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HafenCity University Resource Efficiency in Architecture and Planning Urban Water Cycles

Prof. Wolfgang Dickhaut

Urban Water Cycles in Egypt


Current situation and project examples

By: Ismail Khater


Matrikel-Nr.: 3023136 Summer Semester 2011

Abstract
Water scarcity is one of the utmost issues and challenges of the 21st century. It is not only the quantity aspect causing the main problems, but furthermore the quality, distribution and the wasteful management. Estimated climate change, population growth and economic developments further strain available water sources. As the Middle East and North Africa is a region of great interest to me, this paper presents an overall introductory on the water situation in Egypt. Basic country and water characteristics are presented, followed by some project examples and current solutions.

Table of Contents
Abstract ....................................................... 1 1. Introduction ............................................ 2 2. Characteristics of Egypt .......................... 3 a. Geography and Population.................. 3 b. Climate & Precipitation ....................... 3 c. Geomorphology and Hydrogeology .... 5 3. Water situation in Egypt ......................... 6 a. Overview.............................................. 6 b. Water Supply ....................................... 9 c. Water Demand .................................. 10 d. Stormwater management ................. 10 e. Wastewater sources and treatment . 11 f. Quality aspects and problems............ 12 4. Case studies........................................... 14 a. Gabal el Asfar WWTP ........................ 14 b. rainwater harvesting in Matruh ........ 16 5. Recommendations and Solutions ......... 17 6. Conclusion and Findings ....................... 18 Bibliography .............................................. 19

List of figures
FIGURE 1: WATER SCARCITY IN THE WORLD......................... 2 FIGURE 2: EGYPTS GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION ..................... 3 FIGURE 3: ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURES IN C FOR CAIRO ... 3 FIGURE 4: RAINFALL PATTERNS OVER EGYPT IN MM .............. 4 FIGURE 5: THE CLIMATIC DISTRICTS OF EGYPT ...................... 4 FIGURE 6: LOCATION OF MAIN AQUIFER SYSTEMS ................. 5 FIGURE 7: TOPOGRAPHY OF EGYPT ................................... 5 FIGURE 8: THE NILE, ITS BRANCHES AND MAIN HYDRAULIC INFRASTRUCTURE ................................................. 6 FIGURE 9: HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP FOR THE NILE BASIN ...... 7 FIGURE 10: THE NILE BASIN ............................................ 7 FIGURE 11: EFFICIENCY INDICATOR OF EGYPTS NILE WATER ... 8 FIGURE 12: HYDROGEOLOGICAL CROSS SECTION OF NILE BANK FILTRATION ......................................................... 8 FIGURE 13: FLOW RATE IN THE RIVER NILE (DOWNSTREAM OF THE ASWAN DAM) [10] ........................................ 9 FIGURE 14: WATER RESOURCES [21] ................................ 9 FIGURE 15: WATER DEMAND FOR DIFFERENT SECTORS ........ 10 FIGURE 16: RIVER NILE WATER QUALITY [21] .................. 12 FIGURE 17: WATER CHALLENGES SUMMARY [1]................. 13 FIGURE 18: WASTEWATER TREATED IN GABAL EL ASFAR [22] 14 FIGURE 19: LOCATION MAP & AERIAL VIEW...................... 15 FIGURE 20: GABAL EL ASFAR WWTP PROCESS DIAGRAM [16] ..................................................................... 15 FIGURE 21: WATER HARVESTING FOR FARMING, MATRUH [23] ..................................................................... 16 FIGURE 22: CISTERN [18]............................................. 16 FIGURE 23: SAND STORAGE DAM [18] ............................ 16 FIGURE 24: THE OBJECTIVE TREE FOR ADDRESSING WATER QUALITY DETERIORATION ..................................... 17 FIGURE 25: PROBLEM TREE SUMMARY OF THE EFFECTS AND CAUSES OF WATER QUALITY DEGRADATION............... 18 1

