Ecstatic Religion - A Study of Shamanism and Spirit Possession

ECSTATIC R E L I G I O N THIRD EDITION
States of spirit p o s s e s s i o n , in w h i c h b e l i e v e r s feel t h e m s e l v e s to be 'possessed' by the deity and raised to a n e w plane of existence, are found in almost all k n o w n religions. F r o m D i o n y s i a c cults to Haitian v o o d o o , Christian and Sufi mysticism to s h a m a n i c ritual, the rapture and frenzy of ecstatic experience forms an iconic expression of faith in all its devastating power and unpredictability. Ecstatic Religion has, since its first appearance in 1 9 7 1 , b e c o m e the classic investigative study of these p u z z l i n g p h e n o m e n a . E x p l o r i n g the social and political significance of spiritual ecstasy and possession, it considers the distinct types and functions of mystical experience - in particular, the differences between powerful maledominated possession cults w h i c h reinforce established m o r a l i t y a n d power, and marginal, renegade ecstatics expressing forms of protest on behalf of the oppressed, especially w o m e n . I. M. L e w i s ' s wide-ranging comparative study looks at the psychological, medical, aesthetic, religious and cultural aspects of possession, and covers themes including soul-loss, ecstatic t r a n c e , d i v i n a t i o n , erotic p a s s i o n and exorcism. P r o b i n g the m y s t e r i e s of spirit p o s s e s s i o n t h r o u g h the critical lens of anthropological and sociological theory, this fully revised and e x p a n d e d Third Edition is of crucial i m p o r t a n c e for s t u d e n t s of psychology, sociology, religious m y s t i c i s m and s h a m a n i s m . I. M. L e w i s , a former Professor of A n t h r o p o l o g y and h e a d of d e p a r t m e n t at the L o n d o n School of E c o n o m i c s , is the author of several w o r k s on anthropology and religion including Religion in Context (1996) and Blood and Bone (1994).
ECSTATIC R E L I G I O N
A Study of Shamanism and Spirit Possession
Third Edition
I. M. LEWIS
Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published 1971 by Penguin Books Second edition published 1989 by Routledge Third edition published 2003 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York NY 10001 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group 1971, 1989 and 2003 I. M. Lewis Typeset in Times by Keystroke, Jacaranda Lodge, Wolverhampton Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Lewis, I. M. Ecstatic religion: a study of shamanism and spirit possession/ I. M. Lewis. - 3rd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-415-30508-X (hb) - ISBN 0-415-30124-6 (pbk.) 1. Ecstasy. 2. Shamanism. 3. Spirit possession. 4. Religion and sociology. I. Title. BL626 .L48 2003 306.6'9142-dc21 ISBN 0-415-30124-6 (PB) ISBN 0-415-30508-X (HB) 2002027542
For Ann
'Pour soulever les hommes il faut avoir le diable au corps' BAKUNIN
CONTENTS
Preface to the third edition 1 2 3 4 T O W A R D S A S O C I O L O G Y OF E C S T A S Y TRANCE AND POSSESSION AFFLICTION A N D ITS A P O T H E O S I S S T R A T E G I E S OF M Y S T I C A L A T T A C K : P R O T E S T A N D ITS C O N T A I N M E N T 5 POSSESSION AND PUBLIC MORALITY I ANCESTOR CULTS 6 POSSESSION AND PUBLIC MORALITY II OTHER C O S M O L O G I C A L SYSTEMS 7 POSSESSION AND PSYCHIATRY Bibliography Index
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PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
I
Since the last edition of this b o o k in 1989, the ' p o s s e s s i o n ' of h u m a n beings by alien spirits, an exotic condition that s e e m e d to h a v e virtually d i s a p p e a r e d from W e s t e r n c u l t u r e , r e t u r n e d w i t h a b a n g in the s h a p e of what psychiatrists call ' M u l t i p l e Personality D i s o r d e r ' . T h i s striking p h e n o m e n o n o f c o n t e m p o r a r y , e s p e c i a l l y A m e r i c a n , life, i n v o l v i n g possession by an assorted collection of spirit entities (including frequently aliens), with its specialist diagnosticians and therapists, h a s b e c o m e big b u s i n e s s . It is l e g i t i m a t e d and p r o m o t e d by a m u s h r o o m i n g p o p u l a r literature and by highly successful films such as ' T h e three faces of E v e ' , ' R o s e m a r y ' s B a b y ' , ' A l i e n ' , ' O t h e r s ' etc. T h e current appeal of N e w A g e beliefs and practices has e n c o u r a g e d a similar, if m o r e exclusive, m a r k e t for ' N e o - S h a m a n i s m ' , as individuals and groups in c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n society adapt w h a t they take to be exotic shamanistic lore for ritual healing and other spiritual p u r p o s e s (cf. Perrin, 1995; Jakobsen, 1999; O g u d i n a , 1999). T h i s is a k i n d of ' p s y c h i c aerobics' as Clifton (1989) dubs ' a r m c h a i r s h a m a n i s m ' , and if y o u h a v e the m o n e y to spare, you can enrol in practical courses and n o t only at such famous sites as Big Sur in California. Successful W e s t e r n entrepreneurs e v e n finance international c o n f e r e n c e s for a c a d e m i c r e s e a r c h e r s on 'traditional' s h a m a n i s m (the real m a c k a y ) , as well as for practitioners like themselves. This is truly the era of guru globalisation! F o r its part, M u l t i p l e P e r s o n a l i t y D i s o r d e r c o n n e c t s w i t h a n o t h e r popular contemporary preoccupation: satanism. T h e standard explanation of M P D by its diagnosticians and therapists is in t e r m s of c h i l d h o o d sexual assault, often in a satanic ritual context. Typically, t h e r a p y w h i c h is designed to recover repressed m e m o r i e s , often with the aid of h y p n o t i s m ,
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reveals that the patient, typically a female, w a s sexually abused in childh o o d by a senior m a l e relative, usually the father. By the early 1990s, therapists c l a i m e d that a quarter of the estimated M P D 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 victims in t h e U S w e r e s u r v i v o r s o f ritual Satanic a b u s e ( S c h n a b e l , 1994). T h i s interpretation revives F r e u d ' s early theory that hysteria, in later life, is a c o n s e q u e n c e of c h i l d h o o d sexual a b u s e . Freud himself, of course, later r e v i s e d this formulation, treating the t h e m e of child sexual abuse by a parent as, in the O e d i p u s context, an extremely powerful wish-fulfilling fantasy, not an actual fact. W i t h o u t this crucial reclassification of childh o o d incest as a fantasy rather than reality, as the feminist analyst Juliet M i t c h e l l ( 2 0 0 0 ) p o i n t s out, there w o u l d h a v e b e e n no scope for the elaboration of the key constructs of Freudian psychoanalysis. T h i s n e w (or revisionist) v e r s i o n o f F r e u d ' s theory casts the parent (usually the father) in the u n e n v i a b l e role of incestuous child molester a v e r y p o w e r f u l d e n u n c i a t i o n b y the ' i n n o c e n t ' M P D ' v i c t i m ' (Ross, 1995). T h i s terrifying scenario, with its normally disastrous outcome for the a c c u s e d p a r e n t s or other relatives, w h o s e lives are usually literally destroyed in the w a k e of the accusations, has striking parallels with the social d y n a m i c s o f p o s s e s s i o n a n d witchcraft i n m a n y Third World c u l t u r e s w h i c h we e x p l o r e later in this b o o k (cf. also L e w i s , 1996; Littlewood, 1996). As we shall see, witchcraft accusations (by definition i m p l y i n g incest) m a y be m a d e by spirit-possessed victims, w h e n the latter i m p u t e their p o s s e s s i o n illness to the m a l e v o l e n t acts of a ' w i t c h ' (in the case of M P D a parent). In these circumstances, the effect of the accusation is to d e n y or destroy the relationship w h i c h , of course, is exactly what h a p p e n s w h e n therapists encourage their M P D patients to 'recover' m e m o ries of sexual a b u s e by a father or other m a l e relative. T h e p r e s e n t i n g s y m p t o m s of this fashionable m a l a d y , in a climate strongly interested in ' s a t a n i s m ' and U F O ' s , also often i n c l u d e p o s s e s s i o n by aliens as well as less exotic h u m a n agents (see Schnabel, 1994). ' A l i e n ' is of course a relative term and spirit entities of various degrees and kinds of alienness are c o m m o n p l a c e in possession c o s m o l o g i e s in the Third World. O v e r the thirteen years since the last edition of this book, there has been an i m p r e s s i v e g r o w t h of a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l (and other) literature on both spirit possession and s h a m a n i s m , as the bibliographical surveys referred to at the end of this preface indicate. T h e Sudanese/Ethiopian zar/bori cult to w h o s e inspiration this b o o k o w e s so m u c h , has been further studied and a n a l y s e d by a n u m b e r of anthropologists and historians (see L e w i s , alSafi and Hurreiz, eds. 1991). In t e r m s of n e w fieldwork, the rich study by B o d d y (1989) in a S u d a n e s e village in 1977 and 1984 deserves particular
mention as the fullest ethnographic account so far published. B o d d y treats the spirit cult as ' c o u n t e r h e g e m o n i c ' for w o m e n in the m a l e d o m i n a t e d local Islamic context. S u d a n e s e w o m e n , she c l a i m s , are culturally ' o v e r d e t e r m i n e d ' to be fertility objects w h e r e their socialisation deprives t h e m of any sense of individuality a n d fails to p r o v i d e t h e m w i t h a w a y of dealing ' c o n c e p t u a l l y a n d actively w i t h infertility, or o t h e r significant contraventions of femininity'. By preventing pregnancy and causing premature and still births, as is believed locally, zar spirits a s s u m e responsibility for d i s r u p t i n g h u m a n fertility. P o s s e s s i o n , t h u s , lifts from the w o m e n ' s shoulders a m e a s u r e of responsibility for reproduction. At the same time, by p a y i n g for the w o m a n ' s treatment, her h u s b a n d a n d kin are forced to a c k n o w l e d g e s o m e liability. T h u s far B o d d y r e p e a t s p r e v i o u s a n a l y s e s (cf. b e l o w , p p . 9 0 - 1 1 4 ) . But she seeks to go further, i n v o k i n g literary a n a l o g i e s to treat p o s session and trance e p i s o d e s as ' t e x t s ' (as a d v o c a t e d by h e r c o l l e a g u e , M . L a m b e c k , 1981). M o r e d a r i n g l y , she c l a i m s that S u d a n e s e spirit possession is designed to p r o m o t e free-thinking, encouraging reflection on the taken-for-granted world by the possessed, and thus p r o m o t e s e n h a n c e d self-consciousness. In c o n s e q u e n c e , o p p r e s s e d w o m e n are led to enjoy ' m o r e felicitous o u t c o m e s in their e n c o u n t e r s with o t h e r s ' . H o w e v e r , no evidence is offered in this a m b i t i o u s a c c o u n t to s u g g e s t that in c o n s e quence of the intellectual refocusing or re-framing postulated, p o s s e s s e d w o m e n do actually think and feel differently. B o d d y d o e s not p r o v i d e information on h o w w o m e n c o m p o r t t h e m s e l v e s , and on w h a t they say about themselves and others before and after their possession experiences. This rather precious 'literary' analysis thus conceals the familiar ' I f I were a h o r s e ' series of suppositions (cf. L e w i s , 1990). Indeed, as a n u m b e r of other critics have noted, B o d d y slips back into the kind of analysis she sets out to replace. Possession for her is an ' a l l e g o r y ' , t h e ' w o r d s and dances of m e d i u m s refer "allegorically" to social factors such as gender, class and personal h i s t o r y ' ( N o u r s e , 1996). She thus r e m a i n s i m p r i s o n e d by her o w n intellectual perceptions, and the spirit realities she sets out to explore remain 'interpretatively o p a q u e ' as Karp (1990, p . 7 9 ) delicately puts it. It is a pity that she did not concentrate m o r e on the c o n c e p t i o n s of the S u d a n e s e w o m e n t h e m s e l v e s w i t h m o r e substantial e t h n o g r a p h i c reporting. A d o p t i n g the historical a p p r o a c h to h o w p o s s e s s i o n and the spirit galaxy respond to social change which I have long advocated (below, pp.l21ff), Makris (2000) d o c u m e n t s the associated tumbura p o s s e s s i o n cult. This involves marginalised m e n and w o m e n of slave descent in the urban Sudan, and extends our understanding of zar-bori and its derivatives.
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So m a n y historical figures General G o r d o n , Earl Cromer, the Pashas and other characters expressive of the A n g l o - E g y p t i a n period people the zar/bori c o s m o l o g y that it is impossible not to view it, in part, as a kind of historiography of ' r e p r e s s e d m e m o r i e s ' . ( O n the w i d e r geographical and historical reach of this multifaceted subterranean cult linked to various kinds of social exclusion in Islam in Africa and the Middle East, see Lewis, al-Safi and H u r r e i z , eds. 1991.) P o s s e s s i o n in o t h e r areas of t h e w o r l d c o n t i n u e s to be identified, d o c u m e n t e d a n d a n a l y s e d , g e n e r a t i n g a rapidly e x p a n d i n g , if u n e v e n literature. As has recently been observed in a Latin A m e r i c a n context, this ramifying written d o c u m e n t a t i o n (as well as a host of films and recordings of possession m u s i c ) , s h o w s inter alia h o w anthropologists are prone to r e p r o d u c e ' t h e i r o w n logic, c o n v e r t i n g the p o s s e s s e d into a m e d i u m through which they speak to their o w n (anthropological) agenda'. (Placido, 2 0 0 1 , p . 2 0 8 ) . P o s s e s s i o n studies do thus indeed tend to mirror the current fashions of anthropological theory and, if we are not careful, the voices of those we seek to report are in danger of being silenced as we pursue our o w n ethnocentric p r e o c c u p a t i o n s .
