Voluntary Movements of Infancy

Saturday, February 11, 2012 12:53 PM

- Categories for the voluntary movements Stability Head control Body control Locomotion Creeping Crawling walking Manipulation Reaching Grasping Releasing Cephalocaudal pattern of movement Head control Upper body control Lower body control - Stability Head control Voluntary movements begin at the head Control is evident by end of first month Month 2:infant elevates head when prone Months 2-3: infant positions head from left to right or right to left when prone Month 5: infant elevates head when supine Body control Chest elevation Segmented rolling back to front Crawling Ability to maintain upright posture frees the hands and arms for reaching and grasping 3 Tries to roll from months supine to prone; maintains sitting position 5 Sits when holding months external supporting objects 6 Rolls from supine to months prone position; maintains standing position when assisted 7 Achieves sitting months position from prone or supine position 8 Sits alone; rolls from months prone to supine position

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9-10 Pulls self to standing months position 12 Stands unassisted months

- Locomotion Prone Evolves form children gaining the ability to position their bodies for movement from one location in space to another Crawling Precedes creeping Inefficient, highly variable arm and leg movements intended to propel the body forward Body is dragged Creeping Contralateral or homolateral movement Contralateral- same side Homolateral- opposite side More efficient form of prone locomotion Body is elevated Upright Walking The culmination of the acquisition of voluntary movements
7 Crawling with months slight elevation of trunk; occasional forward movement 7-8 Initial crawling months 9-12 Creeping; creeping upstairs

8 Walks with months considerable assistance 10 Walks laterally months around furniture 11 Walks when led months

12 Walks unassisted months

- Manipulation Use of the hands enable children to gather information about their environment in a new way Phase I Simultan eous reaching and grasping Onehanded Phase II Differentia ted reaching and grasping Twohanded
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handed reaching

handed reaching

Visual initiation of the reach

Visual initiation and guidance of the reach

Visual Tactile control of control of the grasp the grasp

Birth
1 month

Phase I reaching
Phase I reaching disappears

4 Phase I reaching reappears months 4-5 Unable to receive multiple toys months 5-6 Thumb used to oppose fingers in grasping months 6 Receives two toys while storing one toy in months opposite hand 6-8 Receives two toys while storing one toy in months opposite hand

9 Adjusts arm and hand tension to objects months weight after grasping
9-10 Thumb can oppose one finger in grasping months 9-11 Receives three toys; stores first two toys on months lap or chair 12 Adjusts arm and hand tension upon repeatedly months receiving the same object 12-14 Receives three or more toys and crosses months midline to hand toys to other person 18 Releases objects with relative ease; anticipates months arm and hand tension for repeated presentation of same object; expects unknown long objects to weigh more than short objects

