~b~\:Jjt oon$'l.lI1nl\t$; mihs[lrllmen rll"Om Ih~ ~l'i1e bt}ghokl.

;!J~ivhy :!s, '~lirlllrol:~~'

holthi,Q! f~rnalt b ~ihem.

Gt-llId'cir~

a!:Nl5li nllu:1l 001El:le h}.w·moom~ wl)rld, W~thi'l'I th" ~,ildi::m oonl,.:o:t. !)~'$4.HI3il1~i 'MOot~rt (l98J) '!Kllrmcd

In !;utl;~rp>ln:s OLo\r~I(\HI!f1..-d !Il! mlllch ofSc'nul:i fiIosil, "",,'I:fII'!(il~ 1~'Ilot.'l\Ir¢I~nblll'LQrus· to '~~,..gbold. ( :prodlUl;'· W'I"! ~~!lidl ~ S,uhSNl.m«l h;1o u!iJd;:r nndt·ronirolled

~u:b.w

~tOl\"ftli

OiFthe m

.1'6

r'
~

n(1Il' p.1:n,lcj-

rrocesso:s- ln ~Imas

'~SO'!I.!~bcm
$~~'

.... ~s ·[uk

p~?<lid,

'111 ~i'ldI1l1w
l 'Iloiida nlI.o:re ~l:!:ndSe",
(:lIJClkiYJi.

dte:

arbour .in.
lile
!~

'f(lf'Cit

'bdldll. t:;1>1I;l1l.

IJibour-

IiCJ:ii.{I.'Il5
lO

for

iw1ir'lS or eC~Il!Q,f!1Ite~J(:t~ii~y here Ilh~vrtl!nqu~sh, w .c()lrnro'lo~el:' the p~~r;honp~oow 10 mal~ ImuwhOlM mem'be:~~bI~,i.fii~li!im; I.he:prodool@!l 'p~. d~eitk ,he SClIlll;drb'OOlJlr oornJtii:buti~M l'«Luirod and ere !1.me~llyresp(msih!~ rordis~] Qf 11Iw p~ &\1;1': \',rh,,;:!,: ~h~1't000ms of ~mdc' s-edil.11sien1ruI)lt)Ol h!; i\C1~~ l. i'!'iCiI) i!:!!ile~~Std! .... n ,oonlr~l 'm'er tM dis~~ t~f ~m;)le hlboul'; Se!it~,'l:er'andi Smith (J9W) ro.mrli ~ormS'i3nCf ilfl f1.Irot~Thnu_n~a Im men. ,eVCfl. thll:!li: ~ rmrn the ~!;~ l~u;m~hQld$.rioto:ili& ilh~urwi!ioC$ ~O' ~..1«: Ill.p.... 'lg«t !lIJb.o.,Ir.'.

ramilv

,or :suttl ~dA!_:StO!l,

~~UII' 01'

m ~~I'!l~·~~d

W(I.'IjI'Ifnl €il.bcr

wh~~ d~t'll i.$ ;!,Y;'I:l'ia~I~~ L'S,U~ie~Y Ilor .:tn Il.mcie:r~hlS '~.o es.!:im;lte of I~t ~1'iderdi~"klln!y beC;l.'I;ISt tt ududts .be ~Iw!l':ll~ ~~tor.~hcre 'must \l,lOrntn work and di~p:lnli~s iU'!: h1(iLy ~(I hoi: 1'Iiillh(UND:? 199'5) . lIi!c wnd~r d~p~rilli' in, ~C~ ~Hty ~~uhc~ '(rom ~ht\liIriQU.'!i'oollsnl!'Ii'~$: (m .... ,om~1iI5 m-o'MilJ' 1I~~d. lIbo'II'C ill1:d 'IltCirtOt ~h~ur C'MIrl1:liemltl:ll 10 lh~ mo~ ll1I::!rg~md$l)i!:JTI~IlIS o~ I~bo!.l~ C'(ilmmodlly mt'· ,~nd
k!;!I}Scfillll ~llhOl,lf u~ ilIlI, iU\!II,';:>'lm .. rU llil.

Lt -is 'OOfll!Xll:rliHltd b)' ,(Iuiter [aCl'lus._ fn$! lhe pr~~xh.p;;u~'ty~f i[emall:

::Iir.-

~ili~""'ll~,1· deron011l1K:
lem'$ w'ilit'h 'Q 'll,c{li nol

One hum o:r jnr;c~ibil~t~ in Ihe diS1pos.l1l of o~n bbm.i'F Qhu:'l ~fIiilem; Hl ~001I11'I@nru; ,~l1d, p;ra(!li~~~ 'L'LIl:lld':J(:on~rrnilll l,',:tImt~'s a~e~, to .. uti :n'!l)bm~J' wuhrn !.,bQ.1;If· marllret.WhiUe :<Ii se«m;d tr=hew i]l;

,nt

is gellliltrnily l~er. 'WomcfI and ~rl~ iilffi gtlllilUUy di£adYant~snl UiJ.~1h¢ ",c:q'll.isi!~;QJI fol"or nul. ~.d'lI.Ic:!t~on :i!nd ~p~i!:lIUitd ski!l$ whtcl'l wukl !m;prQ';~ dllcur ru:(U,~ ~~) ll'wid~r ril!'l-lt (If OWI'P'Oltt.IJm. ues ~b ilJ:l ~M ll!la~~,ami ~l<i,lt s«~or. F~rrut!e i:I1r.olme!'l!' u:t:i.O:> Iii! b~;gIter >I!IallC<::IliOfl in to","'iH mOOmt ,"ou:nlri.~ ilr.e' typieall} hl!ilf ~Ilil ma~ rJUO (UNDP' [990).
IlIm~t,

~~nt Imph· ~~f-S. The tiw.: nne<llll1S

~1l1ii ~11$ ~ :>D.Mffic}!' b'l;lll

mel'ls nol1L.rtCg~'ro!I::~Q dl!!im

J :1:.i"",'ldf\j' lbmi:l.

~p rtml.l¢

iabour'.

