Elementary Surveying

ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005
ASSOC. PROF. DR. SNMEZ SAYILI
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING
(An Introduction to GEOMATICS)
Compiled by . Snmez SAYILI from the book written by Paul R. WOLF and Charles D. GHILANI
1. SURVEYING-GEOMATICS
1.1. Definition Science, art and technology of determining the relative positions of points above, on or beneath the earths surface or of establishing such points. A discipline which encompasses (include) all methods for measuring and collecting information about the physical earth and our environment, processing that information, and disseminating a variety of resulting products to a wide range of clients. 1.2. Why is measuring and monitoring important ? 1234Population expands. Land values appreciate. Natural resources divindle. Human setivities continue to stress the quality of our land, water and air.
1.3. How is possible of measuring and monitoring ? Using 1- modern ground, aerial and satellite technologies. 2- computers for data processing. 3- compemporary surveyors. 1.4. International Federation of Surveyors made following definiton for surveying : 1) Determination of the size and shape of the earth and measurement of all data needed to define the size, position, shape, and contour of any part of the earth. 2) Positioning of objects in space, and positioning and monitoring of physical features, structures, and engineering works on, above, or below the surface of the earth. 3) Determination of the positions of boundaries of public or private land, including national and international boundaries, and registration of those lands with appropriate authorities. 4) Design, establishment, and administration of land and geographic information systems, and the collection, storage, analysis and management of data within those systems. 5) Study of the natural and social environment, measurement of land and marine resources, and the use of the data in planning of development in urban, rural, and regional areas. 6) Planning development, and re-development of property, whether urban or rural and whether land or buildings. 7) Assessment of value and the management of property, whether urban or rural and whether land or buildings. 8) Planning, measurement, and management of construction works, including estimation of costs. 9) Production of maps, files, charts, and reports.
1.5. Geomatics : The name is used for surveying in U.S.A. / Canada / United Kingdom / Australia. Surveying engineering = Geomatics engineering Principal reason for name change is : Recent technologies provided surveyors new tools for measuring and/or collecting information, for computing, and for displaying and disseminating information. Increasing concerns about the environment locally, regionally and globally, and this has greatly exacerbated efforts in monitoring, managing and regulating the use of our land, water, air and other natural resources. Those vast increase in demand for new spatially related information
2. GEODETIC AND PLANE SURVEYS