1. Introduction
Water is the most extensive matter on earth. It is the source of life and is essential for drinking, food production, goods production and many other things. Regardless of these facts, humanity constantly threatens water availability and quality. There are numerous actions causing water degradation, most known are rapid industrialization and urbanization. Managing water in the past has been done by means of what is called end of pipe treatment, which focuses on what to do with the wastewater, which has been proven to be costly and unsustainable [1]. While constant improvements have been done in regards to that system, a new era of prevention and decentralized treatment is vital to meet the demands and quality of the 21st century population and standards. Managing our waters intelligently is therefore fundamental to solving the global socio-economic and environmental issues that face humanity. [2]

Figure 1: water scarcity in the world

This paper is written in context of the course urban water cycles of the master program resource efficiency in architecture and planning. As a focus region Egypt has been chosen to be studied, as it is of great interest and lies in the heart of the water scarcity problem and the river Nile, Egypts main source of water, has now been fully exploited and groundwater availability is limited [3]. First, the physical characteristics of Egypt will be described, followed by an overview of the current water situation, showing the water sources, demand, wastewater treatment and stormwater management. Quality and quantity aspects will be viewed. A couple of case studies will then be introduced, and thereafter, recommendations and findings will be concluded.

2. Characteristics of Egypt
a. Geography and Population

Figure 2: egypts geographical location

The Arab republic of Egypt is located in the north-east corner of Africa and lies on both, the African and Asian continents. It has an area of one million square kilometers, which is about 3% of the total area of Africa. [3] The country is almost rectangular, with a North-South length of approximately 1,073 km and a West-East width of approximately 1,270 km. Geographically Egypt is divided into four regions. First is the Nile Valley and Delta, including Cairo, the El Fayum depression and Lake Nasser which take up 3.6% of the total area. Second, the Western Desert, including the Mediterranean coastal zone and the New Valley, taking up 68% of total area. Third, the Eastern Desert, including the Red Sea coastal zone and the high mountains with 22%. And last, the Sinai Peninsula, including the coastal zones of Mediterranean, the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba 6.4% [1] [3]. According to the World Bank data, Egypts population is estimated around 82 million in the year 2010. b. Climate & Precipitation Egypt is mostly located within the dry equatorial region, excluding the northern areas, which lie in the moderate warm region, and have climate similar to other Mediterranean areas. [3] The climate varies from arid to extremely arid [1]. In the following figures the annual mean temperatures and rainfall pattern is presented.
40 30 20 10 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Daily Maximum
Figure 3: annual mean temperatures in C for Cairo

Daily Minimum

The climate is typified by hot dry summers, while winters are moderate with restricted rainfall that rises in the coastal area. Overall, the country can be divided into six climatic districts, which are listed below. Mediterranean District: It extends along the Mediterranean Sea with a number of kilometers to the interior. Summer mean temperature is about 23C while during winter it is about 14C. This district is the rainiest with a range of 100-190 mm/yr. Nile Delta District: located to the south of the Mediterranean District. The mean temperatures are 13C in January and 27C during July. In this district the annual average amount of rainfall declines sharply to the range of 20-50 mm/yr. Sinai Highlands District: which are the highlands of Sinai. The weather differs from other parts of Sinai in terms of temperature and rainfall. It is colder with a minimum of 10C difference in temperature. Rainfall reaches the amounts of the Mediterranean district. Middle Egypt District: situated between Cairo and Assiut and extends up to the borders of the country in the west and to the highlands of the Red Sea in the east. During the winter, it is the coldest district, whereas the average temperature in the summer is equal to 30C on average. Annual average rainfall is very limited below 10 mm. Upper Egypt District: It extends from the south of Assiut to the southern borders. Rainfall is rare and the difference between the day and night temperatures can exceed 18C. Red Sea District: The region of Red Sea highlands differs climatically from other neighboring low-lands, being colder and rainier. [3]

Figure 5: the climatic districts of Egypt

Figure 4: rainfall patterns over Egypt in mm

c. Geomorphology and Hydrogeology The landscape in Egypt could be roughly divided into the elevated land, low plains, riverside and coastal regions. These divisions play a significant role in shaping the hydrogeological context of the country and population distribution. The highlands make up the active and semi-active watershed areas, whereas the low plains contain productive aquifers. [3]