Pi. third IS IS

pm!aIe:IiL~ OOIil$~minlln"l weruen b,~ ~nl1l \~;ll1li.':noos¢lwid l'llbou'l' almo:SI gr,.'€:r}f,..';h~'I'¢

Iffi'!~tns :II, h,'!oI'illg;andc'1JI"LIl,g ~~r ~h~rm:tily. ~,\

lllen::i5!tcon-

~'!Is .... ~ ·uh

:~ln.r.aru::i

:$}'mme:l:rl~
:iIOl.!lr·pow~r" )M<t~~ how
COlIn rolIi[m ;i'li¢ IiIMI·r~

ts brg,eJ)' >... '~mm" >l!'Ild ~~!im~ di!'kI~. l'l;Ol!Jillll;1' 10l1'rul;1(li childir,c:n.. who ne r.e:spoo.:nsabl.e,(ax ultlp;l.m C02fn;!!;'UC rtilOtt4 and. obild care. Po\'tny ns Ofl'~111 3~1,l[o:d with rDrei:ng bMh W(JIm!m :and dl_n1d~:en to 5>~!.; ~o make a hViinS, as'"-'tU. 00 llun poo:rt'l' women are rn~[ likd,~o,l1.l\rt:lon~w@rkil'l,d:!IJ)'$ l'L(I'i o1'!lv th~ll. m~n, in d'll!:i!!' I\ffil5lelhotd~ but ~I~o;l'
{Qmp;r~d-~~[h wo~n from ~~tcr @ffrmusc'holds., 1!1l1m.!1~.ScoJ."! ~t'!:dI:5en (1985) mm: du[ poor wom~1iI Mo:m-oSt tlkt~y~o comhin,c \',til. work. iMOft· rr;::?~;l(;,I"g ,!iClilll.des· 3.nd ,clol'lw!>[ ~c eheres "",i1.i~.'~ ~?(jCI~li::!:ll.ltOl1tt'llal'~!Y d~I:J.r cl-L~rt$ 'MS< m1Ullttj'

and ~€'rn;lJi::

I]'ll: ~:n has!nl~ which

~;I,e:,~fiiI~Un:t

aeed laltX:llIT: is 11' ~hr:: socj;a~

3CCQUI'I.t

1'COmii'~"tS
Klf

:h~EL\Jlme o£ v.'UmtD1 from. \!oi'e~il:hre:rhoustlrlolds~ lilina Sen~(l968)s~tl[I~r (,romrurat ~b:!h}"ll fnd~h :',1'..11:(,1 ~'lIIL\m)Pi!i;n wor~tdl wt),~1F h@f$ ~v~l'3l! ltli31'l L :~~'::1 ;t'nd tmat u'OIDI!:I'i: ;1!nd men from pOoOn:r !tOUSle:·-"k!. "'\,'~flll!~$Q mo:re hkd~"EO pntPcLp!llt 1!1 WO'Ji'k

s.erond, dil.e Ig:w'l:wrll~ f.m: for rr;m~le Ilbtuur: in p!a(~ 'is ~w{';r, ~tuJt~S of ~hil :e:mic" d~~~ g uy 'il'l'~;milLn.~S.""U~1 OO1b d-n\'(IL:mil indil:t~~ v.~ (LLSO::Iltmina~iof!I, Up.~on (l9BJ) cires dat.:t. rr'O:rnllldia S6U;lWiin,g~lfi;n \'i10m~11I['W!:il.'tidi 7'0-80 ~r C;l/liIt~·of mak wag~, in ~U('1,It[Uffl '\!o'ibiPcllTIe a~~IIi1:ruI~~ to a shoner hi~li':dw<ll'kil[l~ day rm t';JmCI1I. ee l()\\l'o!i:f a\~r:!!&1:!:OOdy' "'~ighl ~_1Jld henCi; iO~li:r C1IIOfic Il:Pst LOempl:oyers ~Adi to '[me rael. th:l!L W(lXtU;iI1I\verfebaR" Ilidtoo ~modi"~Tl':i'Lt ;lndlI.eSoSwd!.rclir.'l'lt!Jteratea.t!li~!G to m~n Iathc:r' lhiJlfI to j;'h~ct'i'!'3.sjl; discfimnnalLGri p(r sc. H:owc\l(r. ~ ls wooo D.o~~~g ,&l/llI'u:k:~ till31 inequahiijl;S it! \',i';!,gu ''I'o'!~ cull!$ldcrablr :lI,Ciro5!S Incilil~ ('l'm al~ ".,~es :1lrt <lroullId a hllU ,of t'ht malll: wa.&t: If! l<bh;;l~hu'a. lU{lt.llld tW(l,·tnira ... ill! 1l'I'lO$t o( $o1JitP.-L Il'idi1l and Ol.l'OUfid d~Rle-q!.iJ01!nm irll'i,\~~ kn,SIlJ, aM p~mof l1-onhe:rrt llildia (jonn :an<! uii~Ih<l1.9.gSl I.t i5 ~htfd(ire poS6ibh: [h3![ ~heC-lLU~S lile dlS-!p3rtW of aioo \"af'l cOi1lsid~rnb~)' atN.'lSs, Inelll :1t1.d~h;!l d~~~cl "''agel d.scnmU"l;a:~i.oflsmoul(! no! be rukd ,Olin. 'U'nf~UTl~ld}~ Ithe 'k~nd 0[' d!e~!!.lkd em,j)tr"-'Cil d~:t;\ ~11;l;t would aU~ow th.l'S lO ilo:' e:>::plon:d I~ tlJirgel~"m~S$.
illl&-

t"'~

~rn~gi!!· .,t:"[l1e !.Truer~'111

,,~S'"nei

:UdIlQU!>Hi::S;S,

arnd di~;)llIc~ 'from ~h£ home

~'il!b-o~r 11:1lI1il~tf

~r

~.in.a~ '~ cuhtlmtl)!

~t.tr la.bQ!lIr ~!tQl,!d.

1..1f1}'c~nl:!l 1i'l:<lIlld:oWli u':xn) woik In GhOl_HlI!<I:~~ d.u",,'~ ~u;;:mb;llll to tne le:lSl!~·work U~dil oiT: !ih-t)' ~Oi.ll1l.d tnat maleAn.e.adtdl and filmlll~~ht1l!dtd ho1:.l~" n<l!tls ffi3I)' haVi!: dt.e: $(lime ~liIioornt£~ds !but llul ~~m;]l~ buds halk! to work [Q'.['Ii$1' h.(Il,ll'S ltllL.o!::liulii\\1~

tl1.cm
"'~I!'!ldcr~Iro d iff!!!~lf:'ii!~~~i1'!l mdi~.'ruu;1:l ~b1 'ttl U:-JlIIIShty ,JC.~ iJ.l;:.,)!Jf cHon .liW i t'lCO:rt'l£ m fhe ImlIk>ir:t p1ate_
I~(
~"(;:r1I~

One e~ptiolll i.s KapaJl:us :InlbmP$lIO~.c.tl S{~d}' (1993) which. p~o'l'lidit:> I:V\:cIe!'llct ~t and flOTl-W<!ig~ ,dl~W'l1iMmm, til Ol1l~ d~$tiT!r;;. ~CI II'I.!rll1 TlI!n!1 Nooll. :Sht documet'us l:h~>e~;!Stcn'!!: of 'rn~jl¢' iI ii'iJ 'ITem<\].e" tlIis.1!i~ 1'11, ;lgrl~ull1l_rn :If> \l.'ell ~$ gl!;nd~r (h!gereli'lIl.al~ il'l",~~"r"tcs. Two [UOO1'IS 'L'L'cr,c

ooooth ....