II
T h i s u n d e s i r a b l e t e n d e n c y s e e m s to me to be especially p r o m o t e d by the v o g u e for P o s t - M o d e r n i s t 'interpretative w r i t i n g ' which certainly reveals m u c h a b o u t the a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l writer, but often disappointingly little about his or her informants (cf. L e w i s , 1999). A n u m b e r of the m o r e recent p o s s e s s i o n studies follow the literary style criticised above, privileging the p o s s e s s e d p e r s o n s utterances as ' t e x t s ' in a w i d e r ' d i s c o u r s e ' , while t e n d i n g to i g n o r e , or u n d e r v a l u e , the d r a m a t i c c h a r a c t e r of the seance in w h i c h t h e y t a k e p l a c e , a n d the roles p l a y e d by key p e r f o r m e r s in possession ritual (contrast, for instance, the collection of self-consciously interpretative essays assembled by B e h r e n d and Luig, 1999, with the more staid, b u t m o r e s c h o l a r l y c o l l e c t i o n o f M a s t r o m a t t e i , 1999). W h a t the p o s s e s s i n g spirits actually say, as t h e y in effect speak for their h u m a n vehicles, is obviously an important initial clue to understanding what is going on as we e m p h a s i s e in this b o o k . But, this is only part of the picture in any satisfactory sociology of possession w h i c h must ask ' w h a t do the w o m e n and m e n involved in possession t h e m s e l v e s think it is about? In w h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s d o p e o p l e b e c o m e p o s s e s s e d ? W h a t are the social ( a n d political) i m p l i c a t i o n s of p o s s e s s i o n ? H o w d o e s it d e m o n s t r a b l y affect p e o p l e s ' l i v e s ? ' T h e textual, 'cultural a c c o u n t ' approach does not
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adequately elucidate these questions. A case in point is K a p f e r e r ' s ( 1 9 8 3 ) u n c o n v i n c i n g a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n the p r e v a l e n c e of p o s s e s s e d female victims in B u d d h i s t Sri L a n k a in t e r m s of w h a t he calls ' c u l t u r a l typification' which, he claims, ' p l a c e s w o m e n in a special and significant relation with the d e m o n i c ' . This observation should be the starting point, not the end o f analysis. A s Isabelle N a b o k o v ( 1 9 9 7 , p . 2 9 8 ) s h r e w d l y r e m a r k s , Kapferer fails to e x p l a i n w h y 'it is not w o m e n as a w h o l e , but p r e d o m i n a n t l y n e w b r i d e s w h o are m o s t a t r i s k ' . T h e difficulties of their novel marital situation, and their ' e m o t i o n a l e n t r a p m e n t ' m a k e s them especially v u l n e r a b l e t o s e d u c t i o n b y h e d o n i s t i c spirits w h o , n o t only sexually enjoy their v i c t i m s , but also incite t h e m to resist t h e sexual attentions of their legitimate mortal spouses. H e n c e culturological a c c o u n t s w h i c h m a y r e p r o d u c e local social r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a n d stereotypes (e.g. w o m e n are especially vulnerable to p o s s e s s i o n ) do not in themselves explain the incidence of possession w h i c h is the p r i m e sociological concern. T h e key question in that context is: W h y n e w brides rather than other w o m e n ? T h e a n s w e r , as suggested, lies in the difficulties s o m e brides e x p e r i e n c e i n a d a p t i n g t o their n e w marital situation, especially if the h u s b a n d p r o v e s to be unsatisfactory. This b o o k s e e k s to a n s w e r such q u e s t i o n s in relation to p o s s e s s i o n and s h a m a n i s m , v i e w i n g both as social rather than specifically cultural p h e n o m e n a , e x p l o r i n g w h i c h social c a t e g o r i e s o f p e o p l e are m o s t vulnerable to spirits, and w h a t social c o n s e q u e n c e s follow from this. We also e x a m i n e h o w the character of possessing spirits relates to the social circumstances of the possessed. Here, since as we shall see, s h a m a n s are regularly p o s s e s s e d , I reject Luc de H e u s c h ' s outright 'dialectical' distinction b e t w e e n possession and shamanism (which follows Mircea E l i a d e ' s classical d i c h o t o m y , b a s e d on the latter's misreading of the relevant p r i m a r y sources). But, I a d o p t (with reservations) de H e u s c h ' s valuable insights into the implications of responding to possession by exorcism, as distinct from the contrary process of domesticating spirits, which he calls ' a d o r c i s m ' . Interest in h o w these cults based on adopting rather than expelling spirits, develop from an initial traumatic experience into w h a t are often effectively m y s t e r y religions, does not c o m m i t the researcher to a medical interpretation of possession. Nor, pace B o d d y (1994, p.410) do 1 see h o w my sociological distinction b e t w e e n m a i n and m a r g i n a l cults c o n t r i b u t e s to a ' m e d i c a l i z a t i o n ' of possession (cf. C s o r d a s , 1987). T h e differentiation ( w h i c h is relative) between ' c e n t r a l ' and ' p e r i p h e r a l ' cults (discussed m o r e fully in chapters 5 and 6) d o e s not rest on their t h e r a p e u t i c (or m e d i c a l ) s c o p e , b u t on
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w h e t h e r they are inspired by spirits w h i c h directly uphold public morality (central) or those ' p e r i p h e r a l ' agencies that threaten public order. For an alternative formulation of this distinction see K r a m e r (1993). Defined by their social significance, the former constitute shamanistic religions, the latter s u b v e r s i v e m a r g i n a l cults (albeit internally p e r c e i v e d as 'secret religions'). It w o u l d be perverse, m o r e o v e r , to ignore the explicit views of those involved w h o c h o o s e to present possession as therapeutic and in m o d e r n t e r m s ' m e d i c a l ' (cf. de H e u s c h , 1997). This c o m e s out clearly in B r o w n ' s ( 1 9 8 6 ) study of Brazilian U m b a n d a w h e r e spirit m e d i u m s w e a r n u r s e s ' uniforms and, in the n a m e of their spirits, hold clinics for spiritual healing. In a recent short field-study in Malaysia, I found exactly the same ' m e d i c a l i z a t i o n ' well established in the healing practise of spirit-inspired bomohs with ' c l i n i c s ' m o d e l l e d on those of local doctors. T h i s criticism s e e m s all the m o r e surprising since the ensuing pages e m p h a s i s e , h o w g e n d e r influences the interpretation of possession, and the m a n n e r in w h i c h an initially n e g a t i v e p o s s e s s i o n indisposition is regularly transformed retrospectively into a beatific revelation. In male chauvinist societies, w o m e n ' s secret religions are apt to be represented to outsiders (especially m a l e s ) as h a r m l e s s therapies, w h o s e practise is in e v e r y o n e ' s interest. I readily confess, also, an interest in the psychiatric significance of p o s s e s s i o n . But, following Shirokogoroff and others, I argue that W e s t e r n psychiatry (and especially psychoanalysis) constitutes an alternative f r a m e w o r k for u n d e r s t a n d i n g perceptions and b e h a v i o u r which elsewhere are c o u c h e d in the language and logic of spirit possession (cf. L i t t l e w o o d and L i p s e d g e , 1982). As Shirokogoroff long ago put it, 'spirits are h y p o t h e s e s ' . T y p i c a l l y , p o s s e s s i o n m a k e s its initial a p p e a r a n c e as a traumatic experience, even a crippling ' i l l n e s s ' , or other personal disaster. However, the e n s u i n g definition a n d redefinition of this involuntary spirit intrusion d e p e n d s upon h o w the onset s y m p t o m s respond to subsequent treatment and the c h a n g i n g condition of the p o s s e s s e d victim. W h e r e the forces at p l a y are initially i n t e r p r e t e d as d a n g e r o u s and terrifying, e x o r c i s m is the preferred r e s p o n s e (particularly by m e n ) . If this p r o v e s ineffective, t r e a t m e n t s w i t c h e s to a t t e m p t i n g to reach an a c c o m m o d a t i o n with the spirit, p l a c a t i n g a n d d o m e s t i c a t i n g it, by p a y i n g it cult ( a d o r c i s m ) . As the cliche has it, w h a t b e g i n s in a g o n y ends in ecstasy. A c c o r d i n g to h e r o w n t e s t i m o n y , this w a s the case with the famous Christian m y s t i c St. Teresa of Avila ( 1 5 1 5 - 1 5 8 2 ) w h o s e initial experie n c e s w e r e fraught with pain and difficulty. Her most sublime transports,
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however, she describes as unfolding in three phases: ' u n i o n ' , ' r a p t u r e ' , and the climatic ' w o u n d of l o v e ' . De H e u s c h refers to her as a mystic spouse, devoured by a m o r o u s passion. But she also had an e x t r e m e l y a m b i t i o u s and powerful personality and steely d e t e r m i n a t i o n as well as practical skills. T h e s e qualities, w h i c h led to h e r b e i n g r e g u l a r l y referred to as 'Eagle and D o v e ' , w e r e a m p l y displayed in her c a m p a i g n to establish the reformed (barefoot) Carmelite m o v e m e n t . Her family b a c k g r o u n d w o u l d not, h o w e v e r , h a v e i n d i c a t e d s u c h a career. A s has recently b e e n highlighted b y the A m e r i c a n p h i l o s o p h e r Evan Fales (1996), St. T e r e s a w a s a m e m b e r of a family forced to convert from J u d a i s m to Christianity d u r i n g the r e l i g i o u s p e r s e c u t i o n s of t h e Inquisition in fifteenth century Spain. As a w o m a n , a spinster and convert, despite her f a m i l y ' s w e a l t h , she w a s in several significant r e s p e c t s a marginal figure, and like her counterparts in traditional societies, a strong candidate for spiritual attention. Against the patriarchal o d d s of h e r times, she appears to have successfully m o b i l i s e d her spiritual i n t i m a c y w i t h Christ to legitimise her sharp political criticism of the aristocratic p o w e r structure of the S p a n i s h m o n a r c h y , b a s e d as it w a s on t h e c o n c e p t of ' h o n o u r ' . Fales adopts the general a r g u m e n t s of this b o o k to claim that the e m p o w e r m e n t , conferred by possession on those disadvantaged by gender and other social disabilities, provides an a d e q u a t e explanation of mystical experience. This, he contends, is m o r e logically compelling and inherently plausible than t a k i n g religious e x p e r i e n c e at face v a l u e as c o n c l u s i v e evidence for the existence of G o d . A l t h o u g h his a r g u m e n t g o e s s o m e w h a t beyond the more limited objectives of this b o o k , it is gratifying that our study should be cited in this philosophical debate on the existential status of theistic beliefs!
III
As a rebellious figure, the ecstatic experiences of St. T e r e s a (canonised after her death) a l w a y s risked b e i n g refuted, a n d re-classified by t h e ecclesiastical authorities as d e m o n i c episodes. H a d St T e r e s a been less successful in treading this tightrope, she w o u l d almost certainly h a v e been subject to exorcism. Exorcism, w h i c h we see as the logical opposite to adorcism, is indeed frequently e m p l o y e d to control and contain unruly and excessively enthusiastic ecstatics (especially w o m e n ) . This is particularly m a r k e d in strongly patriarchal traditional cultures where exorcism is gender-biased and is the preferred treatment applied b y h u s b a n d s t o treat their p o s s e s s e d w i v e s . M e n clearly s e n s e t h e
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rebellious u n d e r t o n e s ( w h i c h we discuss in detail in later pages) and seek to respond by re-imposing patriarchal order and obedience. Nabokov, cited a b o v e , p r o v i d e s a convincing account of this situation a m o n g s t the Tamils of southern India. An equally telling literary demonstration c o m e s from t h e f a m o u s e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y classic The Tale of the Gengi w h e r e the brilliant female author, M u r a s a k i Shikibu ( ' J a p a n ' s S h a k e s p e a r e ' ) , shows h o w in the H e i a n period ( 7 9 4 - 1 1 8 6 ) , spirit possession (mono noke) w a s r a m p a n t a m o n g s t the grand ladies of the imperial court. In this patriarchal, p o l y g y n o u s society, this ' w o m a n ' s w e a p o n ' , as Doris Bargen (1997) puts it in h e r magisterial study, w a s invoked to counter incestuous transgression by m a l e nobility and courtiers and the u n w e l c o m e attentions of peepingt o m s . H o w e v e r distant in t i m e , and space and culture this w a s evidently thus not all that r e m o t e in its aetiology from Multiple Personality Disorder. T h i s w o m e n ' s c o n d i t i o n in ancient J a p a n e s e society w a s not, it seems, a l l o w e d to flourish into a full-blown female cult. It w a s held in check by the v i g o r o u s practise of e x o r c i s m , m a i n l y by m a l e priests. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the picture here is complicated. For w o m e n , initiated as spirit m e d i u m s , usually served as vehicles for the spirits possessing the victim. T h e p o s s e s s i n g spirits then spoke and acted on their behalf during the d r a m a of e x o r c i s m so that: ' t h e possessed, the possessing spirits, and the m e d i u m formed a powerful female triad e n g a g e d in resolving genderrelated conflict' ( B a r g e n , 1997, p. 15). D e s p i t e their logical o p p o s i t i o n a n d the sociological value of de H e u s c h ' s division b e t w e e n e x o r c i s m and adorcism, w h e n we examine a w i d e r r a n g e of e v i d e n c e carefully, it b e c o m e s evident that the contrast is less clear cut than at first appeared. This is not simply, as de Heusch (1997) h i m s e l f a p p e a r s to s u p p o s e in a recent revision of his s c h e m a , that, as we h a v e seen from a g e n d e r p e r s p e c t i v e , both e x o r c i s m and a d o r c i s m regularly operate as alternative p r o c e d u r e s in the same society. This fuller c o m p l e x i t y b e c o m e s e v i d e n t w h e n w e turn t o m o d e r n Japan, w h e r e p o s s e s s i o n i s o n e o f t h e c o m m o n e s t p r o b l e m s leading w o m e n t o j o i n t h e exorcistic ' N e w R e l i g i o n s ' , often t h e m s e l v e s founded b y w o m e n . M e m b e r s of these religions are not exorcised once and for all but, rather, repeatedly attend their exorcistic rituals. This, obviously, m a k e s the status of e x o r c i s m p r o b l e m a t i c . We find the s a m e p h e n o m e n a in the Catholic e x o r c i s m s p e r f o r m e d in R o m e (until in 2 0 0 1 t h e Vatican refused to a l l o w h i m to practise) by the w e l l - k n o w n African A r c h b i s h o p Milingo ( L a n t e r n a r i , 1988; ter H a a r and Ellis, 1988). Similar cases of the same individuals repeatedly a t t e n d i n g the s a m e ' e x o r c i s t i c ' rites and experie n c i n g ecstatic ' p o s s e s s i o n ' on each o c c a s i o n are reported in the north
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African cult of Islamic saints (Virolles-Souibes, 1986; F e r c h i o u , 1 9 9 1 ; Hell, 1997). In such cases, although carried out in the n a m e of the local established m a l e - d o m i n a t e d religion, r e p e a t e d e x o r c i s m s e e m s p a r a d o x i c a l l y t o stimulate a n d clandestinely i n c o r p o r a t e ( a n d effectively c o - o p t ) w h a t a m o u n t s to an implicit ecstatic cult. If as I argue, e x o r c i s m is regularly e m p l o y e d t o control w a y w a r d female m y s t i c a l t e n d e n c i e s ( a n d t h o s e of men of similar subordinate status), and a d o r c i s m does not s u c c e e d in achieving a formal existence, it m a y n e v e r t h e l e s s surface as an u n d e r current within the process of e x o r c i s m itself (cf. Bastide, 1972, p. 102). W h e n we look m o r e closely at the m e c h a n i c s of e x o r c i s m this p a r a d o x is not as surprising as it first a p p e a r s . For, as we n o t e later in this b o o k , possession is usually expected to reach a d r a m a t i c c l i m a x at the critical m o m e n t w h e n the struggle b e t w e e n the exorcist a n d the p o s s e s s i n g spirit is about to c u l m i n a t e in the e x p u l s i o n of the latter. E x o r c i s m , t h u s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y serves t o s t i m u l a t e p o s s e s s i o n t r a n c e . S i n c e e x p u l s i o n (exorcism) and induction (adorcism) m a y in their trance manifestations coincide, the essential ambiguity of these t w o formally opposite p r o c e s s e s b e c o m e s apparent. This helps to explain w h y professional exorcists s e e m usually to be r e g a r d e d as a m b i g u o u s , p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s figures of uncertain moral virtue. T h i s also recalls the essential a m b i v a l e n c e of the t y p i c a l initial possession experience, at first in the form of a terrifying t r a u m a or illness, but which once brought u n d e r control, and mastered, signifies the attention of the G o d s and the onset of the inspired h e a l e r ' s career. T h i s is h o w the leaders of w o m e n ' s spirit cults are recruited and accredited. It is equally the standard route to the a s s u m p t i o n of the m a l e s h a m a n ' s career. In the Christian tradition, we see a typical e x a m p l e in t h e c a s e of the d i v i n e calling of the Apostle Paul, w h o s e shamanistic c o n v e r s i o n on the road to D a m a s c u s , as John A s h t o n ( 2 0 0 0 ) argues in his exciting n e w study, is clearly recorded in the famous revelatory passage in R o m a n s 7: 1 3 - 2 5 . T h e term shaman, as we see later ( p p . 4 5 - 5 0 ) , c o m e s originally from t h e T u n g u s reindeer h e r d e r s o f Siberia, w h o for c e n t u r i e s h a v e p r o v i d e d the locus classicus of s h a m a n i s m . As explained by specialists on T u n g u s culture and l a n g u a g e , this originally e t h n o g r a p h i c a l l y specific t e r m , m e a n i n g a spirit inspired priest and healer, c o m e s from t h e root sam signifying the violent b o d i l y m o v e m e n t a n d agitated d a n c i n g of t h e s h a m a n as he v i g o r o u s l y b e a t s his d r u m to s u m m o n the spirits to h i s seance. A c c o r d i n g t o the F r e n c h T u n g u s specialist, R o b e r t e H a m a y o n (1990), in the seance which is highly c h a r g e d with sexual s y m b o l i s m , the
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s h a m a n w e a r s the animal skin of one of his spirits to w h o m he is 'married', and his d r a m a t i c m o v e m e n t s in his dance m i m e the act of rutting with this spirit partner. T h i s m o r e recent a n d a d m i r a b l y detailed d o c u m e n t a t i o n confirms the classic account of the Russian medical doctor and pioneering e t h n o l o g i s t , S.M. Shirokogoroff, t o w h o m w e o w e o u r fundamental u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the spirit-inspired shaman. We m a y note in passing that H a m a y o n s e e k s t o q u e s t i o n t h e significance o f the s h a m a n ' s ' t r a n c e ' experience. Despite its o b v i o u s sexual appropriateness as signalling the climax of the s h a m a n ' s d a n c e with his spirit partner, she claims that trance is a psychological p h e n o m e n o n b e y o n d the scrutiny of anthropology. This idiosyncratic v i e w , criticised by de H e u s c h a n d Rouget, seems irrelevant to t h e s e a n c e d r a m a w h e r e w h a t is at issue is not w h e t h e r or not the s h a m a n is ' r e a l l y ' in trance but the effectiveness of his performance (see Lewis, 2002).
