Power Point Slides To Chapter 13 Transformers

Wednesday, April 04, 2012 Ch.
13 Transformers 1
Topics to be Discussed
Introduction.
Principle of Operation.
Step-Up and Step-Down
Transformer.
EMF Equation.
Effect of Frequency.
Conditions for Ideal
Transformer.
Drawing the Phasor Diagram.
Volt-Amperes (in Ideal
Transformer).
Impedance Transformation,
Practical Transformer at no
Load.
1. Effect of Magnetization.
2. Effect of Core Losses.
Iron Losses.
Hysterisis Loss.
Eddy current Loss.
Construction of a
Transformer.
Laminations.
Core Type Transformer.
Shell Type Transformer.
How I
0
changes on Loading ?
Practical Transformer on
Load.
1. Effect of Winding
Resistance.
2. Effect of Flux Leakage.
Leakage flux in a transformer

Next
Wednesday, April 04, 2012 Ch. 13 Transformers 2
Equivalent Circuit.
Simplified Equivalent
Circuit.
Approximate Equivalent
Circuit.
Voltage Regulation.
Condition for Zero
Regulation.
Condition for Maximum
Regulation.
Efficiency of a Transformer.
Power Losses in
Transformers.
Condition for Maximum
Efficiency.
All-day Efficiency.
Autotransformers.
Applications.
Saving of copper.
Advantages.
Disadvantages.
Transformer Testing.
(1) Open-Circuit Test.
(2) Short-Circuit Test.
Next
Introduction
A transformer is a highly efficient (about 99.5 %) static
(non-moving) device.
It transfers electrical energy form one circuit to another
(usually from one ac voltage level to another), without
any change in its frequency.
There exists no simple device that can accomplish such
changes in dc voltages.
Transformation of voltage is necessary at different
stages of the electrical network consisting of generation,
transmission and distribution.
Small-size transformers are used in communication
circuits, radio and TV circuits, telephone circuits,
instrumentation and control systems.
Next
Principle of Operation
It operates on the principle of mutual induction
between two coils.
When two coils are inductively coupled and if current
in one coil is changed uniformly, then an EMF gets
induced in the other coil.
This EMF can drive a current, when a closed path is
provided to it.
Next
It consists of two inductive coils electrically
separated but magnetically linked through a
common magnetic circuit.
Coil in which electrical energy is fed is Primary
Winding.
Coil in which other load is connected is called
as Secondary Winding.
Next
Next
(a) Construction.
Next
N
1
: Number of turns in the Primary
N
2
: Number of turns in the Secondary
E
1
: EMF Induced in the Primary
E
2
: EMF Induced in the Secondary
(b) Symbol.
Next
Step-Up and Step-Down Transformer
If N
1
> N
2
E
1
> E
2 Step down

E
1
< E
2
Step up

If N
1
< N
2
The transformation ratio,
2 2
1 1
N E
K
N E
= =
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Next
EMF Equation
Due to the sinusoidally varying voltage V
1
applied to the
primary voltage, the flux set up in the core,
m m
sin sin 2 t ft u u e u t = =
The resulting induced emf in a winding of N turns,
m
m m
( sin )
cos sin ( / 2)
d d
e N N t
dt dt
N t N t
u
u e
eu e e u e t
= =
= =
Thus, the peak value of the induced emf, E
m
= Nm.
Next
m m m
m
2
4.44
2 2 2
E N fN
E fN
e u t u
u = = = =
m
or 4.44 E fNu =
Therefore, the rms value of the induced emf E,
This equation, known as emf equation of transformer.
Next
Effect of Frequency
At a given flux, emf of a transformer increases with
frequency.
By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can
be made physically more compact.
Because a given core is able to transfer more power
without reaching saturation.
Aircraft and military equipments employ 400-Hz
power supplies which reduces size and weight.
Disadvantage : The core loss and conductor
resistance increases due to skin effect.
Next
Conditions for Ideal Transformer :
1. The permeability () of the core is infinite, (i.e., the
magnetic circuit has zero reluctance so that no
mmf is needed to set up the flux in the core).
2. The core of the transformer has no losses.
3. The resistance of its windings is zero, hence no
I
2
R losses in the windings.
4. Entire flux in the core links both the windings, i.e.,
there is no leakage flux.
Next
Ideal transformer
(a) The circuit.
Next
We take flux as reference phasor, as it is common to
both the primary and secondary.
EMF E
1
and E
2
lag flux by 90.
The emf E
1
in the primary exactly counter balances the
applied voltage V
1
. Hence, E
1
is called counter emf or
back emf .
(b) The phasor
diagram.
Next
Flux,u