$ouln AYi<L. Q'ld p1'oo,uc:-(il/Jlmmll'll'd

WilIge fo,"womelll i~ll.m'H,III1lQ 7~

,1f th~ 1IJ~.~e \\'li~'

]>1!r OI!:liIt !.l1.Ju,lde 3g~iclJlt"-n: FtlJ' w~q"Lrn~$-

~wel'l k~.lh~s, (:hS~'!'l'L}I'~ 1:i1lJl m~n:$ ""ofk ""'as n:l~dl:r :m.rl th~l m~!'l\i;!Qu~cI~ hlllfl'llloatod Ii llil~r '",,\er~ PlUj

dle

~rM

~s

\!..-(l1'n(:111

W!1ijlll.his

m~;;Il1Il"I\'3$

~hlll e\";lfl,

....

iI!sIJ

_.
'bearers
Fin~n)', whe!1l W{tnM:i!'I ~O(l:k"iF' vaCltm TI[i!l!e:'job$, dil¢j' were: p;l1d qihe ~tm~lc "r;lS¢ralcrn:tl:t1~r i:lla/f'l h-t m~le ((nt, ~ bi:>l:!'IIrIg OUl[llt oic5lC'w.Itjol'l, made by ~I$O" ;lnd P,e1!1!'S()1IIl98]) ( ~lut 'WOllmli eater the ia.ibo'lllr Iilli'T' kc~ .as 'illireTiO(r ~.nc'~s or blxtur' :r.1l~hc~ h~lI, iS ~ O milriktl ~m~reCltml$ 1i'M}' bE.g,i11l to be: ~wdi!ldl ib,",1 ~h~l'I.~l g~ll,=rlll~n !rOIl.!I'iI&WQl'ntfn w~1Ic~r!.linUf '

or iI'lJ~~:tQ:r bOOl[lr',

ill'l Hltum~ W ~he Silj!!:~or liibou:r i!i:nI!:Ct5; gender dispilJJj.ti~-ll ~1i'I~eoor:iU~O thE 'h~m~n rnpll<!I'~mOOdioo irnJ<lkur; i!'l aiMf WO:W'S, r~r iiiill'SI\fo!1:ll l~'d of 'hum.an C.liph~I·, WOIJII.:~re~ndti!' d'~p.l'lli[ijts '~I!:i,\'·taIO'l\<erreturas.

edlle.aliOMI d!isadv:;t~,~ag~in. m;;nkl>t p<I,ni(i(pitiOn_ Cl~~lr publiC' aCl~01!i, n.M;' ".,in heIp 10 1~.wcl1':lhe weaRiF imm~clli3l¢ ~\W;II liS i.o:n,g~r tcnn t~u oJ In'lmbl. p<l1'il~cUIP3ti(ilnl for WOIinil'n lind t~lir' d~\lighlm. ~OM c\l!l ~T1

or

10 d'ttdlffe

il.), t~l;:ifS il

whtc:h are
bllWSot.

knsill'l.&~hj
'i"

!!~ K.:lellr( i3!..II_!oW1!l$~~

meme'a!lLm

"1' lJs;tenllliiliQI I'CIllt' 'CI!iI,all1ge;

tllll!:rii1ltt ~ f
IOWO"mr!:1'I

,groups f01!Jnd i[ h a r:ch:ir ~lhaL'lmm to raise wagt fil!Je~ Ihl'Q'i,l~ 1I"I1rpRf'\'(di Inrrm.nt'.alpiMli If'nd,O'\Wl'te!'ll$ such ;\IS1l1!~ltb. E:d.uc~anooalldlmJi'ritiOIll. Vli'h1te ~h~r'e:l,!.!:lJ;."s, evidJl!:lltt t(lWE8~ lhalri:\"ell :lma~l!Il'!!skilltd f(trm

IJpu:m (983)(;ilri::5,d:'l~;3J from ~:Ildia SOOWtlllg I.it~~''''''~ ilil diJ£ pOOreM rur:!l

IPaniicilPa'lIio'ryAppfOa.C~,es, PlOIW!:1ity As:S'eSSll11lient

QI'I

'~(;iI

til!:S, \\!])cr

Irl a~ earln~i"5ediOJ;l., Inmm .so-meohhe: pro:DI~m"S.

askl.;;:li;IlOOwi~1-I felyillgml!~I.Y SI.!I)jOCllvt a;.~;S.S.

w ~pl, lh~ pr0ti:3~c

'U'5

extra ",dlu.c<lilnon "rro!.llg,h~his,he:r WOl,gj1l ~~,~, lm11a,i<lJn data ~hO'i'!lld dl3ll (lriis; ,effect lHllis. :s~bSl~nli!ll for mein 'btn il1lsi,g1'l;(~t 1'01' 'I\~n, Simi .. r'l!Jrl)'~t W'lli~ 001)' 31"1'1.(i1llgTiCI'!. tliat i't'tCFtii5its, in wa&~ !

h!lxruttr:>.

utes; wel'e $igtl~Hcandy ~!S50c'i:ned.w~~h b!:i[~C'r Il'IUfilh.'bna:~ S~>lJt~. CO:~!te:rcl rIll_'( 1'986) l'!1!)~£:!i.dlLll:[ir.I wrOIl T~rlIZ;lllli!lliih~re '","'ast!lt!n::rl'll; sb~ aceess ea l'I..on-tFtlrm ""'lise ernrplo-ymem, fk~, w~s determiTledlar:gdyby edllii:a.~io,". ,~g¢~i'td g,tm:l!er, .1'1.],'6 ye!lr' oM man wiih secondary ed.Urillli;an hOO :Ii thl'tc~ hit rOOf ch~~loer $t,lche:mplDyrnenl o wbik:ill W(lm~il @r ~ht $;'!ffit ed,!J:Cll!I~,on: ~gf.l1ad OJlIlyl:ililr of tltlIit ~:nd dli;iri;OI1;, Wlthcom;p<llrteln'im;irye<IJucath:m, she had a quaner Qr ~hec:l1:anct ~jld cWlln p.lIrt~;a1. pnnury

