UNIT I: INTRODUCTION 1. What is Open source software?

Open Source Software is software for which the underlying programming code is available to the users so that they may read it, make changes to it, and build new versions of the software incorporating their changes. There are many types of Open Source Software, mainly differing in the licensing term under which (altered) copies of the source code may (or must be) redistributed. 2. What is the Need of Open Source Systems? No initial cost No licensing issues Openness and Transparency Speed of Access Freedom of movement Portable Reliable Stable Security

3. What are the four important factors that led to the development of open source software? The following are the four important factors that lead to the development of Open Source Software: 1. To diminish the high monopoly value of the Proprietary Software 2. To avoid discrimination among persons like developers of the product and users of the product 3. To enable the user finding and fixing the bugs themselves 4. To allow customers to have control over the products they use and to redistribute the same with or without modifications. 4. What are the advantages of open source system? Lesser hardware costs High-quality software No vendor lock-in Integrated management Simple license management Lower software costs Abundant support Scaling and consolidating.

5. Mention some Applications of Open Source Systems? Finance Educational Data Storage and Management Games Media Networking and Internet Graphics

6. Give some characteristics of Linux? Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system One of the most prominent examples of free software and open source development: typically all underlying source code can be freely modified, used, and redistributed by anyone. The name "Linux" comes from the Linux kernel, started in 1991 by Linus Torvalds Predominantly known for its use in servers supported by corporations such as Dell, HewlettPackard, IBM, Novell, Oracle Corporation, Red Hat, and Sun Microsystems. Used as an operating system for a wide variety of computer hardware, including desktop computers, supercomputers, video game systems, such as the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3, several arcade games, and embedded devices such as mobile phones, routers, wristwatches, and stage lighting systems

7. What are the two phases in the evolution of Linux? A Development Phase: Here the Kernel is not reliable and the Process is to add functionality to it, Optimize it and to try new ideas. This Phase gives rise to odd-numbered version numbers, such as 1.1,1.3 etc., This is the time when the maximum amount of work is done on the kernel A Stabilization Phase: Where the aim is to produce as stable a kernel as possible. Only minor adjustments and modifications are made. The version numbers of so called Stable Kernels are even, such as 1.0, 1.2 etc., 8. What are the advantages of Linux? Low-Cost Runs on old Hardware Choice Installation and GUI Security Open source

9. List the disadvantages of Linux Learning Lack of equivalent programs More technical ability needed Not all hardware compatible

10. What are the types of system? Operating system is a generic term which in fact describes several families of systems Single task system: Only one program may be run at a time, and therefore only one person may work on a machine at one time. However, the process may make use of the whole of the resources and power of the machine Multi task system: Several Processes can be executed in parallel. Operating time is cut up into small intervals and each process is executed during these short periods.

11. What are the roles of an operating system? Virtual Machine: Sharing the Processor: Memory Management: Resource management: Communication hub of the machine:

12. Define Kernel mode and user mode The kernel is a privileged mode, in which no restriction is imposed on the kernel of the system. The kernel may use all the instructions of the processor, manipulate the whole of the memory, and talk directly to the peripheral controllers. The user mode is the normal execution mode for a process. In this mode, the process has no privilege.

13. Define Process and differentiate process and program A process can be considered to be a program being run. A program is not a process of itself; it is a passive entity while the process is a active entity with a program counter specifying the next instruction to be carries out, as well as the total associated resource. 14. What are the Process states? During the course of execution, processes change state. The state of a process is defined by its current activity. The different possible states of a process are the following In execution: the process is being executed by the processor, Ready: the process could be executed, but another process is currently being executed Suspended: the process is waiting for a resource Stopped: the process has been suspended by the external process Zombie: the process has finished its execution but it is still referenced in the system 3

15. What are the attributes of the process? During execution, a process is characterized by several attributes maintained by the system: Its state Its identification The values of the registers, including the program counter The user identity whose name the process is executing The information used by the kernel to establish the schedule of the processes Information concerning the address space of the process Information concerning the inputs/outputs carried out by the process Compatibility information summarizing the resources used by the process

16. What are the types of Process Identifiers? Identification of the real user Identification of the effective user Identification of the real group Identification of the effective group A list of group identifiers

17. Define session A session is a collection of one or more groups of processes. Each session is assigned to a single control terminal. This terminal is either a peripheral device or a pseudo-device 18. Define Scheduler The scheduler is the kernel function which decides which process should be executed by the processor: the scheduler scans the list of processes in the ready state, and uses several criteria to choose which process to execute. 19. What are the different scheduling policies in Linux? The Linux scheduler has three different scheduling policies: one for normal Processes, and two for real time processes _ SCHED_FIFO, for a unalterable real time process. _ SCHED_RR, for an alterable real time process, _ SCHED_OTHER, for a classical process.

20. Define Personality In order to allow programs coming from other operating system to be run in Linux, Linux supports the idea of personalities. Each process is assigned to an execution domain. This domain specifies the way in which system calls are carried out, and the way in which messages are processed.

