Power Upgrading of Transmission Lines by Combining Ac & DC

POWER UPGRADING OF TRANSMISSION LINES BY COMBINING AC & DC
ABSTRACT POWER UPGRADING OF TRANSMISSION LINES BY COMBINING AC & DC
Long extra high voltage (EHV) ac lines cannot be loaded to their thermal limits in order to keep sufficient margin against transient instability. With the scheme proposed in this project, it is possible to load these lines very close to their thermal limits. The conductors are allowed to carry usual ac along with dc superimposed on it. The added dc power flow does not cause any transient instability. This project gives the feasibility of converting a double circuit ac line into composite acdc power transmission line to get the advantages of parallel acdc transmission to improve stability and damping out oscillations. Simulation and experimental studies are carried out for the coordinated control as well as independent control of ac and dc power transmissions. No alterations of conductors, insulator strings, and towers of the original line are needed. Substantial gain in the load ability of the line is obtained. Master current controller senses ac current and regulates the dc current orders for converters online such that conductor current never exceeds its thermal limit.
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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 2. EHV-AC SYSTEM. 2.1 2.2 2.3 3. HVDC

3.1 3.2 3.3 SPECIAL FEATURES. TYPES OF HVDC SYSTEMS. 12-PULSE CONVERTER. SPECIAL FEATURES. STANDARD RATED VOLTAGE OF EHV-AC. PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN EHV-AC SYSTEM.
4. COMPARISON OF HVAC-HVDC 5. SIMULTANEOUS AC-DC POWER TRANSMISSION
6. DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM MODEL

7. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF POWER UP GRADING BY COMBINING AC-DC TRANSMISSION
8. SIMULINK 9. RESULT
10. CONCLUSION
11. REFERENCES
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1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, environmental, right-of-way, and cost concerns have delayed the construction of a new transmission line, while demand of electric power has shown steady but geographically uneven growth. The power is often available at locations not close to the growing load centers but at remote locations. These locations are largely determined by regulatory policies, environmental acceptability, and the cost of available energy. The wheeling of this available energy through existing long ac lines to load centers has a certain upper limit due to stability considerations. Thus, these lines are not loaded to their thermal limit to keep sufficient margin against transient instability. The present situation demands the review of traditional power transmission theory and practice, on the basis of new concepts that allow full utilization of existing transmission facilities without decreasing system availability and security. The flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) concepts, based on applying state-of-the-art power electronic technology to existing ac transmission system, improve stability to achieve power transmission close to its thermal limit. The basic proof justifying the simultaneous acdc power transmission is explained in reference. In the above references, simultaneous acdc power transmission was first proposed through a single circuit ac transmission line. In these proposals Mono-polar dc transmission with ground as return path was used. There were certain limitations due to use of ground as return path. Moreover, the instantaneous value of each conductor voltage with respect to ground becomes higher by the amount of the dc voltage, and more discs are to be added in each insulator string to withstand this increased voltage. However, there was no change in the conductor separation distance, as the line-to-line voltage remains unchanged. In this paper, the feasibility study of conversion of a double circuit ac line to composite acdc line without altering the original line conductors, tower structures, and insulator strings has been presented.
2. EHV-AC SYSTEM
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2.1 SPECIAL FEATURES:The significant aspects about EHV-AC transmission systems include the following:-
1. The most important requirement of EHV-AC transmission line is power

transfer ability based on transient stability limit.
Pac = |v1|. |v2|

X 2.
At
=30, sin () =0.5.
Hence AC line can transfer only
50% of its steady state power limit.
3.
EHV-AC line need compensation of reactive power. This is
provided by
svs
(STATIC
VAR SYSTEM), shunt reactor, and
shunt capacitor e.t.c. installed in sub-station. Intermediate substations are necessary at interval of 250km to 400km.
4. Power transfer ability of EHV-AC line may be increased by using

series capacitor or adding a parallel line. For high power lines several parallel circuits may be necessary.
5. The line design is based on limits of corona, radio interference, TVinterference, electrical field at ground level e.t.c.
6. For EHV-AC lines the voltage stress at conductor surface should be

kept below critical voltage. For achieving this, the use of bundle conductors is essential. Bundle conductors reduce the corona losses, radio interference, TV-interference.
7. Switching surges occur during opening and closing of unloaded lines.

Line insulation is designed on the basis of switching over voltages.
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Appropriate circuit-breakers and compensation is necessary to limit switching surges. Insulation co-ordination is achieved with the use of suitable surge arresters.
8. EHV-AC lines and network have high short-circuit levels and

associated protection problems. HVDC interconnection limits the short-circuit level of both the AC network.
9. EHV-AC lines experience power swing during system disturbances,

switching and faults. Protection of EHV-AC line is designed to block during low power swing.
10. EHV-AC lines transmit bulk power. Outage of a line causes stability
problems in the network. Hence AC-transmission paths should be planned along with the protection system design. For each radial line, at least two or three circuits necessary.
2.2
STANDARD RATED VOLTAGE OF EHV-AC:-
Standard rated voltages for AC-transmission and DCtransmission are the choice made from the choice of new line the nearest existing system voltage is preferred. New transmission voltage level is introduced after detailed survey, technical studies, economical studies and acceptance of feasibility reports. Transmission systems are planned along with the generation planning. For EHV-AC (ph-to-ph voltage)-rms is
[above 275KV, 345KV, 400KV, 500KV, 600KV& less than 800KV].