S o m e years ago, faced with the difficulty of defining Social Anthropology, a witty c o m m e n t a t o r opted for a 'functionalist' definition as ' w h a t social a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s d o ' . R a t h e r similarly from the sociological perspective a d v o c a t e d in this b o o k , we can define s h a m a n i s m as the w o r k of shamans w h o , as we see, are spirit-inspired priests (masters of spirits). This view e m p h a s i s e s t h e c o i n c i d e n t i m p o r t a n c e of spirit p o s s e s s i o n and rejects the s h a m a n ' s 'celestial v o y a g e ' , as the d e t e r m i n i n g feature insisted on by Eliade and his successors. As we see b e l o w , Shirokogoroff and other firsth a n d s o u r c e s ( w h i c h E l i a d e w a s not) describe the s h a m a n ' s mystical v o y a g e s , with the aid of his spirits, as travelling both above and below, as well as on our terrestrial world. U n l i k e the tradition generally pursued by historians of religion, in privileging the s h a m a n ' s role we detach it from any particular c o s m o l o g y . T h e former culturological approach, which is natural to A m e r i c a n a n t h r o p o l o g y , has other d i s a d v a n t a g e s to which I return in a m o m e n t . In firmly following Shirokogoroff I also follow a m o r e recent Siberian specialist w h o , writing after the publication of the first edition of this book, says: ' T o be a s h a m a n does not signify professing particular beliefs, but rather refers to a certain m o d e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n with the supernatural' (Lot-Falck, 1973). T h e s u p p o s e d mutually exclusive distinction between spirit p o s s e s s i o n religions and s h a m a n i c ones w a s first m o o t e d by Eliade, and then d e v e l o p e d by de H e u s c h in his imaginative model contrasting ecstatic religiosity with spirit possession which we e x a m i n e later. Both
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writers share the v i e w that s h a m a n i s m n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e s celestial v o y a g e s , w h e r e a s as an incarnation, p o s s e s s i o n is an e a r t h - b o u n d p h e n o m e n o n . Celestial flight, they argue, excludes spirit p o s s e s s i o n : but, in fact, as we e m p h a s i s e , p o s s e s s i n g spirits m a y take their h u m a n hosts (in one form or a n o t h e r ) on e x c i t i n g spirit trips to t h e h e a v e n s as w e l l as elsewhere. De H e u s c h applies this false d i c h o t o m y to d e v e l o p his structuralist theory of religion, in w h i c h s h a m a n i s m a n d p o s s e s s i o n feature as opposed ' m e t a p h y s i c s ' , and the former is seen primarily as a culturally specific T u n g u s p r o d u c t . As indicated, I prefer to see s h a m a n i s m as a general, cross-cultural p h e n o m e n o n b a s e d o n the s h a m a n ' s m a s t e r y o f spirits and the practise of his art with the aid of spirits. In c o m m o n with other charismatic figures, ' m a s t e r y ' here is never a secure property, since it is regularly contested, m a k i n g the s h a m a n ' s role inherently insecure and problematic. T h e old-fashioned view of s h a m a n i s m , e m p h a s i s i n g m y s t i c a l flight, still continues to haunt the writings of historians of E u r o p e a n religion as well as s o m e historians of early society. T h e s e i n c l u d e t h e influential Italian historian, Carlo G i n z b u r g ( 1 9 8 9 ) , w h o s e n e o - F r a z e r i a n fantasy, Storia Notturna (English title: Ecstasies), conjures up a misty ' s h a m a n i c ' complex, rooted in early E u r o p e and with wide-flung tentacles in t i m e and space, to explain the ecstatic features of the ' w i t c h ' s S a b b a t h ' in sixteenth century Italian p o p u l a r culture. Inevitably, as G i n z b u r g a c k n o w l e d g e s , this r e m a r k a b l e enterprise recalls the t h e o r i e s on E u r o p e a n witchcraft of the English folklorist M a r g a r e t M u r r a y ( 1 9 6 2 ) . H e r d i s c r e d i t e d notion of a pan-European fertility cult, associated with the G o d d e s s Diana, with significant traces surviving into m o d e r n t i m e s , is t o o w e l l - k n o w n to require further c o m m e n t h e r e . As we see b e l o w witchcraft is in fact very often linked with spirit possession, but this topic is rather undeveloped in G i n z b u r g ' s notion of s h a m a n i s m . A n u m b e r of Italian anthropologists have r e m a r k e d on this o m i s s i o n . T h e y point out that this n e g l e c t is all the m o r e surprising given the w e l l - k n o w n p r o m i n e n c e i n s o u t h e r n Italian popular culture of the cult of tarantism, involving possession by the hybrid tarantula s p i d e r Saint Paul (Pizza, 1995, 1997; see also b e l o w , pp.81-83). Nevertheless, the artificiality, as I hold, of separating p o s s e s s i o n a n d shamanism in water-tight c o m p a r t m e n t s , s e e m s to be b e c o m i n g increasingly evident to specialists in t h e s e fields, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e w h o s t u d y religion as a social p h e n o m e n o n (cf. J o h a n s e n , 1999). H e r e feminist analyses have contributed by pointing out that ' s h a m a n i s m ' has t e n d e d to be invoked w h e r e m a l e priests are i n v o l v e d , in c o n t r a s t to p o s s e s s i o n
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d o m i n a t e d by w o m e n . Since m e n also experience possession (and trance), it cannot, h o w e v e r , be the case that possession is inherently gendered and rooted in the f e m a l e ' s p h y s i c a l e x p e r i e n c e of heterosexual intercourse and p r e g n a n c y (see Sered, 1994, p. 190). By the same token, as 'masters of spirits', s h a m a n s m i g h t be expected a l w a y s to be cast as ' h u s b a n d s ' in their u n i o n s with spirits. But this is by no m e a n s inevitably the case, the superior status of spirits vis a vis mortals is often expressed by classifying their s h a m a n partners (irrespective of sex) as ' w i v e s ' . T h e gender of their h u m a n h o s t s m a y also c h a n g e in t h e c o u r s e of a seance as they are p o s s e s s e d in succession by m a l e or female deities. B e y o n d g e n d e r , c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the w i d e r political co-ordinates of s h a m a n i s m (advocated in this b o o k ) is increasingly explored in a n u m b e r of recent publications often, but not a l w a y s , in the neo-Marxist politicale c o n o m y style (see e.g. A t k i n s o n , 1989; Balzer, 1990; Santos-Granero, 1 9 9 1 ; T h o m a s and H u m p h r e y , 1994; Taussig, 1987). This work does not usually e x c l u d e spirit possession but treats it as a related and, frequently linked socio-political p h e n o m e n o n . I n A m e r i c a , h o w e v e r , w h e r e the t e r m ' s h a m a n i s m ' has been m u c h m o r e w i d e l y u s e d than in Britain, the ambient culturological bias tends to e n c o u r a g e t h e s e p a r a t e t r e a t m e n t of t h e t w o p h e n o m e n a (for a useful s u r v e y of the field see A t k i n s o n , 1992). Illustrating yet again the d o m i n a n c e of t h e cultural o v e r t h e social p a r a d i g m in A m e r i c a n a n t h r o p o l o g y , A t k i n s o n also s e e k s to represent t h e culturally distinct varieties o f s h a m a n i s m she r e c o g n i s e s a s s o m a n y ' s h a m a n i s m s ' , thus side-stepping the core definition, b a s e d on the s h a m a n ' s role, which our sociological a p p r o a c h a d v o c a t e s . Yet, despite this A m e r i c a n t e n d e n c y to celebrate cultural specificity, it is p r o b a b l y significant that an i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r of international conferences and collected p a p e r s by a c a d e m i c specialists breach the gap, here following the sensible lead of the o p e n - m i n d e d International Society for S h a m a n i c R e s e a r c h and the policy of its j o u r n a l , Shaman. Finally, it is gratifying to note that Janice B o d d y ' s (1994) review of the field s h o u l d j u d g e that in t h e a n a l y s i s of p o s s e s s i o n , ' t h e m o d e l and a s s u m p t i o n s ' set out in this b o o k ' h a v e guided a generation of scholarship'. As o u r subject p o s s e s s i o n - s h a m a n i s m ('ecstatic r e l i g i o n ' , for short) continues to d e v e l o p with n e w material and new analyses, I hope that these ideas m a y c o n t i n u e to h a v e s o m e utility. A b o v e all, I hope that they may serve as a g u i d e to w h a t is k n o w n and, therefore, does not need to be rei n v e n t e d by y o u n g r e s e a r c h e r s s e e k i n g a novel topic. T h e existing literature on possession and s h a m a n i s m is truly vast. But like the s h a m a n ' s
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guiding spirits, this store of k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e s to be c o n v i n c i n g l y mastered by those w h o aspire to add significantly to it, thus contributing further to our understanding of possession and s h a m a n i s m . loan Lewis December 2001
London,
References
Aigle, D., Brac de la Perriere, B., and. Chaumeil, J-P., La Politique des Esprits, Paris, Societe d'Ethnologie, 2000 Arens, W. and Karp, I. (eds) The Creativity of Power, Washington, Smithsonian Institute, 1989 Atkinson, J.M., The Art and Politics of Wana shamanship, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1989 'Shamanisms Today', Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 2 1 , 1992, pp.307-330. Balzer, M. (ed.) Shamanism: Soviet Studies of Traditional Religion in Siberia and Central Asia, London, M.E. Sharp Inc., 1990 Bargen, D.G. A Woman's weapon: Spirit Possession in the Tale of the Gengi, Honolulu, University of Hawai Press, 1997 Bastide, R. Le Reve, La Transe, et la Folie, Paris, Flamarion, 1972 Behrend, H. and Luig, U. (eds), Spirit Possession, Modernity, and Power in Africa, Oxford, James Curry, 1999 Boddy, J. 'Spirit Possession Revisited: Beyond instrumentality', Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 23, 1994, pp. 407-34 Brown, D.G. Umbanda: Religion And Politics in Urban Brazil, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1986 Csordas, T. 'Health and the body in African and Afro-American spirit possession', Social Science and Medicine, 24, (1), 1987, pp.1-11 Fales, E. 'Scientific explanations of mystical experiences, Part I: the case of St. Teresa', Religious Studies, 32, 1996, pp.143 163 'Part II: the Challenge of Theism', Religious Studies, 32,1996, pp.299-313 Ferchiou, S. 'The possession cults of Tunis', in Lewis, I.M., al-Safi, A. and Hurreiz, S. (eds), Women's Medicine, Edinburgh University Press, 1991, pp.209-219 Ginzburg, C. Storia Notturna, Turin, Einaudi, 1989 (English translation by R. Rosenthal, Ecstasies: deciphering the witches' sabbath, London, Penguin, 1992 Hacking, I., 'Multiple Personality Disorder and its Hosts', History of Human Society, 5, pp.3-31, 1992 Hamayon, R. La Chasse a Fame, Paris, 1990
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'Pour en finir avec la 'transe' at T e x t a s e ' dans l'etude du Chamanisme', in Beffa, M.I. and Even, M.D. Variations Chamaniques, 2, Paris, University of Paris X, 1996 ter Haar, G. and Ellis, S. 'Spirit possession and healing in modern Zambia', African Affairs, 87, 347, pp.185-206, 1988 Hell, B. Possession et Chamanisme: les Maitres de Desordre, Paris, Flammarion, 1999 'travailler avec ses genies: de la possession sauvage a la possession maitraise chez les Gnawa du Maroc', in Aigle D. etc. (eds) La Politique des Esprits, Paris, 2000, pp.411-134 Heusch, de L. 'Pour en revenir a la Transe', Paper given at the IVth ISSR Conference on Shamanism, Chantilly, 1997 Jakobsen, M.D. Shamanism: traditional and contemporary approaches to the mastery of Spirits and Healing, New York, Berghan Books, 1999 Johansen, U., 'Further thoughts on the History of Shamanism', Shaman, vol. 7, No. 1, 1999,pp.40-58 Kapferer, B. A Celebration of Demons, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1983 Karp, I. in Jackson, M. and Karp, I. (eds) Women's Medicine, Edinburgh University Press, 1991 Kenny, M.G. The Passion of Ansel Bourne: Multiple Personality in American Culture, Washington, Smithsonian Institution, 1986 Kramer, F. The Red Fez: Art and Spirit Possession in Africa, London, Verso, 1993 Lambek, M. Human Spirits: a Cultural Account of Trance in Mayotte, Cambridge University Press, 1981 Lanternari, V. 'L'Africa cattolica A Roma: il cuito terapeutico di Emmanuel Milungo', Metaxo, 6, pp.65-81, 1988 Lewis, I.M., 'In the house of Spirits', Times Literary Supplement, 1990 Arguments with Ethnography, London, Athlone Press, 1999 'Is there a shamanic Cosmology?', in Mastromattei, R. and Rigopoulos, R. (eds), Shamanic Cosmos, New Delhi, D.K. Printworld, Ltd., 1999, pp.117-128 'Music, Trance, Shamanism and Sex', in press, 2002 Religion in Context, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996 Lewis, I.M., al-Safi, A. and Hurreiz, S. (eds) Woman's Medicine, Edinburgh University Press, 1991 Littlewood, R. Reason's necessity in the specification of the Multiple Self RAI Occasional Paper No. 43, London, 1996 Littlewood, R. and Lipsedge, M. Aliens and Alienists: ethnic minorities and psychiatry, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1982 Loftus, E. and Ketcham, K. (eds), The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse, New York, St. Martin's Press, 1994 xxii
Mageo, J.M. and Howard, A. (eds) Spirits in Culture History and Mind, London, Routledge, 1996 Lot-Falck, E. 'Le chamanisme en Siberie: essai de mise au point', Asie du SudEst et Monde Insulindien, 4, No.3, pp. 1-10 Mageo, J.M. 'Spirit girls and Marines': possession as historical discourse in Samoa', American Ethnologist, 23(12), pp.61-82, 1996 Makris, G.P. Changing Masters. Spirit Possession and Identity Construction among Slave Descendants and other Subordinates in the Sudan, Evanston, Northwestern University Press, 2000 Masquelier, A. 'Consumption, prostitution and reproduction: the poets of sweetness in Bori(Niger)', American Ethnologist, 22, pp.883-906, 1995 Mitchell, J., Mad Men and Medusas, London, Allen Lane, 2000 Murray, M., The Witch Cult in Western Europe, London, 1921 The Witch Cult in Western Europe, Oxford University Press, 1962 Nabokov, I., 'Expel the Lover, recover the wife: symbolic analysis of a South Indian exorcism', Journal Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. 3, No. 2, 1997 Nourse, R. 'The voice of the winds versus the masters' of cure: contested notions of spirit possession among the Lauje of Sulawesi', Journal Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. 2, No. 3, 1996 Ogudina, G., 'A look at the New Shamans', in Mastromattei and Rigopoulos (eds), Shamanic Cosmos, 1999, pp.181-206 Perrin, M. Le Chamanisme (Que sais-je?), Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1995 Pizza, G. 'The Virgin and the Spider: Revisiting Spirit possession in southern Europe', unpublished ms., IVth Conference, International Society for Shamanic Research, Chantilly, 1997 Placido, B. 'It's all to do with words: an analysis of spirit possession in the Venezuelan cult of Maria Lionza', Journal Royal Anthropological Institute, 1, 2, pp.207-224, 2001 Ross, C.A. Satanic Ritual Abuse: principles of treatment, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995 Santos-Granero, F., The Power of Love: the moral use of knowledge amongst the Amuesha of Central Peru, London, Athlone Press, 1991 Schnabel, J., Dark White: aliens, abductions, and the UFO obsession, London, Hamish Hamilton, 1994 Sered, S.S., Priestess, Mother, Sacred Sister: Religions dominated by women, New York, Oxford University Press, 1994 Shapiro, D.J., 'Blood, oil, honey and water: symbolism in spirit-possession sects in North East Brazil', American Ethnologist, 22, No. 4, pp.828-847, 1995 Stoller, P. Embodying colonial memories: spirit possession, power and the Hauka in West Africa, New York, Routledge, 1995 Virolle-Souibes, M. 'Femmes, possession et chamanisme: exemples algeriens' in Transe, Chamanisme, et possession, Nice, Editions Serre, 1986 xxiii
Taussig, M. Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wildman, Chicago University Press, 1987 Thomas, N. and Humphrey, C. (eds.), Shamanism, History, and the State, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1994 Wafer, J. The Taste of Blood: Spirit Possession in Brazilian Candomble, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991
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Chapter
One
TOWARDS A SOCIOLOGY OF ECSTASY
I