21. What a personality defines? System calls: Linux uses software interrupts to change into kernel mode, whilst other UNIX system use an inter- segment jump. Message number specified by processes: When a process specifies a message number, for example in calling the primitive sigaction or kill, the message number is converted by means of look-up-table Number of messages sent to processes: when a message is to be sent to a process, the message number is converted by means of look-up-table

22. What is the system call available to change the personality? The system call personality allows a process to modify its execution domain in order that Linux can emulate the behavior of another operating system. int personality(int pers); 23. Define Clone process A clone process is created, using primitive type clone, by duplicating its parent process. But, unlike classical processes, it may share its context with its parent. 24. Give the system call for cloning The standard form of the clone function is as follows: int clone(int (*fn)(), void *child stack, int flag, int nargs,); The parameter fn is the pointer from the child process to the function to be executed. The parameter child stack is the pointer to the zone of memory allocated for the stack of child process. The parameter Flags defines method for cloning. The parameter nargs defines the number of arguments to be passed to the function pointed by fn and is followed by these arguments

25. Define Signal It allows processes to react to events triggered by themselves, or by other processes. Each signal corresponds to a particular event. A signal is represented in the system by a name of the form SIGXX. The total number of signals existing in the system is marked by the constant NSIG defined in the header file <signal.h>

26. What are the ways in which signal can be generated? A signal may be generated in several ways, such as: The signal is the result of particular physical circumstance: When a process writes to a non allocated zone of memory, there is an invalid access to a page of memory, which raise a flag. This flag is recognized in the kernel, which generates a SIGSEGV signal which in turn is sent to the process at fault. It is the result of terminal user typing CTRL-C. This generates the signal SIGINT for which the default action is to terminate the process in the session foreground. It is the result of system call kill or of command of the same name which allows the signal to be sent to a selected process. It is the result of event under the control of the kernel.

27. What are the various actions a process may take upon receiving a signal? There are various actions a process may take upon receiving a signal, and three different defaults: ignore the signal: terminate the program; Terminate the program and generate a file core.

28. What are the lists of signal available? Terminating and suspending Process Physical circumstances Available for the Programmer Signal Generated by system when Pipe is closed Control of activity Linked to the resource Management of input and output Fault in power supply

29. What is the system call available to send a signal? The system call Kill is used to send a signal to a process or a group of processes. int kill( pid_t pid, int sig); This returns 0 on no error and -1 on error Sig- signal t be sent Pid - identity of the receiving entity If pid=positive, the signal sig is sent to the process identified by pid If pid=NULL, the signal sig is sent to the sender group of the sender If pid=-1 the signal sig is sent to all process except the first If pid<-1 the signal sig is sent to a group of process identified by pid

To sent a signal to group of processes, there is also the call killpg int killpg(int pgrp, int sig) This returns null if it is sent to the group Pgrp- represents the group the signal is sent to.

To sent signal to itself int raise(int sig);- in the event of error it sends a non zero value 30. List some of the GNU tools gcc ,Debugger,Strace and Make

31. What are the formats supported in Linux for executable programs Linux supports two formats for executable programs a.out-binary format ELF dynamic libraries

32. Define Library and its types Libraries constitute a simple meaning of gathering several object files together Static : during link editing, the library code is integrated with the executable code Dynamic: the library code is loaded when program is executed

UNIT II: OPEN SOURCE DATABASE 1. What is MySQL? MySQL is a relational database management system which has 11 million installations. It can be used for both Windows and Linux. Managing database includes adding, accessing, and processing data in a database. 2. Why do so many organizations use MySQL? Highly efficient Open source Highly secured since All password traffic is encrypted connecting to a server. Offers a high scalability in terms of size and connectivity.

3. What is "mysqld"? mysqld is a daemon server program typically used to start and stop mysql server. It runs in the background 4. How can you connect to the MySQL Server? In order to connect to the MySQL server, it is required to give the username and password. So this can be done with the following % mysql h localhost p u root -h localhost to connect to the MySQL server running on the local host -p to tell mysql to prompt for a password -u root to connect as the MySQL root user

5. How can you Start MySQL Server? To start the mysql program type its name in the command- line prompt. After starting the mysql program just display a welcome message using the following Syntax: % mysql Welcome to the MySQL monitor. Commands end with ; or \g. Your MySQL connection id is 18427 to server version: 3.23.51-log Type 'help;' or '\h' for help. Type '\c' to clear the buffer. mysql> 6. How can you terminate the MySQL Server? Typing the following in Command prompt will shut down the server completely as root user % mysqladmin -u root -p shutdown

7. Explain the tools that are available for managing MySQL Server. Following are the tools to manage MySQL server: mysqld - MySQL server daemon. It is used to start the mysql server. mysqladmin Used to perform administrative tasks. mysql - A command-line interface for end users to manage user data objects. mysqlcheck - A command-line interface for administrators to check and repair tables. mysqlshow - A command-line interface for end users to see information on tables and columns. mysqldump - A command-line interface for administrators or end users to export data from the server to files. mysqlimport - A command-line interface for administrators or end users to load data files into tables program tool to load data into tables.

8. What are the capabilities provided by MySQL client APIs? Connecting to the MySQL server; selecting a database; disconnecting from the server. Checking for errors. Issuing queries and retrieving results. Using prepared statements and placeholders in queries. Including special characters and NULL values in queries. Handling NULL values in result sets.