Figure 7: Topography of Egypt

Figure 6: location of main aquifer systems

The hydrogeological framework of Egypt comprises six aquifer systems: The Nile aquifer system: assigned to the Quaternary and Late Tertiary, occupies the Nile flood plain region (including Cairo) and the desert fringes. The Nubian Sandstone aquifer system: assigned to the Paleozoic-Mesozoic, occupies mainly the Western Desert. The Moghra aquifer system: assigned to the Lower Miocene, occupies mainly the western edge of the Delta. The Coastal aquifer systems: assigned to the Quaternary and Late Tertiary, occupy the northern and western coasts. The karstified Carbonate aquifer system: assigned to the Eocene and to the Upper Cretaceous, outcrops in the northern part of the Western Desert and along the Nile system. The Fissured and Weathered hard rock aquifer system: assigned to the Pre-Cambrian, outcrops in the Eastern Desert and the Sinai Peninsula. [1] [4]

3. Water situation in Egypt


a. Overview According to the 2008 IPCC report, the Middle East and North Africa region, where Egypt is located will see declining rainfall of 10 to 25 percent, declining soil moisture of 5 to 10 percent, declining runoff of 10 to 40 percent and an increase in evaporation of 5 to 20 percent during this century [5]. Therefore managing the water wisely in Egypt has been put to a high priority in the countrys economical agenda. With the current limited sources Egypt is facing a life-size difficulty. The River Nile Due to the climate, location and physical characteristics of Egypt, surface water resources are limited mainly to the Nile River. The river is one of the worlds longest rivers reaching a length of 6700 kilometers from its sources at Kagera River in Burundi and Rwanda to its Delta in Egypt [6]. The Nile is shared by ten countries, which are Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda, serving a population of about 300 million people who live in the river basin [6]. Its Basin covers about 3,260,000 km2. [7] The Nile enters Egypt from the southern borders from Sudan. It runs from south to north about 1,000 kilometers. The average width varies over this long path from two to twenty kilometers wide. After a distance of 25 kilometers from Cairo, the river splits into two main branches, Damietta and Rosetta with distances of 250 km and 239 km, respectively, forming the rivers delta, which has a base of about 300 kilometers reaching from Alexandria to Port Said. The water then enters the Mediterranean Sea. [3]

Figure 8: The Nile, its branches and main hydraulic infrastructure

Figure 10: the Nile basin

Figure 9: Hydrogeological map for the Nile Basin

The High Aswan Dam has been constructed in southern Egypt to control the annual flood and water flow. It is serving as a storage reservoir, insuring the regular and constant flow of water into Egypt. [3] It has been constructed in phases. The first dam was constructed in 1902, followed by new constructions in 1960 to 1970. [7] The lake behind the dam is called Lake Nasser, which reached its full capacity of 111,000 million cubic meters (MCM) in 1974. [7] The lake, with an area of 5,000 km2 has an evaporation rate of about 10,000 MCM per annum. [7]The discharge of the lake is varying from 4,000 MCM/month in the winter and 7,000 MCM/month in high summer. [7] Transboundary water management is of great importance as the Nile River is interconnected and Egypts only renewable surface water source and composes 95 percent of the countrys fresh water sources. Egypts share of the Nile water, under the 1959 Nile Waters Agreement between Egypt and Sudan, is 55.5 MCM per year. This amount has been set based on the average flow from the period 1900 to 1959, which was 84 MCM per year in Aswan. The annual evaporation rate and other losses were estimated at 10 MCM per year. 18.5 MCM per year were allocated to Sudan. [3] Estimated is roughly 20 percent discharged into the Mediterranean Sea and the desert fringes of the Nile system [5].