For HVDC-BIPOLAR LINE (pole-to-ground voltage) 250KV, + 300KV, + 400KV, + 500KV & + 600KV].
is [+ 100KV, +
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2.3
PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN EHV-AC SYSTEM:-
The major problems associated with EHV-AC transmission:1. CORONA LOSS & RADIO INTERFERENCE:-
Transmission line voltage level being a governing factor in the corona loss, it is more in EHV-AC. Under bad weather condition, this loss further increases. Since RADIO and TV-INTERFERENCE have developed greatly in the areas covered by power lines, the RADIO and TV-INTERFERENCE has become critical factor of communication disturbance. To reduce CORONA LOSS the spacing between the conductor and the diameter of the conductor can be increased, how ever if the spacing is increased the cost of the support increases very high. But by Using of ACSR conductors is quite economical for line voltage up to 400KV CORONA and RI are also kept with in permissible limits.
2. LINE SUPPORTS:-
EHV -AC line have large mechanical loadings on towers due to bundle conductor, large air and ground clearances, considerable dynamic forces due to broken conductors e.t.c. transmission line towers with fabricated steel member have most commonly used. The cost of steel tower varies from 30% to 50% of total cost of line for up to voltage 500KV.
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3. ERECTION DIFFICULTIES:-
The erection of EHV-AC line poses a wide range of problems like requiring extremely high standard of workmanship. Problem of transmission arise as the supporting structure are to be transported across every type of country. It is also becomes necessary to evolve and employ new erection and conductor handling technique. 4. INSULATION REQUIRMENT:-
The magnitude of likely voltage surges determines the required the insulation level. The surges may be due to internal causes (switching operation) or due to external causes (atmospheric disturbance like lightening). 5. POWER STATION & SUBSTATIONS:-
The design and manufacture of power station equipments has also several revelatory changes. Turbo-generator units were used in past with [100MW-to-150MW] and now a day we have 500MW are now commonly used in super power stations in India. Where as in the substation we have 700MVA but now it has been increased to 1,100MVA. For circuit breaker of 220KV it has reached from 3,500MVA to 20,000MVA and now 400KV and 500KV breakers are also in use.
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6. REACTIVE LOSSES:-
Since the transmission line contains inductance(L) and shunt capacitance(C) then it is desirable to supply a load current keeping sending-end and receiving-end voltage equal.
Zc = (L / C) ^ 1/2
Where Zc = Surge impedance loading (or) natural loading in () Clearly Zc behaves like a pure resistance then
POWER TRANSMITTED PER PHASE = V. I = V. (V / Zc) = (V^2 / Zc) However in practice a line is not operated at its natural load. The reactive voltage drop and natural load do not in way place any restriction on the distance over which power may be transmitted. But they fix the voltage employed for the transmission of a certain amount of power. 7. STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS:-
If the resistance and the reactance of transmission line are neglected the expression for power transmitted is.
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Pac
|v1|. |v2| X
Where
Pac =
power transmitted (MW), voltage per phase at the sending, voltage per phase at receiving end, reactance in ( / phase).
v1 = v2 =
X
For ( = 90) the maximum steady state transfer of power takes place on theoretical considerations. But in actual practice we maintain in the range of (20 to 30) on full load. This limitation is imposed by the possibility of the machines losing synchronism during transient disturbances. EHV-AC line will be exceeding 200KM in length additional and costly equipment like series capacitor and shunt reactors must be incorporated.
8. CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY OF CONDUCTOR:-
In the case of O.H-line conductors carry maximum power that can be transmitted is dependent on the thermal considerations. Since as the power transfer from generating station increases then there will be a
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considerable increase in the thermal heat produced, so this will limit the flow of power.
9. FERRANTI EFFECT:-
If the line is loaded with leading reactive-volt-amperes there will be a rise of voltage at the receiving end. This rise is of order of 1.5% for 160KM, 13% for 500KM. also there is a rise in voltage at the sending end where the load on the generator is thrown off suddenly. Shunt reactor is generally used to control voltage at the receiving end side.
3. HVDC
3.1 SPECIAL FEATURES:Over long distances bulk power transfer can be carried out by a high voltage direct current (HVDC) connection cheaper than by a long distance AC transmission line. HVDC transmission can also be used where an AC transmission scheme could not (e.g. through very long cables or across borders where the two AC systems are not synchronized or operating at the same frequency). However, in order to achieve these long distance transmission links, power convertor equipment is required, which is a possible point of failure and any interruption in delivered power can be costly. It is therefore of critical importance to design a HVDC scheme for a given availability. The HVDC technology is a high power electronics technology used in electric power systems. It is an efficient and flexible method to transmit
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large amounts of electric power over long distances by overhead transmission lines or underground/submarine cables. It can also be used to interconnect asynchronous power systems. The fundamental process that occurs in an HVDC system is the conversion of electrical current from AC to DC (rectifier) at the transmitting end and from DC to AC (inverter) at the receiving end. There are three ways of achieving conversion: 1. Natural commutated converters 2. Capacitor Commutated Converters 3. Forced Commutated Converters Natural Commutated Converters (NCC) : NCC are most used in the HVDC systems as of today. The component that enables this conversion process is the thyristor, which is a controllable semiconductor that can carry very high currents (4000 A) and is able to block very high voltages (up to 10 kV). By means of connecting the thyristors in series it is possible to build up a thyristor valve, which is able to operate at very high voltages (several hundred of kV).The thyristor valve is operated at net frequency (50 hz or 60 hz) and by means of a control angle it is possible to change the DC voltage level of the bridge.. Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC) : An improvement in the thyristor-based Commutation, the CCC concept is characterized by the use of commutation capacitors inserted in series between the converter transformers and the thyristor valves. the converters when connected to weak networks. Forced Commutated Converters : This type of converters introduces a spectrum of advantages, e.g. feed of passive networks (without generation), independent control of active and Dept of EEE, SCET Page 11 The commutation capacitors improve the commutation failure performance of
reactive power, power quality. The valves of these converters are built up with semiconductors with the ability not only to turn-on but also to turnoff. They are known as VSC (Voltage Source Converters). A new type of HVDC has become available. It makes use of the more advanced semiconductor technology instead of thyristors for power conversion between AC and DC. The semiconductors used are insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), and the converters are voltage source converters (VSCs) which operate with high switching frequencies (12kHz) utilizing pulse width modulation (PWM).
3.2
TYPES OF HVDC SYSTEMS :
There are different types of HVDC systems which are : Mono-polar HVDC system: In the mono-polar configuration, two converters are connected by a single pole line and a positive or a negative DC voltage is used. In Fig. There is only one Insulated transmission conductor installed and the ground or sea provides the path for the return current.
Bipolar HVDC system: This is the most commonly used configuration of HVDC transmission systems. The bipolar configuration, shown in Fig. Uses two insulated conductors as Positive and negative poles. The two poles can be operated
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independently if both Neutrals are grounded. The bipolar configuration increases the power transfer capacity. Under normal operation, the currents flowing in both poles are identical and there is no ground current. In case of failure of one pole power transmission can continue in the other pole which increases the reliability. Most overhead line HVDC transmission systems use the bipolar configuration.