9. What are the three fundamental operations that are common to MySQL Programs? Establishing a connection to the MySQL server. Selecting a database. Disconnecting from the server

10. What is difference between mysql_connect and mysql_pconnect? Mysql_connect() opens a new connection to the database while mysql_pconnect() opens a persistent connection to the database. This means that each time the page is loaded mysql_pconnect() does not open the database. Mysql_close() cannot be used to close the persistent connection. Though it can be used to close mysql_connect(). 11. What are the two ways in which Warnings can be suppressed in PHP? First, to prevent an individual function call from producing an error message, put the @ warning suppression operator in front of its name. Disable these warnings globally by using the error_reporting( ) function to set the PHP error level to zero: error_reporting(0)

12. What are the categories of SQL Statements? Statements that do not return a result set. This statement category includes INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE. Statements that return a result set, such as SELECT, SHOW, EXPLAIN, and DESCRIBE. 9

13. What are the MySQL_fetch_row()?

differences

between

MySQL_fetch_array(),

MySQL_fetch_object(),

Mysql_fetch_object returns the result from the database as objects while mysql_fetch_array returns result as an array. This will allow access to the data by the field names. E.g. using mysql_fetch_object field can be accessed as $result->name and using mysql_fetch_array field can be accessed as $result->[name]. mysql_fetch_row($result):- where $result is the result resource returned from a successful query executed using the mysql_query() function.

Example: $result = mysql_query(SELECT * from students); while($row = mysql_fetch_row($result)) { Some statement; }

14. What are the two types of methods for retrieving rows in Python? Fetchone()- Returns the next row as a sequence Fetchall()- Returns the entire result set as a sequence of sequences

15. What are the benefits of prepared statements and placeholders? Parameter binding operations automatically handle escaping of characters Encourage Statement reuse Easier to read

16. What are the ways of obtaining the connection parameters? Hardwire the parameters into the program. Ask for the parameters interactively. Get the parameters from the command line. Get the parameters from the execution environment. Get the parameters from a separate file. Use a combination of methods.

17. What are the various ways in which SELECT statement can be used for record selection Technology? SELECT gives you control over several aspects of record retrieval: Which table to use Which columns to display from the table What names to give the columns Which rows to retrieve from the table How to sort the rows

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18. What is the keyword which can be used to combine column values? Give Example Column values may be combined to produce composite output values using the CONCAT() Keyword. Example:

19. How can you map NULL values to other values while display? IF( ) and IFNULL( ) keywords are used to do so. They are especially useful for catching divideby-zero operations and mapping them onto something else. 20. When the LIMIT clause will be used? LIMIT is used for the following kinds of problems: 1) Answering questions about first or last, largest or smallest 2) Splitting a result set into sections so that you can process it one piece at a time. 21. What are the advantages of copying records from one table to another? When an algorithm that modifies a table is used then it is safer to work with the copy When the original table is large then it takes large time to work with so it is better to work with the which takes less time The data-loading operations that may be malformed when used with original table can go with the copy to ensure safety The summary operations when repeatedly done over the original table are expensive so copy can be used to print the summary which is not expensive as original table

22. What is the use of creating such tables? How can you create temporary tables? When you need a table only for a short time, then you want it to disappear automatically you can go to create a temporary table. This is extremely useful behavior because you need not remember to remove the table The Temporary tables can be created using the keyword CREATE TEMPORARY TABLE 11

23. What are the disadvantages of creating a temporary table? If you've already created a temporary table with a given name, attempting to create a second one with that name results in an error. persistent connections may tend not to drop the temporary table because the connection is let open for the use of next script If a client program automatically reconnects after a dropped connection, you'll be modifying the original table after the reconnect

24. What are the properties of Strings? Strings can be case sensitive (or not), which can affect the outcome of string operations. You can compare entire strings, or just parts of them by extracting substrings. You can apply pattern-matching operations to look for strings that have a certain structure.

25. What are the types of Strings? A binary string in MySQL is one that MySQL treats as case sensitive in comparisons. A non binary string in MySQL is one that MySQL does not treats as case sensitive in comparisons. For binary strings, the characters A and a are considered different. For non-binary strings, they're considered the same.

26. Does the MID() acts the same way as SUBSTRING() ? Justify MID() acts the same way as the SUBSTRING() if the third argument of the MID() is omitted. 27. What are the ways provided by MySQL for Pattern Matching? 1) One is based on SQL patterns 2) Regular expressions. 28. What are the data types supported by MySQL for Date and Time formats? MySQL supports a number of date and time column formats: Some of them are DATE DATETIME TIMESTAMP

29. Give Examples of various type of Date and Time formats. It is most common to store dates using a dash (-) as the delimiter and a colon (:) as the time delimiter. The Following formats can also be used. 2008-10-23 10:37:22 20081023103722 2008/10/23 10.37.22 2008*10*23*10*37*22

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30. Why do you go for sorting your query results? SQL SELECT command to fetch data from MySQL table. When you select rows, the MySQL server is free to return them in any order, unless you instruct it otherwise by saying how to sort the result. But you sort a result set by adding an ORDER BY clause that names the column or columns you want to sort by. 31. Define Aggregate functions and what are aggregate functions supported by the MySQL To compute a summary value from a set of individual values, use one of the functions known as aggregate functions. These are so called because they operate on aggregates (groups) of values. Aggregate functions include, COUNT( ) - Which counts records or values in a query result; MIN( ) and MAX( ) - Which find smallest and largest values; SUM ( ) and AVG ( ) - Which produce sums and means of values.