T h i s b o o k e x p l o r e s t h a t m o s t decisive a n d p r o f o u n d o f all r e l i g i o u s d r a m a s , t h e seizure o f m a n b y d i v i n i t y . S u c h ecstatic e n c o u n t e r s a r e b y no m e a n s u n i f o r m l y e n c o u r a g e d in all religions. Yet it is difficult to find a religion w h i c h h a s n o t , at s o m e s t a g e in its h i s t o r y , i n s p i r e d in t h e b r e a s t s of at least c e r t a i n of its followers t h o s e t r a n s p o r t s of m y s t i c a l e x a l t a t i o n in w h i c h m a n ' s w h o l e b e i n g s e e m s to fuse in a g l o r i o u s c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e d i v i n i t y . T r a n s c e n d e n t a l e x p e r i e n c e s o f this k i n d , typically c o n c e i v e d of as states of ' p o s s e s s i o n ' , h a v e g i v e n t h e m y s t i c a u n i q u e claim to direct experiential k n o w l e d g e of t h e d i v i n e a n d , w h e r e this is a c k n o w l e d g e d by o t h e r s , t h e a u t h o r i t y to act as a p r i v i l e g e d channel of communication between m a n a n d the supernatural. T h e accessory p h e n o m e n a associated with such e x p e r i e n c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e 'speaking with t o n g u e s ' , p r o p h e s y i n g , clairvoyance, a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n of messages from the d e a d , a n d o t h e r mystical gifts, h a v e n a t u r a l l y a t t r a c t e d the attention not only of t h e d e v o u t b u t also of sceptics. F o r m a n y p e o p l e , i n fact, such p h e n o m e n a s e e m t o p r o v i d e p e r s u a s i v e e v i d e n c e for t h e existence of a world t r a n s c e n d i n g t h a t of o r d i n a r y e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e . D e s p i t e t h e p r o b l e m s i n e v i t a b l y p o s e d for e s t a b l i s h e d ecclesiastical a u t h o r i t y , it is easy to u n d e r s t a n d t h e s t r o n g a t t r a c t i o n w h i c h religious ecstacy h a s a l w a y s e x e r t e d w i t h i n a n d o n t h e fringe o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . W e c a n also r e a d i l y a p p r e c i a t e h o w m o d e r n S p i r i t u a l i s m h a s w o n t h e interest not only of C h r i s t i a n s of all s h a d e s of o p i n i o n , b u t also of agnostics a n d atheists. T h e comforting m e s s a g e t h a t it ' p r o v e s s u r v i v a l ' h a s m u c h t o d o w i t h its a p p e a l for t h e r e c e n t l y b e r e a v e d ; a n d t h i s obviously c o n t r i b u t e s t o S p i r i t u a l i s m ' s p o p u l a r i t y i n t i m e s o f w a r a n d national calamity. Yet the p h e n o m e n a in which it deals continue
15
ECSTATIC RELIGION
t o c o m m a n d t h e s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l scientists. A n d i f scientists a r e p r e p a r e d t o give t h e i r c a u t i o u s a s s e n t t o s o m e psychic p h e n o m e n a , w e c a n scarcely b e s u r p r i s e d t h a t c e r t a i n c h u r c h m e n should still search in the seance for conclusive proof of the divine powers of J e s u s C h r i s t . I n d e e d , w h e t h e r in t h e seances of s u b u r b i a , or in m o r e rarefied s u r r o u n d i n g s , those mystical experiences which resist plausible r a t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e seen, even s o m e t i m e s by cynics, as p o i n t i n g to t h e possibility t h a t occult forces exist. T h e r e is also a vast literature on the occult which has no d o u b t s at all o n t h e m a t t e r . T h e m e t a p h y s i c a l m e a n i n g o f t r a n c e states h a s been e x p o u n d e d b y h u n d r e d s o f w r i t e r s i n m a n y l a n g u a g e s a n d from m a n y different p o i n t s of v i e w . S o m e t h i n g of t h e c h a r a c t e r of m u c h of this l i t e r a t u r e , o r a t least o f t h a t p r o d u c e d b y e n t h u s i a s t i c p a r t i s a n s o f the o c c u l t , c a n b e g a u g e d from t h e b r e a t h - t a k i n g p r e d i c t i o n s m a d e b y t h e e d i t o r of a p o p u l a r b o o k on t r a n c e ( W a v e l l , 1967). ' O n c e the use of t r a n c e b e c o m e s as easily available as electricity,' this writer assures u s , i m m e n s e n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s p o t e n t for g o o d o r evil will b e o p e n t o all p e o p l e . C o n q u e s t s w h i c h s p r i n g t o m i n d a r e those o n w h i c h w e c u r r e n t l y e x p e n d m a n y o f o u r r e s o u r c e s space t r a v e l , p h y s i c a l a n d psychological w a r f a r e , e s p i o n a g e , p o p m u s i c , a n d m a s s o r g a n i z e d l e i s u r e . Its g r e a t e s t practical a p p l i c a t i o n m a y be in s p a c e e x p l o r a t i o n . . . t h e light b a r r i e r . . . n e e d p r o v e no o b s t a c l e to spirits of a s t r o n a u t s b e n t on visiting the other regions of the universe. P e r h a p s n o t . H o w e v e r , t h e g o l d e n a g e o f t r a n c e w h i c h this inspired w r i t e r foresees i s n o t w i t h o u t its d a r k e r side. ' I t s greatest d a n g e r ' , h e s o l e m n l y w a r n s u s , 'lies i n p r o v i d i n g o u r p l a n e t , a l r e a d y d i v i d e d into hostile n a t i o n s , w i t h a n e w d i m e n s i o n for conflict-spirit hosts in m a s s f o r m a t i o n s m a n i p u l a t e d b y d e m o n i a c s h a m a n s annihilating the h u m a n r a c e a n d all its h o p e s o f r e i n c a r n a t i o n . ' T h i s r e m a r k a b l e p a s s a g e m u s t s e e m o n a different astral p l a n e , t o p u t it m i l d l y , from t h e s e c l u d e d w o r l d of O r i g e n , or a n y o t h e r of t h e g r e a t C h r i s t i a n m y s t i c s . As recently as a d e c a d e a g o it w o u l d also h a v e s t r u c k m o s t people a s ridiculous i n t h e e x t r e m e . T o d a y , h o w e v e r , such s e e m i n g l y far-fetched v i e w s a r e n o t s o d i s c o r d a n t w i t h m u c h o f the c l i m a t e of o p i n i o n in which we live. F a r from b e i n g relegated to obscure p u b l i c a t i o n s o n d u s t y shelves i n seedy b o o k s h o p s , a s u s e d t o b e t h e c a s e , t h e o c c u l t i s n o w v e r y m u c h p a r t o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y scene.
16
T O W A R D S A SOCIOLOGY OF ECSTASY
By the y o u n g , at any rate, the message of the M a h a r i s h i is widely listened to at least u n t i l it h a s b e e n d i s p l a c e d in p o p u l a r i t y by s o m e other b r a n d o f m y s t i c i s m . I n t h e s a m e vein, t h e S u n d a y c o l o u r s u p p l e ments in 'serious' newspapers sententiously bid us contemplate the t h e r a p e u t i c potentialities o f h e a l i n g m a g i c a n d ' w h i t e ' witchcraft; s o m e psychiatrists e v e n rally t o t h e c r y : ' S p i r i t u a l i s m p r o v e s s u r v i v a l ' , a n d a t r e n d y b i s h o p or t w o t h r o w s in h i s w e i g h t for e x t r a m e a s u r e . O t h e r indications point in the same direction. Scientology m a y be m o r e successfully o r g a n i z e d a s a b u s i n e s s v e n t u r e t h a n m o s t o f t h e Spiritualist c h u r c h e s w h i c h i t s u c c e e d s a n d t o s o m e e x t e n t s u p p l a n t s . But i t h a s m u c h i n c o m m o n with t h e m i n s e e k i n g t o b l e n d p s e u d o science a n d occult e x p e r i e n c e in t h a t special p a c k a g e - d e a l w h i c h sells so well t o d a y . T h e s e a n d a host of o t h e r n e w c o m p e t i n g cults strive to fill t h e g a p left by t h e d e c l i n e of e s t a b l i s h e d religion a n d to r e a s s e r t the p r i m a c y of m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e in t h e face of t h e d r e a r y p r o g r e s s o f s e c u l a r i s m . I n t h u s a p p e a l i n g t o t h e e v e r - p r e s e n t n e e d for m y s t i c a l e x c i t e m e n t a n d d r a m a , these n e w sects n a t u r a l l y often f i n d t h e m s e l v e s i n conflict, not only w i t h e a c h o t h e r , b u t also w i t h t h a t l o n g e r e s t a b lished rival, psychiatry, which h a s a l r e a d y t a k e n o v e r so m a n y functions formerly fulfilled by religion in o u r c u l t u r e . H e r e t h e fanatical r a n t i n g s of Scientologists a g a i n s t p s y c h i a t r y a r e a r e v e a l i n g , if u n r e a s s u r i n g , t e s t i m o n y t o t h e i r rival c o m m o n i n t e r e s t s . All this suggests t h a t we live in an a g e of m a r g i n a l m y s t i c a l recrudescence, a world w h e r e H u m a n i s t s s e e m positively a r c h a i c . O u r v o c a b u l a r y h a s b e e n e n r i c h e d , o r a t a n y r a t e a d d e d t o , b y a host o f p o p u l a r mystical e x p r e s s i o n s w h i c h , if e n s h r i n e d in t h e special a r g o t o f the U n d e r g r o u n d , also spill o v e r i n t o g e n e r a l u s a g e . W e k n o w w h a t 'freak-outs' a r e , w h a t ' t r i p s ' a r e , a n d a n y o n e w h o w a n t s t o c a n readily p a r t i c i p a t e i n psychedelic h a p p e n i n g s i n d a n c e halls w i t h e v o c a t i v e n a m e s like ' M i d d l e E a r t h ' . A l t h o u g h m u c h o f this l a n g u a g e relates t o d r u g - t a k i n g , i n its o r i g i n a l a n d m o r e e x t e n d e d u s a g e i t also c a r r i e s strong mystical overtones. C e r t a i n l y t h e E s k i m o a n d T u n g u s s h a m a n s , w h o m we consider later, would find a ready welcome in that most successfully p u b l i c i z e d sector o f o u r c o n t e m p o r a r y society, t h e p o p scene. W i t h its p r o n o u n c e d m a g i c a l a u r a , a n d s h a m a n i c s u p e r s t a r s like J i m i H e n d r i x a n d the Beatles (cf. T a y l o r , 1985), in this c l a m o r o u s l y assertive s u b - c u l t u r e , far from b e i n g d i s m i s s e d as excessive c r u d i t i e s o f q u e s t i o n a b l e religious v a l u e , t h e t r a n c e a n d possession e x p e r i e n c e s of exotic p e o p l e s a r e seriously c o n s i d e r e d , a n d often d e l i b e r a t e l y a p p r o p r i a t e d a s e x c i t i n g novel r o u t e s t o e c s t a s y . I t i s t h u s p e r h a p s n o t
17
ECSTATIC RELIGION
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t r e a d i n g s from a n e a r l i e r e d i t i o n o f this b o o k w e r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l i c service religious r a d i o series, ' R o c k a n d R e l i g i o n ' , b r o a d c a s t from S a c r a m e n t o , C a l i f o r n i a , i n 1979.
II In this eclectic c l i m a t e little special p l e a d i n g is n e e d e d to i n t r o d u c e a n a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f t r a n c e a n d possession w h i c h , a s t h e r e a d e r w o u l d e x p e c t , d r a w s m a n y o f its e x a m p l e s from exotic tribal religions. C o n t r a r y t o w h a t m i g h t b e a n t i c i p a t e d , t h e fact t h a t s o m u c h h a s a l r e a d y b e e n w r i t t e n o n t h e s e t o p i c s , largely b y h i s t o r i a n s o f religion, p r o v i d e s an a d d e d i n c e n t i v e for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a fresh a p p r o a c h . M o s t o f t h e s e w r i t e r s h a v e h a d o t h e r e n d s i n v i e w , a n d h a v e conseq u e n t l y not b e e n c o n c e r n e d to pose t h e sort of question which the social anthropologist automatically asks. Few of the m o r e substantial works i n this a r e a o f c o m p a r a t i v e religion p a u s e t o c o n s i d e r h o w t h e p r o d u c tion of religious ecstasy m i g h t relate to t h e social c i r c u m s t a n c e s of those w h o p r o d u c e it; h o w e n t h u s i a s m m i g h t w a x a n d w a n e in different social c o n d i t i o n s ; or w h a t f u n c t i o n s m i g h t flow from it in c o n t r a s t i n g types of society. In a w o r d , m o s t of t h e s e w r i t e r s h a v e b e e n less i n t e r e s t e d in ecstasy as a social fact t h a n in ecstasy as an expression, if a sometimes questionable one, of personal piety. A n d where they have ventured o u t s i d e t h e i r o w n n a t i v e t r a d i t i o n t o c o n s i d e r e v i d e n c e from o t h e r c u l t u r e s t h e i r a p p r o a c h h a s g e n e r a l l y b e e n vitiated from t h e start b y e t h n o c e n t r i c a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e i r o w n religion. T h i s i s n o t t o say t h a t n o i n t e r e s t i n g sociological c o n c l u s i o n s e m e r g e from a n y o f t h i s w o r k ; b u t r a t h e r w h e r e t h e y d o , i t i s m o r e b y accident than by design. L e t m e i l l u s t r a t e a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e m o v e t o w a r d s t h e position from w h i c h t h e a r g u m e n t s o f this b o o k s t e m . H e r e R o n a l d K n o x ' s s p l e n d i d l y e r u d i t e s t u d y o f C h r i s t i a n e n t h u s i a s m p r o v i d e s a n excellent s t a r t i n g p o i n t ( K n o x , 1950) B e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e M o n t a n i s t s , K n o x t r a c e s t h e e r r a t i c h i s t o r y o f C h r i s t i a n e n t h u s i a s m , w h i c h h e defines a s a definite t y p e o f s p i r i t u a l i t y . H e m a k e s n o a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n b y reference to o t h e r social factors t h e e b b a n d flow of ecstatic p h e n o m e n a p o s s e s s i o n , s p e a k i n g w i t h t o n g u e s , a n d t h e rest w h o s e w a v e r i n g c o u r s e h e c h a r t s t h r o u g h s o m a n y c e n t u r i e s . T h e s e h e views a s t h e i n e v i t a b l e p r o d u c t o f a n i n h e r e n t h u m a n t e n d e n c y , a l m o s t o f a failing the disposition to religious emotionalism which J o h n Wesley s u m m e d u p i n t h e w o r d ' h e a r t - w o r k ' . ' T h e e m o t i o n s m u s t b e stirred
18
t o t h e i r d e p t h s , a t f r e q u e n t i n t e r v a l s , b y u n a c c o u n t a b l e feelings o f c o m p u n c t i o n , j o y , p e a c e , a n d s o o n , o r h o w could y o u b e c e r t a i n t h a t the D i v i n e t o u c h w a s w o r k i n g w i t h i n y o u ? ' K n o x i s c o n c e r n e d t o p o i n t the m o r a l that ecstasy is less a ' w r o n g t e n d e n c y ' t h a n a 'false e m p h a s i s ' . But if he stresses the d a n g e r s of an excessive a n d u n b r i d l e d e n t h u s i a s m , he also recognizes that o r g a n i z e d religion m u s t allow ecstasy s o m e scope if it is to r e t a i n its vitality a n d v i g o u r . T h e s e a r e t h e lessons w h i c h K n o x seeks t o i m p r e s s u p o n t h e r e a d e r a n d w h i c h h e finds little difficulty in i l l u s t r a t i n g in t h e m a s s of e v i d e n c e w h i c h he so skilfully marshals. K n o x writes, as he says, p r i m a r i l y from a theological p o i n t of v i e w . Yet c e r t a i n i n t e r e s t i n g sociological i n s i g h t s a l m o s t force t h e m s e l v e s u p o n h i m . T h u s , w i t h g r e a t e r sociological p e r s p i c a c i t y t h a n C h r i s t i a n c h a r i t y , h e sees e n t h u s i a s m a s t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h m e n c o n t i n u a l l y r e a s s u r e t h e m s e l v e s , a n d o t h e r s , t h a t G o d i s w i t h t h e m . T h i s view o f ecstasy, as a prestigious c o m m o d i t y which could readily be m a n i p u l a t e d for m u n d a n e e n d s , o p e n s t h e d o o r t o t h e sort o f sociological t r e a t m e n t w h i c h this b o o k a d v o c a t e s , a n d w h i c h I shall e n l a r g e u p o n s h o r t l y . B y c o n f i n i n g his a t t e n t i o n t o t h e C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n , a n d a r g u i n g in effect t h a t s p i r i t u a l i t y is to be j u d g e d by its fruits, K n o x w a s n o t faced with t h e p r o b l e m of r e l a t i n g m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s in o t h e r religions t o those i n his o w n . T h i s t e n d e n t i o u s issue h a s b e e n left t o plague other Christian authorities. T h u s R . C . Z a e h n e r (1957), the o r i e n t a l i s t , h a s boldly s o u g h t t o e s t a b l i s h c r i t e r i a w i t h w h i c h t o assess objectively t h e relative validity of a host of m y s t i c a l e n c o u n t e r s . T h e e x a m p l e s r a n g e from t h e r e c o r d e d e x p e r i e n c e s o f c e l e b r a t e d C h r i s t i a n a n d o r i e n t a l mystics a t o n e e x t r e m e , t o t h e a u t h o r ' s o w n a n d H u x l e y ' s e x p e r i m e n t s with d r u g s a t t h e o t h e r . T h e critical s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f his a r g u m e n t is i m p r e s s i v e , b u t t h e result is t o o p r e d i c t a b l e to be e n t i r e l y c o n v i n c i n g . I n d e e d , only t h o s e w h o s h a r e his a s s u r a n c e will a c c e p t Z a e h n e r ' s conclusion, that C h r i s t i a n m y s t i c i s m r e p r e s e n t s a m o r e lofty form o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l e x p e r i e n c e t h a n a n y o t h e r . N o t all C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s i n this f i e l d a r e s o a d a m a n t o f c o u r s e . W h e r e Z a e h n e r r e - e r e c t s a n d fortifies t h e b a r r i e r s o f C h r i s t i a n c o m p l a c e n c y , Professor E l m e r O ' B r i e n ' s concise a n d useful s u r v e y , mainly of Christian mysticism, knocks them down again ( O ' B r i e n , 1965). P e r h a p s b e c a u s e he is a professional t h e o l o g i a n he c a n afford to b e m o r e tolerant a n d practical. H e i s a g a i n c o n c e r n e d with t h e p r o b l e m of e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y of different m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s . B u t the h o m e l y r e c i p e s , w h i c h h e r e c o m m e n d s s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d i n t h e