Homo-polar HVDC system: In the homo polar configuration, shown in Fig. Two or more conductors have the negative polarity and can be operated with ground or a metallic return. With two Poles operated in parallel, the homopolar configuration reduces the insulation costs. However, the large earth return current is the major disadvantage.
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Multi-terminal HVDC system: In the multi terminal configuration, three or more HVDC converter stations are geographically separated and interconnected through transmission lines or cables. The System can be either parallel, where all converter stations are connected to the same voltage as shown in Fig(b). or series multiterminal system, where one or more converter stations are connected in series in one or both poles as shown in Fig. (c). A hybrid multiterminal system contains a combination of parallel and series connections of converter stations
VOLTAGE-SOURCE CONVERTER : A voltage-source converter is connected on its ac-voltage side to a three-phase electric power network via a transformer and on its dcvoltage side to capacitor equipment. The transformer has on its secondary side a first, a second, and a third phase winding, each one with a first and a second winding terminal. Resistor equipment is arranged at the transformer for limiting the current through the converter when connecting the transformer to the power network. The resistor equipment includes a
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first resistor, connected to the first winding terminal of the second phase winding, and switching equipment is adapted, in an initial position, to block current through the phase windings, in a transition position to form a current path which includes at least the first and the second phase windings and, in series therewith, the first resistor, which current path, when the converter is connected to the transformer, closes through the converter and the capacitor equipment, and, in an operating position, to interconnect all the first winding terminals for forming the common neutral point. In VSC HVDC, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is used for generation of the fundamental voltage. Using PWM, the magnitude and phase of the voltage can be controlled freely and almost instantaneously within certain limits. This allows independent and very fast control of active and reactive power flows. PWM VSC is therefore a close to ideal component in the transmission network. From a system point of view, it acts as a zero inertia motor or generator that can control active and reactive power almost instantaneously. Furthermore, it does not contribute to the shortcircuit power, as the AC current can be controlled. Voltage Source Converter based on IGBT technology : The modular low voltage power electronic platform is called PowerPak. It is a power electronics building block (PEBB) with three integrated Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) modules. Each IGBT module consists of six switches forming three phase legs.Various configurations are possible. For example three individual three-phase bridges on one PEBB, one three phase bridge plus chopper(s) etc. The PowerPak is easily adaptable for different applications. The IGBT modules used are one Power Pak as it is used for the SVR. It consists of one three-phase bridge (the three terminals at the right hand side), which provides the input to the DC link (one IGBT module is used for it) and one output in form of one single phase H-bridge (the two terminals to the left) acting as the booster converter. For the latter two IGBT modules are used with three paralleled phase legs per output
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terminal. By paralleling such PEBBs adaptation to various ratings is possible.
GTO/IGBT (Thyristor based HVDC) : Normal thyristors ( silicon controlled rectifiers) are not fully controllable switches (a "fully controllable switch" can be turned on and off at will.) Thyristors can only be turned ON and cannot be turned OFF. Thyristors are switched ON by a gate signal, but even after the gate signal is deasserted (removed), the thyristor remains in the ON-state until any turnoff condition occurs (which can be the application of a reverse voltage to the terminals, or when the current flowing through (forward current) falls below a certain threshold value known as the holding current.) Thus, a thyristor behaves like a normal semiconductor diode after it is turned on or "fired". The GTO can be turned-on by a gate signal, and can also be turned-off by a gate signal of negative polarity. Turn on is accomplished by a positive current pulse between the gate and cathode terminals. As the gate-cathode behaves like PN junction, there will be some relatively small voltage between the terminals.The turn on phenomenon in GTO is however, not as relieable as an SCR(thyristor) and small positive gate current must be maintained even after turn on to improve relieabilty. Turn off is accomplished by a negative voltage pulse between the gate and cathode terminals. Some of the forward current (about one third to one fifth) is "stolen" and used to induce a cathode-gate voltage which in turn induces the forward current to fall and the GTO will switch off (transitioning to the 'blocking' state). GTO thyristors suffer from long switch off times, whereby after the forward current falls, there is a long tail time where residual current Dept of EEE, SCET Page 16
continues to flow until all remaining charge from the device is taken away. This restricts the maximum switching frequency to approx 1kHz. It may however be noted that the turn off time of a comparable SCR is ten times that of a GTO.Thus switching frequency of GTO is much better than SCR. Gate turn-off (GTO) thyristors are able to not only turn on the main current but also turn it off, provided with a gate drive circuit. Unlike conventional thyristors, they have no commutation circuit, downsizing application systems while improving efficiency. They are the most suitable for high-current, high speed switching applications, such as inverters and chopper circuits. Bipolar devices made with SiC offer 20-50X lower switching losses as compared to conventional semiconductors. A rough estimate of the switching power losses as a function of switching frequency is shown in Figure 4. Another very significant property of SiC bipolar devices is their lower differential on-state voltage drop than similarly rated Si bipolar device, even with order of magnitude smaller carrier lifetimes in the drift region. This property allows high voltage (>20 kV) to be far more reliable and thermally stable as compared to those made with Silicon. The switching losses and the temperature stability of bipolar power devices depends on the physics of operation of the device. The two major categories of bipolar power devices are: (a) single injecting junction devices (for example BJT and IGBT); and (b) double injecting junction devices (like Thyristor-based GTO/MTO/JCT/FCT and PIN diodes). In a power BJT, most of the minority carrier charge resides in the low doped collector layer, and hence its operation has been approximated as an IGBT. The limited gain of a BJT will make the following analysis less relevant for lower voltage devices. Silicon carbide has been projected to have tremendous potential for high voltage solid-state power devices with very high voltage and current ratings because of its electrical and physical properties. The rapid development of the technology for producing high quality single crystal SiC wafers and thin films presents the opportunity to fabricate solid- state Dept of EEE, SCET Page 17
devices with power-temperature capability far greater than devices currently available. This capability is ideally suited to the applications of power conditioning in new more- electric or all-electric military and commercial vehicles. These applications require switches and amplifiers capable of large currents with relatively low voltage drops. One of the most pervasive power devices in silicon is the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT). However, these devices are limited in their operating temperature and their achievable power ratings compared to that possible with SiC. Because of the nearly ideal combination of characteristics of these devices, we propose to demonstrate the first 4H-SiC Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor in this Phase I effort. Both n-channel and p-channel SiC IGBT devices will be investigated. The targeted current and voltage rating for the Phase I IGBT will be a >200 Volt, 200 mA device, that can operate at 350 C.
3.3 12-pulse converters :