32. What are the types of information available in MySQL? Information about the result of queries: This includes number of records effected by any SELECT, UPDATE or DELETE statement. Information about tables and databases: This includes information pertaining to the structure of tables and databases. Information about the MySQL server: This includes current status of database server, version number etc

33. Define Sequence A sequence is a set of integers 1, 2, 3, ... that are generated in order on demand. Sequences are frequently used in databases because many applications require each row in a table to contain a unique value, and sequences provide an easy way to generate them

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UNIT III: OPEN SOURCE PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES 1. What is PHP? PHP stands for Hypertext Preprocessor and is a server-side language. This means that when a visitor opens the page, the server processes the PHP commands and then sends the results to the visitor's browser, just as with ASP. A typical PHP files will content commands to be executed in the server in addition to the usual mixture of text and HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) tags. However, PHP is Open Source and cross-platform.

2. What can PHP do for you? PHP offers plenty of possibilities: PHP is appropriate whenever you want your pages to be created dynamically when the browser requests the page. For example, you can display date, time, and other information in different ways. PHP will make your website more dynamic in content and a heck of a lot easier to update. PHP makes it easy to customize a Web page to make it more useful for individual users. With PHP you can set cookies, manage authentication, and redirect users. One of PHP most powerful features is database access. With PHP it is possible to access over 19 different types of databases and manipulate data within those databases based on input from the user via a web page. PHP makes it easy to send e-mail, work with newsgroups, and actually open a connection to another web site -- and get or send data with it. If you are already familiar with ASP development, PHP can also communicate with other server side languages such as Java and use COM interfaces.

3. Define Variable. A variable is a holder for a type of data. So, based on its type, a variable can hold numbers, strings, Booleans, objects, resources or it can be NULL. In PHP all the variables begin with a dollar sign "$" and the value can be assigns using the "=" operator. The dollar sign is not technically part of the variable name, but it is required as the first character for the PHP parser to recognize the variable as such.

4. What are the variable naming conventions in PHP? PHP variables must start with a letter or underscore "_". PHP variables may only be comprised of alpha-numeric characters and underscores. a-z, A-Z, 0-9, or_ Variables with more than one word should be separated with underscores: $my_variable. Variables with more than one word can also be distinguished with capitalization: $myVariable. One important thing to note if you are coming from another programming language there is no size limit for variables. 14

5. What are the scopes of variables in PHP? The scope of a variable, which is controlled by the location of the variables declaration, determines those parts of the program that can access it. There are four types of variable scope in PHP: Local - A variable declared in a function is local to that function. Global - Variables declared outside a function are global. That is, they can be accessed from any part of the program. Static - A static variable retains its value between calls to a function but is visible only within that function. Function parameters - Function parameters are local, meaning that they are available only inside their functions.

6. Define constant and what is the main difference between the variable and the constant Constants just as variables are used to store information. The main difference between constants and variables is that constant value cannot be changed in the process of running program.

7. What are the data types available in PHP? PHP provides eight types of values, or data types. 1) Four are scalar (single-value) types: integers, floating-point numbers, strings, and Booleans. 2) Two are compound (collection) types: arrays and Objects. 3) The remaining two are special types: resource and NULL. 8. Define expressions and operators. An expression is a bit of PHP that can be evaluated to produce a value. The simplest expressions are literal values and variables. A literal value evaluates to itself, while a variable evaluates to the value stored in the variable. More complex expressions can be formed using simple expressions and operators. An operator takes some values (the operands) and does something (for instance, adds them together).

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9. What are the different types of Operators based on the number of operands it takes? Most operators in PHP are binary operators; they combine two operands (or expressions) into a single, more complex expression. PHP also supports a number of unary operators, which convert a single expression into a more complex expression. Finally, PHP supports a single ternary operator that combines three expressions into a single expression.

10. Define Operator Precedence, operator associativity and casting The order in which operators in an expression are evaluated depends on their relative precedence. Associativity defines the order in which operators with the same order of precedence are evaluated. The conversion of a value from one type to another is called casting.

11. What are the types of operators available in PHP? The conversion of a value from one type to another is called casting. Arithmetic Operators String Concatenation Operator Auto increment and Auto decrement Operators Comparison Operators Bitwise Operators Logical Operators Casting Operators Assignment Operators and some miscellaneous Operators

12. Define Function A function is a named block of code that performs a specific task, possibly acting upon a set of values given to it, or parameters, and possibly returning a single value. 13. Give the syntax to call a function $some_value = function_name( [ parameter, ... ] ); 14. Give the syntax to define a function To define a function, use the following syntax: function [&] function name ( [ parameter [, ... ] ] ) { Statement list } 16

15. What are the types to pass parameters to the function? There are two different ways of passing parameters to a function. The first, and more common, is by value. The other is by reference.

16. Define Passing parameters by values and reference When a parameter is passed by value, the compiler passes the actual value to the called procedure. When a parameter is passed by value, the called program or procedure can change the value of the parameter, but the caller will never see the changed value Passing parameters by reference to a procedure allows the called to modify the field passed.

17. What is the Drawback of returning the reference? The drawback of returning the reference is that it is slower than returning the value and relying on the shallow-copy mechanism to ensure that a copy of that data is not made unless it is changed. 18. Define array in PHP An array is a special variable, which can store multiple values in one single variable. Arrays can be used in many ways to store and organize data quickly and efficiently. It is one of the more useful data types available to any programming language. Arrays can most easily be described as an ordered list of elements.

