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nr r d e o c n os ic I fae r me ot l w h t r t Sb it dn ata f l il e t ume i pri l u lm t f n Fr o Te wd fd l mi eet oi s& h a a o i o a n l cr n r p c c mui ai n ni ern o m cto e g ei g n n O f I siu o a vne t d si Euai n ntt t f da c sui n dcto e e Uvr iy n est i G div ym d , a h i aa i n d nr Sr as a a- 341 adr w r310 h R at a I d a shn ni j a

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t h Jt n a 6 ie ds s mt r e ee s Er l e tN -I S / / 9 / 061 no n o AE 0/ 138 m : 2 D

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Te e otw l b acp d spri l h r pr o d e ce t a ata u e f l il e to t r e er d l mi u lm f he yas i o a n f n p eet oi s&o m i ai n ni ern l cr n c c mu cto e g ei g n n

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A h vr ot e ,Iw l lk t c ne tt e ey u t s o di e o ovy u ms ei lt a ko r f so M.RI l m y pca hn t poes r . R . sa , a us f c lyn l cr n e g ern f r get au i eet oi ni ei g o t c n h snee s m t i gi a c,c ni to i i cr &y p rc u ne oss f s a d s pr i i ncetv cii i mn i tme uev o , r ai e rtcs a dn a s i t i t r s .Hi t e annp ai n r m n et e s h m i s i to fo e i r bh dh t k o pe ai gh po c,wh e i t e a e f r prn t e r j t i n e t otwc i c u nthv be psi l f r u h ht ol o a e en osb o i d e mt cry ut e o s tsat rl . e o ar ot h j b ai f coiy I a d i n cn odn m n di o I a nt e y y t i e t eso r s et d i & eeoe ti m np s f epce sr t r f r i s y n h s ne fgaiue hatett a k o e s o r tt d &eri s hn f r t l i goo t ob sw m ak l t f r ul ih e n e t . A atIof rmt a k t alo mfi ns tl s fe yhns o l f y re d f rt erhl o hi ep

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Te mn o t e po c nr r d h a i f h r j t I fae e r mec n o s ic cn eue f r e o ot l w h a b s d o t r t a y sme O- F f nto. Te n i p l N F uci n h O a vn g i t a t i cr u i da t e s ht h a s ici s t a s l t l fe fo a b n lgt bo ey r e r m me t i h u i i t ree c a d poi e c n o n f r ne n r v s ot l e d r r nea ot1 meswhu t eue a g bu 0 e r i ot h s t t o a y oui g e s f n f c sn l n.

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pg n ae o

Chapter 1

1. INTRODUCTION
1 I T OUT N T I RMT . NR DCI O O R E OE C NR L YT M OT O S S E :

I m en eet oi s eet oi s n o r d l cr n , l cr n c c r me c n o s se i wl ko ns se . e o ot l yt ms e nw yt m t r l I fae r me c n o k s a al b i t e nr r d e o ot l i via l n h t r t e mkt ae qie e pni e a d i s m oe ae r u r t xe sv n t o e n whst as meoe t er I m nt b i e o se b n, hi C a o e s l s y esl a al b . Meoe f rsmeO- F aiy via l e o vr o i p N F r l O f nto s c a c n o i g l mo f n ed uci n uh s ot l n a a p r a w o r l ntne vr c me cr u . o ed ey o p x i c i l t Te I r me c n o cr u ui g h R e o ot l i c i sn t r t po d d a d po t a sso s no s fe ht i e n ht r ni t r e s r uf r oo o fo mo da bc o bi g af ce b r m a r r w k f en fet d y j a a b n lgta d vr l wa g. me t i h n a ey o r ne i

TeI r mec n o cr u ds rbd eecn h Re o ot l i c i eci e hr a t r t b ue f ra ysmeO- F f nto. Ti e s d o n i p N F uci n h l O s s se hs m oi s a p cto t a o e yt m a e re pl ai n hn t r m i h r mec n os se . e o ot l yt m t r

Te a vn g i t a t i cr u i h da t e s ht h i c i s a s t a s l t l fe f r a b n lgt i t ree c bo ey r e om me t i h n f r ne u i e a dpoi e c n o r neo a yt f c sn n r v s ot l a g f n o oui g d r l n. es