Surveys
Geodetic
Plane
Field measurements for geodetic surveys are usually performed to a higher order of accuracy than those of plane surveys. Geodetic surveying, the curved surface of the earth is considered by performing the computations on an ellipsoid. It is now becoming common to do geodetic computations in a three-dimensional, earth-centered Cartesian coordinate systems. Geodetic methods : to determine relative positions of widely spaced monuments and to compute lengths and directions of the long lines between them.
These monuments serve as the basis for referencing other subordinate surveys of lesser extent. In early geodetic surveys, painstaking efforts were employed to accurately measure angles and distances. Angles were observed using precise ground-base theodolites, and the distances were measured using special tapes made from metal having a low coefficient of thermal expantion. From these basic measurements, the relative positions of monuments were computed. Later electronic instruments were used for measuring the angles and distances. NEW GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) replaced other instruments.
GPS can provide the needed positions with much greater accuracy, speed and economy. GPS receivers (Figure) enable ground stations to be located preciselly by electronically measuring distances to satellites operating in known positions along other orbits. Plane surveying, except for leveling, the reference base for field work and computations is assumed to be a flat horizontal surface. For areas of limited size the surface of our vast ellipsoid is actually nearly flat. Distance : 5 mile (5 x 1609.344 m = 8046.72 m) 5 mile 8 km 0.02 ft 0.61 cm Angle : 75 mile2 194 km2
Difference between sum of the three ellipsoidal angles and three plane angles is about 1 second. For plane survey calculations algebra, plane and analytical geometry and plane trigonometry. 2.1. Importance of surveying Worlds oldest and most important art. The results of todays surveys : 1- map the earth above and below sea level. 2- prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land, and at sea. 3- establish property boundaries of private and public lands. 4- develop data banks of land-use and natural resources information. 5- determine facts on the size, shape, gravity and magnetic fields of the earth. 6- prepare charts of our moon and planets.
2.2. Surveying required 1- to plan, construct and maintain highways, railroads, rapid-transit systems, buildings, bridges, missile ranges, launching sites, tracking stations, tunnels, canals, irrigation ditches, dams, drainage works, urban land subdivisions, water supply and sewage systems, pipelines and mine shafts. 2- Laying out industrial assembly lines and jigs. 3- Guiding the fabrication of large equipment such as airplanes and ships. 2.3. Surveying is used in the following sciences 1- Agronomy 2- Archeology 3- Astronomy 4- Forestry 5- Geography 6- Geology 7- Geophysics 8- Landscape architecture 9- Meteorology 10- Paleontology 11- Seismology 12- Military and civil engineering Specialized types of surveys control surveys topographic surveys land, boundary and cadastral surveys hydrographic surveys route surveys as-built surveys mine surveys solar surveys optical tooling
except control surveys, others performed using plane surveying procedures. Ground, aerial and satellite surveys. 2.4. New technologies for surveying and mapping 1- Electronic total station instrument. 2- Global positioning system. 3- Digital photogrammetric system. Later, we are going to deal with these instrument vary detailly. 2.4.1. ETS (Electronic Total Station)
They combine an automated Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) component with an electronic angle measuring unit.
2.4.2. GPS (Global Positioning System) The system is based upon observations made on electromagnetic signals transmitted from a constellation of 24 satellites, each of which circling the earth in a precisely known orbit. The signals are picked up ground stations by receivers. GPS receivers not only capture the satellite signals but they also measure the precise instant of time the signals are received. Distances ranges from the satellites to the receivers are determined from the timing and signal information, enabling accurate receiver positions to be computed. 2.4.3. DPS (Digital Photogrammetric System) In digital photogrammetry, the aerial photos are prepared as a raster of pixels (picture elements), each of which has its raster row and column location and its density, stored digitally. To obtain this raster of image information, photographs taken with traditional film cameras can be scanned, or a new type of digital camera can be used to capture the images directly in raster format. Positional information, maps, and other products are then automatically produced digitally from the raster information using computerized softcopy stereoplotters.
2.5. Surveying safety Surveyors (geomatic engineers) generally are involved in both field and office work. 1- Field work making measurements with various types of instruments. a) determine the relative locations of points. b) to set out stakes in accordance with planned locations to guide building and construction operations. 2- Office work a) research and analysis in preparing for surveys. b) computing and processing the data obtained from field measurements. c) preparing maps, plots, charts, reports and other documents. 2.6. Possible danger sources In city and artificial structure field measurements 1) noise 2) poor visibility 3) dust 4) sunshine, skincancer, sunburns, heatstroke for protection a) wear safety vests b) fluorescent orange color c) flagging material d) cones and barricades e) drunks f) large brimmed hats
g) sun glasses h) sun eremes In the open fields 1) wild animals 2) poisonous snakes 3) bear 4) spiders 5) wood ticks 6) deer ticks 7) poison ivy 8) poison oak
3. UNITS - SIGNIFICANT FIGURES & FIELD NOTES

3.1. Introduction Five kinds of measurement are: 12345Horizontal angles Horizontal distances Vertical (or zenith) angles Vertical distances Slope distances
3.2. Units of Measurements Magnitudes of measurements must be given in terms of specific units. Units in surveying length area volume angle
International System of Units (SI) Metric system is used in Turkey. a degree = 1 / 360 of a circle 1 = 60 minutes 1 minute = 1 = 60 seconds Division of seconds are tenths, hundreths, thousandths 360 = 400 grads 100 m 1 hektar = 100 m = 100000 m2
3.3. Rounding off numbers 78, 374 78, 3749 78, 37 78, 37
78, 375 78,376 78, 3749 78, 37 49 78, 375 78, 37
78, 38 78, 38 78, 38 (?) wrong !!
Correct 46 , 7418 1 , 03 375 , 0 422 , 7718 422 , 8
Incorrect 46 , 7 1,0 375 , 0 422 , 7 422 , 7
3.4 FIELD NOTES Field notes measurements sketches descriptions other items of miscellaneous information Early (manually) Recently (automatically) If data field book special note pods
electronic data collectors incomplete incorrect lost destroyed time and money invasted waste
3.5. General requirements of handwritten field notes Accuracy :
Integrity : A single omitted measurement or detail can nullify notes Legibility : A professional-looking set of notes is likely to be professional in quality Arrangement : Clarity : to ensure clarity of sketches and tabulations to minimize the possibility of mistakes and omissions 3.6. TYPES OF FIELD BOOKS Loose-leaf books have many advantages 123456assurance of a flat working surface simplicity of filling individual project notes reading transfer of partial sets of notes between field and office provision for holding pages of printed tables, diagrams, formulas and sample forms the possibility of using different rulings in the same book a saving in sheets and thus cost since non are wasted by filling partially filled books.
3.7. PAGE ARRANGEMENT The upper part of the left or right page must contain ; 1234Project name, location, date, time of day, starting and finishing times Weather Party (personal names) Instrument type and number
3.8. AUTOMATIC DATA COLLECTORS in size of pocket calculator Control of the measurement and storage operations is maintained through the data collectors keyboard. For clarification of the notes, the operator inputs point identifiers and other descriptive information along with the measurement as they are being recorded automatically.
4. THEORY OF ERROR IN OBSERVATIONS