19. How can you assign a range of values to the array? The range ( ) function creates an array of consecutive integer or character values between the two values you pass to it as arguments. For example: $numbers = range(2, 5); // $numbers = array(2, 3, 4, 5); $letters = range('a', 'z'); // $letters holds the alphabet $reversed_numbers = range(5, 2); // $reversed_numbers = array(5, 4, 3, 2);

20. How can you get the size of the array? The count( ) and sizeof( ) functions are identical in use and effect. They return the number of elements in the array. There is no stylistic preference about which function you use. $family = array('Fred', 'Wilma', 'Pebbles'); $size = count($family); // $size is 3

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21. What are the functions available to sort an array? Sorting numerically indexed arrays The sort () function orders the array element in ascending order.

Sorting associative arrays The asort() function orders the array according to the value of each element in ascending order. We use ksort() function to sort an associative array according to the key in ascending order.

Sorting arrays in the reverse order Rsort() function sorts one-dimensional numerically indexed array by the values in reverse order. Arsort() function sorts one-dimensional associative array by the values in reverse order. Krsort() function sorts one-dimensional associative array by the keys in reverse order.

22. What is OOP? OOP stands for Object Oriented Programming. OOP is a programming paradigm wherein you create "objects" to work with. These objects can then be tailored to your specific needs, to serve different types of applications while maintaining the same code base. 23. What is an object and class? An object is simply a copy or instance of a "class". A class can be defined as a "black box" from where we create our objects and access its attributes (variables) and methods (functions).

24. Define Polymorphism Polymorphism is an OOP characteristic that allows the programmer to assign a different meaning or usage to something in different contexts - specifically, to allow a class member to perform different tasks depending on the context it was used. 25. Define Inheritance The basic idea behind inheritance is that similar objects share common properties. So by creating a "generic" class, we can have a blueprint to build our subsequent classes on. 26. What are the levels of visibility? Public: means that a class member is visible and usable / modifiable by everyone Private: means that a class member is only usable / modifiable by the class itself Protected: means that a class member is only usable / modifiable by the class itself and eventual sub-classes

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27. What are the functions available to search a string? strpos() - The way strpos works is it takes some string you want to search in as its first argument and another string, which is what you are actually searching for, as the second argument. $pos = strpos($mystring, $findme); str_replace() - The str_replace function is similar to a word processor's "Replace All" command str_replace(search, replace, originalString). substr_replace() - The function substr_replace introduces some additional functionality to compliment str_replace. substr_replace is a more mathematically based replace function, which relies on starting points and lengths to replace parts of strings, as opposed to searching and replacing. substr_replace(original string, replacement string, startingpoint) 28. What are the capitalization functions available in PHP? PHP has three primary capitalization related functions: strtoupper strtolower and ucwords.

29. Define Regular Expression and what are the regular expressions supported by PHP A regular expression is a string that represents a pattern. The regular expression functions compare that pattern to another string and see if any of the string matches the pattern. PHP provides support for two different types of regular expressions: POSIX Perl compatible.

30. What are the three uses of regular expressions? Matching, which can also be used to extract information from a string; Substituting new text for matching text; Splitting a string into an array of smaller chunks.

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31. What are the three basic types of abstract patterns in a regular expression? A set of acceptable characters that can appear in the string (e.g., alphabetic characters, numeric characters, specific punctuation characters) A set of alternatives for the string (e.g., "com", "edu", "net", or "org") A repeating sequence in the string (e.g., at least one but no more than five numeric characters) A set of acceptable characters that can appear in the string (e.g., alphabetic characters, numeric characters, specific punctuation characters) A set of alternatives for the string (e.g., "com", "edu", "net", or "org") A repeating sequence in the string (e.g., at least one but no more than five numeric characters)

32. Define anchor and Quantifier An anchor limits a match to a particular location in the string (anchors do not match actual characters in the target string). The quantifier goes after the pattern thats repeated and says how many times to repeat that pattern.

33. Define Greedy and Non greedy quantifier When faced with a quantifier, the engine matches as much as it can while still satisfying the rest of the pattern - Greedy Quantifiers that match as few times as possible to satisfy the rest of the pattern - Non Greedy

34. What is a file? A file is a sequence of bytes stored persistently on a physical medium like a hard disk. Each file is uniquely identified by its absolute path. 35. Mention the advantages of simple text file system 1) Minimization of cost. Cost of maintaining databases like Oracle are huge, thus files are low cost answer to these databases. 2) Taking back Up of your database is very easy. All you have to do is to copy the file. 3) It much easier to transfer a text file from one OS to another. 36. Mention the disadvantages of simple text file system 1) Text files do not support SQL Query languages. Thus you will have to code your data retrieval and updating algorithms yourself. 2) It does not use any indexing mechanism , thus searching mechanism is much slower. 3) You cannot use triggers, define primary keys , Foreign Keys etc.

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37. How can you open a file? The fopen() function can be used to open any file in the server's file system. int fopen(string filename, string mode [, string use_include_path]) 38. How can you close a file? The fclose() function is used to close an opened file. int fclose(int fp) 39. What are the functions available to read a file? string fread(int fp, int length) string fgetc(int fp) string fgets(int fp, int length) string fgetss(int fp, int length [,string allowable_tags]) array file(string filename [,int use_include_path])

40. What are the functions available to write contents to a file? int fputs(int fp, string stringtoWrite [,int length]); int fwrite(int fp, string stringtoWrite [,int length]);

41. What are the functions available to display a file? int fpassthru(int fp) int readfile(string filename)

42. What are the functions available to navigate within a file? int rewind(int fp) int fseek(int fp, int offset [, int whence]) int ftell(int fp) int feof(int fp)