V
1
= -E
1
E
1
E
2
O

90

Drawing the Phasor Diagram
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Next
Volt-Amperes (in Ideal Transformer)
The current I
1
in the primary is just sufficient to provide mmf
I
1
N
1
to overcome the demagnetizing effect of the secondary
mmf I
2
N
2
. Hence,
2 1
1 1 2 2
1 2
1
or
I N
I N I N
I N K
= = =
Note that the current is transformed in the reverse ratio
of the voltage. If V
2
> V
1
, then I
2
< I
1
. Also, we have
1 1 2 2
E I E I =
Hence, in an ideal transformer the input VA and
output VA are identical.
Next
Impedance Transformation
1 1 2 2 1 2 2
eq L
1 1 2 2 2 1 2
( ) 1 1
( )
V V V I V I V
Z Z
I I V I V I I K K
| | | | | |
| | | |
= = = =
| | | | |
\ . \ .
\ . \ . \ .
2
eq L
or / Z Z K =
The concept of impedance transformation is used for
impedance matching.
Next
Example 1
A single-phase, 50-Hz transformer has 30
primary turns and 350 secondary turns. The net
cross-sectional area of the core is 250 cm
2
. If
the primary winding is connected to a 230-V, 50-
Hz supply, calculate
(a) the peak value of flux density in the core,
(b) the voltage induced in the secondary
winding, and
(c) the primary current when the secondary
current is 100 A. (Neglect losses.)
Next
Solution :
(a) The peak value of the flux,
1
m
1
230
0.034534 Wb
4.44 4.44 50 30
E
fN
u = = =

m
m
4
0.034534
250 10
B
A
u
= = =
1.3814 T
(b) The voltage induced in the secondary,
2
2 1
1
350
230 2683.33 V .
30
N
E E
N
= = = ~ 2 683 kV
(c) The primary current,
2
1 2
1
350
100 1166.67 A .
30
N
I I
N
| |
| |
= = = ~
| |
\ .
\ .
1 167 kA
Next
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Example 2
Determine the load current I
L
in the ac circuit
shown.
Next
Transforming the load impedance into the primary
p
2
30 0
0.872 35.53 A
20 20 2 (2 10) j j
Z
= = Z
+ +
I
L p
2 2 0.872 35.53 = = Z = Z I I 1.74 35.53 A
Solution :
Next
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Practical Transformer at no Load
There are following two reasons why the no-load
current (also called exciting current) I
0
is not zero :
1. Effect of Magnetization :
No magnetic material can have infinite
permeability.
A finite mmf is needed to establish magnetic flux in
the core.
An in-phase magnetizing current I
m
in the
primary is needed.
I
m
is purely reactive (current I
m
lags voltage V
1
by
90).
This effect is modelled by putting X
0
in parallel with
the ideal transformer.
Next
2. Effect of Core Losses :
There exist hysteresis and eddy current losses for
the energy loss in the core.
The source must supply enough power to the
primary to meet the core losses.
These iron losses can be represented by putting a
resistance R
0
in parallel.
The core-loss current I
w
flowing through R
0
is in
phase with the applied voltage V
1
,

Next
(a) The circuit.
(b) The equivalent circuit.
Next
The R
0
-X
0
circuit is called exciting circuit.
2 2 1
0 w m 0 m w
1 w 1 0 0
; tan ( / );
and Input power Iron loss
cos
I I I I I
V I V I
|
|
= + =
=
= =
Next
Modified phasor diagram
O
Flux, u
E
2
= V
2

E
1

V
1
= -E
1
I
w

I
m

I
0

0
|
Click
Click
Next
Iron Losses
The core losses occur in iron core,
hence these are also called iron
losses.
There are two reasons for these
losses:
1. Hysteresis Loss.
2. Eddy current loss.
Next
Hysterisis Loss
Next
When alternating current flows through the windings,
the core material undergoes cyclic process of
magnetization and demagnetization.
h h m
n
P K B f V =
K
h
= hysteresis coefficient
whose value depends upon the material
(K
h
= 0.025 for cast steel, K
h
= 0.001 for silicon steel)
B
m
= maximum flux density (in tesla)
n = a constant, depending upon the material
f = frequency (in hertz)
V = volume of the core material (in m
3
)
Next
Eddy current Loss
2 2 2
e e m
P K B f t V =
where K
e
= a constant dependent upon the material
t = thickness of laminations (in metre)
i h e
P P P = +
Next
Construction of a Transformer
There are two basic parts of a transformer :
Magnetic Core
Winding or Coils
Limb
Yoke
Magnetic core
Winding or coil
Next
Laminations
The core of a
transformer is usually
laminated to reduce the
eddy currents.
These laminations may be
different sections of E,I,T,F.
They are stacked finally to
get the complete core of the
transformer.
Next
Two Types of Transformers

(1) Core Type Transformer :
Next
The windings surround a considerable part of the
core.
Both the windings are divided into two parts and
half of each winding is placed on each limb, side by
side.
This is done to reduce the leakage of the magnetic
flux.