19
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a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e m y s t i c , d o n o t c o n t a i n such g l a r i n g , inbuilt a s s u m p tions about the superiority of Christian or any other experience. O ' B r i e n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e following tests a r e c r u c i a l . First, t h e r e p u t e d m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s h o u l d b e c o n t r a r y t o t h e s u b j e c t ' s basic p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r t h e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n . T h u s ' w h e n t h e e x p e r i e n c e (as t h a t of St A u g u s t i n e ) d o e s n o t fit in at all with t h e p e r s o n ' s speculative s u p p o s i t i o n , t h e c h a n c e s a r e t h a t it w a s a g e n u i n e e x p e r i e n c e ' . S e c o n d l y , t h e e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h t h e w o u l d - b e m y s t i c c l a i m s , i s all t h e m o r e c o n v i n c i n g i f i t c a n b e s h o w n t o b e c o n t r a r y t o his o w n wishes, a n d c a n n o t t h e n be d i s m i s s e d s i m p l y as a direct wish-fulfilment. F i n a l l y , t h e e x p e r i e n c e a l o n e gives m e a n i n g a n d c o n s i s t e n c y t o t h e mystic's doctrines. H e r e , clearly, O ' B r i e n i s less c o n c e r n e d t h a n Z a e h n e r t o p r o n o u n c e u p o n t h e q u a l i t y o f e c s t a t i c e x p e r i e n c e i n a n y final o r u l t i m a t e sense. H i s object is n o t to extol s o m e b r a n d s of mysticism as superior, because m o r e fully e n d o w e d w i t h d i v i n e a u t h e n t i c i t y t h a n o t h e r s , b u t simply t o p r o v i d e c r i t e r i a for d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n t h e g e n u i n e a n d simulated mystical vocation. H e r e involuntariness and spontaneity b e c o m e t h e t o u c h - s t o n e s in a s s e s s m e n t . It c a n , I t h i n k , be a r g u e d that O ' B r i e n ' s first c r i t e r i o n d e p e n d s too directly u p o n t h e special c i r c u m s t a n c e s of t h e C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n to m a k e it u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i c a b l e in all c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s . B u t t h e r e is no d o u b t at all t h a t in e m p h a s i z i n g t h e m y s t i c ' s r e l u c t a n c e t o a s s u m e t h e b u r d e n s o f his vocation Professor O ' B r i e n is p o i n t i n g to a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h i c h , as we shall see later, a p p l i e s widely in m a n y different religions. I n d e e d it is a condition t h a t m o s t cultures which e n c o u r a g e mysticism a n d t r a n c e take a s axiomatic. B u t i f O ' B r i e n ' s t o l e r a n t catholicity c a n h e l p t o speed u s o n o u r p a t h t o w a r d s t h e c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y of divine possession in a wide r a n g e of different c u l t u r e s , his view of t h e i n c i d e n c e of m y s t i c i s m s e e m s to spell d i s a p p o i n t m e n t to all o u r h o p e s . W h e r e K n o x a s s u m e d a constant if p a r t l y regrettable h u m a n proclivity to indulge in e n t h u s i a s m , to some e x t e n t v a r y i n g in its e x p r e s s i o n in different social c o n d i t i o n s , O ' B r i e n h o l d s t h a t a p p a r e n t v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e m y s t i c a l ' o u t p u t s ' o f different ages a r e a n illusion. T h e e x p l a n a t i o n for t h e s e e m i n g lack o r a b u n d a n c e of m y s t i c s at a n y g i v e n p e r i o d is ' n o t t h a t a t i m e a n d place favourable to mysticism brings mystics into existence'. On the contrary, it is m e r e l y a q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r m o r e or less a t t e n t i o n is p a i d to mystics in different a g e s . W h e r e m y s t i c i s m is f a s h i o n a b l e a n d a c c e p t e d it is fully r e p o r t e d ; w h e r e it is n o t n o b o d y b o t h e r s to k e e p a n y r e c o r d of it. T h i s s t e a d y state t h e o r y of m y s t i c a l p r o d u c t i v i t y w o u l d , if it w e r e
20
correct, divorce t r a n s c e n d e n t a l experience from t h e social e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h it o c c u r s a n d m a k e totally i r r e l e v a n t t h e s o r t s of sociological questions which I have urged should be applied to the data. Indeed it would almost close the d o o r to sociological analysis; for all t h a t w o u l d be left to discuss w o u l d be t h e significance of c h a n g i n g fashions concerning the desirability or otherwise of mystical experiences. Powerful a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t this stultifying c o n c l u s i o n c o m e from a direction from which social a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s do n o t a l w a y s like to accept help p s y c h o l o g y . T . K . O e s t e r r e i c h , w h o s e m a g i s t e r i a l s t u d y o f possession w i t h i n a s well a s o u t s i d e t h e C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n i s t h e m o s t s u b s t a n t i a l w o r k by a psychologist in this field, t a k e s a v e r y different view ( O e s t e r r e i c h , 1930). A c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r o f possession p h e n o m e n a , w h i c h h e e x p l a i n s i n t e r m s o f s u g g e s t i o n a n d the d e v e l o p m e n t of m u l t i p l e p e r s o n a l i t i e s in t h e self, O e s t e r r e i c h e m p h a s i z e s h o w belief in t h e e x i s t e n c e of spirits e n c o u r a g e s p s y c h i c e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h a r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s possession b y t h e s e spirits. T h e s e transcendental encounters tend in t u r n to confirm the validity of the p r e - e x i s t i n g beliefs in t h e e x i s t e n c e of s p i r i t s . As he says ( p . 3 7 7 ) : B y t h e artificial p r o v o c a t i o n o f p o s s e s s i o n , p r i m i t i v e m a n h a s t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e h a d it in his p o w e r to p r o c u r e v o l u n t a r i l y t h e c o n s c i o u s p r e s e n c e o f t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l , a n d t h e d e s i r e t o enjoy t h a t c o n s c i o u s n e s s of t h e d i v i n e p r e s e n c e offers a s t r o n g i n c e n t i v e to c u l t i v a t e states of p o s s e s s i o n . In m a n y cases it is p r o b a b l e t h a t , exactly a s i n m o d e r n S p i r i t u a l i s m , t h e i m p e r v i o u s d e s i r e s for direct c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h d e p a r t e d a n c e s t o r s a n d o t h e r relatives also play a p a r t . P o s s e s s i o n b e g i n s to d i s a p p e a r a m o n g civilized races as soon as belief in spirits loses its p o w e r . F r o m t h e m o m e n t t h a t t h e y cease t o e n t e r t a i n seriously t h e possibility of b e i n g possessed, t h e n e c e s s a r y a u t o - s u g g e s t i o n is l a c k i n g . T r u e e n o u g h . Yet a s w e n o w see i n o u r o w n c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d , when, through drugs and other stimuli, people find a ready m e a n s to achieve trance states, these experiences quickly b e c o m e invested with m e t a p h y s i c a l m e a n i n g (see e . g . Y o u n g , 1972). T h e r e a r e also striking similarities in t h e p a t t e r n s of i m a g e r y in which such experiences a r e e x p r e s s e d (see Grof, 1977). W r i t i n g over fifty years ago, Oesterreich thus pushes further along the r o a d t o w a r d s a g e n u i n e l y objective c r o s s - c u l t u r a l s t u d y of p o s s e s sion a n d t r a n c e t h a n a n y o f t h e m o r e r e c e n t a u t h o r i t i e s I h a v e
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ECSTATIC RELIGION
m e n t i o n e d . H e also c o n f i r m s t h a t w e a r e right t o p u r s u e o u r a i m o f r e l a t i n g t h e s e p h e n o m e n a t o t h e w i d e r social c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n which t h e y a r e p r o d u c e d . B u t i f O e s t e r r e i c h m a k e s t h e c o n n e c t i o n for u s b e t w e e n ecstasy in t h e g r e a t r e l i g i o n s of t h e w o r l d a n d in t h e tribal r e l i g i o n s s t u d i e d by a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , it is n a t u r a l l y to t h e l a t t e r t h a t we s h o u l d look for g u i d a n c e in t h e i r o w n field. So far, h o w e v e r , t h e results of their labours h a v e been singularly disappointing. O n l y one major comparative work has been produced Mircea Eliade's study, Shamanism and Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy ( E l i a d e , 1951). H e r e Eliade, w h o r e g a r d s h i m s e l f as a h i s t o r i a n of religions, t r a c e s easily a n d convincingly the m a n y c o m m o n symbolic themes which occur in e c s t a t i c cults i n different c u l t u r e s . H o w e v e r , his c o n c e r n w i t h t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e s e s y m b o l i c motifs a n d t h e i r historical relation leaves h i m little space for sociological analysis. In fact, he candidly a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t t h e sociology o f ecstasy h a s still t o b e w r i t t e n . T h e t h i r t y y e a r s w h i c h h a v e e l a p s e d since this h a r s h j u d g e m e n t was d e l i v e r e d h a v e , I am afraid, p r o d u c e d little t h a t w o u l d r e q u i r e it to be revised.
III
A t least u n t i l q u i t e r e c e n t l y , a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e scarcely displayed a n y m o r e i n t e r e s t i n t h e sociology o f possession a n d t r a n c e t h a n their c o l l e a g u e s w h o h a v e s t u d i e d t h e s e p h e n o m e n a u n d e r t h e guise o f e c s t a s y or e n t h u s i a s m in o t h e r c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . W i t h a few n o t a b l e exceptions they have thus simply not asked the important questions w h i c h , I glibly a s s e r t e d a b o v e , a u t o m a t i c a l l y roll off t h e t o n g u e s of anthropologists. On the contrary, the majority of anthropological w r i t e r s on possession h a v e b e e n equally fascinated by its richly d r a m a t i c e l e m e n t s , e n t h r a l l e d o n e m i g h t a l m o s t say by t h e m o r e b i z a r r e a n d e x o t i c s h a m a n i s t i c exercises, a n d a b s o r b e d i n often q u i t e pointless d e b a t e s a s t o t h e g e n u i n e n e s s o r o t h e r w i s e o f p a r t i c u l a r t r a n c e states. T h e i r m a i n interest h a s b e e n i n t h e e x p r e s s i v e o r t h e a t r i c a l aspect o f p o s s e s s i o n ; a n d t h e y h a v e f r e q u e n t l y n o t e v e n t r o u b l e d t o ask t h e m s e l v e s v e r y closely w h a t precisely w a s b e i n g ' e x p r e s s e d ' except of c o u r s e a sense of i d e n t i t y w i t h a s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r . T h i s fixation w i t h all t h a t is d r a m a t i c in possession contrasts sharply w i t h t h e social a n t h r o p o l o g i s t ' s a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f witchcraft a n d s o r c e r y . In t h a t d a r k c o r n e r of c o m p a r a t i v e religion w h e r e , at least i n m y o p i n i o n , sociological r e s e a r c h h a s m a d e its m o s t successful
22
impact, the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t focuses s q u a r e l y on t h e social n e x u s in w h i c h sorcery a n d witchcraft a c c u s a t i o n s a r e m a d e . H e p a s s e s b e y o n d t h e beliefs to e x a m i n e t h e i n c i d e n c e of a c c u s a t i o n s in different social c o n t e x t s . H e i s t h u s a b l e t o s h o w c o n v i n c i n g l y h o w witchcraft c h a r g e s p r o v i d e a m e a n s of m y s t i c a l a t t a c k in t e n s i o n - f r a u g h t r e l a t i o n s h i p s , where o t h e r m e a n s of p u r s u i n g conflict a r e i n a p p r o p r i a t e or u n a v a i l a b l e . I t i s possible t h a t this objective a n d t h o r o u g h l y sociological a p p r o a c h , w h i c h sees t h e a c c u s e d w i t c h a s t h e real v i c t i m r a t h e r t h a n t h e ' b e - w i t c h e d ' subject, i s e n c o u r a g e d b y t h e s i m p l e fact t h a t b y a n d l a r g e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s do n o t t h e m s e l v e s believe in t h e reality of w i t c h c r a f t o r sorcery. W h e r e religious ecstasy a n d all its m a n y t h e a t r i c a l accessory manifestations are concerned, however, m a n y anthropologists a p p e a r to d i s p l a y a m u c h m o r e o p e n , a n d c e r t a i n l y a far less d i s p a s s i o n a t e a t t i t u d e . T h i s is even t r u e of those a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w h o flaunt t h e i r a t h e i s m . F o r a t h e i s t s , after all, f r e q u e n t l y believe in e x t r a - s e n s o r y p e r c e p t i o n , if n o t in all t h e m o r e s e n s a t i o n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h e o c c u l t . F o r w h a t e v e r r e a s o n s , t h e fact i s t h a t social a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e in general s h o w n a q u i t e r e m a r k a b l e r e l u c t a n c e to ask t h e really significant q u e s t i o n s w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h p o s s e s s i o n . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s n o t t o say t h a t n o sociological i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h a t s o e v e r h a s b e e n a t t e m p t e d . A n u m b e r o f a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e c o n s i d e r e d t h e social role o f t h e possessed priest o r ' s h a m a n ' , a n d t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h religious ecstasy m a y serve as t h e b a s i s for a c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r ' s a u t h o r i t y . O t h e r s h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h e significance o f t h e e v a s i o n o f m o r t a l responsibility i m p l i e d w h e r e d e c i s i o n s a r e m a d e n o t b y m e n , b u t b y gods s p e a k i n g t h r o u g h t h e m . A n d i f s o m e h a v e stressed t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f ecstatic r e v e l a t i o n s t o c o n s e r v e a n d s t r e n g t h e n t h e e x i s t i n g social o r d e r , o t h e r s h a v e s h o w n h o w t h e s e c a n e q u a l l y well be applied to authorize innovation and change. T h i s short catalogue, however, practically exhausts the range of m o s t c u r r e n t p r e o c c u p a t i o n s i n t h e sociological s t u d y o f p o s s e s s i o n . T h e c r u c i a l b r e a d - a n d - b u t t e r q u e s t i o n s still r e m a i n t o b e a s k e d . H o w d o e s t h e i n c i d e n c e of ecstasy relate to t h e social o r d e r ? Is possession a n e n t i r e l y a r b i t r a r y a n d i d i o s y n c r a t i c affair; o r a r e p a r t i c u l a r social c a t e g o r i e s o f p e r s o n m o r e o r less likely t o b e p o s s e s s e d ? I f s o , a n d possession c a n b e s h o w n t o r u n i n p a r t i c u l a r social g r o o v e s , w h a t follows from this? W h y d o p e o p l e i n c e r t a i n social p o s i t i o n s s u c c u m b t o possession m o r e readily t h a n o t h e r s ? W h a t d o e s ecstasy offer t h e m ? It is these basic issues c o n c e r n i n g t h e social c o n t e x t of possession t h a t this b o o k e x a m i n e s .