43. What are the functions available to copy , rename and delete a file? int copy(string source, string destination) int rename(string oldname, string newname) int unlink(string filename)

44. What are the functions available to determine the attributes of a file? int file_exists(string filename) int fileatime(string filename) int filectime(string filename) int filemtime(string filename) int filesize(string filename) string filetype(string filename) 21

45. What are the three places where the data can be stored in PHP? flat file session variables Cookies.

46. Define flat files and mention its advantages over databases Flat files are text files stored in the computer file system. Humans can read flat files by using the operating system commands that display files, such as cat in Linux and UNIX. Flat files have some advantages over databases: Available and versatile: You can create and save data in any operating system's file system. You don't need to install any extra software. Additionally, text data stored in flat files can be read by a variety of software programs, such as word processors or spreadsheets. Easy to use: You don't need to do any extra preparation, such as install database software, design a database, create a database, and so on. Just create the file and store the data with statements in your PHP script. Smaller: Flat files store data by using less disk space than databases.

47. What are the components of LDAP? LDAP data organization, defines how the data is formatted while in storage and exchange with respect to the communicating LDAP entities, that is, client-server and server-server LDAP server is the server that LDAP clients interact with to obtain directory information. LDAP protocol, is the common language spoken by clients and servers when the clients access the directory LDAP clients implemented using different vendor APIs and tools on different platforms are able to connect to the LDAP server, as long as they speak the LDAP protocol and handle data in the particular format required by LDAP.

48. List out the characteristics of LDAP Global Directory Service Open Standard Interconnectivity Customizability and Extensibility Heterogeneous Data Store Secure and Access Controlled Protocol

49. List out the various models of LDAP Information model Naming model Functional model Security model

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50. What are the various PHP's LDAP client functions? The various PHP's LDAP client functions: Connection and control functions Search functions Modification functions Error functions

51. What are the different error handling methods in PHP? Simple "die()" statements Custom errors and error triggers, Error reporting

52. Give the Importance of PHP Security PHP is widely used language for web applications PHP is making headway into enterprise as well as corporate markets Most effective and often overlooked measure to prevent malicious users PHP applications often end up working with sensitive data

53. What are the concerns of PHP security? Register Global SQL Injection Cross Site Scripting User login systems

54. Define Template A template is an HTML-like document that defines the presentation of a web page, while a PHP script supplies the content. The separation of content and presentation is at the heart of any GUI paradigm.

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UNIT IV: PYTHON 1. Give some of the rules and certain symbols used with regard to statements in Python Hash mark ( # ) indicates Python comments NEWLINE ( \n ) is the standard line separator (one statement per line) Backslash ( \ ) continues a line Semicolon ( ; ) joins two statements on a line Colon ( : ) separates a header line from its suite Statements (code blocks) grouped as suites Suites delimited via indentation Python files organized as "modules"

2. Give the module structure and layout of python programming # (1) startup line (Unix) # (2) module documentation # (3) module imports # (4) variable declarations # (5) class declarations # (6) function declarations # (7) "main" body 3. Give the characteristics of Python objects Identity Unique identifier that differentiates an object from all others. Type An object's type indicates Value Data item that is represented by an object. what kind of values an object can hold, what operations can be applied to such objects, and what behavioral rules these objects are subject to.

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4. What are the standard types present in python programming Numbers (four separate sub-types) Regular or "Plain" Integer Boolean Long Integer Floating Point Real Number Complex Number String List Tuple Dictionary

5. What are the built in types present in python programming Some other built in types are Type Null object(None) File Set/Frozen set Function/Method Module Class

6. What are the internal types present in python programming? The following internal types are in python programming Code Frame Traceback Slice Ellipsis Xrange

7. What are the types of numbers present in python? Python has four types of numbers: "plain" integers, long integers, floating point real numbers, and complex numbers.

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8. How to Create and Assign Numbers (Number Objects) Creating numbers is as simple as assigning a value to a variable: anInt = 1 aLong = -9999999999999999L aFloat = 3.1415926535897932384626433832795 aComplex = 1.23 + 4.56J

9. How to Update Numbers You can "update" an existing number by (re)assigning a variable to another number. The new value can be related to its previous value or to a completely different number altogether. anInt = anInt + 1 aFloat = 2.718281828

10. How to Remove Numbers Under normal circumstances, you do not really "remove" a number; you just stop using it! If you really want to delete a reference to a number object, just use the del statement del anInt del aLong, aFloat, aComplex

11. Define sequence Sequence types all share the same access model: ordered set with sequentially indexed offsets to get to each element. The numbering scheme used starts from zero (0) and ends with one less the length of the sequence. 12. How can you access elements using slice operator? The syntax for accessing an individual element is: sequence[index] The syntax for accessing a group of elements is: sequence [ [starting_index]: [ending_index]] 13. How to Create and Assign Strings Creating strings is as simple as assigning a value to a variable: >>> aString = 'Hello World!' >>> print aString Hello World! >>> aBlankString = '' >>> print aBlankString '' 26

14. How to Access Values(Characters and Substrings) in Strings Python does not support a character type; these are treated as strings of length one, thus also considered a substring. To access substrings, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or indices to obtain your substring: >>> aString = 'Hello World!' >>> aString[0] 'H' >>> aString[1:5] 'ello' >>> aString[6:] 'World!' 15. How to Update Strings You can "update" an existing string by (re)assigning a variable to another string. The new Value can be related to its previous value or to a completely different string altogether. >>> aString = aString[:6] + 'Python!' >>> aString 'Hello Python!' Like numbers, strings are not mutable, so you cannot change an existing string without creating a new one from scratch. That means that you cannot update individual characters or substrings in a string. 16. How to Remove Characters and Strings To repeat what we just said, strings are immutable, so you cannot remove individual characters from an existing string. What you can do, however, is to empty the string, or to put together another string which drops the pieces you were not interested in. >>> aString = 'Hello World!' >>> aString = aString[:3] + aString[4:] >>> aString 'Helo World!'