Next
Practically, the windings are placed as follows.
To minimize the cost of insulation, the low voltage (LV)
winding is placed adjacent to the core and high voltage (HV)
winding is placed around the LV winding
Next
(2) Shell Type Transformer
The core surrounds a considerable part of the windings.
It has three limbs.
Both the windings are placed on the central limb.
The flux divides equally in the central limb and returns
through the outer two legs.
Next
Next
How I
0
changes on Loading ?

V
1

E
2

E
1

V
2

N
1

N
2

I
0
+ I
1

I
2

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Next
Next
Before connecting the load, there exists a flux
requiring current I
0
in the primary.
On connecting the load, a current I
2
flows in the
secondary.
The magnitude and phase of I
2
with respect to V
2

depends upon the nature of the load.
The current I
2
sets up a flux , which opposes the main
flux . Hence, it is called demagnetizing flux.
This momentarily weakens , and back emf E
1
gets
reduced.
As a result, V
1
- E
1
increases and more current is drawn
from the supply.
This again increases E
1
to balance the applied voltage
V
1
.
Next
In this process, the primary current increases by I
1
.
This current is known as primary balancing
current, or load component of primary current.
Under such a condition, the secondary ampere-turns
must be counterbalanced by the primary ampere-
turns.
'
1 1 2 2
N I N I =
2
1 2 2
1
'
N
I I KI
N
| |
= =
|
\ .
and
'
1 0 1
= + I I I
Next
Volt Ampere Rating of a Transformer
Output power depends on cos|
2
( power factor of
secondary).
As pf can change depending on the load, the rating is
not specified in watts or kilowatts.
But is indicated as a product of voltage and current
called VA RATING.

2 2 1 1
I V I V =
1000
2 2
I V
1000
I V
r transforme a of rating kVA
1 1
= =
1
load) (full 1
1000 rating kVA

V
I

=
2
load) (full 2
1000 rating kVA

V
I

=
Fore ideal transformer :
Next
Transformers rating in kVA ?
Transformers are rated in VA, because the manufacturer
does not know the power factor of the load which you are
going to connect.
So the customer should not exceed the VA rating of the
transformer.
In case of motors, the manufacturer knows exactly the
power factor at full load.
That is why motors are rated in kW.
Next
Example 3
A single-phase, 230-V/110-V, 50-Hz transformer takes
an input of 350 volt amperes at no load while working at
rated voltage. The core loss is 110 W. Find
(a) the no-load power factor,
(b) the loss component of no-load current, and
(c) the magnetizing component of no-load current.
Next
Solution : (a) Given :
1 0
350 VA V I =
0
1
350
1.52 A
230
VA
I
V
= = =
The core loss = Input power at no load,
1 0 0
cos
i
P V I | =
0
1 0
110 W
cos
350VA
i
P
pf
V I
| = = = = 0.314
(b) The loss component of no-load current,
w 0 0
cos 1.52 0.314 I I | = = = 0.478 A
(c) The magnetizing component of no-load current,
2 2 2 2
m 0 w
(1.52) (0.478) I I I = = =1.44 A
Next
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Example 4
A 100-kVA, 4000-V/200-V, 50-Hz, single-phase
transformer has 100 secondary turns. Determine
(a) the primary and secondary currents,
(b) the number of primary turns, and
(c) the maximum value of the flux.
Solution : The kVA rating = V
1
I
1
= V
2
I
2
= 100 kVA.

1
1
2
2
kVA rating 100000
4000
kVA rating 100000
200
I
V
I
V
= = =
= = =
25A
500A
Next
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1 1
2 2
1
1 2
2
Since
4000
100
200
N V
N V
V
N N
V
=
| |
| |
= = =
| |
\ .
\ .
2000
(b)
(c)
2 2
2
2
4.44
200
4.44 4.44 50 100
m
m
E f N
E
fN
= u
u = =

= 9.01 mWb
Next
Flux, u

E
1
E
2
= V
2
O

I
0
|
0
I
1
'
I
1
I
2
V
1
= -E
1
|
1
Phasor Diagram for Resistive Load
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Next
Flux, u

E
1
E
2
= V
2
O

I
0
|
0
I
1
'
I
1
I
2
V
1
= -E
1
|
1
Phasor Diagram for Inductive Load
|
2
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Next
Flux, u