Tec m nn uei t i s se i i h o p e t s n h yt ms n o s s s c ne i n m nr t a w l as me i o ovn t a e ht h e se b s e n o l ese t bit Ti r dc c me ct o t e ai r o u . h e ue o p x iy f h l s l s se . yt m Tea vn g o t i cr u le i t e h da t e f h i c i i s n h a s t f c t a i cn esl b c net d i t a at ht t a aiy e ovre n o mtc a nl r me c n o s se . u i hne e o l t ot l yt m r Te h

s se c m i et oui t a s it r , R evr yt mo p s w n r nm es e i e r t t c bt t a s it r a dr ci e cnb as me o r nm e n eevr a e se b d h t l o agnr lpr oeP B n e ea ups C. T nm e s ci n c ni t o pw r s it r eto oss f o e a t r s pl , o oclao a d i ot u sa e up y n s il t r n n u t t g p i cui gI LD i t et a s it rs ci nI nl d R E S n h r nm e eto C n t 55i we a a at b mtv r t r wha 5 s i d s n sa l u i i ao i r e l b t C t e fe uny o a ot 3 KZ e r r qe c f bu 6 H. n Te h

t a s it r i pw e fo aG 2 sz g. r nm e s o e d r m P 2 i e v t r Bt r . a ey t

Te r ci e ue I s no m u w c i h eevr s s R e s r o l h h s de i c mol ue i c l u T . f r s ni gI o m y sd n o r . n o V o ed n R S nl fo t a s it r s ci n TeI sga i a r mr nm e eto. h R i nl g t fo t et a s it r s ne b s no a di r mh r nm e e s d y e s r n t s t ot u a p a d ge l ww c i i t r u t t i n os o h h s n un p n i

s ic o t a sso T ( C 5) c ne un y w h n r ni t r 1 B 57 os qe t t l cpct r sat c ag g t r uh r sse R, a aios t r hr i n hog ei t r 5 w nvla ear s cpct rC r ahsa ot h o g cos a aio 8 ec e bu e t 3 VC ( ea ec ut r41)r ci eacok . I 2 D d on 07 eev l c 5 c e pl ea p 1 a d t sot u a p 2 osh h u t i 4 n i u t t i ge i . s n p n g Ti r s l i f r ad i sn o t a sso t ( e h eu n ow b i g f r ni t r o b s t r a 18 w c e eg s ar al c net da i 4) h h nr i i e ely once t t s c let r o co. l Teot u o I 2( i 2 i as ue h u t f C p ) s l o sd p n f r lgtn LDi d ai gpee c o sga o i h g E , ni tn r s ne f i nl i c f rt i cr u r 1 v01v2 m t a som o h i c i y 2 - - 2 5 Ar nf r e s t r i ue f r s pl i gt epw &C 85i s s d o up n h o e y r I 70 s ue f r 5vr gl to pr oe a is ot u sd o e u i n ups s t t u t a p. Ti r gl t d5vot u i g e t r ci e h eu e s a u t s i n o eevr p v s ci n 41) eto ( 07.

Wk g rni l &o sr ci n o i pi cp rn e c nt uto

TeI r mec n o cr u ds rbd eecn h Re o ot l i c i eci e hr a t r t b ue f ra ysmeO- F f nto. Te e s d o n i p N F uci n h l O

a vn g i t a t i cr u i a s l t l fe da t e s ht h i c i s bo ey r e a s t u fo a b n lgt i t ree c a d poi e r m me t i h n f r ne n r v s i e d c n o r nea ot1 meswhu t eueo ot l a g bu 0 e r i ot h s f r t t a y oui ge s n f c sn l n. B c d ga o t e cr u i l k i r m f h ici s o a t s o n n i ue T nm e s ci n ossso hw i F r . r s it r eto c ni t f g a t a pw s pl , a oclao a d a ot u o e up r y n s il t r n n u t p sa e w r a t er ci e s ci nc m i e t g, h e s h eevr eto o p s s e r pw s pl , a i fae dt co m u , tm o e up n nr r d eet r o l i e r y de dl ycr u whni efle, b a l fi fo ea i c i i o it r i b lp l p t t s t e a daot u s ci n Tec mees hmi n u t eto. h o p t c e a c p l t d ga so t et a s it ra d eevrs ci n i r m f h r nm e n r ci e etos a t aes o nn i ue r s etvl . r hwi F r s epci ey g I t e t a s it r s ci nI I ( 5) i n h r nm e eto C 55 s t we a a sa l mt- i r t r wha cn r i d s t b u i v ao i r e l b t et e fe unyo a ot 3 K r qe c f bu 6 H pes d t ecr u gt e eg e . O pt o r se , h i c i es nr i d u u f t z t I Ii as ur w e C s qae a . v
Z

. Wns ic S i h wh Is e t

Tet oi fae LD c net da isot u h w nr r d E S once t t u t p t a s i I ba s m u t d a t e s m r nm R em o l e t h a e t da fe uny( 6K r qe c 3 H

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) Teoclao fe uny . h s il t r r qe c

cn es i t d lgty y d si g r s tVI a b h e si h b a j tn pee R f l u .