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To clear or remove a string, you assign an empty string or use the del statement, respectively: >>> aString = '' >>> aString '' >>> del aString In most applications, strings do not need to be explicitly deleted. Rather, the code defining the string eventually terminates, and the string is automatically garbage collected. 17. Define raw string operator The purpose of raw strings, introduced to Python in version 1.5, is to counteract the behavior of the special escape characters that occur in strings. In raw strings, all characters are taken verbatim with no translation to special or non-printed characters. This feature makes raw strings absolutely convenient when such behavior is desired, such as when composing regular expressions 18. How to Create and Assign Lists Creating lists is as simple as assigning a value to a variable. You handcraft a list (empty or with elements) and perform the assignment. Lists are delimited by surrounding square brackets ( [ ] ). >>> aList = [123, 'abc', 4.56, ['inner', 'list'], 7-9j] >>> print aList [123, 'abc', 4.56, ['inner', 'list'], (7-9j)] 19. How to Access Values in Lists Slicing works similar to strings; use the square bracket slice operator ( [ ] ) along with the index or indices. >>> aList[0] 123 >>> aList[:3] [123, 'abc', 4.56] >>> aList[3][1] 'list'

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20. How to Update Lists You can update single or multiple elements of lists by giving the slice on the left-hand side of the assignment operator, and you can add to elements in a list with the append() method: >>> aList [123, 'abc', 4.56, ['inner', 'list'], (7-9j)] >>> aList[2] 4.56 >>> aList[2] = 'float replacer' >>> aList [123, 'abc', 'float replacer', ['inner', 'list'], (7-9j)] >>> 21. How to Remove List Elements and Lists To remove a list element, you can use either the del statement if you know exactly which element(s) you are deleting or the remove() method if you do not know. >>> aList [123, 'abc', 'float replacer', ['inner', 'list'], (7-9j)] >>> del aList[1] >>> aList [123, 'float replacer', ['inner', 'list'], (7-9j)] >>> aList.remove(123) >>> aList 22. How to Create and Assign Tuples Creating and assigning lists are practically identical to lists, with the exception of empty tuples. These require a trailing comma ( , ) enclosed in the tuple delimiting parentheses ( ( ) ). >>> aTuple = (123, 'abc', 4.56, ['inner', 'tuple'], 7-9j) >>> print aTuple (123, 'abc', 4.56, ['inner', 'tuple'], (7-9j))

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23. How to Access Values in Tuples Slicing works similar to lists: Use the square bracket slice operator ([ ]) along with the index or indices. >>> aTuple>>> aList[1:4] ('abc', 4.56, ['inner', 'tuple']) >>> aTuple[:3] (123, 'abc', 4.56) >>> aTuple[3][1] 'tuple' 24. How to Update Tuples Like numbers and strings, tuples are immutable which means you cannot update them or change values of tuple elements. In Sections 6.2 and 6.3.2, we were able to take portions of an existing string to create a new string. The same applies for tuples. >>> aTuple = aTuple[0], aTuple[1], aTuple[-1] >>> aTuple (123, 'abc', (7-9j)) >>> tup1 = (12, 34.56) >>> tup2 = ('abc', 'xyz') >>> tup3 = tup1 + tup2 >>> tup3 (12, 34.56, 'abc', 'xyz') 25. How to Remove Tuple Elements and Tuples Removing individual tuple elements is not possible. There is, of course, nothing wrong with putting together another tuple with the undesired elements discarded. To explicitly remove an entire list, just use the del statement: del aTuple

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26. How to Create and Assign Dictionaries Creating dictionaries simply involves assigning a dictionary to a variable, regardless of whether the dictionary has elements or not: >>> dict1 = {} >>> dict2 = {'name': 'earth', 'port': 80} >>> dict1, dict2 ({}, {'port': 80, 'name': 'earth'}) 27. How to Access Values in Dictionaries To access dictionary elements, you use the familiar square brackets along with the key to obtain its value: >>> dict2['name'] 'earth' >>> >>> print 'host %s is running on port %d' % \ ... (dict2['name'], dict2['port']) host earth is running on port 80 28. How to Update Dictionaries You can update a dictionary by adding a new entry or element (i.e., a key-value pair), modifying an existing entry, or deleting an existing entry >>> dict2['name'] = 'venus' # update existing entry >>> dict2['port'] = 6969 # update existing entry >>> dict2['arch'] = 'sunos5' # add new entry >>> >>> print 'host %(name)s is running on port %(port)d' % dict2 host venus is running on port 6969 29. How to Remove Dictionary Elements and Dictionaries del dict1['name'] # remove entry with key 'name' dict1.clear() # remove all entries in dict1 del dict1 # delete entire dictionary