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Fine Motor Development

Saturday, February 18, 2012 8:56 PM

- Fine motor development: movements that are predominantly produced by the small muscles or muscle groups in the body Tools for assessment of fine motor developments has many problems Lack clear performance criteria Contain incomplete and/or "old" norms - Categorizing manipulation Manipulation is the use of the hands Involves intrinsic and extrinsic movements Intrinsic Coordinated movements of the individuals digits used to manage an object in the hand Extrinsic Displace the hand and the in-hand object via upper limb movement Synergies Simple Involves all hand movements in which the action of all the digits is similar Squeezing a rubber ball Pinching Dynamic tripod Reciprocal Combinations of movements involving the thumb and other involved digits reciprocally and simultaneously interacting to produce relatively dissimilar movements Flexion of the fingers as the thumb extends Twiddling of the thumbs Rolling a pencil between the thumb and forefinger Sequential patterns Involve a specific sequence of hand movements toward a goal Patterns are not simultaneous Tying a knot Unscrewing a lid Squeezing a tube of toothpaste - Development of prehension Applies specifically to the act of grasping Halverson chronicled the process of prehension The object is visually located The object is approached The object is grasped The child disposes of the object by releasing it Halverson recorded 3 basic methods of reaching Sweeping the hand and arm in a backhand manner Indirect or circuitous method which involves approaches from various angles Direct reach, evident in motorically mature children Alternate views other researchers have observed Children open their hands wide than adults Children are more variable in their reach-to-grasp
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Children are more variable in their reach-to-grasp Grip formation is not mature by 6-7 years Children rely on vision in reaching Exploratory procedures and Haptic perception Haptic perception: the ability to glean information from objects by manipulations Temperature- less than 6 months Size- greater than eight months Texture- greater than six months Weight- roughly around nine months Shape- 12-15 months Writing There is a sequential development of movement technique for manipulation of writing or drawing implements (pencils, crayons) Development is universal Rate of acquisition of the stages of movement ability varies Develops between 2 to 6 years of age Development of holding a pencil as writing develops, the hand moves closer to the tip of the pencil At first, children hold the pencil away from the tip and movements come from the shoulder Later, the elbow produces more movement Finally, the fingers and thumb gain control (dynamic tripod) Mature writing pattern observed by 7 years of age Holding a writing implement Stage one Supinate grasp Involves all four fingers and thumb wrapped around pencil in a fist Stage two Pronate grasp Palm-down hand position Stage three Dynamic tripod Present by age 7 As children advance in handwriting there is an increase in: Upright posture Trunk and hand stability Hand is better positioned in line with the forearm Forward lean of trunk Yakimishyn and Magill-Evans (2002) observed children had a more mature manner in holding a writing implement if the object is hurt (crayon vs. a long pencil) These researchers also found a more mature pattern of writing when children wrote on a vertical surface (easel) Cross-cultural comparison of the dynamic tripod Japanese children attain the dynamic tripod by 35 months Children learn to use chopsticks early in life British children attain the dynamic tripod at age 48 months Drawing and writing: movement products Children learn to draw before they attempt to form the letters of the alphabet Drawing stages follow a definite progression, but the specific age norms for drawing are not easy to determine
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for drawing are not easy to determine Drawing is partly a function of mental age Children with brain injuries (lower mental age) will have difficulty drawing compared to peers Children with lower mental age display immature drawings because brain sends conflicting stimuli to the hand Stages for drawing Stage one Scribbling stage May occur by accident Stage two Construction of diagrams, geometric figures, and combinations of shapes Eventually shapes form familiar object Ex. A house Stage three Aggregate stage Child combines diagrams and figures in combinations of three ore more More complex drawings can be created Stage four Pictorial stage Pictures are drawn with more precision and complexity Compare this human form to the previous drawing Home environment is one of the most important factors affecting the level of drawing development Child observes others drawing Availability of writing implements - Handwriting: The Product Handwriting is preceded by the initial attempt at drawing Letters a child forms at 4 years of age are often uppercase, large, and unorganized on a page By age 5 or 6, the child has mastered name printing By age 7, children are able to write much smaller letters and can effectively print lowercase letters Children in the second grade can master uppercase letters and printing their name Spacing between letters is not mastered until the child is 9 years old - Finger tapping An important indicator of fine motor coordination Used to diagnose neurological difficulty Finger-tapping tasks are categorized into repetitive and successive movements Repetitive- repetitions of the same movement (thumb and finger tapping together) as rapidly as possible Successive- a series of similar movements performed rapidly (thumb then finger tapping) Improves with age Girls out-perform boys Speed and coordination of performance occur over the first years of life Plateaus at 8 to 10 years old - Fine motor movement in later adulthood Speed and coordination of many fine motor movements plateau early in
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 Speed and coordination of many fine motor movements plateau early in life No major motor changes are observed until late adulthood Degeneration of neurons Arthritis Osteoporosis Reversal of the Proximodistal progression Exceptions Physically fit and/or healthy adults maintain their speed of movement Practice inhibits the slowing process Movement involved in the creation of vocal responses shows fewer signs of slowing

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Fundamental Locomotion Skills of Children

Thursday, February 23, 2012 11:11 AM

- The building blocks of more specific skills that are developed later in childhood - Prewalking movements Creeping Crawling Locomoting wit hands held - Major limitation the hands are required to move Child cannot explore the environment - Walking Characterized by a progressive alteration of leading legs and continuous contact with the support surface Gait cycle (walking cycle)- distance covered by two heel strikes of the same foot Phases: Swing phase Begins foot of one leg leaves support surface Ends when foot touches surface Support phase Time when balance is maintained on one foot Right foot in swing phase while left foot is in support phase Double support phase When both feet are in contact with the ground Independent walking requires: Leg strength equilibrium Characteristic (weeks after onset of independent walking) Heel strike Base within lateral - dimensions of the trunk Synchronous movement of upper extremities Double knee lock Appear Range ance* *