Overall Indicator of the Nile water use efficiency in Egypt could be described as the percentage of water depleted throughout the flow of water from the Aswan dam till it drains in the sea and lakes. The level of efficiency as described in the diagram below is 71 percent. [8]

Figure 11: efficiency indicator of Egypts Nile water

Water infiltration from the river Nile makes up its groundwater aquifer. The horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the siltclay cap and sandgravel layers are 0.20 and 60 to 110 meters per day, respectively. Furthermore, the vertical conductivities are 0.04 and 7 to 12 meters per day, respectively [9]. The water transmitting properties of the sandy aquifer are excellent with transmissivity as high as 12,000 m2 per day in the central part of the valley. Some locations are known to have clay lenses interlocked in the main sand gravel aquifer which decreases its hydraulic conductivity. [10]

Figure 12: Hydrogeological cross section of Nile bank filtration

b. Water Supply Rain water is not considered as a reliable source of water in Egypt, as mentioned before, due to its special and temporal variability. The main source of water is therefore the Nile. Groundwater in Egypt is split into Nile and non-Nile origins. The most known and used non-Nile aquifer is the Nubian sandstone, which consists of nonrenewable groundwater and has a total of 60,000 billion cubic meters (BCM) of stored water. Of those, 0.5 BCM per year are being extracted. Nevertheless, the economic maximum estimated extraction cannot exceed 5 BCM per year. As for the Nile groundwater, its source of recharge comes from seepage from the canals and deep percolation from irrigation, which by means of having effluents generated from irrigation activity is causing pollution problems. [3]

Figure 14: Water resources [21]

The sources of municipal water supply are various, including water treated from the Nile, a mixture of water treated from the Nile and groundwater and groundwater alone. [1] Irrigation water sources are both Nile and groundwater. While water distribution from the Nile is the responsibility of the government, Groundwater systems are generally private. [1]

Figure 13: flow rate in the River Nile (downstream of the Aswan Dam) [10]

c. Water Demand There is an upcoming challenge for Egypt to fill the gap between the limited water sources and the growing demand. Available water amounts to 900m per capita per annum, which is already lower than the water poverty index of 1000m per capita per annum. [5] This number is expected to fall to 670m by 2017. The need for a more integrated approach became obvious due to the continued deterioration of water quality and poor operational performance of water agencies. [5] Alike most countries the agricultural sector is the most water consumer, reaching a percentage of 85% alone. [8] Recently the municipal and industrial water demand has also been rapidly on the rise due to the growing population. The total municipal water requirements one decade ago were 4.5 cubic kilometers. As for the industrial water demand at the same time, it was estimated to about 7.8 cubic kilometers [3]. Even though navigation in the Nile does not consume water, it requires a certain water level to be maintained. [8] the following table summarizes the different water demands by sector with a projection of the year 2025.

Figure 15: water demand for different sectors

d. Stormwater management One of the complex hydrographic systems in Egypt, which its formation dates back to the Tertiary and Quaternary periods, is the dry streams network (Wadis). [1] Due to the scarcity of rainwater, stormwater is rarely utilized in Egypt; instead, it either infiltrates into the ground or gets mixed with sewage network in the urban areas. [11] As for the areas where rainwater harvesting is being practiced, which consist of a total of 133,500 ha, they are located north in Matruh and North Sinai. [3]

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e. Wastewater sources and treatment Unlike the widespread of water supply, which by now is covering about 98% of the population, wastewater treatment is only covering just above 50% by conventional sewer systems, as both supply and treatment developments are not being implemented simultaneously. [1] This is due the lack of project funds and also assuming that the drainage problems will not occur instantly. Municipal and Rural Domestic Wastewater is being removed to Treatment facilities. The covered rural areas account for only 10% of the population in 2001. [4] Where there isnt a wastewater collection system, on-site sanitation usually exists, where it is disposed in trenches and cess-pools and then collected. [3] These local sanitation means are very poor due to the lack of cyclic removal. [1] Each year a sum of about 5 billion m of treated wastewater is reused in the Delta, and another 4.7 billion m of agricultural drainage water returns to the Nile. [3] Illegal use of polluted wastewater to irrigate fields is used and adds to increasing health problems. Farmers illegitimately take away roughly 3 billion m per year of drainage water to irrigate their fields. Whilst contaminated with toxic elements, heavy metals and human waste, this entails immense health hazards. This is the greatest water challenge facing Egypt today. [3] By 2003, 59 primary or secondary treatment plants were operating with a total capacity of 2.3 BCM per year. Although the capacity increased significantly in the last decade, it is not sufficient to cope with the current wastewater production from municipal sources. [12] Industrial Wastewater is regulated to be treated internally by their producers by law, before their discharge, either to the river or the sewer system. However, this is not the practiced way. Even when dumped into sewers, traces of pollution has been measured to have reached the groundwater due to the corrosive nature of the wastewater. [1] The worst case is when industries which dispose their effluent into the groundwater through injection wells, as pollutants dont get a chance to degrade. [1] Industrialized facilities are often located within the boundaries of major cities like Cairo and Alexandria. Industrial use of water in the year 2000 has been projected to be 7.6 BCM. [12] With the rapid increase in industry and lack of regulatory control it is most likely to lead to increased pollution loading to the Nile waters as well as groundwater. [12] Agricultural Drainage Water is a major water polluter. Even when this is a non-point source of pollution, due to its collection patterns it creates problems when reused or infiltrated into the groundwater. [1] Major pollutants are salts, nutrients, phosphorus and nitrogen, pesticide residues from irrigated fields, pathogens from domestic wastewater and toxic organic and inorganic pollutants from domestic and industrial sources. [1] [12] Navigation and solid waste are the illegal polluting practices taking place due to little control. The 9000 units river fleet dumps oil and grease, while other sources range from intentional dumping of night soil, garbage, washing of animals and domestic utensils, to seepage from landfills, run-off from animal farms and accidental releases of chemicals, which have direct influence on aquatic life, as well as oxygen levels in the water. [1] [12]