23
ECSTATIC RELIGION
I r e f e r r e d e a r l i e r to t h e possible r e l e v a n c e of t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t ' s p e r s o n a l e q u a t i o n in i n f l u e n c i n g his a p p r o a c h to his d a t a . I h a s t e n therfore to say t h a t t h e a d o p t i o n of this sociological line of i n q u i r y does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y t h a t spirits a r e a s s u m e d t o h a v e n o existential r e a l i t y . A b o v e all, it is n o t s u g g e s t e d t h a t s u c h beliefs should be dismissed as figments of the disordered imaginations of credulous p e o p l e s . F o r t h o s e w h o believe i n t h e m , m y s t i c a l p o w e r s a r e realities both of thought a n d experience. My starting point, consequently, is p r e c i s e l y t h a t l a r g e n u m b e r s o f p e o p l e i n m a n y different p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d d o believe i n g o d s a n d spirits. A n d I c e r t a i n l y d o not p r e s u m e to c o n t e s t t h e validity of t h e i r beliefs, or to i m p l y , as s o m e a n t h r o p o l o gists d o , t h a t s u c h beliefs a r e s o p a t e n t l y a b s u r d t h a t those w h o hold t h e m d o n o t ' r e a l l y ' believe i n t h e m . M y objective i s n o t t o e x p l a i n a w a y r e l i g i o n . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , m y p u r p o s e i s s i m p l y t o t r y t o isolate the p a r t i c u l a r social a n d o t h e r conditions which e n c o u r a g e the developm e n t o f a n ecstatic e m p h a s i s i n r e l i g i o n . N o r , o f c o u r s e , h a v e I a n y a m b i t i o n t o follow Z a e h n e r o r o t h e r ethnocentric writers in seeking to distinguish between 'higher' and ' l o w e r ' , o r ' m o r e ' o r ' l e s s ' a u t h e n t i c forms o f ecstatic e x p e r i e n c e . T h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t ' s task is to discover w h a t people believe in, a n d to relate t h e i r beliefs o p e r a t i o n a l l y t o o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e i r c u l t u r e a n d society. H e h a s n e i t h e r t h e skills n o r t h e a u t h o r i t y t o p r o n o u n c e u p o n t h e a b s o l u t e ' t r u t h ' o f ecstatic m a n i f e s t a t i o n s i n different c u l t u r e s . N o r is it h i s b u s i n e s s to assess w h e t h e r o t h e r p e o p l e ' s p e r c e p t i o n s of d i v i n e t r u t h a r e m o r e o r less c o m p a t i b l e w i t h those e m b o d i e d i n his o w n r e l i g i o u s h e r i t a g e , w h a t e v e r he m a y feel a b o u t t h e latter. I n d e e d I w o u l d g o f u r t h e r . S u c h j u d g e m e n t s m i g h t b e m o r e fittingly left t o t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e p o w e r s w h i c h a r e h e l d t o i n s p i r e religious feeling. C e r t a i n l y , at least, it is n o t for t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t to a t t e m p t to u s u r p the role of the gods whose worship he studies. H e n c e t h e r e a d e r w h o e x p e c t s a n y c r o s s - c u l t u r a l calculus o f t h e r e l a t i v e a u t h e n t i c i t y of t h e ecstatic e x p e r i e n c e s discussed in this book will b e d i s a p p o i n t e d . J u d g e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e t r u t h o r falsity o f i n s p i r a t i o n will o n l y be r e l e v a n t to o u r sociological analysis w h e r e they a r e m a d e b y t h e p e o p l e i n w h o s e m i d s t these e x p e r i e n c e s o c c u r . O n l y w h e r e t h e a c t o r s t h e m s e l v e s h o l d t h a t s o m e ecstatic states a r e false, w h e r e a s o t h e r s a r e t r u e , d o e s this a s s e s s m e n t form p a r t of t h e evidence which we have to consider. P e r h a p s I s h o u l d also a d d t h a t i n t r e a t i n g tribal a n d C h r i s t i a n beliefs, a n d s o m e t i m e s t h o s e o f o t h e r w o r l d religions w i t h i n t h e s a m e
24
frame of reference no d i s r e s p e c t is i n t e n d e d to t h e a d h e r e n t s of a n y of these faiths. I can only ask that the validity of my c o m p a r i s o n s should be j u d g e d by their inherent plausibility, a n d by the extent to which they contribute to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of religious experience.
IV I m a k e these d e c l a r a t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e s t u d y of r e l i g i o u s e n t h u s i a s m is p e c u l i a r l y sensitive to subjective j u d g e m e n t . My s l o g a n , if o n e is still n e c e s s a r y , is: let t h o s e w h o believe in spirits a n d p o s s e s i o n s p e a k for t h e m s e l v e s ! N o w let m e s u m m a r i z e m y a r g u m e n t w h i c h , I r e p e a t , is b a s e d on the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g all its richly d r a m a t i c aspects a n d , from o n e p o i n t o f v i e w , its h i g h l y p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r , religious e n t h u s i a s m c a n be t r e a t e d as a social p h e n o m e n o n . I b e g i n in t h e next c h a p t e r by t r y i n g to u n r a v e l a n u m b e r of largely s e m a n t i c confusions which bedevil t h e objective c o m p a r i s o n of ecstatic experiences, showing how the non-mystical conception of trance held b y m e d i c a l science i s s h a r e d b y s o m e t r i b a l p e o p l e s , b u t n o t b y o t h e r s . T h o s e for w h o m t r a n c e c o n n o t e s a m y s t i c a l state t e n d t o a d o p t o n e of two partly conflicting theories. T h e y consider t h a t t r a n c e is d u e either to t h e t e m p o r a r y a b s e n c e of t h e s u b j e c t ' s soul ( ' s o u l - l o s s ' ) , or t h a t it r e p r e s e n t s possession b y a s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r . T h e f i r s t i n t e r p r e t a tion stresses a loss of p e r s o n a l vital force, a ' d e - p o s s e s s i o n ' , t h e s e c o n d e m p h a s i z e s an intrusion of e x t e r n a l p o w e r . In s o m e c u l t u r e s b o t h these views a r e e n t e r t a i n e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , so t h a t t h e ' d e - p o s s e s s e d ' p e r s o n i s ' p o s s e s s e d ' b y t h e spirit o r p o w e r . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , h o w e v e r , o u r c o n c e r n in this b o o k is w i t h those w h o r e g a r d t r a n c e p r i m a r i l y as a form of s u p e r n a t u r a l possession. If I u s e t h e t e r m ' t r a n c e ' to d e n o t e s o m e d e g r e e of m e n t a l d i s s o c i a t i o n , it is e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t we should grasp that in other cultures people are frequently considered to be possessed w h o a r e v e r y far from b e i n g in a t r a n c e s t a t e . O f t e n the o n s e t of an illness if r e g a r d e d as possession by an alien m y s t i c a l p o w e r , l o n g before t h e subject is in a n y t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g a c o n d i t i o n o f t r a n c e . Possession t h u s h a s a m u c h w i d e r r a n g e o f m e a n i n g s t h a n our denatured term trance. F o l l o w i n g t h i s , I m o v e on to e x a m i n e briefly s o m e of t h e m o s t striking c o m m o n e l e m e n t s i n i m a g e r y a n d s y m b o l i s m w h i c h s o m a n y different ecstatic religions s h a r e . If I p u r s u e h e r e o n l y t h o s e t h e m e s which relate directly t o m y sociological p r e o c c u p a t i o n s a n d i g n o r e others which a r e m o r e t a n g e n t i a l , I do this deliberately a n d not b e c a u s e
25
ECSTATIC RELIGION
I c o n s i d e r t h e l a t t e r u n i m p o r t a n t . T h o s e w h o seek a fuller t r e a t m e n t of t h e s y m b o l i c c o n t e n t of possession will r e a d i l y find it in E l i a d e ' s b o o k . After t h e s e n e c e s s a r y p r e l i m i n a r i e s , I b e g i n in t h e t h i r d c h a p t e r to look closely at t h e social c o n t e x t s in w h i c h ecstasy a n d possession flourish. F a r from b e i n g a r b i t r a r y a n d h a p h a z a r d in its incidence, there we shall see h o w a w i d e s p r e a d form of possession, w h i c h is r e g a r d e d initially a s a n illness, i s i n m a n y cases v i r t u a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o w o m e n . S u c h w o m e n ' s possession 'afflictions' a r e r e g u l a r l y t r e a t e d n o t b y p e r m a n e n t l y e x p e l l i n g t h e p o s s e s s i n g a g e n c y , b u t by r e a c h i n g a viable a c c o m m o d a t i o n w i t h it. T h e spirit i s t a m e d a n d d o m e s t i c a t e d , r a t h e r t h a n exorcized. T h i s t r e a t m e n t is usually accomplished by the induction of t h e affected w o m e n i n t o a female cult g r o u p w h i c h regularly p r o m o t e s possession e x p e r i e n c e s a m o n g its m e m b e r s . W i t h i n t h e s e c l u d e d cult g r o u p , possession h a s t h u s lost its m a l i g n significance. H e n c e w h a t m e n c o n s i d e r a d e m o n i a c a l sickness, w o m e n c o n v e r t i n t o a c l a n d e s t i n e e c s t a s y . A n d this of c o u r s e is my justification for t r e a t i n g as a r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s o m e t h i n g w h i c h , on t h e surface, a p p e a r s to be its precise o p p o s i t e . If t h e r e a d e r still feels t h a t this d r a m a t i c apotheosis is unconvincing, he should r e m e m b e r how f r e q u e n t l y t h e g r e a t m y s t i c s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n a n d o t h e r world religions h a v e received their first i l l u m i n a t i o n either in c i r c u m s t a n c e s of e x t r e m e a d v e r s i t y , or in a form w h i c h a p p e a r e d initially as a s e a r i n g affliction. He s h o u l d recall also h o w a p t l y t h e c o n c e p t i o n of this first call as a d r e a d e d sickness m e e t s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s for mystical a u t h e n t i c i t y s o clearly f o r m u l a t e d b y P r o f e s s o r O ' B r i e n . F o r all t h e i r c o n c e r n w i t h d i s e a s e a n d its t r e a t m e n t , such w o m e n ' s p o s s e s s i o n cults a r e also, I a r g u e , t h i n l y d i s g u i s e d p r o t e s t m o v e m e n t s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e d o m i n a n t sex. T h e y t h u s p l a y a significant p a r t i n t h e s e x - w a r i n t r a d i t i o n a l societies a n d c u l t u r e s w h e r e w o m e n lack m o r e o b v i o u s a n d direct m e a n s for f o r w a r d i n g their a i m s . T o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t t h e y p r o t e c t w o m e n from t h e e x a c t i o n s o f m e n , a n d offer a n effective vehicle for m a n i p u l a t i n g h u s b a n d s a n d m a l e r e l a t i v e s . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o i n c i d e s closely w i t h R o n a l d K n o x ' s b r i l l i a n t , if c a u s t i c , a s i d e t h a t in C h r i s t i a n i t y , ' f r o m t h e M o n t a n i s t m o v e m e n t o n w a r d s , t h e h i s t o r y of e n t h u s i a s m is largely a history of female e m a n c i p a t i o n , a n d it is not a r e a s s u r i n g o n e ' . I do not subscribe t o t h e l a t t e r j u d g e m e n t . B u t this c o n c l u s i o n w h i c h K n o x does n o t p u r s u e systematically offers striking c o r r o b o r a t i o n , from a s o m e w h a t u n e x p e c t e d q u a r t e r , of t h e validity of o u r findings in very different cultural circumstances.
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So far we h a v e said n o t h i n g of t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e spirits i n v o l v e d in this t y p e of possession. It is I believe of t h e g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t a n d i m p o r t a n c e t h a t these spirits a r e typically c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a m o r a l : they h a v e n o direct m o r a l significance. Full o f spite a n d m a l i c e t h o u g h t h e y a r e , t h e y a r e believed t o strike e n t i r e l y c a p r i c i o u s l y a n d w i t h o u t any grounds which can be referred to the m o r a l character or conduct o f their v i c t i m s . T h u s t h e w o m e n w h o s u c c u m b t o t h e s e afflictions cannot help themselves and at the same time bear no responsibility for all t h e a n n o y a n c e a n d cost w h i c h t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t t r e a t m e n t involves. T h e y a r e t h u s totally b l a m e l e s s ; r e s p o n s i b i l i t y lies n o t w i t h them, but with the spirits. Because they play no direct part in u p h o l d i n g the moral code of the societies in which they receive so m u c h a t t e n t i o n , I call these spirits ' p e r i p h e r a l ' . T h e y a r e in fact v e r y often also p e r i p h e r a l in a f u r t h e r sense. F o r typically these spirits a r e b e l i e v e d to o r i g i n a t e outside t h e societies w h o s e w o m e n t h e y p l a g u e . F r e q u e n t l y t h e y a r e t h e s p i r i t s of hostile n e i g h b o u r i n g p e o p l e s , so t h a t a n i m o s i t i e s b e t w e e n rival local c o m m u n i t i e s b e c o m e reflected i n this m y s t i c a l i d i o m . A n d i f t h e i r favourite v i c t i m s a r e u s u a l l y w o m e n w h o , a s j u r a l m i n o r s i n t r a d i tional societies, also in a sense o c c u p y a d e p e n d e n t a n d in a sense also p e r i p h e r a l p o s i t i o n , w e h a v e h e r e a v e r y d i r e c t c o n c o r d a n c e b e t w e e n t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e s p i r i t s , t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e afflictions they c a u s e a r e e v a l u a t e d , a n d t h e s t a t u s o f t h e i r h u m a n p r e y . P e r i p h e r a l i t y , as I u s e t h e t e r m , h a s this three-fold c h a r a c t e r . S u c h p e r i p h e r a l cults, as I t r y to s h o w in C h a p t e r F o u r , also frequently e m b r a c e d o w n t r o d d e n c a t e g o r i e s o f m e n w h o a r e subject to s t r o n g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in rigidly stratified societies. P e r i p h e r a l possesion is c o n s e q u e n t l y far from b e i n g a s e c u r e female m o n o p o l y , a n d cannot thus be explained plausibly in t e r m s of any innate tendency t o h y s t e r i a o n t h e p a r t o f w o m e n . A n d w h e r e m e n o f low social position a r e involved, a l t h o u g h ostensibly existing only to c u r e spirit-caused illnesses, such cults a g a i n e x p r e s s p r o t e s t b y t h e politically i m p o t e n t . O u r o w n c o n t e m p o r a r y e x p e r i e n c e o f fringe p r o t e s t g r o u p s a n d cults should help us to appreciate what is involved here. I n a d d i t i o n t o e x p l a i n i n g illness, p e r i p h e r a l possession c a n t h u s b e seen t o serve a s a n o b l i q u e a g g r e s s i v e s t r a t e g y . T h e possessed p e r s o n i s ill t h r o u g h n o fault o f his o w n . T h e illness r e q u i r e s t r e a t m e n t w h i c h his (or h e r ) m a s t e r h a s t o p r o v i d e . I n his s t a t e o f possession t h e p a t i e n t is a highly privileged p e r s o n : he is a l l o w e d m a n y liberties w i t h t h o s e w h o m in other circumstances he is required to treat with respect.