22.6 17.5

3-50 5-43

21.6

6-43

27.2

8-55

- Running Natural extension of walking Characterized by an alternate support phase, flight phase, and recovery phase Immature running is similar to immature walking Wide base of support Arms held in high guard position Flat-footed contact with floor Reverting to an immature walking pattern allows the child to improve balance and confidence for the new movement
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the new movement Phases Support and flight The leg absorbs the impact of the striking foot, supports the body, and maintains forward motion while accelerating the body's COG as the leg provides thrust to propel the body forward Recovery Back leg is brought forward quickly Experienced runners flex the knee so the recovery foot comes close to hitting the buttocks Inexperienced runners have very little knee and hip flexion Dynamic base A change in the width of the base of support from wide (immature walking) to narrow (mature walking) Foot angle Amount of toeing in or out Walking speed Determined by the length of the stride and the speed of the stepping movements Step frequency decreases with advancing age during childhood years Not fully mature until about seven years of age - Running Natural extension of walking Characterized by: Alternate support phase and flight phase The leg absorbs the impact of the striking foot, supports the body, and maintains forward motion while accelerating the body's COG (center of gravity) as the leg provides thrust to propel the body forward Recovery phase Back leg is brought forward quickly Experienced runners flex the knee Inexperienced runners have very little knee flexion Requirements: Adequate lower limb strength to propel body forward Adequate lower limb strength to handle the additional force encountered when the airborne foot strikes the supporting surface Improved motor coordination to control the moving legs Immature running is similar to immature walking Wide base of support Arms hold in high guard position Flat-footed contact with the floor Arm action Beginning Arms are flexed and held in high guard position More adult-like Arms are lowered and hang free, but do not help with running speed; arms swing across midline Experienced Arms in opposition to legs, elbows flexed at 90 degrees; vigorous pumping action toward midline Running speed Girls Peaks about 14 to 15 years old Boys Improves beyond 17 years old - Jumping
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- Jumping Body is projected into the air by force generated in one or both legs and the body lands on one or both feet Forms: Hopping Leaping Downward leap may be the first jumping experience when going down a step Phases: Prepatory phase Crouch Flexion at hips, knees, and ankles Backward swing of the arm Missing in inexperienced arms Takeoff and flight phase Rapid and vigorous extension of the hips, knees, and ankles along with vigorous swing of the arms in the direction of desired travel provide the impetus for the body to become airborne Maximum takeoff angle: 45 degrees Landing phase The advanced jumper absorbs the landing forces by flexing the knees, hips, and ankles at impact Hopping A form of jumping One foot is used to project the body into space with landing on the same foot More difficult than two-footed jump Performed better with preferred foot Requires additional strength and better balance Girls approximately six months more advanced compared to boys - Gallop, slide, and skip Fundamental motor patterns can be combined to elicit new movement patterns Gallop is exhibited first Forward step followed by a leap onto trailing foot Same leg always leads Slide is same as a gallop, except sliding moves in side-ways movement Difficult because must face ahead while moving side-ways Very important as it is used in many sports Ex. Sliding the baseline in tennis Leading off a base Guarding a basketball opponent Skipping Most difficult motor pattern Forward step followed by a hop on the same foot Requires dual task of same leg Alternation of lead leg Balance may be difficult

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Fundamental Object-Control Skills of Childhood