~.aivety p~OI:i'l~~e, d'~~rl!6J,ijI~OIll 0(' u:Ilihi! s@urcu w1iJith, di~Sl;irfu!'lll.1I'1\ttr!:!!,g:;JIin,[~h~imS.Il:~!,',es_tl(jj, ~ thtn1i d~ug,hl>e1rs. Thiis, is a,V;ttld.poLlltIUild i&,e(:~ !I:'I J~ck:J(!n r(lW5) tn ~~; (ri~tqut I!M poop:u:!iSol d;linu made rowPRA as,'g5v'ms. v-oice''~ot~t pen;t;p~ liml~ of local ~op!e:al:id Iht iiln!~lid~ assu:m~iOfJ: I~al: du:if !lrti!::l.IilaIW pc~pliol'l:S ,are n~c~.s~!'i]}' oompll:~!'.: lrulm Tht :g,crnd~rdimtnsiGn~ o:f d\1iis. 'pr'Qb!em,~rlt ~;pehQllt by J~..c:iksQl'!:'EdlAlin .Al'doo~iI''s illd~t{i

mtnlS o[ po'o',eny 3,;$. :3,"""1' oIf ici.t'"lllifYingoor ~omp cl'I'5ip;;cnili.!':i$ beeause Qof ~ht pow,!1;rof SO;Ci~lcoodl. If.t;min~, il1: shaping the '(1hoiC!es" th;at 'wom~n, rnruke: ~Q tilt ,e:li!!tn~ ~h.:at Ln~y !'llI.JI,Y ·bti ['eljlgJ:i,~ 10, ;lind

~~!'I$lr.ainn imll'l"i'el1i,tm~ ru~owill,g,'I'!.~

tht~r o.-'!m f
r~Ue~hfl;l'!'

or

"1 CIJims", iEnu (i«1.:l: :md. ~. p:mpmm~ r@l[Ind [nat

W(lmM~'f;:r

Iwl(]J, ~f,1iSI,
1i1i13~ ~":r€dill 'SI~~,'fij

:arnalysis or ml.l~MSS

~s ::i, f~.11~l,l!~

Qr Ih~ pobllics oI

[hl!:~ Qth~1:'1u

co.rnmlllrn~G~ti.ort ln r:e.sear:clli drnW5 a!~efl,tiol1l: B;~l!-qt

clri.oice~Yi!:J

only a fifth .

proMems of 1!r!k:!IIlninS pl!::rctliP~il»'i.s (l975)_For women ""'he are ('Xcludtd r~m domil'1l!!1UUwodd
'I'il!,"'s 1I1'1:d !ll!;l.I¢v(!Ic!llbll!Jl,nh:$ ~I. is 1'!!;00lwi:s(: lij!

d~~ o~~r' lihe,lJr o.wnb:b!Jur,tttllil' ability to aeeess I.ne bbouf (l(f o~h£rs~_nd Ih~ R!U_I1:in5' ~o Ih~if bOOur' e:lTl)TtS ww5t5 lh;!lw'iht~e bbour~l1lellsiv>c guowln Smtt,grle5Iin!liY illld~cd g,en.cnn~
~'o'tm. W.OI1iit:I'I~
g_D\C"i!U:~

'['itt c;.;d~iQrnll)' and discri:m1l'l3lWY

pf:(I;C!lioos,wt!idli

assume [l1rey CllI'I. or will, shn~:lly,expl',t;ss Ihei1i prii.Mi.ties 11$PRA :i1~l!Im.U·,

Girvl:lildl(~ limiUillIJi.o::tls,.what mk is l,lnr,t for Plll!l~Clpa~Or;)'lISK$Sfm:msof ~.~y ii:l 'lIddl'~il1lg ~~;$ g~ndi!r dii!iU:ns,;onS.?1 ",",aukll ~~e that ~nlcip;i:. lory :lSS~5:!;m~nit$. 'Iil-i.t :tny mn!!g; iTI.e!~!:IdQrlo.F>tea~ ~ool, ig, <liS,gJNiI.dtr.J:lIilldl Qi" ,<IS; &r!IlI.1i!'-erCjljwre <liS hs praChliootr', ~~ presem, lite ~nde:~ bi~R~of !'!'IlIl'I,,. PRJ!. p~I'~(Jm:r$ i'S,d~~ by lhie popul iG~,rhcl:Orte or PM a&OotII'U.~, di5,1l~is(!1«I!~llsii,ty:3~il~b,le
1:0 restliJch~r~ l1!!in!l:.

dltl:ilivc'-~ rien ffiij' h~ ~r:lklX!t e~m~ (l<li eval.wti~1

m~llt~ OiJ¢efi, uso:i to

d~IIl\ll:td ro:r.

~l1Id

in~~;11~

~he

[(jl!.!.I'l1li

10,

1300ur Qtf poo:r plt~plre, Illq :l!r'cliikdl'

I.Q

h~v¢ P'I-

arne

,i~
~""l'iRl

milllifltum ::I'!' be glMm. :H

~0!.hi51

.d~ir-d'~fftJr'l'ln.tii\u,~d dl~iCl$., In, til!!: ShOrl Itm'i, It Wlill be men Iih.al win bo::if1.d~lrlrsl. and';l;'ile,['l!' W()'ffil!:ll db ULk>!; ~dv-.'l"t~i¢ ~hht fl!:~' iOJllPOm.m1'k~. il. 00)' bi;.
:tIIl lh~' (OSl

d::llll,gliDellS who 3ft Wiil!icill"livo'n1 [1f(I:m, or nOl SIlnl ~~)r Sl;hool.~IlIIT_'r lh~t Ihl1;)' ('.an ~u,bs!rit!.t~~ ror~heir rn()llu::;s ~f1dnl:'lW5lic 1;a'bour: willil. dra,'!H;;lJlofd~ug,h~m, (Iro;m ~hool tfl the rl;'Onh,'XI (If flmiki:~l'doom m V,l.ctnllcml I~ o~nlns !Jip :'Ii ,~llId!l:1" ~p Iii! edua;tli!.~n whncil'i prtyi[]oills.,qy did nll!. C.:>r:I,Sl