Te r ci e ue a i fae s no m u h eevr s s n nr r d e s r o l de w c i c mol ue i c l u t l v i n o h h s o m y s d n o r ee i o f r i n o s s ni g t e I sgas fo t e t a s it r e sn h R i nl r m h r nm e t s ci n Te s no m u s o n i fgr eto. h e s r o l hw s i ue de i c r oae adt co d d, a S Ds rae nopr t s eet r i e n M ( uf c o

m n ddv e I w c c ni t o a bn o t u e e i ) C h h osss f c i ad ps fle, a a p fe a dadm u t ro a as it r n mi i r n l eo l o n da s al P B p cd i sd a s al tn c b m l C l e ni e a m i ue l e couet gtrd fuw t d l cr m ntc nl s r o e i o n a e eet o a ei n g i t ree c. n f r ne e Wns ic S1o t et a s it r i h wh e t n h r nm e s t pes d t eI LD r d t I ba s wha r se , h R E s a i e R em i a t m u tn fe unyo 3 K o l i g r qe c f 6 H da nt dt a t eI LD aed etydi e b o ht h R E S r i cl rvn y e r t e 55 tm ot u a d n s re c re t h 5 i e u t n o ei s ur n r p, lm n r sso i ue wh t e . Ti i i ii g ei t r s s d i hm h s t t s bcue a t e h h oeai g fe uny t e ea s t h i g pr tn r qe c , h i t r a r ssa c o t e btey a d t e n nl ei t ne f h at r n h e i dpne c of r d b t e we a d ne e dne fee y h i s n r c m nn l a s ae e og t ke t e o p e t ed r nuh o ep h o s a ea eLDur n wh iss ei i ai n. vr g E c re t i i t pcfctos t n Te I sga fo t e t a s it r i h R i nl r m h r nm e s t s ne b t es no a d t ot u a p 2 os e s d y h e s r n is u t t i ge p n lw o.
Z

. I m b t a e y

Ti i t r s ic e o t a sso T, h n un w hs n r ni t r 1 s t c ne un y cpct r C sat c ag g os qe t l a aio 8 t r hr i n t r uh e i t rR. hog r g e 5 s

Wn vla e ar s cpct r C h e o g cos a aio 8 t r ahsa ot 3 VC r ci e acokpl e ec e bu . 5 I 2 eevs l c u s a p 1 a d t ot u a p 2 osh h Ti t i 4 n is u t t i ge i . h n p n g s r s lsi f r ad ai go t a sso T, w c eu n ow bsn f r ni t r 2 h h t r i o c nuto e eg sr l yRI c net da n odci n nr i ea L once t e isc let r Teot u o I 2( i 2 i as t o co. h u t f C p ) s l o l p n ue f r lgtn LD i d ai gpee c o s d o i h g E 1 ni tn r s ne f i , c sga. i nl

C pnn& nto o o e t f ci n m u

Chapter 3

A) DIODE:A P N j nto i ko n a uci n s nw s s modco d d o cyt ld d. e i nut r i e r r sa i e c o o Symbol

Te poet o a cyt l d d i t h r pry f r sa i e s o o c nut t c re t i oe d eto ol . A odc o ur n n n i ci n n r y cyt l d d cnb r pee t db a s m l r sa i e a e e r s n o e y yb o s o n i fgr . Te ar wi t e s m l hw n i ue h ro n h y b o i d ae t e d eto o c ne toa c re t ni t s h i ci n f ovn nl ur n c r i fo acyt l d d. I hst ot r i a a oe l w r sa i e t a w em l nd o n a d ahd. I a oeo d d i pstv w.t n ct oe f nd f i e s oii e . o o r ct oet ed d i f r adb s I a oeo ahd h i e s ow i . f nd f o r a d d i ngtv w. t ct oed d i s t t i e s e ai e . o ahd i e s e o o r o b udrr vr eb sc nii n e ne e es i od o. a t

BL D-( i he itn d d) ) E : L t mi g i e g t o Sm l y b: o

TeLDsaP j nto dv ew c h E i Nuci n e i c hh i e isd t n w nac re t pse t r uhi m i at h t s e ur n as s hog n t ef r ad i eto.(. .w n E i f r ad h ow d ci n Ie h LDs ow r r e r b s. Tec aa ecri rr c mnto oc r i ) h hr d are eo b ai n cus a i a aP j nto a eet oscosfo Ni e t Nuci n s l cr n r s r m sd a d eo b e wh o so t eP i e Wn n r c mns i hl n h sd. h i t e e r c mnto t ks p c t e c ag cri r eo b ai n a e l e h hr e are i a g eu e eg i t ef r o ha a dlgt I i p nr y n h om f et n i h f v . t es mc nutn mei l i t a sue t t e h e i odci g a ra s r nl cn h t , lgti e it d n j nto bc m t es uc i h s m e a d uci n eo e h or e t s o lgt fih .