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M o r e o v e r , h o w e v e r costly a n d i n c o n v e n i e n t for t h o s e t o w h o m his n o r m a l s t a t u s r e n d e r s h i m s u b s e r v i e n t , his c u r e i s often i n c o m p l e t e . L a p s e s a r e likely t o o c c u r w h e n e v e r difficulties d e v e l o p with his s u p e r i o r s . C l e a r l y , in this context, possession works to help t h e interests o f t h e w e a k a n d d o w n t r o d d e n w h o h a v e o t h e r w i s e few effective m e a n s t o p r e s s t h e i r c l a i m s for a t t e n t i o n a n d r e s p e c t . T h i s p r o c e s s , G o m m ( 1 9 7 5 ) a p t l y calls, ' b a r g a i n i n g from w e a k n e s s ' . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of p e r i p h e r a l possession as a form of mystical attack i m m e d i a t e l y suggests parallels with t h e e m p l o y m e n t of witchcraft a c c u s a t i o n s t o e x p r e s s a g g r e s s i o n b e t w e e n rivals a n d e n e m i e s . T o a c c u s e s o m e o n e o f b e w i t c h i n g y o u is, h o w e v e r , t o a t t a c k t h e m o p e n l y a n d directly, a n d represents a m u c h m o r e drastic strategy than is i m p l i e d i n t h e d e v i o u s m a n o e u v r e o f p e r i p h e r a l possession. T h e possessed p e r s o n exerts p r e s s u r e on his superior without radically quest i o n i n g his s u p e r i o r i t y . H e v e n t i l a t e s h i s p e n t - u p a n i m o s i t y w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n i n g t h e u l t i m a t e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e s t a t u s differences e n s h r i n e d w i t h i n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r . If p e r i p h e r a l possession is t h u s a g e s t u r e of d e f i a n c e , it is also, u s u a l l y , o n e of h o p e l e s s n e s s . It follows from these distinctions t h a t we should expect these two separate strategies to o p e r a t e , in different social c o n t e x t , a n d this is largely w h a t we find in p r a c t i c e . H o w e v e r , a h i g h l y significant synthesis is also a c h i e v e d b e t w e e n t h e m . W e shall f i n d t h a t t h o s e w h o , a s m a s t e r s o f s p i r i t s , d i a g n o s e a n d t r e a t illness i n o t h e r s , a r e t h e m s e l v e s i n d a n g e r of b e i n g a c c u s e d as w i t c h e s . F o r if t h e i r p o w e r o v e r t h e spirits is such t h a t t h e y c a n h e a l t h e sick, w h y s h o u l d t h e y n o t also s o m e t i m e s c a u s e w h a t t h e y c u r e ? R e a s o n i n g i n this f a s h i o n , t h e m a n i p u l a t e d establishm e n t which reluctantly tolerates b o u t s of uncontrolled possession illness a m o n g its d e p e n d a n t s , r o u n d s o n t h e l e a d e r s o f these rebellious cults a n d firmly denounces them as witches. T h u s , I argue, the most a m b i t i o u s a n d p u s h i n g m e m b e r s o f these i n s u r g e n t cults a r e kept i n check, hoist, as it were, with their own petard. It will be c l e a r t h a t w h a t e v e r m y s t i c a l or psychological benefits p e r i p h e r a l possession c o n f e r s , i t also r e g u l a r l y a c h i e v e s o t h e r m o r e t a n g i b l e r e w a r d s . F o l l o w i n g this u p , w e m o v e o n i n C h a p t e r s Five a n d Six t o e x p l o r e t h e f u n c t i o n s o f possession w h e r e this h a s ceased t o b e solely t h e r e s o r t o f t h e w e a k a n d h u m i l i a t e d a n d h a s b e c o m e t h e m y s t i c a l i d i o m i n t e r m s o f w h i c h m e n o f s u b s t a n c e c o m p e t e for p o s i t i o n s o f p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y i n society a t l a r g e . H e r e e n t h u s i a s m e m e r g e s from its seclusion on t h e fringes of society i n t o t h e full light o f d a y . N o w w e a r e o n m o r e f a m i l i a r g r o u n d since w e a r e c o n c e r n e d
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with the ecstatic aspects of m a i n l i n e religions. T h e p a t h we shall follow h a s a l r e a d y b e e n i n d i c a t e d for u s b y K n o x ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t religious l e a d e r s t u r n t o ecstasy w h e n t h e y seek t o s t r e n g t h e n a n d l e g i t i m i z e t h e i r a u t h o r i t y . W h e r e a s t h o s e cults w e called p e r i p h e r a l i n v o l v e d spirits w h i c h w e r e s u b l i m e l y indifferent t o t h e m o r a l c o n d u c t o f m a n k i n d , now we are concerned with mystical powers which are r e g a r d e d frankly a s sternly m o r a l i s t i c . W h i l e t h e y i n s p i r e m e n t o h i g h positions, t h e y also act a s t h e c e n s o r s o f society. T h e i r i n t e r v e n t i o n i n h u m a n affairs i s a direct p r o d u c t o f h u m a n m i s d e m e a n o u r s a n d t h e c o m m i s s i o n o f m o r a l w r o n g s . T h e i r task i s t o u p h o l d a n d s u s t a i n public morality. I n d i s t i n c t i o n t o t h e p e r i p h e r a l cults w i t h t h e i r m o r e l i m i t e d a n d specialized functions, I shall refer to t h e s e t h o r o u g h l y m o r a l i z i n g s y s t e m s o f ecstatic beliefs a s ' m a i n m o r a l i t y possession r e l i g i o n s ' , o r , m o r e simply a n d less b a r b a r o u s l y , a s ' c e n t r a l possession r e l i g i o n s ' . I shall distinguish t w o t y p e s : t h o s e i n v o l v i n g a n c e s t o r spirits ( C h a p t e r Five); a n d those i n v o l v i n g m o r e a u t o n o m o u s deities w h i c h a r e n o t simply sacralized v e r s i o n s o f t h e l i v i n g ( C h a p t e r Six). I n b o t h cases w e shall e x a m i n e h o w t h e i n s p i r e d p r i e s t , o r s h a m a n , w h o h a s p r i v i leged access to these s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r s , diagnoses sins a n d prescribes t h e a p p r o p r i a t e a t o n e m e n t . T h e political a n d legal a u t h o r i t y w i e l d e d by the holders of these religious c o m m i s s i o n s is, as we shall see, largely a function of t h e availability of o t h e r m o r e specialized a g e n c i e s of political a n d social control. In highly a t o m i z e d societies w i t h o u t secure a n d clearly defined political p o s i t i o n s , t h e s h a m a n c o m e s i n t o h i s o w n as an omni-competent leader, regulating the intercourse both between m a n and m a n a n d between m e n a n d the spirits. I f c e r t a i n exotic religions t h u s allow ecstasy t o r u l e m o s t a s p e c t s o f their a d h e r e n t s ' lives, all t h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e m o r e strongly-based a n d entrenched religious authority b e c o m e s , the m o r e hostile i t i s t o w a r d s h a p h a z a r d i n s p i r a t i o n . N e w faiths m a y a n n o u n c e their advent with a flourish of ecstatic revelations, b u t o n c e t h e y b e c o m e securely e s t a b l i s h e d t h e y h a v e little t i m e o r t o l e r a n c e for e n t h u s i a s m . F o r t h e religious e n t h u s i a s t , w i t h his direct claim t o d i v i n e k n o w l e d g e , is always a t h r e a t to t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r . W h a t t h e n a r e t h e factors which inhibit t h e g r o w t h o f this a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s ecstasy a n d k e e p possession o n t h e boil? T h e e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e , w h i c h w e r e v i e w , suggests t h a t p a r t a t least o f t h e a n s w e r lies i n a c u t e a n d c o n s t a n t l y r e c u r r i n g social a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r e s s u r e s w h i c h m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t the f o r m a t i o n of l a r g e , secure social g r o u p s . F o r , as we shall see, t h o s e
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societies in w h i c h c e n t r a l possession cults persist s e e m to be usually c o m p o s e d o f s m a l l , fluid, social u n i t s e x p o s e d t o p a r t i c u l a r l y e x a c t i n g p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , o r c o n q u e r e d c o m m u n i t i e s l y i n g u n d e r t h e yoke o f alien o p p r e s s i o n . T h u s , a s i n p e r i p h e r a l cults, t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h e n c o u r a g e t h e ecstatic r e s p o n s e a r e precisely t h o s e w h e r e m e n feel t h e m s e l v e s c o n s t a n t l y t h r e a t e n e d by e x a c t i n g pressures which they d o n o t k n o w h o w t o c o m b a t o r c o n t r o l , e x c e p t t h r o u g h those h e r o i c flights o f e c s t a s y b y w h i c h t h e y seek t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e y a r e t h e e q u a l s of t h e g o d s . T h u s if e n t h u s i a s m is a r e t o r t to o p p r e s s i o n a n d r e p r e s s i o n , w h a t i t seeks t o p r o c l a i m i s m a n ' s t r i u m p h a n t m a s t e r y o f an intolerable environment. T h i s b r i n g s u s d i r e c t l y t o t h e c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n o f t h e psychological significance of possession. If I h a v e relegated discussion of psychological i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of ectasy to my final c h a p t e r , this is n o t b e c a u s e I c o n s i d e r t h e s e u n i m p o r t a n t . M y objective i s t o b r i n g u s b a c k f i n a l l y t o o u r w o r l d , r e l a t i n g t h e s e l a r g e l y exotic e x p e r i e n c e s from alien c u l t u r e s t o o u r o w n c o n t e m p o r a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h r o u g h psychology a n d p s y c h i a t r y , since i t i s p r i m a r i l y w i t h i n t h e subject m a t t e r studied b y t h e s e d i s c i p l i n e s t h a t w e f i n d directly c o m p a r a b l e m a t e r i a l t o d a y . As I h a v e a l r e a d y r e v e a l e d so m u c h of t h e h a n d t h a t I t r y to play in t h i s b o o k , I leave t h e r e a d e r to e x p l o r e for h i m s e l f t h e a r g u m e n t s of t h e final c h a p t e r . I w o u l d o n l y a d d , t h a t such is t h e incidence of m e n t a l stress a n d illness in o u r c o n t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r e , that we do well to p o n d e r h o w s o m a n y beliefs a n d e x p e r i e n c e s , w h i c h w e relegate t o a b n o r m a l p s y c h o l o g y , s e e m to find in o t h e r c u l t u r e s a secure a n d satisfying outlet in e c s t a t i c r e l i g i o n . F i n a l l y , my apology, if an a p o l o g y is n e e d e d , for this e x t e n d e d s u m m a r y o f t h e a r g u m e n t s o f this s t u d y i s t h a t w h e r e o n e seeks t o o p e n up a l a r g e l y novel line of a p p r o a c h a n d to look at old d a t a from a fresh a n g l e , t h e w r i t e r o w e s it to t h e r e a d e r to i n d i c a t e t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n h e i n t e n d s t o follow. I a m n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y w e d d e d t o t h e a n a l y t i c a l t e r m s ' p e r i p h e r a l ' a n d ' c e n t r a l ' w h i c h I f i n d s o useful. But since I h o l d v e r y definite v i e w s a b o u t t h e realities to w h i c h I c o n s i d e r t h e y refer, it h a s s e e m e d essential to m a k e it perfectly clear from t h e start h o w t h e s e c o n c e p t s a r e a p p l i e d . M u c h o f m y t r e a t m e n t o f t h e e v i d e n c e o n possession a n d s h a m a n i s m will b e f o u n d t o c o r r e s p o n d closely t o t h a t m o d i s h a p p r o a c h w h i c h i s n o w often dignified with t h e title o f ' t r a n s a c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s ' . F o r w h a t i t i s w o r t h , m y o w n m o r e l i m i t e d s l o g a n in t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t is, t h a t to a significant e x t e n t , p o s s e s s i o n is as possession d o e s .
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In t h u s p o i n t i n g to c e r t a i n social f u n c t i o n s fulfilled by possession I d o not m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e s e e x h a u s t t h e p h e n o m e n o n ' s f u n c t i o n a l capacities, n o r d o I c o n s i d e r t h a t i n a n y c o m p l e t e sense t h e y e x p l a i n its e x i s t e n c e . O n c e t h e y h a v e s h o w n w h a t for s e c u l a r e n d s i s d o n e i n the n a m e of religion, s o m e anthropologists naively s u p p o s e t h a t n o t h i n g m o r e remains to be said. T h u s they leave largely unexplained the characteristic mystical aspects w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h t h e religious from t h e secular, a n d they totally fail to a c c o u n t for t h e rich diversity of religious concepts a n d beliefs. A l t h o u g h m y a m b i t i o n s d o n o t e x t e n d t o e x p l a i n i n g these particularistic a s p e c t s of different ecstatic religions, I do seek to u n c o v e r s o m e of t h e f o u n d a t i o n s , p s y c h o l o g i c a l as well as social, u p o n w h i c h t h e ecstatic r e s p o n s e i s b a s e d . I n p u r s u i n g t h e s e a i m s , I realize of c o u r s e t h a t I m u s t s o m e t i m e s s e e m to h a v e a l l o w e d m y s e l f to be carried to conclusions which impose some strain on the existing e v i d e n c e . W h e r e this is t h e case I w o u l d o n l y p l e a d t h a t e n t h u s i a s m is c a t c h i n g . A l t h o u g h I d o n ' t myself fall in t h i s c a t e g o r y , I m i g h t a d d that some of those anthropologists w h o have studied s h a m a n i s m in o t h e r c u l t u r e s h a v e followed C a r l o s C a s t a n e d a t o b e c o m e t h e m s e l v e s practising s h a m a n s in their own culture.
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Chapter
Two
TRANCE AND POSSESSION
I
T h e great D a n i s h Arctic explorer a n d e t h n o g r a p h e r , R a s m u s s e n , records how o n e of the Eskimo s h a m a n s , or inspired priests, w h o m he encount e r e d h a d i n v a i n s o u g h t i n s t r u c t i o n i n his m y s t i c a l v o c a t i o n from o t h e r s h a m a n s . F i n a l l y , like S t A n t o n y , t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e A n c h o r i t e s , this E s k i m o n e o p h y t e s o u g h t i n s p i r a t i o n i n solitude a n d w a n d e r e d off t o p u r s u e a lonely vigil i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s . ' T h e r e , ' h e told R a s m u s s e n , I s o o n b e c a m e m e l a n c h o l y . I w o u l d s o m e t i m e s fall to w e e p i n g a n d feel u n h a p p y w i t h o u t k n o w i n g w h y . T h e n for n o r e a s o n all w o u l d s u d d e n l y be c h a n g e d , a n d I felt a g r e a t , inexplicable j o y , a j o y so p o w e r f u l t h a t I c o u l d n o t r e s t r a i n it, b u t h a d to b r e a k i n t o s o n g , a m i g h t y s o n g , w i t h r o o m for only o n e w o r d : j o y , j o y ! A n d I h a d t o u s e t h e full s t r e n g t h o f m y voice. A n d t h e n in t h e m i d s t of s u c h a fit of m y s t e r i o u s a n d o v e r w h e l m i n g d e l i g h t I b e c a m e a s h a m a n , n o t k n o w i n g myself h o w it c a m e a b o u t . B u t I w a s a s h a m a n . I c o u l d see a n d h e a r in a totally different w a y . I h a d g a i n e d m y e n l i g h t e n m e n t , t h e s h a m a n ' s light o f b r a i n a n d b o d y , a n d this i n s u c h a m a n n e r t h a t i t w a s n o t o n l y I w h o c o u l d see t h r o u g h t h e d a r k n e s s of life, b u t t h e s a m e b r i g h t light also s h o n e o u t from m e , i m p e r c e p t i b l e t o h u m a n b e i n g s b u t visible t o all spirits o f e a r t h a n d sky a n d s e a , a n d t h e s e n o w c a m e t o m e t o b e c o m e m y h e l p i n g spirits ( R a s m u s s e n , 1929, p . 119). T h i s vivid recollection o f a n E s k i m o s h a m a n ' s calling echoes c o u n t l e s s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f s i m i l a r ecstatic e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e w o r l d ' s
32
T R A N C E A N D POSSESSION
universalistic religions as well as in t h e m o r e exotic t r i b a l r e l i g i o n s with w h i c h this b o o k m a i n l y d e a l s . It is d i r e c t l y a n a l o g o u s t o o to t h e growing volume of reports of mystical experiences engendered by the so-called ' s a c r a m e n t a l d r u g s ' o f t h e L S D t y p e . O n e typical A m e r i c a n subject, for e x a m p l e , h a s d e s c r i b e d this c o m m o n r e s p o n s e to a session with this d r u g i n s i m i l a r , i f m o r e p r e t e n t i o u s l a n g u a g e : B u t t h e n in a flash of i l l u m i n a t i o n , I u n d e r s t o o d t h a t this perfect g e n i u s of w h i c h I c o n c e i v e d w a s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a m i n u t e and miserable microcosm, containing but the barest h i n t o f t h e infinitely m o r e c o m p l e x a n d e n o r m o u s l y vast m a c r o c o s m i c M i n d of G o d . I k n e w t h a t for all its w o n d r o u s precision this m a n - m i n d e v e n in u l t i m a t e fulfilment of all its p o t e n t i a l s could n e v e r b e m o r e t h a n t h e feeblest reflection o f the G o d - M i n d in the image of which the m a n - m i n d h a d been so m i r a c u l o u s l y c r e a t e d . I w a s filled w i t h a w e of G o d as my C r e a t o r , a n d t h e n w i t h love for G o d a s t h e O n e W h o s u s t a i n e d me even, as in my images, I seemed to sustain the contents of m y o w n m i n d . . . I m a r v e l l e d all t h e m o r e a t t h e feeling I n o w h a d t h a t s o m e h o w t h e a t t e n t i o n o f G o d w a s focused u p o n m e a n d t h a t I w a s r e c e i v i n g e n l i g h t e n m e n t from H i m . T e a r s c a m e i n t o my eyes a n d I o p e n e d t h e m u p o n a r o o m in w h i c h it s e e m e d t o m e t h a t e a c h object h a d s o m e h o w b e e n t o u c h e d b y G o d ' s s u b l i m e P r e s e n c e ( M a s t e r s & H o u s t o n , 1967, p . 2 6 4 ) . A t t e m p t s t o d i m i n i s h t h e status o f s u c h d r u g - i n d u c e d m y s t i c i s m b y d u b b i n g it 'instant religion' need not detain us here. N o r need we be u n d u l y d i s t u r b e d b y t h e fact t h a t p s y c h i a t r i c c a s e - r e c o r d s a b o u n d i n descriptions o f similar subjectively e v a l u a t e d mystical e x p e r i e n c e . T h e p r o b l e m of distinguishing b e t w e e n m a d m e n a n d mystics, which we shall take u p later, i s o n e m o s t religious c o m m u n i t i e s h a v e h a d t o face. F o r o u r p u r p o s e s all w e n e e d t o n o t e for t h e m o m e n t i s t h e universality of mystical experience a n d the r e m a r k a b l e uniformity of mystical l a n g u a g e a n d s y m b o l i s m . W e also r e q u i r e , h o w e v e r , a n e u t r a l t e r m to d e n o t e the m e n t a l state of t h e subject of such e x p e r i e n c e s . H e r e I shall e m p l o y t h e w o r d ' t r a n c e ' , u s i n g it in its g e n e r a l m e d i c a l sense w h i c h t h e Penguin Dictionary of Psychology c o n v e n i e n t l y defines a s : 'a c o n d i t i o n o f d i s s o c i a t i o n , c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e lack o f v o l u n t a r y m o v e m e n t , a n d f r e q u e n t l y b y a u t o m a t i s m s i n act a n d t h o u g h t , illustrated b y h y p n o t i c a n d m e d i u m i s t i c c o n d i t i o n s . ' S o c o n c e i v e d ,