(I,

r~ 'Ih(:ir

of !lnen~~r.lI:clIwork Iflld$: tf.o~ dl.e;rnslinV'~S

li!JP~mnl, mm·\!,"tH';'l1$iJ l~ ~.ir

nil:

mm eQI'IN\tiilbo;n@lq!.!alllt~tal ~V(' !.C('hniq!l!!!'& Yet '0 &ny 1Ii rol'e IW!I PIlI1l.6jPl!tory l:i\td'i. oos ofpo¥!:f!r~~I'!f!IiI[ lind~lqd!~iJi'! cani~ Ih~ ~~r o4'n:~l'Ir'm::irtg ~h~ 'I'fitullicdll~~sf or ''j\Oll1lt[['l ""'n'it~i'!, IIi.~ir wmmunili~s Iml, JJ~;~d:"sl'mis; PQ.itUing
$t(:()nd l:imll' around. ran:iC~plUlY,['r~~proor::hl$W:!!;i:c:hrnqtlire 'w' len I'~h:rnl 100 '1liIern'. .md ,<II~I!: il'lrerm~dby ~iI"i&i~i~!E}'
iI

~ ¥erydilitr ~Ctw:to' ~oa, 'kl'!tlll'Cd Ir~

men~.@o.~
wilih. ~~

mill

('jll~ ~nd u~ d¢nYQiIl,Stlh!l:1'i'i''ofOii~'

o,h,.t'!!DI'I!5l 'm~a]t Sir_dis?,),

(D\'~;l1

1995)

~Illh!i:

Jo:n~run.

Wm~

uhlne'

!i1ItKlur

,.

ro !he
'OIo<i1J 'Ocll!ll:LIlUlLt

di"~fo&ni,~ol'll1lll (Mt

,glll1ltfufl'

'J'Owa'

i3rtdl tne1)IJII"

IlI'IIl'I'IrilIml

mUMlp h:~lflg~r ' .. ' ~Vm!llli'l ~l!Id,

iiS,

w~llt¢Y ~Iii,c'we! lfi q!:!mi@n 'i!!;, 'Ih.e "iCmi· J'list r!1:~rehei' o:r ~h~ ..d!lSliica1,I!flonomiS!:. Thqi' neo :!11J}\.'j' to :In!lltyse: the ~~mL'oes" ~h~t women ml!~. 'illS meil.l'ling o:F I~ dmrnand [~~e!lu(!l'"<hiL:c1'l ,h.e)' af~ l'! ~mKIu'(iI i[I~ ~lIft'ncv or ,~ d\ci!'!~~1 ~Il~)' oJ to ~'Ol'I1lm wi~hfl1l iheir' :liJ;tJlII~ho!&, ~_fIdiQ(lImml!n.~" '!iu. Wh.~.n de'f1il:d ~f ilig.encyijUill~jll\:dl. Ilh~li'alh;,'!.\! l.I:S I[Q(explo:re the ~l.e-m 00 wihi61i1 wei\ delil:i~1 is lh~ prochK',[ of imitiJ:'nl:llizedi ideologies 00', tJ:itlilircrml tlon$t~ul'lt$ ;l.'l'!d~t!ll.C:!:""ha~ l~U:'p:t;iIontt~, of PO:liq mhm~l1t!~n .Slimu:ldoo.

l~~'takes in, di[t>r.ll:nl ronnll'lls. llIlltnillil::lll :in c~f,~l !e!1i!l:)liig the <ISS.'IlmpHo:nll" IPIi!COMtpll1.01il~ :il1i'lld ~11ISC5' !ill'hidl lin: pil!f~,of aJ11 ,cl!l~l!~ <1iJ1.r;I di5tll,plmamJ' OlU:

8 CQ:i;icdllllslon
The gi~t
,@f

~he d~ion

IIUl while: (jOIWt!IT~jollta~ I!i!t~fit5

b~¢.

wCiII,·~in!larc
pO~rl.I" ~U$¢ tlloe mi~ 1(1lO1
!l:1:l«

~P'I.mltly Ith¢y ~~ p~m~d

illL t'hi$ Sir~:i.dt has ~~I'i, ,of income an!!ll C31PIlIJ.l~ r (;;1Ipu.!tiin\S, male Q
qI'!

;I:t~

:too O!I' u~

~le

l!:iI:1;y.. ~hl:!I'1!FE intnndmtv,¢

d.I p~'t. ,~bout wo:rn!ln's: e;;;ptn"

tx-pe:[,iitn(l~, 1;'l\(lIn:lCfI'Spil¥"

l~l1t lIDtioJ'lof

of PG'Iit'rl}C the fom i!.rn wllteh

• \ll91NL~ wemffllospuk OilLIMur®wn bdili1if ill00 lIE q,hll:lf 0'o't1'lprklrilt~$ ,i;l!ildlli~, l,III'illno~.on,iy help to r'1l:S!C'lle them fr;Qm, tll<t: poosihtm of (lltrllal ~nd mu~oo ;'~('lUI'i~. 'blll (Its() h!ls\f€ry pT3<::~ic:allmpllcatlorns, ~.n COOZ and SEfIi GUpl~S i99-:) :m,l_d,y aF mr.:d cf,ecirit

nillt.utill oomc~ ~1!Jr mort: !lh~1l doe;. iWrWn, ~~i:i.n,g tt i~ ~oot brJ I:Ind!e~ throt.l,g:b .m S[JJme (()f,i;otptu;il lens 1Ii!l,men, 11'1 0I'dt:. to gilt ~.rp~limtTh3!ry oondl~ 'f1l'1l1ihe ®tllldtr di'II\1l::llIfiion!l, 0.1" fl},;i~ is n~1i'f ~ un un!.km!!l1Ldhow d:~rim~'!'I~ROfl~b; illl, the (OnW<l af5!i;aircily il'l d1ffe~e!u SO!:littits. But it ~lls@iI:flUM ~aTJ.g liYol':llflf (if (I1;I'f ~ (l~IM:md bi3s:e!>in lnc 'rnm' • p1tHlli(ll1I or 'W:tll·bI!:ihg ::l1nd"gmry. I~ 1s; J:i!f,t ~hr3ll mO:r(: pall:\icipttory :lI~rneltts of 'peillCtty a.1lid dut: dtSign or allJl:i.~J:1!'~,y ~rnt~~~ IIrl{iV provide: a. oomplie;D1I~n.urj'(i(!' an (lllkrn1ltiw ap'pro3~ih_
Howt''tct, d.E;5iP~tl: the oomplC'Kilies
OCUl th~ ®~nd~r dtllllc'llsiocns of POW~il',~y in, dllfF~I;Q"I'l~W:l:l~lIt5. us' (