E
1
E
2
= V
2
O

I
0
|
0
I
1
'
I
1
I
2
V
1
= -E
1
|
1
Phasor Diagram for Capacitive
Load
|
2
Click
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Next
(a) Resistive. (b) Inductive. (c) Capacitive.
Phasor Diagrams for Different Types of Loads
Next
Is it ever possible that the load connected to
the secondary is capacitive but the overall
power factor is inductive ?
Ans. : Yes. See the phasor diagram for
capacitive load.
Is it ever possible that the load connected to
the secondary is inductive but the overall
power factor is capacitive?
Ans. : No. Not possible.
Next
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Example 5
A single-phase, 440-V/110-V, 50-Hz
transformer takes a no-load current of 5 A at
0.2 power factor lagging. If the secondary
supplies a current of 120 A at a power factor
of 0.8 lagging to a load, determine the
primary current and the primary power factor.
Also, draw the phasor diagram.
Next
Solution :
1 1
0 2
cos 0.2 78.46 and cos 0.8 36.87 | |

= = = =
2
1
110 1
440 4
V
K
V
= = =
' '
1 2 1
(1/ 4) 120 30 A; 30 36.87 A I K I = = = = Z I
'
1 1 0
30 36.87 5 78.46 = + = Z + Z = Z I I I 33.9 42.49 A
Primary power factor,
1
cos cos 42.49 pf | = = = 0.737(lagging)
Next
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Next
Practical Transformer on Load
We now consider the deviations from the last two
ideality conditions :

1. The resistance of its windings is zero.
2. There is no leakage flux.

The effects of these deviations become more
prominent when a practical transformer is put on load.
Next
(1) Effect of Winding Resistance
Current flow through the windings causes a power
loss called I
2
R loss or copper loss.
This effect is accounted for by including a resistance
R
1
in the primary and resistance R
2
in the secondary
Next
(2) Effect of Flux Leakage
The difference between the total flux linking with the
primary and the useful mutual flux
u
linking with both
the windings is called the primary leakage flux,
L1
.
Similarly,
L2
represents the secondary leakage flux.
Flux leakage results in energy being alternately stored in
and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle
of the power supply.
It is not directly a power loss, but causes the secondary
voltage to fail to be directly proportional to the primary
voltage, particularly under heavy loads.
Next
Leakage flux in a transformer
(a) Its definition. (b) Its effect accounted for.
The useful mutual flux
u
is responsible for the
transformer action.
The leakage flux
L1
induces an emf E
L1
in the
primary winding.
Next
Similarly, flux
L2
induces an emf E
L2
in the
secondary.
Hence, we include reactances X
1
and X
2
in the
primary and secondary windings, in the equivalent
circuit.
The paths of leakage fluxes
L1
and
L2
are almost
entirely due to the long air paths and are therefore
practically constant.
The reluctance of the paths being very high, X
1
and
X
2
are relatively small even on full load.
However, the useful flux
u
remains almost
independent of the load.
Next
Next
Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
It is merely a representation of the following KVL equations :
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
( ) I R jI X I R jX = + = + V E E
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) I R jI X I R jX = + + = + + E V V
Next
u
m
E
2
E
1
-E
1
I
1
R
1
I
1
X
1
V
1
I
1
I
0
I
1
'

I
2
V
2
I
2
R
2
I
2
X
2
|
0
|
1
P
h
a
s
o
r

D
i
a
g
r
a
m

f
o
r

P
r
a
c
t
i
c
a
l

T
r
a
n
s
f
o
r
m
e
r

o
n

R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
e

L
o
a
d

1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
( )
( )
I R jX
V I R jX
= + +
= + +
2
V E
E
O
I
1
Z
1
I
2
Z
2
Next
P
r
a
c
t
i
c
a
l

T
r
a
n
s
f
o
r
m
e
r

o
n

I
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
e

L
o
a
d

Next
P
r
a
c
t
i
c
a
l

T
r
a
n
s
f
o
r
m
e
r

o
n

C
a
p
a
c
i
t
i
v
e

L
o
a
d

Next
Simplified Equivalent Circuit
The no-load current I
0
is only about 3-5 % percent of
the full-load current.
The exciting circuit R
0
-X
0
in is shifted to the left of
impedance R
1
-X
1
.
Transforming the impedances from the secondary to the
primary side.
Next