The basic design for practically all HVDC converters is the 12-pulse double bridge converter which is shown in Figure below. The converter consists of two 6-pulse bridge converters connected in series on the DC side. One of them is connected to the AC side by a YY-transformer, the other by a YD transformer. The AC currents from each 6-pulse converter will then be phase shifted 30. This will reduce the harmonic content in the total current drawn from the grid, and leave only the characteristic harmonics of order 12 m1, m=1,2,3..., or the 11th, 13th, 23th, 25th etc. harmonic. The non-characteristic harmonics will still be present, but considerably reduced. Thus the need for filtering is substantially reduced, compared to 6-pulse converters. The 12-pulse converter is usually built up of 12 thyristor valves. Each valve consists of the necessary number of thyristors in series to withstand the required blocking voltage with sufficient margin. Normally there is only one string of thyristors in each valve, no parallel connection. Four valves are built together in series to form a quadruple valve and three quadruple valves,
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Figure:12-pulse converter.
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Main elements of a HVDC converter station with one bipole consisting of two 12-pulse converter unit. together with converter transformer, controls and protection equipment, constitute a converter. The converter transformers are usually three winding transformers with the windings in Yy d N-connection. There can be one three-phase or three single phase transformers, according to local circumstances. In order to optimize the relationship between AC- and DC voltage the converter transformers are equipped with tap changers.
HVDC converter stations