my l!fLllnifests i~lfd~ptl1!ds;Qn

"'u~~

s mol wise eo eX~fesli I,hei'r

I!h,~ jfu(\:Ir
!rddI~Lrag, iis thin parli(ipa-

prQyairnnles rOT 1)00'1' WOmtlrn. il1iS3llgJade.sh. it W';iI~~ (iO\J itd thOl~ llr(lland ,00 pereeru of 10011\$ ',,:tn. lQ ~meli'l lMtl;r,e;u~d by mi:tb!l: 11!1,e~m'~ Qr .~eIto:u.:>til:old, ~f'.lS tht'~I.I~IoQ:rsassume, thisW;!iS.;l.m!tUc<r of m;Jk i?r,edhllioTiJ. progrnrl'lffill: p:ri'O-:ri[ymust 'til) sLr.ms,q ~~in W!Ilmtns OO11ilr~ OVC"rln~~r leans, IL 01'1 lh~ o1ILcr b:md" lhis~!ldiing \~s. ~ ease of r;1tio:t'lil!l ~h~lce &;"'1';111 tlhe iaC~ or aeeess Qf WQ:r'I1ClI'I ~opto. [Ili(ll\~ S!,;a!(ln; or loca~, mark.tl$, I!hen.IilW'U alltc;n,. t1onnuj.! !;(II\!(: to be ,swe., w dismal1i[lmg ~'r1!'lers I!O \\\~OllRell~p31fltciplltitm il"!! ~h:e wr~t. As :iliIilQlh~r ~:ro!"l11pl~ (tu~~r and },,~ullhy (imttoomin.,g). ll.'.l(I ~'1:,'lh,mtonsoftilwl TamH N(ld~ \I;b:mm~ D~v¢h:~p. lucm :l?ro,fr~mn'OO lfIo~ed~ha't 11:wi1'1,~ S3vin,gs; U"t1rl! "I tell.l!i$!;lci to meet ~hl:iprog;r:amm.e I:t-QU~'ltrn~nl oJ ..

in.!~rprc:~m.g ~Jild,co:mparin;g dala

or <loUllrting.

be

br,03dcr ,e!l.u~ au ~luivel'y'dcilli' Cl!.!L Wamen ,a~e

mL~'lImlJm arnt!(l!!.lnt
9~ ~~"ttfl"

1t;lhodoEo,gt~:!] ,
~NlWare' <IS liO~lJliSl

'Its

)mll~$ or ~~I'ly

~I; a/\l\itMlloe
:dqla~mimiw.: :ii;~i!.tory ~11k·

me:.<i.

~lowe"·,er. diff\CrclU 'Lnt~iCJP'r.ctll~CTiJS were ,~il;.m to llfl1sfmdin,!lc One ~\\';;!llJ::nlmlf"~l«1lh~! ~lrL'rn~fIWCr~ '!Jl5itl,g me-ns $;!\'in,~ It'i ~pood UEl aeress ~I,.'~lmgrommt'Crffhl. whllil tiu:mBIf:r s'U~$u:d thal !1'.m. "~«, '1i.I:>1T1g .... 1OR'i((I'[O g)lin 3C;C~ ~o.pro&r:ammt
lik(~}'t(l to g~~n ~cr"s.s, to !Ollil!~ (measures lo, en$ure thn 'C'l'Om.cn Dl:rI~nt~d rrom ~ml!i!,Y:5d) o,r if WQmcliI,'Wll:u u$i~,
itl;1l'1;l:' ,AWI'ill,

.or S3'1lings. befnF(l

(<<(lu~

would

:poarer [hnl !illCi!'I tOtUS~ I~~)" lack nhe b m:n@)li oJ (J'tdo:wmem,:$, ::lind. otKCnalllge e~l~~~m«1:ts whi~h mille mtmbci:iS >or tlhei!:' l:i.ou.schotds tl'irnI!. lQ eil'ijO')I', TheY!lrtle~ ab~e ti'larrl m~~ h;'lt~IiI$!~l4'; hiOOuf illito,im;ornc'. tncome irn.~om(HC,Ulil(l cbo:i«: il1lto [i'ffSOliUI \i,fdl.1H:ing. Pohq rl'lill:x:rs !ruty wiish. ~(I par a,~en\iOIii. to. IIItt ~nd£r dime!¥Sloru 0:[ 1'0\,"'.' enr'~ ()hh~ in~mctf<nt ~ or h.\im.1!n r't:liO!arces 1[lIn ill!:liIl<llkOf" biiC1Ul8e or Ibewc~Jh_q;eoon~q1;lf:;\IJ;U fClf 'wome:n and ihiklr,e!'i!.How~v.er. a <h$~lli'lal"''!l (omribil1~i(ml o-f $, gli:nc!Eir JI'I:lIil)'$is ,or pow,my and "'rell-bc~1:'Igdntw.'l, illl.cIl1I~Of!! to the r;:U:l lim iloldm.g
gUI¢rJRy

CQT1.'$t~nl :f:or jln,oom~~s-u.mp~iom,d()es n~t <e~'C

an C\7LclC<Ftcc

of :&1I!1li,d:er'

prog,nlmm.e

"I!::;'PO~-S

are

,~Ild ::;kdts - r!!:1ka a difl'er,"rn.t $iE)[ ~ridoolo.gi.ca] ~lI'Id ~~~e-rilll p~~!::li~ ~o' inosew:hi<:h creere l,!,'('.ahh
;lind scafC~i1:}I ~1iI ~&rms QoJ ~Ii(y .h!!:r,do:re; :I~!"Id~{f :1i!i111Ly:>l's ",,!OOM S~ggC"'li'llW()'-iProtl&c,d a:pprlillch. 11J.,e f~r~'t~l'inils::<'I mor~ ,gen:d(r,s~'IlSltil,l'e ~IlIl~l'pret(lliOn o[Cl.Lrir( nt

- ~tlhf~,el'lpectam:y.