Equivalent resistance and reactance referred to the primary side
2 2
e1 1 2 e1 1 2
( / ) and ( / ) R R R K X X X K = + = +
Next
Approximate Equivalent Circuit
As referred to
primary side.
As referred to
secondary side.
Next
Example 5
A single-phase, 50-kVA, 4400-V/220-V, 50-Hz
transformer has R
1
= 3.45 , R
2
= 0.009 , X
1
= 5.2
and X
2
= 0.015 . Calculate
(a) the R
e
as referred to the primary,
(b) the R
e
as referred to the secondary,
(c) the X
e
(d) the X
e
as referred to the secondary,
(e) the Z
e
(f) the Z
e
as referred to the secondary, and
(g) the total copper loss.
Next
Solution : Full-load primary current,
1
1
kVA 50000
11.36 A
4400
I
V
= = =
Full-load secondary current,
2
2
kVA 50000
227.27 A
220
I
V
= = =
2
1
220 1
0.05
4400 20
V
K
V
= = = =
(a)
2 2
e1 1 2
( / ) 3.45 [0.009/(0.05) ] R R R K = + = + = 7.05
(b)
(c)
2 2
e2 1 2
(0.05) 3.45 0.009 R K R R = + = + = 0.0176
2 2
e1 1 2
( / ) 5.2 [0.015/(0.05) ] X X X K = + = + = 11.2
(d)
2 2
e2 1 2
(0.05) 5.2 0.015 X K X X = + = + = 0.028
Next
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(e)
2 2 2 2
e1 e1 e1
(7.05) (11.2) Z R X = + = + =13.23
(f)
(g) Total copper loss
2 2 2 2
e2 e2 e2
(0.0176) (0.028) Z R X = + = + = 0.0331
2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
(11.36) 3.45 (227) 0.009 I R I R = + = + = 909 W
Alternatively, by considering equivalent resistances,
total copper loss
2 2
1 e1
(11.36) 7.05 I R = = = 909.8 W
2 2
2 e2
(227.27) 0.0176 I R = = = 909 W
Next
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Voltage Regulation
V
2(0)
= secondary terminal voltage at no load,
and V
2
= secondary terminal voltage at full load.
The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the
change in its secondary terminal voltage from no load to full
load, the primary voltage being assumed constant.
The voltage drop V
2(0)
- V
2
is called the inherent regulation.
2(0) 2
2(0)
( ) Per unit
V V
i
V
= regulation down
2(0) 2
2(0)
% 100
V V
V
= regulation down
Next
2(0) 2
2
( ) Per unit
V V
ii
V
= regulation up
2(0) 2
2
% 100
V V
V
= regulation up
Normally, when nothing is specified, regulation means
regulation down.
Next
Exact voltage drop =
2(0) 2
OC OA OG OA AG AF+FG V V = = = =
Next
In case of leading power factor,
2 e2 2 e2
Approximate voltage drop, AF AE EF AE BD
cos sin I R I X | |
= + = +
= +
2 e2 2 e2
Approximate voltage drop, AF AE EF AE BD
cos sin I R I X | |
= =
=
In general,
2 e2 2 e2
Approximate voltage drop cos sin I R I X | | =
Next
2 2 2 2
2(0)
cos sin
% Regulation 100
cos sin
e e
r x
I R I X
V
V V
| |
| |
=
=
Condition for Zero Regulation :
Possible only if the load has leading power
factor.
2 2 2 2
cos sin 0
e e
I R I X | | =
2
2
tan
e
e
R
X
| =
Use + sign for lagging power factor and sign for leading
power factor.
Next
2 e2
sin I X | >
2 e2
cos I R |
Note that for leading power factor, if the
magnitude of the phase angle | is high, we may
have
The regulation then becomes negative.
It means that on increasing the load, the
terminal voltage increases.
Next
Condition for Maximum Regulation
2 2 2 2
( cos sin ) 0
e e
d
I R I X
d
| |
|
+ =
2 2 2 2
( sin cos ) 0
e e
I R I X | | + =
2
2
tan
e
e
X
R
| =
Maximum regulation can occur only for inductive
load. The voltage drop is maximum when
Next
Example 6
Solution :
Click
Next
Example 7
Solution :
2
the load voltage, 240 6 V = = 234V
Click
Next
Example 8
A single-phase, 40-kVA, 6600-V/250-V,
transformer has primary and secondary
resistances R
1
= 10 and R
2
= 0.02 ,
respectively. The equivalent leakage reactance
as referred to the primary is 35 . Find the full-
load regulation for the load power factor of
(a) unity,
(b) 0.8 lagging, and
(c) 0.8 leading.
Next
2 2
e2 1 2
(0.0379) 10 0.02 0.0343 R K R R = + = + = O
2 2
e2 e
1
and (0.0379) 35 0.0502 X K X = = = O
(a) For power factor, cos | = 1; sin | = 0. Hence,
2 2 2 2
2(0)
cos sin
% Regulation 100
160 0.0343 1 0
100
250
e e
I R I X
V
| | +
=
+
= = 2.195 %
Solution : Given : R
1
= 10 ; R
2
= 0.02 ; X
e1
= 35
2
250
the turns-ratio, 0.0379
6600
40000
the full-load current, 160 A
250
K
I
= =
= =
Next
Click
Click
Click
(b) For power factor, cos | = 0.8 (lagging, | positive);
(c) For power factor, cos | = 0.8 (leading, | negative);
sin 0.6 | =
2 e2 2 e2
2(0)
cos sin
% Regulation 100
160 0.0343 0.8 160 0.0502 0.6
100
250
I R I X
V
| |
=