Good measurements require a combination of human skill and mechanical equipment applied with the utmost judgment Observations are never exact, and therefore contain always errors. 4.1. Surveyors must understand ; different kinds of errors their sorces expecting magnitudes under varying conditions their manner of propagation
Surveyors must capable of - assessing the magnitudes of errors sotheir acceptibility can be verified or, if necessary, new ones made 4.2. DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBSERVATIONS 4.2.1. Direct observations : Examples : - appliying a tape to a line - fitting a protactor to an angle - turning an angle with a total station instrument 4.2.2. Indirect observations : Observations are determined by its relationship to some other value or values Example : The distance across a river can be found by observing the lenght of a line on one side, the angle at each end of this line to a point on the other side and then computing the distance by one of the standart trigonometric formulas 4.3. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS An error is the difference between an observed value (X), for a quantity and its true value(X)
E=X-X
It is unconditionally stated that : 1- no observation is exact 2- every observation contains error 3- the true value of an observation is never known and therefore, 4- the exact error present is always unknown 4.4 MISTAKES These are observer blunders and caused by 1- misunderstanding the problem 2- carelessness 3- fatique ( yorgunluk) 4- missed communication 5- poor judgement Examples : Transposition of numbers ( Writing mistake) Recording 73.96 instead of correct value of 79.36 Large mistakes ( kaba hatalar) must be detected by careful and systematic checking of all work and eliminating by repeating some or all of the measurements. But, unfortunately, some mistakes are so small that can not be detected. The worst position is if you can not find out the mistake(s), and if you are back from the field. And you have still doubt on the measurements. Then the measurement must be repeated again at the same field. 4.5. SOURCES OF ERRORS
Natural errors : caused by variations in wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, atmospheris refraction, gravity and magnetic decliniation Instrumental errors :
imperfection in the construction or judgement of nstruments and from the movement of individual parts
Personal errors : arise from limitations of sight and touch.

4.6. TYPES OF ERRORS Errors in observations are of two types :
systematic and random
Systematic errors (biases)
result from the factor which comprise the
measuring system and include the environment, instrument, and observer. As long as system conditions remain constant, systematic errors will likewise remain constant. If conditions change4, the magnitude of systematic errors also change.
Systematic errors = cumulative errors

Example : A tape which is used under high temperature field conditions will certainly longer than its true length. So using the tape more than one time at a measurement will cause systematic error.
Random errors (compensating errors) are those that remain in measured values after mistakes and systematic error have been eliminated. They are caused by factors beyond the cvontrol of the observer, obey the laws of probability and are sometimes called Accidental errors :
The magnitudes and algebric signs of random errors are matters of chance. There is no absolute way to compute or eliminate them 4.7. PRECISION AND ACCURACY A discrepancy is the difference between to observed values of the same quantity. A small discrepancy indicates there are probably no mistakes and random errors are small.
Precision refers to the degree of refinement or consistency of a group of observations,

and is evaluated on the basis of discrepancy size. If multiple observations are made of the same quantity and small discrepancies result, this indicate high precision. The degree of precision attainable is dependent on equipment sensitivity and observer skill.
Accuracy denotes the absolute nearnes of observed quantities to their true values
The difference between precision and accuracy is shown below
a) results are precise but not accurate b) results are neither precise nor accurate c) results are both precise and accurate
4.8. ELIMINATING MISTAKES AND SYSTEMATIC ERRORS Mistakes that do occur can be corrected only if discovered. Comparing several observations of the same quantity is one of the best ways to identify mistakes.
Example :
567.91 576.95 567.88 567.90 567.93