An HVDC converter station is normally built up of one or two 12-pulse converters as described above, depending on the system being mono- or bipolar. In some cases each pole of a bipolar system consists of two converters in series to increase the voltage and power rating of the transmission. It is not common to connect converters directly in parallel in one pole. The poles are normally as independent as possible to improve the reliability of the system, and each pole is equipped with a DC reactor and DC filters. Additionally the converter station consists of some jointly used equipment.
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This can be the connection to the earth electrode, which normally is situated
Mono-polar HVDC transmission Voltage in station B according to reversed polarity convention. some distance away from the converter station area, AC filters and equipment for supply of the necessary reactive power.
BASIC CONTROL PRINCIPLES

DC transmission control The current flowing in the DC transmission line shown in Figure below is determined by the DC voltage difference between station A and station B. Using the notation shown in the figure, where rd represents the total resistance of the line, we get for the DC current
and the power transmitted into station B is
In rectifier operation the firing angle should not be decreased below a certain minimum value min, normally 3-5 in order to make sure that Dept of EEE, SCET Page 23
there really is a positive voltage across the valve at the firing instant. In inverter operation the extinction angle should never decrease below a certain minimum value min, normally 17-19 otherwise the risk of commutation failures becomes too high. On the other hand, both and should be as low as possible to keep the necessary nominal rating of the equipment to a minimum. Low values of and also decrease the consumption of reactive power and the harmonic distortion in the AC networks. To achieve this, most HVDC systems are controlled to maintain = min in normal operation. The DC voltage level is controlled by the transformer tap changer in inverter station B. The DC current is controlled by varying the DC voltage in rectifier station A, and thereby the voltage difference between A and B. Due to the small DC resistances in such a system, only a small voltage difference is required, and small variations in rectifier voltage gives large variations in current and transmitted power. The DC current through a converter cannot change the direction of flow. So the only way to change the direction of power flow through a DC transmission line is to reverse the voltage of the line. But the sign of the voltage difference has to be kept constantly positive to keep the current flowing. To keep the firing angle as low as possible, the transformer tap changer in rectifier station A is operated to keep on an operating value which gives only the necessary margin to min to be able to control the current.
Converter current/voltage characteristics The resistive voltage drop in converter and transformer, as well as the non current voltage drop in the thyristor valves are often disregarded in practical analysis, as they are normally in the magnitude of 0.5 % of the normal operating voltage. The commutation voltage drop, however, has to be taken into account as this is in the magnitude of 5 to 10 % of the normal
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operating voltage. The direct voltage Ud from a 6-pulse bridge converter can then be expressed by
where is the firing angle, If the converter is operating as inverter it is more convenient to operate with extinction angle instead of firing angle . The extinction angle is defined as the angle between the end of commutation to the next zero crossing of the commutation voltage. Firing angle , commutation angle and extinction angle are related by
In inverter mode, the direct voltage from the inverter can be written as
The current/voltage characteristics expressed in above are shown for normal values of id and dxN. In order to create a characteristic diagram for the complete transmission, it is usual to define positive voltage in inverter operation in the opposite direction compared to rectifier operation. It is clear that to operate both converters on a constant firing/extinction angle principle is like leaving them without control. This will not give a stable point of operation, as both characteristics have approximately the same slope. Small differences appear due to variations in transformer data and voltage drop along the line. To gain the best possible control the characteristics should cross at as close to a right angle as possible. This means that one of the characteristics should preferably be constant current. This can only be achieved by a current controller. If the current/voltage diagram of the rectifier is combined with a constant current controller characteristic we get the steady state diagram in Figure below for converter station A. A similar diagram can be drawn for Dept of EEE, SCET Page 25
converter station B. If we apply the reversed polarity convention for the inverter and combine the diagrams for station A and station B we get the diagram in Figure below In normal operation, the rectifier will be operating in current control mode with the firing angle, > min
Steady state ud/id diagram for converter station A Steady state ud/id diagram for converter station A.&B The inverter has a slightly lower current command than the rectifier and tries to decrease the current by increasing the counter voltage, but cannot decrease beyond min. Thus we get the operating point A. We assume that the characteristic for station B is referred to station A, that is it is corrected for the voltage drop along the transmission line. This voltage drop is in the magnitude of 1-5 % of the rated DC voltage. If the AC Dept of EEE, SCET Page 26
voltage at the rectifier station drops, due to some external disturbance, the voltage difference is reduced and the DC current starts to sink. The current controller in the rectifier station starts to reduce the firing angle , but soon meets the limit min, so the current cannot be upheld. When the current sinks below the current command of the inverter, the inverter control reduces the counter voltage to keep the current at the inverter current command, until a new stable operating point B is reached. If the current command at station A is decreased below that of station B, station A will see a current that is to high and start to increase the firing angle , to reduce the voltage. Station B will see a diminishing current and try to keep it up by increasing the extinction angle to reduce the counter voltage. Finally station A meets the min limit and cannot reduce the voltage any further and the new operating point will be at point C. Here the voltage has been reversed to negative while the current is still positive, that is the power flow has been reversed. Station A is operating as inverter and station B as rectifier. The difference between the current commands of the rectifier and the inverter is called the current margin. It is possible to change the power flow in the transmission simply by changing the sign of the current margin, but in practice it is desirable to do this in more controllable ways. Therefore the inverter is normally equipped with a min limitation in the range of 95-105. To avoid current fluctuations between operating points A and B at small voltage variations the corner of the inverter characteristic is often cut off. Finally, it is not desirable to operate the transmission with high currents at low voltages, and most HVDC controls are equipped with voltage dependent current command limitation. Master control system The controls described above are basic and fairly standardized and similar for all HVDC converter stations. The master control, however, is usually system specific and individually designed. Depending on the requirements of the transmission, the control can be designed for constant current or constant power transmitted, or it can be designed to help stabilizing the Dept of EEE, SCET Page 27
frequency in one of the AC networks by varying the amount of active power transmitted. The control systems are normally identical in both converter systems in a transmission, but the master control is only active in the station selected to act as the master station, which controls the current command. The calculated current command is transmitted by a communication system to the slave converter station, where the predesigned current margin is added if the slave is to act as rectifier, subtracted if it is to act as inverter. In order to synchronize the two converters and assure that they operate with same current command (apart from the current margin), a tele-communications channel is required. Should the telecommunications system fail for any reason, the current commands to both converters are frozen, thus allowing the transmission to stay in operation. Special fail-safe techniques are applied to ensure that the telecommunications system is fault-free. The requirements for the telecommunications system are especially high if the transmission is required to have a fast control of the transmitted power, and the time delay in processing and transmitting these signals will influence the dynamics of the total control system.
4.
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT HVACHVDC