= = 0.172 %
2
sin 1 cos 0.6 | | = =
2 e2 2 e2
2(0)
cos sin
% Regulation 100
160 0.0343 0.8 160 0.0502 0.6
100
250
I R I X
V
| | +
=
+
= = 3.68 %
Next
Click
Click
Efficiency of a Transformer
Like any other machine, the efficiency of a transformer is defined as
o
o l
Power output Power output
Power input Power output +Power losses
P
P P
q = = =
+
Large-size transformers are designed to be more efficient (q > 98 %)
But, the efficiency of small transformers (used in power adapters for
charging mobile phones) is not more than 85 %.
Power lost
Output
power
Input
power
Next
Power Losses in Transformers
(i) Copper losses or I
2
R losses :
The copper losses are variable with current. Assuming the
voltage to remain constant, the current is proportional to
the VA. Therefore, the copper losses for a given load (and
hence for given VA) is given as
2
c c(FL)
FL
VA
VA
P P
| |
=
|
\ .
2 2 2 2
c 1 1 2 2 1 e1 2 e2
P I R I R I R I R = + = =
Next
(ii) Iron losses or core losses :
Due to hysteresis and eddy-currents. P
i
= P
h
+ P
e
.
Since the flux
m
does not vary more than about 2 %
between no load and full load, it is usual to assume
the core losses constant at all loads.
In general, the efficiency,
o o 2 2 2
2
o l o c 2 2 2 2 2 i
cos
P cos
i e
P P V I
P P P P V I I R P
|
q
|
= = =
+ + + + +
Next
Condition for Maximum Efficiency
Assuming the operation at a constant voltage and a constant power
factor, for what load (i.e., what value of I
2
) the efficiency becomes
maximum ?
Let us first divide the numerator and denominator by I
2
, to get
The efficiency will be maximum when the denominator of the above
equation is minimum,
i
2 2 2 e2 2 e2
2
2 2
2
2 e2 c i
( cos / ) 0 or 0
or or
i
i
d P
V I R P I R
dI I
I R P P P
| + + = =
= =
2 2
2 2 2 e2 i 2
cos
cos /
V
V I R P I
|
q
|
=
+ +
Next
Copper loss = Iron loss
Condition :
Next
All-day Efficiency
The efficiency defined above is called commercial
efficiency.
In a distribution transformer, the primary remains
energized all the time. But the load on the secondary is
intermittent and variable during the day.
The core losses occur throughout the day, but the
copper losses occur only when the transformer is
loaded.
Such transformers, therefore, are designed to have
minimum core losses. This gives them better all-day
efficiency, defined below.
all-day
Output energy (in kWh) in a cycle of 24 hours
Total input energy (in kW h)
q =
Next
Example 9
For a single-phase, 50-Hz, 150-kVA transformer,
the required no-load voltage ratio is 5000-V/250-
V and the full-load copper losses are 1800 W
and core losses are 1500 W. Find
(a) the number of turns in each winding for a
maximum core flux of 0.06 Wb,
(b) the efficiency at half rated kVA, and unity
power factor,
(c) the efficiency at full load, and 0.8 power
factor lagging, and
(d) the kVA load for maximum efficiency.
Next
Solution :
2 2 m
2
2
m
4.44
250
18.8(say, )
4.44 4.44 50 0.06
E fN
E
N
f
= u
= = =
u
19 turns
1
1 2
2
5000
and 19
250
E
N N
E
= = = 380 turns
0.5 (kVA) (power factor) 0.5 150 1 75 kW
o
P = = =
2 2
(0.5) (full-load copper loss) (0.5) 1800 W 0.45 kW
c
P = = =
Iron losses (fixed), P
i
= 1500 W = 1.5 kW
(a) Using the emf equation, we have
(b) At half rated-kVA, the current is half the full-load
current, and hence the output power too reduces by 0.5.
Thus,
Next
Click
Click
Click
o
o c i
75
100 100
75 0.45 1.5
P
P P P
q = = =
+ + + +
97.47 %
(c) At full load and 0.8 power factor,
(kVA) (power factor) 150 0.8 120 kW
o
P = = =
1800W 1.8 kW; and 1500W 1.5kW
c i
P P = = = =
o
o c i
120
100 100
120 1.8 1.5
P
P P P
q = = =
+ + + +
97.3 %
(d) Let x be the fraction of full-load kVA at which the
efficiency becomes maximum
2
c i
or 1800 1500 1500/1800 0.913 P P x x = = = =
(Full-load kVA) 150 0.913 x = = =137 kVA
Therefore, the load kVA under the condition of maximum
efficiency,
Next
Click
Click
Click
Example 10
For a single-phase, 200-kVA, distribution transformer
has full-load copper losses of 3.02 kW and iron losses of
1.6 kW. It has following load distribution over a 24-hour
day :
(i) 80 kW at unity power factor, for 6 hours.
(ii) 160 kW at 0.8 power factor (lagging), for 8 hours.
(iii) No load, for the remaining 10 hours.
Determine its all-day efficiency.
Next
Solution :
(i) For 80 kW load at unity power factor (for 6 hours) :
Output energy 80 6 480 kWh = =
o
80
kVA 80kVA
1
P
pf
= = =
2
2
c(FL)
FL
kVA 80
(3.02) 0.4832 kW
kVA 200
c
P P
| |
| |
= = =
| |
\ .
\ .
Iron losses, P
i
= 1.6 kW
Total losses, P
l
= P
c
+ P
i
= 0.4832 kW + 1.6 kW = 2.0832 kW
Total energy losses in 6 hours 2.0832 6 12.50 kWh = =
Next
Click
Click
Output energy 160 8 1280 kWh = =
FL
160
200kVA kVA
0.8
o
P
kVA
pf
= = = =
c c(FL)
Copper losses, 3.02 kW P P = =
Total energy losses in 8 hours 4.62 8 36.96 kWh = =
(ii) For 160-kW load at 0.8 power factor (for 8 hours) :
Iron losses, P
i
= 1.6 kW
Total losses, Pl