Which value is wrong ? Systematic errors can be calculated and proper corrections applied to the observations Example: A leveling instrument out of adjustment causes incorrect readings, but if all bachsights and foresights are made the same length, the error cancel in differantial leveling.
5. LEVELING
5.1. THEORY AND METHODS Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevations of points or differences in elevation are determined Leveling results are used 1- design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, 2- layout construction projects according to planned elevations 3- calculate volumes of earth or other materials 4- investigate drainage characteristics of an area 5- develop maps showing general ground configurations 6- study earth subsidence and crustal motion 5.2. DEFINITIONS
Level line : A line in a level surface (a curved line) Vertical line : A line that follows the direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line Horizontal line : A line in horizontal plane. In plane surveying, a line perpendicular to the vertical Level surface : A curved surface that every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line (the direction in which gravity acts) Horizontal plane : A plane perpendicular to the direction of gravity. In plane surveying, a plane perpendicular to the vertical line Vertical datum : Any level surface to which elevations are referred.This is the surface that is arbitrarily assigned an elevation of zero
Elevation : The distance measured along a vertical line from a vertical datum to a point or an object Geoid : A particular level surface which serves as a datum for elevations and astronomical observations 5.3. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION Horizontal departs from a level surface because of curvature of earth.
The deviation DB from a horizontal line through point A is expressed approximately by Cm= 0.0785 K2 Cm = a horizontal line in meters K = distance in kilometers A and B on a level line. Vertical rod B. Reading by means of a telescope with its line of sight AD horizontal. Earths curvature would cause a higher reading as the length of BD Light rays passing through the atmosphere are bent or refracted towards the earth surface (fig 4.3)
AH (in fig4.2) is bent to the curved form AR. Hence the reading or a rod held at R is diminished by length RH Displacement resulting from refraction is variable. It depends on atmospheric conditions length of line angle of sight line
for a horizontal sight Rm= 0.011 K2 Rm = refraction in meters K = distance in kilometers This is 1/7 th the effect of curvature but in the opposite direction. The combined effect of curvature and refraction (hm). hm= 0.0675 K2 5.4. METHODS FOR DETERMINING DIFFERENCES IN ELEVATION Differences in leveling have traditionally been determined by, Taping (measuring vertical distances by taping or electronic methods) differential leveling barometric leveling trigonometric leveling (indirectly)
5.4.1. TAPING Application of a tape to a vertical line between to points is sometimes possible. Used for measuring, depth of mine shafts floor elevations layout and construction of multistory buildings, pipelines, etc. water or sewer lines In certain situations, especially on construction projects, reflectorless electronic distance measurement (EDM) devices are replacing the tape for measuring vertical distances on construction sites.
5.4.2. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
HI = elev + BS 828. 42 = 820.00 + (Backsight) 8.42 elev = HI - FS 827.22 = 828.42 - 1.20 (Foresight) 5.4.3. BAROMETRIC LEVELING Barometer : measures air pressure and is used to find relative elevations of points on the earth surface. A change in elevation 1000 ft (304.8 m) correspond 1 inch (2.54 cm) change of mercury in atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure depending upon changes in weather conditions and the speed of the person carrying a barometer, this methods has some disadvantages
5.4.4. TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING The differnce in elevation between two points can be determined by measuring 1- the inclined or horizontal distance between them. 2- The zenith angle of the vertical angle to one point from the other * Zenith angles are measured downward from vertical Vertical angles are measured up or down from horizontal For short lines (up to 300 m)
S = slope distance z = zenith angle = vertical angle V = elevation difference V = S . cos z V = S . sin V = H . cot z V = H . tan elev = hi + V + r hi = height of instrument r = reading on the road H = horizontal distance
For longer line (> 300m)
Earth curvature and refraction must be considered zm = zenith angle m = vertical angle elev (True difference) = HG +GF + V ED + r elev = hi + V + (C-R) - r 5.5 EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING a- Categories of levels 1- dumpy levels 2- tilting levels 3- automatic levels 4- digital levels They differ from each other somewhat in design. All have two common components : A- Telescope ( to create a line of sight and enable a reading on a graduated rod) B- a system orient the line of sight in a horizontal plane Dumpy and tilting levels use vials to orient Automatic and digital levels employ automatic compensator