In order to examine the behavior of the losses in combined
transmission and not in order to provide the best economical solutions for real case projects. Thus, most of the configurations are overrated, increasing the initial investment cost and consequently the energy transmission cost. The small number of different configurations analyzed provides a limited set of results, from which specific conclusions can be drawn regarding the energy transmission cost. Nevertheless, the same approach, as for the individual HVACHVDC systems, is followed in order to evaluate the energy availability and the energy transmission cost.
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Presentation of Selected Configurations and Calculation of the Energy Transmission Cost :

For the combined HVAC-HVDC transmission systems only 500 MW and 1000 MW wind-farms were considered. The choices for the transmission distance was limited to 50, 100 and 200 km. The three following, general combinations were compared: 1. HVAC + HVDC VSC 2. HVAC + HVDC LCC
3. HVDC LCC + HVDC VSC
The specific configurations for each solution, based on the transmission distance and the size of the wind farm, are presented in Tables .
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Table: Configurations for the study of combined transmission systems. Windfarm rated at 500 MW
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Configurations for the study of combined transmission systems. Windfarm rated at 1000
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Only the rated power of each transmission technology changes every time while the distance to shore and the condition of the onshore grid remain the same. 1. 2. 3. The HVAC system has a voltage level of 220 kV and it connected The HVDC VSC system is connected to a grid of medium strength The HVDC LCC system is connected to a strong grid 200 km from to a weak grid 50 km from the offshore substation. at a distance of 100 km from the offshore substation. the offshore substation.The average losses for the cases described above were calculated by Barberis table-1 and Todorovic table-2. The losses and the results concerning the energy unavailability and the energy transmission cost are presented in Table -3.
1000 MW Windfarm with Multiple Connection Points to Shore

Besides the combinations of the transmission technologies presented above, three cases of transmission solutions from a 1000 MW windfarm are analysed. In these cases the windfarm is connected to three different onshore grids, utilizing all three transmission technologies studied so far.
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Average power losses, energy unavailability and energy transmission cost for transmission solutions from a 1000 MW windfarm with multiple connection points to shore.
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5. SIMULTANEOUS ACDC POWER TRANSMISSION

Fig. 1 depicts the basic scheme for simultaneous acdc power flow through a double circuit ac transmission line. The dc power is obtained through line commutated 12-pulse rectifier bridge used in conventional HVDC and injected to the neutral point of the zigzag connected secondary of sending end transformer and is reconverted to ac again by the conventional line commutated 12-pulse bridge inverter at the receiving end. The inverter bridge is again connected to the neutral of zig-zag connected winding of the receiving end transformer. The double circuit ac transmission line carriers both three-phase ac and dc power. Each conductor of each line carries one third of the total dc current along with ac current. Resistance being equal in all the three phases of secondary winding of zig-zag transformer as well as the three conductors of the line, the dc current is equally divided among all the three phases.
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Fig. 1. Basic scheme for composite acdc transmission.
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The three conductors of the second line provide return path for the dc current. Zig-zag connected winding is used at both ends to avoid saturation of transformer due to dc current. Two fluxes produced by the dc current flowing through each of a winding in each limb of the core of a zig-zag transformer are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. So the net dc flux at any instant of time becomes zero in each limb of the core. Thus, the dc saturation of the core is avoided. A high value of reactor is used to reduce harmonics in dc current. In the absence of zero sequence and third harmonics or its multiple harmonic voltages, under normal operating conditions, the ac current flow through each transmission line will be restricted between the zigzag connected windings and the three conductors of the transmission line. Even the presence of these components of voltages may only be able to produce negligible current through the ground due to high value of . Assuming the usual constant
current control of rectifier and constant extinction angle control of inverter [4], [8][10], the equivalent circuit of the scheme under normal steadystate operating condition is given in Fig. 2. The dotted lines in the figure show the path of ac return current only. The second transmission line carries the return dc current , and each conductor of the line carries along with the ac current per phase. and are the maximum values of rectifier and inverter side dc voltages and are equal to times
converter ac input line-to-line voltage. R, L, and C are the line parameters per phase of each line. , are commutating resistances, and ,
are firing and extinction angles of rectifier and inverter, respectively. Neglecting the resistive drops in the line conductors and transformer windings due to dc current, expressions for ac voltage and current, and for active and reactive powers in terms of A, B, C, and D parameters of each line may be written as
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Neglecting ac resistive drop in the line and transformer, the dc power Pdr and Pdi of each rectifier and inverter may be expressed as
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The net current
in any conductor is offseted from zero.In case of a
fault in the transmission system, gate signals to all the SCRs are blocked and that to the bypass SCRs are released to protect rectifier and inverter bridges. The current in any conductor is no more offseted. Circuit breakers (CBs) are then tripped at both ends to isolate the faulty line. CBs connected at the two ends of transmission line interrupt current at natural current zeroes, and no special dc CB is required. Now, allowing the net current through the conductor equal to its thermal limit ( Ith)
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Let
be per-phase rms voltage of original ac line. Let Also
be the
per-phase voltage of ac component of composite acdc line with dc voltage superimposed on it. As insulators remain unchanged, the peak
voltage in both cases should be equal
Electric field produced by any conductor possesses a dc component superimpose on it a sinusoidally varying ac component. However, the instantaneous electric field polarity changes its sign twice in a cycle if is insured. Therefore, higher creepage distance requirement for insulator discs used for HVDC lines are not required. Each conductor is to be insulated for , dc component and . but the line-toline voltage has no Therefore, conductor-to-
conductor separation distance of each line is determined only by rated ac voltage of the line. Allowing maximum permissible voltage offset such that the composite voltage wave just touches zero in each every cycle;
The total power transfer through the double circuit line before conversion is as follows:
Where
is the transfer reactance per phase of the double circuit line,
and is the power angle between the voltages at the two ends. To keep sufficient stability margin, is generally kept low for long lines and
seldom exceeds 30 . With the increasing length of line, the loadability of the line is decreased [4]. An approximate value of may be computed
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from the loadability curve by knowing the values of surge impedance loading (SIL) and transfer reactance of the line
Where, M is the multiplying factor, and its magnitude decreases with the length of line. The value of M can be obtained from the loadability curve . The total power transfer through the composite line
The power angle
between the ac voltages at the two ends of the
composite line may be increased to a high value due to fast controllability of dc component of power. For a constant value of total power, may
be modulated by fast control of the current controller of dc power converters. Approximate value of ac current per phase per circuit of the double circuit line may be computed as
The rectifier dc current order is adjusted online as
Preliminary qualitative analysis suggests that commonly used techniques in HVDC/AC system may be adopted for the purpose of the design of protective scheme, filter, and instrumentation network to be used with the composite line for simultaneous acdc power flow. In case of a fault in the transmission system, gate signals to all the SCRs are blocked and that to the bypass SCRs are released to protect rectifier and inverter bridges. CBs are then tripped at both ends to isolate the complete system. A surge diverter connected between the zig-zag neutral and the ground protects the converter bridge against any over voltage.
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6. DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM MODEL