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30. Define dictionary key look up operator The only operator specific to dictionaries is the key-lookup operator, which works very similar to the single element slice operator for sequence types. For a dictionary, lookups are by key, so that is the argument rather than an index. The key- lookup operator is used for both assigning values to and retrieving values from a dictionary: dict[k] = v # set value 'v' in dictionary with key 'k' dict[k] # lookup value in dictionary with key 'k'

31. Define pass statement One Python statement not found in C is the pass statement. Because Python does not use curly braces to delimit blocks of code, there are places where code is syntactically required. We do not have the equivalent empty braces or single semicolon the way C has to indicate "do nothing." If you use a Python statement that expects a sub-block of code or suite, and one is not present, you will get a syntax error condition. For this reason, we have pass, a statement that does absolutely nothingit is a true NOP, to steal the "No Operation" assembly code jargon 32. List the file built in methods File methods come in four different categories: input output movement within a file("intra-file motion") and miscellaneous

33. Define Command line arguments Command-line arguments are those arguments given to the program in addition to the script name on invocation. Historically, of course, these arguments are so named because they are given on the command-line along with the program name in a text based environment like a Unix- or DOSshell. 34. Define Pickling or flattening or serializing or marshalling Pickling is the process whereby objects more complex than primitive types can be converted to a binary set of bytes that can be stored or transmitted across the network, then be converted back to their original object forms. Pickling is also known as flattening, serializing, or marshalling. 35. What is the function of DBM- Style module and shelve module The *db* series of modules writes data in the traditional DBM format the shelve module uses the any dbm module to find a suitable DBM module, then uses cPickle to perform the pickling process. The shelve module permits concurrent read access to the database file, but not shared read/write access.

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36. Define exception Exceptions can best be described as action that is taken outside of the normal flow of control because of errors. This action comes in two distinct phases, the first being the error which causes an exception to occur, and the second being the detection (and possible resolution) phase. 37. What are the various types of errors in python? NameError: attempt to access an undeclared variable ZeroDivisionError: division by any numeric zero SyntaxError: invalid syntax IndexError: request for an out-of-range index for sequence KeyError: request for a non-existent dictionary key IOError: input/output error AttributeError: attempt to access an unknown object attribute

38. How to detect and handle errors in python Exceptions can be detected by incorporating them as part of a try statement. Any code suite of a try statement will be monitored for exceptions. There are two main forms of the try statement: try-except try-finally.

39. Differentiate function and procedure Functions are often compared to procedures. Both are entities which can be invoked, but the traditional function or "black box," perhaps taking some or no input parameters, performs some amount of processing and concludes by sending back a return value to the caller. Some functions are Boolean in nature, returning a "yes" or "no" answer, or, more appropriately, a non-zero or zero value, respectively. Procedures, often compared to functions, are simply special cases, functions which do not return a value. Python procedures are implied functions because the interpreter implicitly returns a default value of None.

40. Define Function Operator Functions are called using the same pair of parentheses that you are used to. In fact, some consider (( )) to be a two-character operator, the function operator. Any input parameters or arguments must be placed between these calling parentheses. Parentheses are also used as part of function declarations to define those arguments.

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41. How function Declaration and Definition are different from other programming languages Some programming languages differentiate between function declarations and function definitions. A function declaration consists of providing the parser with the function name, and the names (and traditionally the types) of its arguments, without necessarily giving any lines of code for the function, which is usually referred to as the function definition. In languages where there is a distinction, it is usually because the function definition may belong in a physically different location in the code from the function declaration. Python does not make a distinction between the two, as a function clause is made up of a declarative header line which is immediately followed by its defining suite 42. Define Recursion A function is recursive if it contains a call to itself. A procedure is recursive if a new activation can begin before an earlier activation of the same procedure has ended. In other words, a new invocation of the same function occurs within that function before it finished. Recursion is used extensively in language recognition as well as in mathematical applications that use recursive functions. 43. Define Module A Module allows you to logically organize your python code. When code gets to be large the tendency is to break it up into organized pieces that can still interact with one another at a functioning level 44. Define importing The process of associating attributes from other modules with your module is called importing 45. Define namespace A namespace is a mapping of names to objects. The process of adding a name to a namespace consists of binding the identifier to the object. 46. Define Rebinding and Unbinding The process of changing the mapping of a name is called rebinding and the process of removing a name is called unbinding 47. What is name look up When accessing an attribute, the interpreter must find it in any one of the three namespaces(local, global and built in). This is called name look up. 48. What are the features of module import? Modules executed not loaded Importing versus loading Names imported into current namespace Names imported into importers scope

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49. What are the built in functions present in python for modules _import_( ) Globals and locals Reload_( )

50. Give the syntax for creating a class class ClassName: 'class documentation string" Class_suite 51. Give the syntax for creating the instance for the class >>> class MyClass: # define class ... pass >>> myInstance = MyClass() # instantiate class 52. How to Create a Subclasses Derived classes are declared much like their parent class; however, a list of base classes to inherit from are given after the class name: class SubClassName (ParentClass1[, ParentClass2, ...]): 'optional class documentation string' class_suite 53. Define callable object Any object that can be invoked with the function () operator. The function operator is placed immediately following the name of the callable to invoke it 54. Define code object There are other executable objects in python that do not have the ability to be invoked like callable. These objects are the smaller pieces of the puzzles that make up executable blocks of code called code object. 55. Define restricted execution and terminating execution Restricted execution can be facilitated by rexec which can modify the objects and bastion module which acts as a attribute filter. A clean execution occurs only when a program runs to completion. The execution is terminated either by exception handling or cleaner. 35