Wednesday, February 29, 2012 8:30 AM

- Object-control: when the child is able to ambulate freely, the hands are free to use in a new fundamental skill - Overarm throwing One of most complex fundamental movements Can be divided into 3 phases: Prepatory phase All movements directed away from the intended line of projection Execution phase All movements performed in the direction of the throw Follow through All movements following the release of the projectile Developmental stages of throwing Trends Movement progresses from an anterior-posterior plane to a horizontal plane The base of support changes from a stationery to a shifting position Stages Stage One Throwing motion is posterior-anterior in direction Feet do not move Little trunk rotation Stage Two More rotation of the body Performer may step forward Arm brought forward in transverse plane Stage Three Ipsilateral arm-leg action Ball is placed into throwing position above the shoulder by a vertical and posterior motion of the arm at the time that the ipsilateral leg is moving forward Stage Four Movement is contralateral Little or no rotation of the hips and spine during wind-up Stride forwards provides a wide base of support Stage Five Mature movement pattern Age at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific developmental level Performance trends Study techniques Throw for distance Throw for accuracy Measurement of throwing velocity Annual movement regardless of study technique Boys and men outperform girls and women at all ages Factors that influence overarm throwing performance Instruction Affects changes in throwing technique, but not greater horizontal ball velocities
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velocities An "increased range of motion instruction" program can increase the stride length component of the overarm throw A training program designed to improve throwing pattern can be effective in improving girls' foot action and pelvic-spine rotation, but not arm action, throwing distance, or ball velocity Knowledge Awkward throws possess significantly less declarative knowledge than more talented throwers Knowledge of throwing influences performance Instructional cues Identification of critical cues facilitates throwing performance Ball size When ball diameter is scaled up, a transitional point is reached where the performer resorts to a less mature throwing pattern in the backswing and forearm components As diameter increases, there is a transition from one-handed grasping to two-handed grasping Ball size and hand width are important in throwing performance Angle of ball release Mature throwing pattern angle of relapse is 15 degrees Accounting for gender differences in overarm throwing Greatest gender differences for all fundamental skills is found in throwing Best predictors of throwing development in: Girls Participation in sport Presence of an older brother in the household Boys Father's sport involvement Father-son skill play - Catching: the action of bringing an airborne object under control by using the hands and arms Developmental aspects: two-handed catching First attempt to stop a rolling object is to sit on floor with legs spread apart Legs trap ball Hands trap ball First attempt at an airborne object is passive Tosser throws ball so child can use the outstretched arms and body to catch Stages Stage One Arms are directly in front with elbows extended; palms facing upward and inward Arms and hands attempt to secure the ball by holding it against the chest Stage Two Elbows are slightly flexed Arms encircle the ball against the chest Arm action initiated before ball contact Stage Three Substage 1: child uses chest as first contact point Substage 2: child attempts to catch ball with hands Stage Four Child prepares to receive the ball by flexing the elbows and
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 Child prepares to receive the ball by flexing the elbows and presenting the arms ahead of the frontal plane Ball is caught with the hands alone Stage Five Many children encounter difficulty when they are, required to move toward the object Developmental aspects: one-handed catching Factors that influence catching performance Ball size product Ball and background color Blue and yellow balls are caught successfully more often than white balls Blue balls against white background elicit the highest success For both guys and girls, using preferred color of ball results in greater catching success Ball velocity Trajectory angle Vision and viewing time Instruction Knowledge and experience Catching on the run Catching with a glove - Striking: a fundamental movement in which a designated body part or some implement is used to project an object Developmental aspects of one- and two-handed striking Stages Stage One Motion is posterior-anterior in direction Elbows are fully flexed Feet remain stationary Stage Two Feet are stationary or right or left may receive the weight Unitary rotation of hip and trunk Bat moves in transverse plane Stage Three Shift of weight to the front-supporting foot in an ipsilateral pattern Trunk rotation-derotation decreased Bat is swung in an oblique-vertical plane Stage Four Mature striking pattern - Kicking; another form of striking; the foot is used to give impetus to the ball Place kicking- involves kicking a ball from the ground or a tee Stages Stage One Performer is usually near the ball Thigh of kicking leg moves forward Knee extension occurs after contact Stage Two Hyperextension at hip and flexion at knee Kicking leg moves forward with knee flexed Arm-leg opposition occurs during kick Force of kick usually not sufficient8uuuiji to move the body forward Stage Three
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 Stage Three one or more steps taken on approach Kicking foot stays nears surface as it approaches ball Knee begins to extend prior to contact Arm-leg opposition Stage Four Mature kicking pattern - Punting: involves striking an airborne ball with the foot Stages Stage One Ball may be held in both hands as the punting foot lifts forward and upward to push the ball Ball may be tossed up; ball may be bounced Flexion at the hip and knee from stationary start Stage Two Stationary start Ball held in both hands and stopped or tossed forward Nonsupport is flexed Kicking force is more upward Stage Three Forward motion Ball released forward and downward direction Knee flexed at 90 degrees Follow-through will carry punter forward Stage Four Rapid approach with culminating step Ball contacted at or below knee height Momentum of swinging leg carries the punter off the ground

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