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f. Quality aspects and problems With the growing environmental problems in Egypt caused by the countrys agricultural land loss due to urbanization and desertification, there are also numerous problems affecting the water quality and quantity aspects, ranging from direct pollutants to loss from the network. With the countrys very limited water sources, it is vital to target and eliminate the biggest water pollution sources, as well as utilizing the available water wisely. Quality issues are dependent on the location, water flow rates, uses, population density, sanitation and industrial and agricultural behavior. The factors that often influence the quality of the water are the discharge of treated and untreated domestic and industrial wastewater, leaking pesticides and fertilizer residues from agricultural land, as well as navigation deposits. The main water quality matters are associated with pathogenic bacteria/parasites, heavy metals and agrochemicals. [3] The following figure summarizes Egypts Nile water quality in different locations.

Figure 16: River Nile Water Quality [21]

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Municipal Wastewater Effluent Quality is having a large negative effect, as it is deposited into agricultural drains, causing severe biological pollution. Although the water would purify itself, the high biological loads cause extreme reduction in dissolved oxygen levels, leading to contaminations and endangering surrounding inhabitants and also groundwater quality through seepage. As recorded in many drains in the Delta the total coliform bacteria reach 10 6 MPN/100 ml, which is significantly higher than the Egyptian standard of 5000 MPN/100. As a result, many irrigation canals are contaminated with domestic pollutant sources. [12]This problem is expanding dramatically with the amount of water supply connected new areas which lack wastewater treatment facilities. Groundwater Quality and Pollution is also a major concern, as it is directly related to its recharge source, the Nile River. As mentioned before, a lot of contaminations have reached the groundwater, deteriorating its quality, caused by all polluting sources. In the north, there is another problem caused by the saline water intrusion, which is the main problem there. [12] Industrial Wastewater Quality has created a large amount of problems from Cairo to the north coast, where the industries are found concentrated around the big cities. These industries consume 162 MCM and discharge 130 MCM per year. [1] There are about 40 industries which discharge directly into the Nile and drainage canals. Their discharge contains loads of organic matter, oils, grease, heavy metals and toxic chemicals. [3] Agricultural Sources, as mentioned before, cause major deteriorations due to the chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The discharged water also holds an increased amount of salinity. There is also the eutrophication of water bodies, which are caused by the increase in nutrients originating from the fertilizers. [9] Losses from the Municipal Supply Network are mainly caused by the constant expansions of the system and lack of maintenance. This matter has been embattled, but it still exists. [3] Water shortage is mainly not a problem in most of Egypt, except in some areas which have been identified to have crucial water supply problems, which are located in Sinai and the Red Sea coast and the northern desert coast. [3]This problem is currently on the rise, as major developments are taking place in these regions. [12]

Figure 17: water challenges summary [1]