C) INFRARED EMITTERS:Sm l y b: o

I t eP j nto r s lsfo d f so f h Nuci n eu r mi ui n t f i Glu Ae i e( a s t a se t e eg i n a i m r n G ) r ni n nr y s l s d A i fae what p a pa o 90 A Ti nr r d i t yi l ek f 00 . h c s i ely mc e t e r s os o slc n dal a hs h epne f ii o t po d dsa d ht t a ssos ht i e n po r ni t r . oo o

D) DECADE COUNTER IC 4017 :C 41B i a 5sa e d i e b 1 D 7 Cs 0 tg i d y 0 v J hs n on r wh 0 eoe ot u a d ono c ut s i 1 dc dd u t n a e t ps cryot b . Ti c ut r i cer dt t ee ar u i t h on s l ae o hs s e zr c ut b al g a o t er r s t ln. eo on y oi l 1 n hi ee i e , c Tee c ut r ae a vne o t e pstv hs on s r da cd n h oii e e e g o t ecoksga w nt ecoke a l de f h l c i nl h h l c nb e e sga i i t el g a sae i nl s nh oi l 0 t t . c Te c ni uai n o t e C 41B h ofgr to f h D 7 C 0 pr is m i mpe oeai na das r s a em e u s ed pr to n sue t d hzr fe c utn s qe c. aad r e on g e une i Te 1/ h 0 8

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r mn h h f r 1 f l cok c ce eas i i g o u l c yl . l

cryu sga c mee af l c cef r e ey ar ot i nl o p t s u yl o vr l l 1/ coki pt c ce a di ue a arpl 0 l c nu yl s n s s d s i p 8 e cry i nlt a y uce i g t gs ar sga o n s ced sa e. n

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I S NO: R ES R Te r ci e ue a i fae s no h eevr s s n nr r d e s r m u w c i c mol ue i c l u o l d e h h s o m y sd n o r i n o t l v i nf r s ni gt e I sgas fo t e ee i o o e sn h R i nl r mh s t a s it r s ci n Tes no m u s o n r nm e eto. h e s r o l hw t de i F uei c r oae adt co d d, a S D n i r nopr t s eet r i e n M g o (s raem n ddv e)I w c c ni t o uf c o t e i ue c C h h osss f i a bn ps fle, a a p fe a d a a d as it r n mi i r n l dm u t r o a s al pb p cd i sd a e o l o n m c l e ni e da l a s al tnc b e couet gt rdo uw t d m i ue nl s r o e i f n a e l n eet o a ntci t ree c. l cr m ei n f r ne g e Po d ds a d po t a ssos ae ht i e n ht r ni t r r oo o ot n ue a t e s ni g ee e t a t e fe s d s h e sn l m s t h n r ci e e d fa otdt t a se s se , s c eevr n o n p aa r nf r yt m uh a a lgt ba s ic o aamo r me s i h em w h r l r t r eo t

c n o s se , ec, i w c dt i s n t t e ot l yt m t . n h h aa s e t o h r i r ci e v a otcri rw e eevr i n p are a . a v I s c a p ctos t sga r ah g n uh pl ai n, o i nl ec i i n t e po s no m a s m tm b vr h ht e s r a t o e i e e ey o y s w ka da o e tm vr sr n. Ao t e e n t t r i e ey t og l , h a h s s s no m b s b ce t aget da o ni e e s r a e uj t d o r a el f o y e s i t e f r o uw t d lgt ( i i l o n h om f n a e i h v b r n s e i v i l )sgas ec ni b i nl , t . s e

Tphl mi i et eepol m t eln i o ep i m hs r b s h i k s n z e , uulyoeae i t ei fae r ne a dt e s al pr t d n h nr r d a g, n h ot s no ot u i pse t poesn p e s r u t s as d o r csi g p cr u r , v . al w o epea p fe wha i c i y i , o ni r mi i r i t z s l t w e dnm oeai g r ne F ue s o i d ya i pr tn a g. i r hw c g t p a e a p s o s c cr u s ui g yi l xme f uh i c i , sn c l t po d d s nos ht i e e s r . oo Tecr u i dsge f r uewha3 K h i c i s ei nd o s i t t 6 H C re w e a d t nd cr u L- 1C i a ir a r v n ue i c i 1C- 2 s t we i s re whD a ddm db R t i d n ei s i r t 1 n a p y 1o e poi e t e ncsayfe unys l ci e l w rv d h ees r r qe c eetv o ni eato. Teot u sgasaet pdofa o ci n h u t i nl r a e f t s p t eC- 2j nto a dt e a p fe b Q h 1C uci n n hn mi i d y 1 l a dt e t i a p fe sga wl dm u t d n hn h mi i d i nl i e o l e s l l da
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C ai o a ct r p

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

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