= P
c
+ P
i
= 3.02 kW + 1.6 kW = 4.62 kW
(iii) For the no-load period of 10 hours :
Output energy P
o
= 0
Copper losses, P
c
= 0
Iron losses, P
i
= 1.6 kW
Total losses, P
l
= P
c
+ P
i
= 0 + 1.6 = 1.6 kW
Next
Click
Click
Total energy losses in 10 hours 1.6 10 16 kWh = =
Thus, for 24-hour period :
Total output energy, W
o
= 480 + 1280 = 1760 kW h
Total energy losses, W
l
= 12.50 + 36.96 +16 = 65.46 kW h
o
all-day
o l
All-day efficiency,
1760
100 100
1760 65.46
W
W W
q
= = =
+ +
96.41%
Next
Click
Autotransformer
It is a special transformer that is useful in power
systems, motor starters, variable ac sources, etc.
An autotransformer is a transformer which has a part
of its winding common to the primary and secondary
circuits.
Next
Applications
Boosting or buckling of supply voltage by a
small amount.
Starting of ac machines, where the voltage is
raised in two or more steps.
Continuously varying ac supply as in variacs.
(a) Step-down (b) Step-up
Next
The turns-ratio is given as
2 2
1 1
N V
K
N V
= =
The portion YZ of the winding is called common winding.
The portion XY is called series winding.
In variacs (variable autotransformers), point Y is made
a sliding contact so as to give a variable output voltage.

Consider the Step-down autotransformer :
The volt-amperes on the two sides must be the same,
1 1 2 2
V I V I =
2 2 2 1 2 2 1
( ) V I V I V I I = +
The part V
2
I
1
is conductively transferred through the winding
XY.
The remaining part is inductively transferred through the
winding YZ.
Next
Saving of copper in an autotransformer
For the same voltage ratio and capacity (volt-ampere
rating), an autotransformer needs much less copper
compared to a two-winding transformer.
The cross-sectional area of a conductor is proportional to
the current carried by it, and its length is proportional to the
number of turns. Therefore,
Weight of copper NI kNI =
For a two-winding transformer :
1 1
2 2
1 1 2 2
Weight of copper in primary
Weight of copper in secondary
Total weight of copper ( )
kN I
kN I
k N I N I
=
=
= +
Next
For a step-up autotransformer :
1 2 1
2 2 1
1 2 1 2 2 1
1 2 1 2 2
Weight of copper in portion XY ( )
Weight of copper in portion YZ ( )
Total weight of copper ( ) ( )
[( 2 ) ]
k N N I
kN I I
k N N I kN I I
k N N I N I
=
=
= +
= +
Therefore, the ratio of copper- weights for the two
cases is
2 1 2
1 2 1
1 2 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
2 1
1 2
[( 2 ) ] [1 2 ]
1
( )
N I N
N I N
k N N I N I K K K
K
k N I N I K K
I N
I N
(
| | | | | |
+
( | | |
+ +
\ . \ . \ .