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4. Case studies
a. Gabal el Asfar WWTP There are many wastewater treatment approaches, which defer according to size and technology, as well as being centralized or decentralized. As for the case of Gabal el Asfar wastewater treatment plant it is a centralized one, which handles a huge portion of greater Cairos wastewater. While decentralized approaches were found suitable for rural low populated areas, due to the existing infrastructure the government decided on expanding this plant. [13]

Figure 18: wastewater treated in Gabal el Asfar [22]

The projects location lies in the North Eastern side of Cairo in the Gabal el Asfar farm, which was established in the late 1800s and has an area of about 1250 ha. The farm is surrounded by residential units from the west and south, while the east and north are deserts. The plant itself occupies an area of 630 ha, which include all the stages of the project. [14] After the first phase was completed a total of 1.7 million cubic meters per day were treated, which in Egypt accounts for 6 million people. This was not sufficient at al due to the population increase to 12 million people connected to this plant. The rest untreated water has been directly used for irrigation and dumped into the drains. These actions have led to the accumulation of heavy metals, toxic organic pollutants and nitrate into the food chain. [15] The plant was upgraded and extended to serve about 12 million people with a capacity of about 3 million cubic meters per day. [15] Gabal al Asfar wastewater treatment plant works on the 4 phase process, which consists of primary treatment, followed by secondary or biological treatment, then disinfection and finally the treatment of sludge. [16] The biological treatment phase includes biological filters, revolving biological discs, activate sludge, prolonged ventilation and oxidation pools. The aim of the biological treatment process is to oxidize the organic matter to be transformed into solid matter and separated from the water. [16]
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In the following diagram the process of wastewater treatment is visualized. To put a description, wastewater is first being processed through a large solids screening device. Then comes the removal of grit, followed by the primary sedimentation. After that, the wastewater is flows to the aeration tanks and from that to the final clarification through secondary sedimentation. The flow splits then to chlorination of effluents and the sludge separation. While the water is being used for irrigation and dumped into water canals, the sludge is being biologically digested. From the anaerobic digestion comes methane, which is being used to run the plant, and also the fertilizer. [16]

Some of the advantages of the project are that the treatment plants electricity demand is partially, about 70%, covered by the plants energy production. There are also about 2000 trees that have been planted next to the plant and being irrigated by the treated effluent. Improved health conditions have been monitored around the delta and east Cairo, due to the significant decrease in untreated water discharge. Finally, the use of fertilizer has improved the surrounding soil conditions. [14] As for the disadvantages, there is compared to other decentralized methods a high energy consumption, as well as high plant and infrastructure cost. This one stream system is being difficult to maintain, while it is still discharging untreated water, which it cannot handle and from leakages from the system. [14]
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Figure 19: Location map & aerial view Figure 20: Gabal el Asfar WWTP process diagram [16]

b. rainwater harvesting in Matruh Stormwater or rainwater harvesting are methods used in a lot of regions. In Egypt, the uses of these methods are very rare due to insufficient rainfall. There is also technology shortage and lack of acceptance and motivation. The National Research Centers are also absent. [17] For setting examples two types of harvesting were researched in the area, one is for areas of farming and the other is for towns, villages and rural clusters. In general, most water harvesting systems consist of four main systems. These are catchment areas to collect the water, ways of redirecting runoffs, water storage constructions or tanks, and means of proper use of the water. [17]

Figure 21: water harvesting for farming, Matruh [23]

For the water catchment of farmers it is all based on past personal experiences. The Bedouins select the areas according to the soil characteristics that would reduce the water infiltration and clear all the vegetation and smooth the land. [17] Stormwater storing techniques vary in the region, but are mainly composed of two methods. The first depends on storing the runoff water behind earth or stone dams, dependant on the slope. Water is then consumed by vegetation above, or later used for offsite irrigation or other uses. [17] The second storage technique requires building of reservoirs in wadi depressions, called cisterns. Bedouins in Matruh use either local materials, and then called Nashou, or use imported materials like concrete and iron, which raise the expenses of the construction. [17] There are numerous problems facing todays Bedouins in achieving good quality harvesting techniques. The main ones are the lack of skilled labor and maintenance. These types of constructions require an average of 2 man work per day for about four times per year. [18]