b!1c:q_u1l!lil:y.5Iu:!:h. il!'teQ~~h~~:li ph)'5.i.ci! wen ..~1'1'!,1. ¢d~.Jl:atKln

Oil! \'~11' d,irfeN:nt ~:fmel! w¢!\i!:u$illg:

~iI'I

;m t!S

u.p I~heir~c;ce.s~10 i!)3n~ tdlis:poensililg t:Sli !l)f w~mt~ , m~~ to $~ '" nh. !h~ mi.nil'l'm:m S1I\lmgp r'i1lquli'(m~m rum:1'U$~ng pt[)jm ~llIg ': !:ttl" IfUl;lJlIfll.O !mpl'()'~ 'wul'li1.'f'n"s:irt~nC:I;l] Il1IlMgCr SlWo:nd '[Lm~ c'b req;JJ1r~'U$'
'b)" ~n!l~lIhVU!y
:r:1Cl't:t

(le.sigpl, !:;lrli'iCS

.pi:I"·eny ~~nd~s which romblli't~ m~ik!:l im:emi\'~:'i

!lrad 'SlX,i;a:1~l1veslm~nt!l,Dl 1'sd~nfrom ~he ,ellilprl'L-

skHisn.

,elll ~..id~Ii!(li:'tttaltime

lltd

o!:m.gyco:ntSlninu aw

p\ntic:ubf~.y htnd!!tg. For pM'rt'r womtn ~ea.nsc of the: mnf'llclln& d~!i'i:'i>l11;dsor ma.klng 3J living and Cl'I'i'L1\S,ifor!M bmii}'. AAal1.uam.t lime.IOIoouf p:.>WIH ~~tht. '~;n,&'1t mO~1 Impoollil;llt rIfMILlPi:e:a\ lh~ dI~s-~~ ,oh)')Ilrwowlii -aad ifn~l'I. L:d:>Ol!lr>in;tem.L'I1'tgrowlh, :m;l:~!lfJeJlY',m .only benefh.poor ..... <lm~n, .r effofl~
mllde 10 ~_dd~ ~h(lr O,'j,51d"llnI'l\gIlS il'llhl: clM" sion O'f l:abom ..1 nomt snd in. iihe -~r~ei. p:l<l.Ct. Maki~ ]lIibour~rk~is, mo:r«:. ~~~'l:i!t 1iO'W~IfI,
lIIr'E

womt!I'i's. d.o~ir.l<libooli"

O>'€l'llWds S<llh3llne}" are r'ra to. pllftidp~~f~nnew 'l'Iliid e:quml~l:lg m(ll'~!s Howe,,'!!r. W'h~l we h<li~~d50 h~ihhgbwl ~111 In e lInideare llitc' Q!,(~.arehirn,1tl.SI J11.u::tUres o~ g~ml!C'r m(OJ1:ulil:ywtJ,'kih :set d~.e p!lF.lmtlcf:S wiihil'l ....h~'I:'r. , a1.t W(Ymen niiJkil:- Of Q(lI'l{)t m:!b • chol.«s, regardIf,55 or n~l.i~ho1d inol!W.lri Olh~r words, 'I'IIOl 311 WQnUin,a:rc ~nn.d n.M ;dllJ?OO'·p;tQ:pt~~tt:wolll'U:l'I, b'll~ :II] .....,Om.tlil slIffer 1F.~ohn diis.<:!'lmlinmiQrI, title:
sOOQlild pr.o:r.li{t(If ~ g~ndl/;r ,cq l.nt,l>1le approach to ".ihc.\I\C~.OPIll1!~1I1I1!.liIei!le'fl)re r~q:t! iH:S ii1C~h;m ~'h ten
i

,~c~n.C
II:lp·.

Gc

UliU...i:ifl>ll ·

jobn, M_. 3;
00 (;tlilde

'by lit!!: 0.. ~bur;N' ..

~lii

m.:ltu::~C,
c~

to baw &J:e1m::r,anS£m-maw!), ~tcll!.tian !['Il1' dWir pasi!~OTI \!o~,th1.fl bmil~r as ~n as rOll'creat~'nt iQ@; :!:tI;st~i.n~ibl~li\\'chhood!:o. SI!XISII~xptndlunt , 5p!!\dIl'l,g can pby a ,oomplnllcnt'3ll)" rQ:le to' l.!lboQuJr ~mtl'ls.1.,~ g,rlOWln Slf.nmgio:s tn ~n.hln.dn& pOOrtT 'WOllllt:YI'5 n«~ ~O. mID al:nbl}' 10 mIIkt eheees iilbou\.
!is H.kody

K::tbC!!lir. 'CompeR
(rom~~j,

,a.-ddr~lh'll5tn!Cl1;li',,1

hml[

~n WOOfl.en~, (fp'Pcm~nity

~onSlrainj_5that

~t"l"3dc and sets; acli(lln"~h.ch

~;PiJd~.

!aboulf m~[kel ~pp(limmitu:5.~I'L"'·iWlmt'n~ in lnll h!'!m~n (~p!!~1 or pooll' wOl'fiom williuJW(.'Il'er not nWn$b~f; lmogn:~~",r ~Ctt~ to It!a'!'l,(\[ oiPpo:m~!i"li. lies '1!lnkSliotht ·ra'CLoJ:;; wh~d~n~mpef d'IIS ~ ~nd d'!otce a:~ ~bo ~.ddrtSUd_ nil> i'll<:0l1Ui In:.n ,oontc:rtt.

as ;1 m:atlrt of l»s.ic hillm.'rFl ng.ni.$. ~,IQ ~n the ron· ~~ 1~'!ibtuiOTl,or the ~fIi~i;J:'nllLm:lal omen's. m~"'j]:me:g'I~ w
in C3!irq;MIi,gni.n,g to' m~ke 'W1;lllru;'1iI~ r'l~tS rn!oog;' ~~ed asiioLrull'l nghts 5h(ll.'dd bot ~oel'l. not as dw .colll((,ms of;l yociJewulibut sC(~1(1n;al il'll~ne5t gro~p. but a'S a CIii~!'i:3! ;ami ~ndl$pe~blt contribution w pxl dl;1~iI.::lol'mejj'(~ £or rome:,:a maiiil~~OrLift OO'td~h and.

ilddre~$

,g(::nde'fintCjll!;Ili~ics if'llH as "'"nOu$, f{iU'l'tIc~

worn,!'! I.
~il S,Cll!ld

'ri~, 'l:ipl_~.M..