= = =
+ + | | | |
+
| |
\ . \ .
Next
Evidently, the saving is large if K is close to unity.
A unity transformation ratio means that no copper is
needed at all for the autotransformer.
The winding can be removed all together.
The volt-amperes are conductively transformed
directly to the load !
Next
Advantages of autotransformers
A saving in cost since less copper is needed.
Less volume, hence less weight.
A higher efficiency, resulting from lower I
2
R
losses.
A continuously variable output voltage is
achievable if a sliding contact is used.
A smaller percentage voltage regulation.
Higher VA Rating.
Next
Disadvantages of autotransformers
The primary and secondary windings are not
electrically separate, hence if an open-circuit
occurs in the secondary winding the full primary
voltage appears across the secondary.
Low impedance hence high short circuit currents
for short circuits on secondary side.
No electrical separation between primary and
secondary which is risky in case of high voltage
levels.
Economical only when the voltage ratio is less
than 2.
Next
Transformer Testing
There are two simple tests to determine the equivalent-
circuit parameters and its efficiency and regulation:
Open-circuit test (OC Test)
Short-circuit test (SC Test)

Advantage of these tests is without actually loading
the transformers, we can determine the Losses and
Regulation, for full-load.
Next
(1) Open-Circuit Test
This test determines the no-load current and the
parameters of the exciting circuit of the transformer.
Generally, the low voltage (LV) side is supplied
rated voltage through a variac.
The high voltage (HV) side is left open.
Open Circuit
Low voltage
Next
The I
2
R loss on no load is negligibly small compared with
the core loss.
Hence the wattmeter reading, W
o
, can be assumed to
give the core loss of the transformer.
Calculations :
2
i o 0 o
1
2 2
o
w m 0 w
1
1 1
0 0
w m
; ;
; ;
;
V
P W I I K
V
W
I I I I
V
V V
R X
I I
= = =
= =
= =
Next
(2) Short-Circuit Test
This test determines the equivalent resistance and leakage
reactance.
Generally, the LV side of the transformer is short-circuited
through a suitable ammeter A
2
.
A low voltage is applied to the primary (HV) side.
This voltage is adjusted with the help of a variac so as to
circulate full-load currents in the primary and secondary
circuits.
Short Circuit
Next
The reading of ammeter A
1
, I
sc
, gives the full-load current
in the primary winding.
Since the applied voltage (and hence the flux) is small,
the core loss is negligibly small.
Hence, the wattmeter reading, W
sc
, gives the copper
loss (P
c
).
Calculations :
2 2
sc sc
e1 e1 e1 e1 e1
2
sc sc
; ;
W V
R Z X Z R
I I
= = =
Next
Example 11
A single-phase, 50-Hz, 12-kVA, 200-V/400-V transformer
gives the following test results :
(i) Open-circuit test (with HV winding open)
: 200 V, 1.3 A, 120 W
(ii) Short-circuit test (with LV winding short-circuited)
: 22 V, 30 A, 200 W
Calculate :
(a) the magnetizing current and the core-loss current,
and
(b) the parameters of equivalent circuit as referred to the
low voltage winding.
Next
Solution :
(a) The wattmeter reading, 120 W, in the open-circuit test gives
the core losses. Therefore, the core-loss current is given as
(b) The parameters of the exciting circuit are given by the open-
circuit test, as
FL
12 kVA
and 30 A
400 V
I = =
This confirms that the short-circuit test has been done at the
rated full-load
o
w
1
120 W
200 V
W
I
V
= = = 0.6 A
2 2 2 2
m 0 w
(1.3) (0.6) I I I = = =1.15 A
1 1
0 0
w m
200 V 200 V
and
0.6 A 1.15 A
V V
R X
I I
= = = = = = 333 174
2
1
200 V 1
Now,
400 V 2
V
K
V
= = =
Click
Next
Click
sc sc
e1 e1
2 2
sc sc
200 W 22 V
0.222 and 0.733
(30 A) 30 A
W V
R Z
I I
= = = O = = = O
The equivalent resistance and reactance as referred to
the secondary side (low voltage winding),
2
2
e2 e1
1
0.222
2
R K R
| |
= = =
|
\ .
0.055
2
2
e2 e1
1
and 0.699
2
X K X
| |
= = =
|
\ .
0.175
Next
Click

Power Point Slides To Chapter 13 Transformers

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