Digital levels use barcoded rods for automated digital readings Recently Most frequently used levels are automatic and digitals Hand levels have man spatial uses Electronic laser levels used for establishing elevations on construction projects. 5.6. TELESCOPES The telescopes of leveling instruments define the line of sight and magnify the view of a graduated rod against a refence retide (a) thereby enabling accurate readings to be obtained. components 1- objective lens 2 - negative lens 3 - retide 4 - eye piece tube
Objective lens : Its optical axis reasonably concentric with the tube axis. Main function is to gather incoming light rays and direct them toward the negative focusing lens. Negative lens : It is located between the objective lens and retide and mounted so its optical axis coincides with that of the objective lens. Its function is to focus rays of light that pass through the objective lens onto the retide plane. Reticle : The reticle consists in a pair of perpendicular reference lines (cross hairs) mounted at the principal focus of the objective optical system. The point of intersection of cross hairs, together with the optical center of the objective system, forms the so-called line of sight (line of collumanition) Eyepiece : a microscope for viewing the image (25 x to 45 x magnification)
5.7. FOCUSSING Focussing the telescope of a level is a two stage process : 1- First eyepiece lens must be focussed 2- Objects at various distances from the telescope are brought to sharp focus at the plane of the cross hairs by turning the focusing knob 5.8. LEVEL VIALS Level vials are used to orient many different surveying instruments with respect to the direction of gravity. Two basic types tube vials circular vials (bulls eye)
Tube vials : used on tilting levels to precisely orient the line of sight horizontal prior to making rod readings.
Bulls eye : used on tilting an automatic levels for quick, rough leveling after which precise leveling occurs.
Uniformly spaced graduations etched on the tubes exterior surface and spaced 2mm apart, locate the bubbles relative position. The axis of the level vial is an imaginary longitudinal line tangent to the upper inside surface at its midpoint.
The sensitivity of a level vial is determined by its radius of curvature established in manufacture. The larger the radius, the more sensitive a bubble. Sensitivity of a level vial is expressed in 1- the angle, in seconds, subtended by one division on the scale 2- the radius of the tubes curvature. The sensitivity ranges from 20 to 40 seconds. Coincidence-type tube level vial used on precise equipment. The bubble is centered by bringing the two ends together to form a smooth curve. This arrangement enables bubble centering to be done more accurately.
Bulls eye level vials are spherical in shape. The vial is graduated with concentric circles having 2 mm spacing (in some kinds). They are used also on total station instruments. The relationship between sensitivity and radius is :
S R
S : length R : radius 2 mm R
20 206.265/ rad =
R=
2 mm x 206.265/ rad 20
20.625 m 20.6 meter
5.9. TILTING LEVELS They are used for the most precise work. ball-and-socket arrangement (on some tilting levels) permits the head to be tilted and quickly locked nearly level. precise level in preparation for readings is then obtained by carefully centering a telescope bubble.
5.10. AUTOMATIC LEVELS This level type incorporate a-self-leveling feature. Most instruments have a three-screw leveling head. After the bulls eye bubble is manually centered, an automatic compensator takes over, levels the line of sight, and keeps it level.
Operating principle of one type automatic compensator used in automatic level is :
5.11. DIGITAL LEVELS The newest type of automatic level, the electronic digital level (EDL) is :
An operator accomplishes rough leveling with a bulls eye bubble. With its telescope and cross hairs, the instrument could be used to obtain readings manually. EDL is designed to operate by employing electronic digital image processing. After leveling the instrument, its telescope is turned toward a special bar-coded rod and focused. At the press of a button, the image of bar codes in the telescopes field of view is captured and processed. Maximum range : 100 m. Accurate in rod reading = 0.5 mm
5.12. TRIPODS All instruments of leveling are mounted on tripods Hand level is especially valuable in quickly checking proposed locations for instrument setups in differential leveling.
5.13. LEVEL RODS They are made of wood, fiberglass or metal. Various types are named : Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Troy, Chicage, San Fransisco, Florida, etc.
5.14. TESTING AND ADJUSTING LEVELS Through normal use and wear, all leveling instruments will likely become mal adjusted from time to time Placing and adjusting of tripods Adjusting for parallax Testing and adjusting level vials Preliminary adjustment of the horizontal cross hair Testing and adjusting the line of sight
In perfect adjustment, the axis of the level vial and the line of sight must be parallel. If not, collimation error exists. The collimation error will not cause errors in differential leveling as long as backsight and foresight distances are balanced.
RB ra rb + RA 2
Corrected reading R = RA - 2
6. DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