Figure 22: cistern [18]

Figure 23: sand storage dam [18]

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5. Recommendations and Solutions


As the irrigation network in Egypt works on the basis of reusing or recycling water lost from one point to the other downstream, and therefore raising efficiency, water problems of quality occur. [8] In order to reduce these problems the ministry of water resources has recognized the need to address decentralized, environmentally friendly operational modes. It has also inviting the private sectors to invest into the water issues. [19] The following are some examples of what is being achieved or addressed by government, private and public bodies. Maintenance and Operation of Field Ditches, which are cleaned manually, are being monitored under the supervision of the agricultural administration. Improvement projects are being done to them with the support of the German government through GIZ. [8] Sprinkler/Drip Irrigation is being applied, as the soil characteristics have high permeability. This is also supplemented by law enforcement for any new farms. [8] Automation of the gate lifting mechanism on the canal control structures to eliminate insufficient or over supply of water. The projects are including the replacement of the mechanism by motors, installing programmable controllers and adding monitoring systems. [8] Awareness has been on the spot by the ministry of water resources, especially public awareness. This is has a direct effect on water usage in terms of quantity/ quality aspects. [8] Institutional Reform is being done by the ministry of water as well. Causes are to strengthen the decentralization process and the integrated water resources management through involvement of private sector as well. [19]

Figure 24: The Objective tree for addressing water quality deterioration

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6. Conclusion and Findings


Egypt is confronting their water scarcity and quality problem which has been recognized by all, government, private and land owners. Wastewater production is on the rise due to behavior and population growth. This requires wise and immediate investments in improved suitable wastewater treatment facilities, in order to reduce poverty and improve health. The following chart is a summary of the problems affecting water in Egypt.

Figure 25: Problem tree summary of the effects and causes of water quality degradation

Some of the findings were that there is no single solution to the water problem, but rather a well thought of mix of specific high and low tech solutions accustomed to each house, community and region. Decentralized solutions are generally having a lower environmental impact. This is partially due to the low infrastructure requirements and seperation at source. In my opinion the most important aspect to solving the water scarcity problem is human awareness, behavior & habit change towards less consuming communities. Each day the need for low tech high efficiency solutions outweighs any supposed need for high tech trendy gadgetry. This trend is unlikely to reverse.

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Bibliography
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[14] Drainage Research Institute, Ed., GABAL EL ASFAR WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT. Cairo, Egypt: African Development Bank, 2009. [15] E.S. Hegazi et al., Effect of irrigation with raw sewage water on navel orange fruit quality and safety for human consumption , Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University Soil Science Department, Ed. Giza, Egypt: 4th Conference on Recent Technologies in Agriculture, 2009. [16] (2011, August) Holding company for water and wastewater Egypt. [Online]. http://www.hcww.com.eg/En/Water.aspx [17] Mamdouh Nasr, Assessing Desertification and Water Harvesting in the Middle East and North Africa. Bonn, Germany: Zentrum fr Entwicklungsforschung (ZEF), 1999. [18] Prof. Dr. Dieter Prinz, the role of water harvesting in alleviating water scarcity in arid areas. Karlsruhe, Germany: Institute of Water Resources Management, Hydraulic and Rural Engineering, Dept of Rural Engineering, University of Karlsruhe, 2002. [19] David S. McCauley et al., ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS FOR IMPROVED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN EGYPT, EPIQ Water Policy Reform Activity, Ed.: Environmental Policy and Institutional Strengthening Indefinite Quantity, 2002. [20] (2011, July) worldweather.org. [Online]. http://www.worldweather.org/059/c00248.htm [21] National Water Resources Plan for Egypt (NWRC), Technical Report No. 25, WL/DELFT Hydraulics, Ed. Cairo, Egypt: National Water Resources Plan for Egypt (NWRC), 2002. [22] Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, data sheets for ecosan projects, ecosan, Ed. Eschborn, Germany, 2005. [23] Dr. Harald Kehl. (2011, August) Zur Erforschung der 'Western Desert of Egypt'. [Online]. http://lv-twk.oekosys.tu-berlin.de/project/lv-twk/13-rainwaterharvesting.htm

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