A synchronous machine is feeding power to infinite bus via a double circuit, three-phase, 400-KV, 50-Hz, 450-Km ac transmission line. The 2750-MVA (5 * 550), 24.0-KV synchronous machine is dynamically modeled, a field coil on d-axis and a damper coil on q-axis, by Parks equations with the frame of reference based in rotor [4]. It is equipped with an IEEE type
AC4A excitation system of which block diagram is shown in Fig. 3. Transmission lines are represented as the Bergeron model. It is based on a
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distributed LC parameter travelling wave line model, with lumped resistance. It represents the L and C elements of a PI section in a distributed manner (i.e., it does not use lumped parameters). It is roughly equivalent to using an infinite number of PI sections, except that the resistance is lumped (1/2 in the middle of the line, 1/4 at each end). Like PI sections, the Bergeron model accurately represents the fundamental frequency only. It also represents impedances at other frequencies, except that the losses do not change. This model is suitable for studies where the fundamental frequency load flow is most important. The converters on each end of dc link are modeled as line commutated two six- pulse bridge (12-pulse), Their control system consist of constant current (CC) and constant extinction angle (CEA) and voltage dependent current order limiters (VDCOL) control. The converters are connected to ac buses via Y-Y and Y- converter transformers. Each bridge is a compact power system computer-aided design (SIMULINK) representation of a dc converter, which includes a built in six-pulse Graetz converter bridge (can be inverter or rectifier), an internal phase locked oscillator (PLO), firing and valve blocking controls, and firing angle /extinction angle
measurements. It also includes built in RC snubber circuits for each thyristor. The controls used in dc system are those of CIGRE Benchmark , modified to suit at desired dc voltage. Ac filters at each end on ac sides of converter transformers are connected to filter out 11th and 13th harmonics. These filters and shunt capacitor supply reactive power requirements of converters. A master current controller (MCC), shown in Fig. 4, is used to control the current order for converters. . It measures the conductor ac current, computes the permissible dc current, and produces dc current order for inverters and rectifiers.
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7. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF COMPOSITE AC AND DC
p o w e r u p g r a d in g
a 3 b 3 c 3
b y
A B C A B C
c o m
+ + + -
b in in g
a c
d c
A B C A B C + + + -
t r a n s m
a 3 b 3 c 3
is s io n
D is trib u te d
P a ra m
Z ig z a g P h a s e -S h i fti n g
e te rs L i n e Z ig z a g P h a s e -S h i ftin g
T ra n s fo rm
e r1
T ra n s fo rm
e r
500kV, 60 Hz 5 0 0 0 M V A e q u iv a le n t
A B C
345kV , 50 Hz, 1 0 ,0 0 0 M V A e q u iv a
A B C +
+ i -
A B C
A B C
aA bB cC
+
eS ac so u p r e m e n t
A B
Aa Bb Cc
A B C
A B C
A B C
C u rre n t M
p h i = 8 0 d e g . 3 rd h a rm .
B re c t
R e c tifie r
I n v e r B e i nr v t
p h i = 8 0 d e g . 3 rd h a
a 3
O p e n th i s b lo c k to vi s u a li ze r e c o r d e d s ig n a l s D a ta A c q u i s i ti o n
A B C
b 3 c 3
A B C A B C
+ + + -
D i s tri b u te d
P a ra m
Z i g z a g P h a s e -S h i ftin g
T ra n s fo rm
A C fil te rs 6 0 H z 6 0 0 M v a r
e te rs L in e 1 Z i g z a g P h a s e -S h i ftin g T ra n s fo rm e r2 A C fi lte rs 5 0 H z 6 0 0 M v a r
A B C
A B C A B C
+ + + -
a 3 b 3 c 3
e r3
D is c re te , T s = s .
M a s te r C o n tr o l R e c tifie r C o n tr o l a n d P r o te c ti o n
M a s te r C o n tr o l
In v e r te r C o n tro l a n d
P r o te c tio n
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Blocks functionalities
Three-Phase Source The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with an internal R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection that can be internally grounded or made accessible. You can specify the source internal resistance and inductance either directly by entering R and L values or indirectly by specifying the source inductive short-circuit level and X/R ratio. Three-Phase Parallel RLC Branch The Three-Phase Parallel RLC Branch block implements three balanced branches consisting each of a resistor, an inductor, a capacitor, or a parallel combination of these. To eliminate either the resistance, inductance, or capacitance of each branch, the R, L, and C values must be set respectively to infinity (inf), infinity (inf), and 0. Only existing elements are displayed in the block icon. Negative values are allowed for resistance, inductance, and capacitance Three-Phase Transformer (Three Windings) This block implements a three-phase transformer by using three singlephase transformers with three windings. You can simulate the saturable core or not simply by setting the appropriate check box in the parameter menu of the block. See the Linear Transformer and Saturable Transformer block sections for a detailed description of the electrical model of a singlephase transformer. The three windings of the transformer can be connected in the following manner: Y Y with accessible neutral (for windings 1 and 3 only) Grounded Y Delta (D1), delta lagging Y by 30 degrees Delta (D11), delta leading Y by 30 degrees
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Universal Bridge The Universal Bridge block implements a universal three-phase power converter that consists of up to six power switches connected in a bridge configuration. The type of power switch and converter configuration are selectable from the dialog box. The Universal Bridge block allows simulation of converters using both naturally commutated (or line-commutated) power electronic devices (diodes or thyristors) and forced-commutated devices (GTO, IGBT, MOSFET). The Universal Bridge block is the basic block for building two-level voltage-sourced converters (VSC). Connection Port The Connection Port block, placed inside a subsystem composed of SimPowerSystems blocks, creates a Physical Modeling open round connector port on the boundary of the subsystem. Once connected to a connection line, the port becomes solid . Once you begin the simulation, the solid port becomes an electrical terminal port, an open square . You connect individual SimPowerSystems blocks and subsystems made of sim Power Systems blocks to one another with Sim Power Systems connection lines, instead of normal Simulink signal lines. These are anchored at the open, round connector ports . Subsystems constructed of SimPowerSystems blocks automatically have such open round connector ports. You can add additional connector ports by adding Connection Port blocks to your subsystem Breaker The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal (external control mode), or from an internal control timer (internal control mode).
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The arc extinction process is simulated by opening the breaker device when the current passes through 0 (first current zero crossing following the transition of the Simulink control input from 1 to 0). When the breaker is closed it behaves as a resistive circuit. It is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value can be set as small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external components (typical value is 10 m). When the breaker is open it has an infinite resistance. If the Breaker block is set in external control mode, a Simulink input appears on the block icon. The control signal connected to the Simulink input must be either 0 or 1: 0 to open the breaker, 1 to close it. If the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are specified in the dialog box of the block. If the breaker initial state is set to 1 (closed), SimPowerSystems automatically initializes all the states of the linear circuit and the Breaker block initial current so that the simulation starts in steady state. A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the circuit breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an open circuit or a current source, you must use a snubber. Distributed Parameter Line Implement an N-phase distributed parameter transmission line model with lumped losses. The Distributed Parameter Line block implements an Nphase distributed parameter line model with lumped losses. The model is based on the Bergeron's traveling wave method used by the Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP).In this model, the lossless distributed LC line is characterized by two values (for a single-phase line) For multiphase line models, modal transformation is used to convert line quantities from phase values (line currents and voltages) into modal values independent of each other. The previous calculations are made in the modal domain before being converted back to phase values. In comparison to the PI section line model, the distributed line represents wave Dept of EEE, SCET Page 47
propagation phenomena and line end reflections with much better accuracy. Description of the Control and Protection Systems The control systems of the rectifier and of the inverter use the same Discrete HVDC Controller block from the Discrete Control Blocks library of the SimPowerSystems Extras library. The block can operate in either rectifier or inverter mode. At the inverter, the Gamma Measurement block is used and it is found in the same library. The Master Control system generates the current reference for both converters and initiates the starting and stopping of the DC power transmission. The protection systems can be switched on and off. At the rectifier, the DC fault protection detects a fault on the line and takes the necessary action to clear the fault. The Low AC Voltage Detection subsystem at the rectifier and inverter serves to discriminate between an AC fault and a DC fault. At the inverter, the Commutation Failure Prevention Control subsystem [2] mitigates commutation failures due to AC voltage dips. A more detailed description is given in each of these protection blocks. HVDC Controller Block Inputs and Outputs Inputs 1and 2 are the DC line voltage (VdL) and current (Id). Note that the measured DC currents (Id_R and Id_I in A) and DC voltages (VdL_R and VdL_I in V) are scaled to p.u. (1 p.u. current = 2 kA; 1 p.u. voltage = 500 kV) before they are used in the controllers. The VdL and Id inputs are filtered before being processed by the regulators. A first-order filter is used on the Id input and a second-order filter is used on the VdL input. Inputs 3 and 4 (Id_ref and Vd_ref) are the Vd and Id reference values in p.u. Input 5 (Block) accepts a logical signal (0 or 1) used to block the converter when Block = 1. Input 6 (Forced-alpha) is also a logical signal that can be used for protection purposes. If this signal is high (1), the firing angle is forced at the value defined in the block dialog box.
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Input 7 (gamma_meas) is the measured minimum extinction angle of the converter 12 valves. It is obtained by combining the outputs of two 6-pulse Gamma Measurement blocks. Input 8 (gamma_ref) is the extinction angle reference in degrees. To minimize the reactive power absorption, the reference is set to a minimum acceptable angle (e.g., 18 deg). Finally, input 9 (D_alpha) is a value that is subtracted from the delay angle maximum limit to increase the commutation margin during transients. The first output (alpha_ord) is the firing delay angle in degrees ordered by the regulator. The second output (Id_ref_lim) is the actual reference current value (value of Id_ref limited by the VDCOL function as explained below). The third output (Mode) is an indication of the actual state of the converter control mode. The state is given by a number (from 0 to 6) as follows: 0 Blocked pulses 1 Current control 2 Voltage control 3 Alpha minimum limitation 4 Alpha maximum limitation 5 Forced or constant alpha 6 Gamma control Synchronization and Firing System The synchronization and generation of the twelve firing pulses is performed in the 12-Pulse Firing Control system. Use Look under mask to see how this block is built. This block uses the primary voltages (input 2) to synchronize and generate the pulses according to the alpha firing angle computed by converter controller (input 1). The synchronizing voltages are measured at the primary side of the converter transformer because the waveforms are less distorted. A Phase Locked Loop (PLL) is used to generate three voltages synchronized on the fundamental component of the positive-sequence voltages. The firing pulse generator is synchronized to Dept of EEE, SCET Page 49
the three voltages generated by the PLL. At the zero crossings of the commutating voltages (AB, BC, CA), a ramp is reset. A firing pulse is generated whenever the ramp value becomes equal to the desired delay angle provided by the controller.
SIMULINK
Simulink is a graphical extension to MATLAB for modeling and simulation of systems. In Simulink, systems are drawn on screen as block diagrams. Many elements of block diagrams are available, such as transfer functions, summing junctions, etc., as well as virtual input and output devices such as function generators and oscilloscopes. Simulink is integrated with MATLAB and data can be easily transferred between the programs. In these tutorials, we will apply Simulink to the examples from the MATLAB tutorials to model the systems, build controllers, and simulate the systems. Simulink is supported on UNIX, Macintosh, and Windows environments; and is included in the student version of MATLAB for personal computers. Simulink is started from the MATLAB command prompt by entering the following command: simulink Alternatively, you can hit the New Simulink Model button at the top of the MATLAB command window as shown below:
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When it starts, Simulink brings up two windows. The first is the main Simulink window, which appears as:
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The second window is a blank, untitled, model window. This is the window into which a new model can be drawn. Basic Elements There are two major classes of items in Simulink: blocks and lines. Blocks are used to generate, modify, combine, output, and display signals. Lines are used to transfer signals from one block to another. Blocks: There are several general classes of blocks:

Sources: Used to generate various signals Sinks: Used to output or display signals Discrete: Linear, discrete-time system elements (transfer functions, Linear: Linear, continuous-time system elements and connections Nonlinear: Nonlinear operators (arbitrary functions, saturation, Connections: Multiplex, Demultiplex, System Macros, etc.
state-space models, etc.)
(summing junctions, gains, etc.)
delay, etc.)
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Blocks have zero to several input terminals and zero to several output terminals. Unused input terminals are indicated by a small open triangle. Unused output terminals are indicated by a small triangular point. The block shown below has an unused input terminal on the left and an unused output terminal on the right.
Lines Lines transmit signals in the direction indicated by the arrow. Lines must always transmit signals from the output terminal of one block to the input terminal of another block. On exception to this is a line can tap off of another line, splitting the signal to each of two destination blocks, as shown below (click the figure to download the model file called split.mdl).
Lines can never inject a signal into another line; lines must be combined through the use of a block such as a summing junction. Dept of EEE, SCET Page 53
A signal can be either a scalar signal or a vector signal. For Single-Input, Single-Output systems, scalar signals are generally used. For Multi-Input, Multi-Output systems, vector signals are often used, consisting of two or more scalar signals. The lines used to transmit scalar and vector signals are identical. The type of signal carried by a line is determined by the blocks on either end of the line. Simple Example
The simple model (from the model file section) consists of three blocks: Step, Transfer Fcn, and Scope. The Step is a source block from which a step input signal originates. This signal is transfered through the line in the direction indicated by the arrow to the Transfer Function linear block. The Transfer Function modifies its input signal and outputs a new signal on a line to the Scope. The Scope is a sink block used to display a signal much like an oscilloscope. There are many more types of blocks available in Simulink, some of which will be discussed later. Right now, we will examine just the three we have used in the simple model.
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Modifying Blocks A block can be modified by double-clicking on it. For example, if you double-click on the "Transfer Fcn" block in the simple model, you will see the following dialog box.
This dialog box contains fields for the numerator and the denominator of the block's transfer function. By entering a vector containing the coefficients of the desired numerator or denominator polynomial, the desired transfer function can be entered. For example, to change the denominator to s^2+2s+1, enter the following into the denominator field: [1 2 1] and hit the close button, the model window will change to the following,
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which reflects the change in the denominator of the transfer function.
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The "step" block can also be double-clicked, bringing up the following dialog box.
The default parameters in this dialog box generate a step function occurring at time=1 sec, from an initial level of zero to a level of 1. (in other words, a unit step at t=1). Each of these parameters can be changed. Close this dialog before continuing. The most complicated of these three blocks is the "Scope" block. Double clicking on this brings up a blank oscilloscope screen.
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When a simulation is performed, the signal which feeds into the scope will be displayed in this window. Detailed operation of the scope will not be covered in this tutorial. The only function we will use is the autoscale button, which appears as a pair of binoculars in the upper portion of the window. Running Simulations To run a simulation, we will work with the following model file:
Before running a simulation of this system, first open the scope window by double-clicking on the scope block. Then, to start the simulation, either
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select Start from the Simulation menu (as shown below) or hit Ctrl-T in the model window.
The simulation should run very quickly and the scope window will appear as shown below.
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Note that the simulation output (shown in yellow) is at a very low level relative to the axes of the scope. To fix this, hit the autoscale button (binoculars), which will rescale the axes as shown below.
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Note that the step response does not begin until t=1. This can be changed by double-clicking on the "step" block. Now, we will change the parameters of the system and simulate the system again. Double-click on the "Transfer Fcn" block in the model window and change the denominator to [1 20 400] Re-run the simulation (hit Ctrl-T) and you should see what appears as a flat line in the scope window. Hit the autoscale button, and you should see the following in the scope window.
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Notice that the auto scale button only changes the vertical axis. Since the new transfer function has a very fast response, it it compressed into a very narrow part of the scope window. This is not really a problem with the scope, but with the simulation itself. Simulink simulated the system for a full ten seconds even though the system had reached steady state shortly after one second. To correct this, you need to change the parameters of the simulation itself. In the model window, select Parameters from the Simulation menu. You will see the following dialog box.
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There are many simulation parameter options; we will only be concerned with the start and stop times, which tell Simulink over what time period to perform the simulation. Change Start time from 0.0 to 0.8 (since the step doesn't occur until t=1.0. Change Stop time from 10.0 to 2.0, which should be only shortly after the system settles. Close the dialog box and rerun the simulation. After hitting the autoscale button, the scope window should provide a much better display of the step response as shown below.
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8.
RESULT
Input Scope
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Output Scope
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9. CONCLUSION
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The feasibility to convert ac transmission line to a composite acdc line has been demonstrated. For the particular system studied, there is substantial increase (about 83.45%) in the load ability of the line. The line is loaded to its thermal limit with the superimposed dc current. The dc power flow does not impose any stability problem. The advantage of parallel acdc transmission is obtained. Dc current regulator may modulate ac power flow. There is no need for any modification in the size of conductors, insulator strings, and towers structure of the original line. The optimum values of ac and dc voltage components of the converted composite line are 1/2 and times the ac voltage before conversion, respectively.
11.REFERENCES
HVDC Power Transmission Systems by K.R.Padiyar. FACTS -Flexible AC Transmissions System by N.G.Hingorani. HVDC Conversion of AC Lines to provide substantial power upgrading by A.Clerici, L.Paris. Simultaneous AC - DC Power Transmission by K.P.Basu & B.H.Khan. Analysis of DC link controlled for system stabilization by K.R.Padiyar & M.A.Pai.
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Power Upgrading of Transmission Lines by Combining Ac & DC

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POWER UPGRADING OF TRANSMISSION LINES BY COMBINING AC & DC

ABSTRACT POWER UPGRADING OF TRANSMISSION LINES BY COMBINING AC & DC

Dept of EEE, SCET