Distance measuring is generally regarded as the most fundamental of all surveying observations. Angles may be read but at least one line must be measured to supplement the angles in locating points. In plane surveying; the distance between two points means horizontal distance If the points are at different elevations, the distance is the horizontal length between vertical lines at the points. 6.1. SUMMARY OF METHODS FOR MAKING LINEAR MEASUREMENTS Linear measurements have been obtained by; 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Pacing Odometer readings Optical rangefinders Tacheometry (stadia) Subtence bars Taping * Electronic distance measurement (EDM) * Satellite systems *
Satellite-supported Global Positioning System (GPS) is rapidly replacing all others. * most commonly used by surveyors today 6.1.1. PACING : Distances obtained by pacing are sufficiently accurate for many purposes in surveying, engineering, geology, agriculture, forestry and military field sketching Pacing consists of counting the number of steps, or paces, in a required distance First determine a pace length If possible adjust one pace to one meter (but do not forget that a pace length varies when going uphill or downhill and changes with age)
Experienced pacers can measure 30-50 meter distances with an accuracy of 0.5 to 1 meter.
6.1.2. ODOMETER READINGS An odometer converts the number of revolutins of a wheel of known circumference to a distance. Lengths measured by an odometer on a vehicle are suitable for some preliminary surveys in route-location work.
Odometers give surface distances which should be corrected to horizontal if the ground slopes severely.
6.1.3. OPTICAL RANGEFINDERS These instruments operate on the same principle as rangefinders on single-lens reflex camera. Basically, when focused, they solve for the object distance f2, focal length f and image distance f1 are known form :
1 1 1 = + f f1 f2
6.1.4. TACHEOMETRY; is a surveying method used to quickly determine the horizontal distance to, and elevation of, a point. 6.1.5. SUBTENCE BAR This indirect distance measuring procedure involves using a theodolite to read the horizontal angle subtended by two targets precisely spaced at a fixed distance apart on a subtence bar. The unknown distance is computed from the known target spacing and the measured horizontal angle. 6.2. DISTANCE MEASUREMENT BY TAPING Introduction : Measurement of horizontal distance by taping consists of applying the known length of a graduated tape directly to a line a number of times. Two problems : 1. measuring an unknown distance between fixed points, 2. laying out a known or required distance with only the starking mark in place. Taping is performed in six steps : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. lining in applying tension plumbing marking tape lengths reading the tape recording the distance
6.3. TAPING EQUIPMENT AND ACCESORIES Metric tapes have standart lengths of 10, 20, 30, 50 meters.
All can be wound on a reel (a) or an enclosed reel (b) Invar tapes are special tapes made up of special steel in order to prevent length variations caused by differences in temperature. Chaining pins (taping pins) are used to mark tape lengths. Taping pins are made of sharply pointed at one end, have a round loop at the other end, and are painted with alternate red and white bands (c) sets of 11 pins carried on a steel ring are standart.
The hand level is a simple instrument used to keep the tape ends at equal elevations when measuring over rough terrain (d). Tension handles facilitate the application of a desired known tension. Pocket thermometer Range poles (lining rods) (e) Plumb bobs (f) 6.4. TAPING ON LEVEL GROUND 1. Lining in : - Use range poles, mark the line at both ends. - Taping requires a minimum of two people (a forwarded tapeperson and a rear tapeperson) 2. Applying tension : For accurate results, the tape must be straight and at same elevations. 3. Plumbing : weeds, brush, obstacles and surface irregularities give difficulties by laying a tape on the ground. Then hold the tape above the ground in a horizontal position. 4. Marking tape lengths : rear person call out = stick forward tapeperson answer = stuck when one length of a tape is properly applied in line on ground.
5. Reading the tape 6. Recording the distance 6.5. HORIZONTAL MEASUREMENTS ON SLOPING GROUND
H = L . cos H = L 2 d2
6.6. SOURCES OF ERROR IN TAPING Three fundamental errors : 1. Instrumental errors : actual length can be different from nominal length because of a defect in manufacture or repair on as a result of kinks. 2. Natural errors : the horizontal distance of a tape varies because of effects of temperature, wind and weight of tape itself. 3. Personal errors : Tapepersons may be careless in setting pins, reading tape or manupulating equipment. Some error types produce systematic errors others random errors. 6.7. SOURCES OF ERROR IN TAPING IN DETAIL 1. Incorrect length of tape 2. Temperature other than standart
CT = k (T1-T) L
CT : correction because of temperature K : coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction of tape L : measured length of line T1 : temperature at time of measurement T : tape temperature when it has standart length

Elementary Surveying

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ELEMENTARY SURVEYING, 2005

ASSOC. PROF. DR. SNMEZ SAYILI