-s.Wf·~
[~n'k bbouJf
i&

d~~W'I i!md ddi\~il)' of $(I('i!ll in\'tS~m.f'nlsIllUSt be g,~.t'rednol Mly lQ E:nil.af'!.ce Ilh~hll!rnan rnpi~.;lli,of at~ poorpo::eplt but ~~ !telp to reduee some oJ

~:l~

S~~~:

Uo:~.c...1
Ret'elre'liiIlOes
C3ld~lt JC. 1962. Ii:IE lli!Jtory Qrfc:ni~ity Otclifit" JUiM(lP: M,M'I.~my Pll$S ((1l1iu. ~" Radh'll.$!l!. So. ilInd\\f;1$l#. $,. 1986. libm ~'I'I:d,fO>;!1lil'lJ in IRonl. l;&II:oi)~~. O:d.'l),td: OdiO~di
U'ni."'C!$~ly p,=
])~I, ~1l;o1l, D., aM ~C\llOn.Il:_. Ull:;}. 'tnt $u'borl:lllll:\uiMl, I)f WO~lI :iw! nlll_~~n~m:!ILluWJ]~[II::,n of bc:m:r:

m::lln'la'i~

hn~qu~li
VIic:rkil'!:g,

rrud.1<lictiQt!'

K.l~lI.!!ng.,. C.'WI)oI~l)owil.z ~nd. MccCull!!gh. ~~d$).a~'~,~:im~~t 'tli,!!: Mul:i!t. :~n,d l~ruion; CSE ~ 1'1'1 S¢rI !I: rd,h~: ~l1ider, pOWC'V and ,C1)lllml Q\llnl~~Tl HilI;i~ ~rtdtl ilnl'l';trnm~!l i~

Ii.

Qlum:al.
i1;) ~

M:~:~

l.1995,

'\I'i.t~~_m.

~hm~ ~h~lci'I$

01"gendtr·.

Goi:ll~. 11.... i.lII:d

'f!afllO.i• 'Vlli:liulm: UN i)ll ~illil(ju.

!bIt. :199:2" 'hltJ~rl;Q<U!tlno1:d! ~IIOUli.o1l or 1n~3hh inplJ.~~ and d!~~n:'bw.tMl.O'r ht,a;lth omtatlll1l_"S· 1moJing 1D'rJ.d.oIle5~~[i! iiuldlliCli" ierill~ Anllli'\ll,.r$l'illr:r I\Wlk;lIion. Ec(ll1!omk~l()pmtll'lllMti.tutc, Vobl''trl
BlInk, \~ington

tbli~rlI B~nsJadcsh'. IDS llldB,O 'Woii'kmg ~pc~ No S•. Brlgln~: IDS .. t"tm.d;!ld, l-, _ 5<IliIJjWr,It, :1990.. 'i-\iQw seritll;l;~ i:5 II....... Pi~i. :~u,~ ~990."iP'I lWSll4)tl.oJ in~Jl!~Jw,'I,i~~Q:ld illeqllaiily?'. Eli;a~mi' ilfilrr;!lI"~rn:r JO:IJ1mII Vol 100: :S6'5-OO l

GUPI:Q., R., 199,.. '\1IiihQ ~~ke$ lhiol ~s;! i.n

New'l'.or.\!

11

M.oIDll .• Mj

D'!'¢~~., j.,.!lml Sen, A. K, 19.9,S, rul!i.dii.l:: E~:Q:rumli.<:: D¢cwil.oiFLt~~ ~nd s,ccft:d OPiJ?'Il'l'IJll!IIii!y O;.:[.,rd:
~1'$Of1.

O~ford Uni.vcr:5uy fn::;.s L Mld Moore, M•• 1~E!3;Q1rJ kim'hlip' SH'iLlCCUIl', £~l'Iuk ,'I!!.lIiOm)my .~n.d.gj~IlfL(j®[3lPhio:beIIl;l,\rtoor illl n,,'l.dia:. 'P<lpid.aac8,~_gd Dl:veloplM~n RitNii~w. VOl
9' NIJ ~: )'5,60

~ladd;1d. L,IIfuWbu:r. ~ •• !l!n.-di OIll!S,l~_,.I~'2" 'IMn· B li.ouscho:J' il1l~~lj~}' ;Jjnd!:jll!;\~~ !1~nls.tIll.o1d \'l'(:I!. ~ing; t~ri.dIC'riOeOn e,alo:riJl!: ,t!1lIt:l.k¢!!O :;trid nt'rgr ~!(pe:IM1I~lum;from. ~'Iwpr.mFpl~$:'., ~!lpi:'prtMDlfC ;I! IBlic IlUIinlt ~ij,ow. 4;' I,. ~~bc1;'tht ~oomiq!':~' (Qnr~n1~"'lT1 H~~Ml'd, EI'lG'MmY and lkldd",;1:1~
~he" bmil~' fan,
~l'IA®rncil~IUII!ti.M,(ITJi~pch~f. 1991
i:[J1[fll.r:ilfiln,y

~:~

·~IDk

~brlliU.~L 1986. 'lh.c

di~s.uiln!lhm

Ol

ElwllI,

19~U.. 'PubllA; ~C~lOIj'l, p()",,~nr lllid dC'\I\fl:lopmtm: 3. g,cm.dc h~w<lr~~IlI~I!fS;~s,' ~;!lc r 'pru;c'l'l.~d ~l Iht s.cnlm:llr· on WOI1'il.en in, E:':lremt P•. l;r!.Y. UN 0i\'i5tO'mI fo r th~ Ad~~l:iitAl'motl1i~1'r W 'l
I),. \\hm~Dl. \1'10:'11111;1

h!.l!1itrin.solU!h~i\'l.·ijI!1J. D!t~ aad A_~. ~n ~s). TM(l,Q.l1tjaJi ~.omy of RUTi.gtli' In ~h. &i~.

O:dordl:Ot~mlkl.T1 Pills.:!;

,_........'

ilw Ihcy ,il~~

.m~f!'k:t'll. '

J~d~:n. Co.

~~p" or
Cni.'!IItrs!~r

1995.'~I:'.$C!,I~nJ;:gend!l."r i'li'Oli'I'I lint pG\ltrly

Gi!:il!lti'!,r

AI1I~ly$i$iill

:D~!jI~I.QiP'1'l'I.Ci!lIt~n.es,

RobEl:lll,

EaM A:rI\gh~

':M:d

jOg d!i!t

s of ~dI!ii'· mimi -~bich j

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