33
ECSTATIC RELIGION
t r a n c e m a y i n v o l v e c o m p l e t e o r o n l y p a r t i a l m e n t a l dissociation, a n d is often a c c o m p a n i e d by e x c i t i n g visions, or ' h a l l u c i n a t i o n s ' , t h e full c o n t e n t of w h i c h is n o t a l w a y s s u b s e q u e n t l y so clearly recalled as in the two experiences quoted earlier. A s i s well k n o w n , t r a n c e states c a n b e r e a d i l y i n d u c e d i n m o s t n o r m a l p e o p l e by a w i d e r a n g e of s t i m u l i , a p p l i e d e i t h e r s e p a r a t e l y o r i n c o m b i n a t i o n . T i m e - h o n o u r e d t e c h n i q u e s i n c l u d e t h e use o f alcoholic spirits, h y p n o t i c suggestion, r a p i d o v e r - b r e a t h i n g , the inhalat i o n o f s m o k e a n d v a p o u r s , m u s i c , a n d d a n c i n g ; a n d t h e ingestion o f s u c h d r u g s a s m e s c a l i n e o r lysergic acid a n d o t h e r p s y c h o t r o p i c a l k a l o i d s . T h e specific a n d non-specific effects o f t h e s e d r u g s a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h d r u g e x p e r i e n c e s v a r y w i t h t h e socio-cultural s e t t i n g i n w h i c h t h e y o c c u r h a s r e c e i v e d m u c h a t t e n t i o n (see e g . F u r s t , 1972; H a r n e r , 1 9 7 3 ; Grof, 1977; S c h u l t e s a n d H o f m a n n , 1980). E v e n w i t h o u t t h e s e a i d s , m u c h t h e s a m e effect c a n b e p r o d u c e d , a l t h o u g h u s u a l l y i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s m o r e slowly, b y s u c h self-inflicted o r e x t e r n a l l y i m p o s e d m o r t i f i c a t i o n s a n d p r i v a t i o n s a s fasting a n d ascetic contemplation (e.g. 'transcendental meditation'). T h e inspirational effect of sensory d e p r i v a t i o n , implied in t h e stereotyped mystical 'flight' into t h e wilderness, h a s also b e e n well d o c u m e n t e d in laboratory experim e n t s . T h e m o s t e x c i t i n g scientific d i s c o v e r i e s h e r e , surely, a r e those of t h e e n d o r p h i n s n a t u r a l o p i a t e s in t h e h u m a n b r a i n w h o s e p r o d u c t i o n a n d release is p r o m o t e d by such traditional methods of t r a n c e i n d u c t i o n ( A h l b e r g , 1982; P r i n c e , 1982). T h e p r e s e n c e o f these n a t u r a l e u p h o r i a n t s i n t h e h u m a n b o d y w h i c h s e e m t o b e released by s u c h m u n d a n e activities as j o g g i n g (cf. B a n y a i , 1984) m a k e s M a r x ' s f a m o u s e p i t h e t a b o u t ' r e l i g i o n a s t h e o p i u m o f t h e p e o p l e ' literally a n d m a t e r i a l l y t r u e in a m o s t u n e x p e c t e d way! T h e existence of this n a t u r a l e n d o r p h i n ( a n d possibly o t h e r s i m i l a r ) e n d o g e n o u s s y s t e m s also e x p l a i n s h o w states o f a l t e r e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d a n a l g e s i a associated specifically w i t h t h e i n g e s t i o n o f h a l l u c i n o g e n i c o r p s y c h o t r o p i c d r u g s c a n b e p r o d u c e d w i t h o u t t h e s e e x t e r n a l aids t o t r a n c e . H o w e v e r they are produced, o u r i m m e d i a t e concern is with the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n given by different c u l t u r e s to t r a n c e states. H e r e we take u p t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r a l l y s t a n d a r d i z e d , a n d therefore ' n o r m a l ' , m e a n i n g o f t r a n c e i n different c o m m u n i t i e s . I n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h o u r o w n C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n , w e t e n d t o e q u a t e t r a n c e a n d possession, t h u s following w h a t as we shall see in a m o m e n t is o n e of t h e m o s t w i d e s p r e a d c u l t u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s o f m e n t a l dissociation. A s with o t h e r e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g i o n s , h o w e v e r , o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y h a s generally
34
s o u g h t t o belittle m y s t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t r a n c e w h e r e t h e s e w e r e claimed by those w h o experienced t h e m to represent Divine revelation. T h u s t h o u g h it is difficult to i g n o r e t h e c o u n t l e s s v i s i o n s of Christian mystics, where the church has approved or h o n o u r e d these ascetic figures i t h a s often d o n e s o o n o t h e r g r o u n d s . T h e s a n c t i o n of heresy h a s p r o v e d a powerful d e t e r r e n t in c u r t a i l i n g a n d d i s c r e d i t i n g wayward personal mystical experiences. I n d e e d , it is mainly in the c o n t e x t o f t r a n c e states a s c r i b e d t o t h e w o r k o f t h e D e v i l t h a t w e m e e t official ecclesiastical r e c o g n i t i o n of p o s s e s s i o n . B u t t o d a y , w i t h i n t h e C a t h o l i c c h u r c h , t h e w i d e r a n g e o f cases, w h i c h i n t h e m i d d l e a g e s were unhestitatingly diagnosed as demoniacal possession, has s h r u n k to those few instances which C a t h o l i c psychiatrists feel u n a b l e to e x p l a i n i n m o r e p r o s a i c t e r m s . T h i s small r e s i d u u m i s all t h a t r e m a i n s o f t h e vast s p e c t r u m o f t r a n c e a n d h y s t e r i c a l b e h a v i o u r f o r m e r l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e w o r k o f t h e Devil a n d h i s a g e n t s . All o t h e r cases a r e t r e a t e d as 'pseudo-possessions' explicable in terms of m o d e r n science. O u t s i d e t h e C a t h o l i c c h u r c h , for m o s t p s y c h i a t r i s t s a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s t s t h e r e i s n o such t h i n g a s t r u e possession i n o u r m o d e r n w o r l d . All cases i n v o l v i n g t h e i d e o l o g y of possession a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e satisfactorily e x p l a i n e d w i t h o u t i n v o k i n g belief i n t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e Devil or of G o d . I n d e e d , p s y c h i a t r y t o d a y itself u s e s a w i d e r a n g e o f t h e r a p i e s w h i c h a r e specifically d e s i g n e d t o p r o v o k e t r a n c e a n d trance-like states i n w h i c h t h e p a t i e n t , l i b e r a t e d b y d r u g s o r h y p n o s i s from his c u s t o m a r y r e s t r a i n t s , is freed to d i s g o r g e r e p r e s s e d t r a u m a t i c experiences t h r o u g h a b r e a c t i o n . H e r e , for m o s t psychiatrists, if not for all p s y c h o a n a l y s t s , t h e r e is no i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t t h e s e t e c h n i ques are inherently mystical. R a t h e r they are held to work on the c e n t r a l n e r v o u s s y s t e m by scientific p r o c e s s e s w h i c h , if n o t yet fully u n d e r s t o o d i n detail, a r e c e r t a i n l y n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o b e u n f a t h o m a b l e . This non-mystical secular interpretation of trance a n d dissociation w h i c h , of c o u r s e , is n o t fully s h a r e d by W e s t e r n S p i r i t u a l i s t s , Pentecostalists, s o m e Q u a k e r s , o r m a n y o f t h e n e w ' p o p ' c u l t - g r o u p s , is by no m e a n s a m o n o p o l y of m o d e r n science. A m o n g s t t h e c o n s e r v a tive S a m b u r u p a s t o r a l n o m a d s o f n o r t h e r n K e n y a , P a u l S p e n c e r ( S p e n c e r , 1965) h a s vividly d e s c r i b e d t r a n c e states w h i c h i n t h e i r o w n local cultural setting involve n o mystical aetiology. H e r e S a m b u r u m e n i n t h e u n m a r r i e d w a r r i o r a g e - g r o u p o f f i f t e e n t o t h i r t y y e a r s called morans, readily fall into t r a n c e in p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e s e ' o d d men out', suspended between boyhood a n d adulthood in an uncomfortably p r o l o n g e d a d o l e s c e n c e , r e g u l a r l y g o i n t o t r a n c e , s h a k i n g w i t h
35
ECSTATIC RELIGION
e x t r e m e bodily agitation, in frustrating situations. T y p i c a l precipitating c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e t h o s e w h e r e o n e g r o u p of morans is o u t - d a n c e d by a rival g r o u p in front of girls; or w h e n o n e of t h e i r o w n girls is led off in m a r r i a g e ; d u r i n g initiation; or w h e n they a r e a b o u t to be replaced by a n e w a g e - g r o u p of y o u n g e r m e n . Similarly o u t s i d e these traditional sett i n g s , S a m b u r u soldiers m a y get t h e s h a k e s o n p a r a d e , o r w h e n a m b u s h e d . All t h e e v i d e n c e h e r e shows conclusively t h a t this is a culturally c o n d i t i o n e d r e s p o n s e to tension a n d d a n g e r which is not interpreted mystically, a n d is i n d e e d viewed by t h e S a m b u r u as a sign of manliness a n d self-assertion. O n c e m e n h a v e passed t h r o u g h the moran g r a d e , have m a r r i e d , a n d b e c o m e elders, they stop shaking. It would no longer be c u l t u r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e for a d u l t m e n t o m a k e this r e s p o n s e . I n all these t r a n c e e x p e r i e n c e s t h e r e i s n o i m p l i c a t i o n a t all t h a t those w h o s h a k e a r e p o s s e s s e d by s p i r i t s . P o s s e s s i o n is n o t p a r t of S a m b u r u ideology. R a t h e r similarly, a m o n g s t t h e A b e l a m tribe o f N e w G u i n e a (Forge), y o u n g d e p r i v e d b a c h e l o r s s o m e t i m e s e x h i b i t all t h e s y m p t o m s which i n m a n y o t h e r societies w o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s signs o f possession. K n o w n i n this state b y a w o r d w h i c h m e a n s literally ' d e a f a n d clearly well d e s c r i b e s t h e i r d i s s o c i a t i o n , t h e s e m e n b e h a v e w i t h hysterically agitated gestures a n d (apparently) uncontrolled violence. Such outb u r s t s a r e t o l e r a t e d for t h o s e i n this p o s i t i o n , a n d i n d e e d t e m p o r a r i l y e a r n t h e m a m e a s u r e of special r e s p e c t . A g a i n , t h e r e is no i d e a t h a t this s t a t e is d u e to spirit p o s s e s s i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e e v i d e n c e is n o t e n t i r e l y c l e a r , it s e e m s t h a t this is also t h e case w i t h t h a t w i d e r N e w G u i n e a p h e n o m e n o n , known as ' m u s h r o o m madness', where trance b e h a v i o u r is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e a t i n g of c e r t a i n fungi. T h i s n o n - m y s t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t r a n c e also a p p l i e s , a l t h o u g h not completely, to that m e d i e v a l d a n c i n g m a n i a called t a r a n t i s m , which in t h e fifteenth c e n t u r y s w e p t t h r o u g h I t a l y in t h e w a k e of t h e Black D e a t h . T h i s was the Italian version of the extraordinary epidemic w h i c h h a d e a r l i e r s p r e a d like a c o n t a g i o n t h r o u g h G e r m a n y , H o l l a n d , a n d B e l g i u m . I n t h o s e c o u n t r i e s , t h e m a l a d y h a d b e c o m e associated w i t h t h e n a m e s o f S t V i t u s a n d S t J o h n t h e B a p t i s t , since i t w a s a t s h r i n e s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e s e s a i n t s t h a t t h e d a n c e r s s o u g h t relief from their affliction. W h e t h e r it was k n o w n as St V i t u s ' s D a n c e or t a r a n t i s m , its s y m p t o m s , a n d t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n w h i c h i t o c c u r r e d , w e r e generally the same. In times of privation a n d misery, the most abused m e m b e r s o f society felt t h e m s e l v e s seized b y a n irresistible u r g e t o d a n c e wildly u n t i l t h e y r e a c h e d a s t a t e of t r a n c e a n d collapsed exhausted a n d usually cured, if only temporarily. C o n t e m p o r a r y
36
r e p o r t s r e c o r d h o w p e a s a n t s left t h e i r p l o u g h s , m e c h a n i c s t h e i r workshops, house-wives their domestic duties, children their parents, s e r v a n t s , t h e i r m a s t e r s all s w e p t h e a d l o n g i n t o t h e B a c c h a n a l i a n revelry. T h e frenetic d a n c i n g w o u l d last for h o u r s at a s t r e t c h , t h e d a n c e r s s h o u t i n g a n d s c r e a m i n g furiously, a n d often f o a m i n g a t t h e m o u t h . M a n y enjoyed strange apocalyptic visions, as the heavens s e e m e d t o o p e n before t h e i r eyes t o r e v e a l t h e S a v i o u r o n H i s t h r o n e with the Blessed V i r g i n at his side. S o m e t i m e s i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e seized f i r s t b y epileptic-like a t t a c k s . P a n t i n g a n d l a b o u r i n g for b r e a t h , t h e y fell s w o o n i n g to t h e g r o u n d , only to l e a p up a g a i n to d a n c e with p o w e r ful convulsive m o v e m e n t s . A l t h o u g h this ' d a n c i n g m a n i a ' , a s H e c k e r calls it, w a s r e m a r k a b l y u n i f o r m i n its i n c i d e n c e a n d c h a r a c t e r , i t w a s n o t e v e r y w h e r e interpreted in the same way. In the Low Countries, the malady was usually r e g a r d e d as a form of d e m o n i a c a l possession a n d w a s frequently t r e a t e d b y e x o r c i s m . T h e s a m e m e t h o d w a s also s o m e t i m e s e m p l o y e d by t h e priests in I t a l y . B u t h e r e , as its local n a m e t a r a n t i s m indicates, it was thought to be caused by the poisonous bite of the t a r a n t u l a s p i d e r r a t h e r t h a n t o b e d u e t o possession b y t h e D e v i l . A s elsewhere, those suffering from t h e disease s h o w e d e x t r e m e sensitivity to music a n d , at the sound of the a p p r o p r i a t e air, would d a n c e t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a state of t r a n c e after w h i c h t h e y w o u l d collapse e x h a u s t e d a n d , for t h e t i m e b e i n g a t least, c u r e d . O n c e t h e t u n e t o w h i c h t h e p a t i e n t r e s p o n d e d h a d b e e n d i s c o v e r e d , a single a p p l i c a tion of this d a n c e a n d m u s i c t h e r a p y w a s often sufficient to lift t h e affliction for a w h o l e y e a r . In the fifteenth c e n t u r y it w a s generally believed in Italy t h a t d a n c i n g t o t h e m u s i c o f f i f e s , c l a r i n e t s , a n d d r u m s , a n d especially t o t h e b r i s k r h y t h m o f t h e t a r a n t e l l a ( n a m e d after t h e s p i d e r ) , c a u s e d t h e p o i s o n from t h e t a r a n t u l a ' s bite t o b e d i s p e r s e d r o u n d t h e b o d y o f t h e v i c t i m , w h e n c e i t w a s e x p e l l e d h a r m l e s s l y t h r o u g h t h e skin a s p e r s p i r a t i o n . I n d e e d , as late as t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , it w a s still c u s t o m a r y for bands of musicians to traverse the country in the s u m m e r m o n t h s , w h e n t h e m a l a d y w a s at its h e i g h t , t r e a t i n g t h e taranti in different villages a n d towns at large rallies. Because of t h e m a r k e d p r e d o m i n a n c e o f female v i c t i m s , t h e s e g a t h e r i n g s w e r e u s u a l l y k n o w n a s t h e ' L i t t l e C a r n i v a l s o f W o m e n ' . A l t h o u g h t h e incidence o f t a r a n t i s m h a s greatly declined since, it still s u r v i v e s t o d a y in an a t t e n u a t e d form in t h e m o r e r e m o t e a n d b a c k w a r d villages o f s o u t h e r n I t a l y ( d e M a r t i n o , 1966).
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I shall e x a m i n e this i n t e r e s t i n g p h e n o m e n o n m o r e fully in a later chapter. My present concern is simply to emphasize that, in contrast to St J o h n ' s and St V i t u s ' s D a n c e , tarantism was long considered by m a n y to be a d i s e a s e c a u s e d by t h e toxic bite of t h e t a r a n t u l a spider a n d not involving any mystical aetiology. M o r e recent research has e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e r e a r e t w o t y p e s o f t a r a n t u l a s p i d e r , a n d t h a t only o n e of t h e s e is a c t u a l l y v e n o m o u s w i t h a p o i s o n o u s bite c a p a b l e of p r o d u c i n g the s y m p t o m s encountered in tarantism. Paradoxically, it is n o t t h i s toxic s p i d e r , b u t t h e o t h e r c o m p l e t e l y h a r m l e s s v a r i e t y of t a r a n t u l a , w h i c h i s l a r g e r a n d looks m o r e t h r e a t e n i n g , t h a t f i g u r e s p r e d o m i n a n t l y in t a r a n t i s m . We shall r e t u r n to the implications of this discovery later. Finally, even in cultures where trance is regularly a n d indeed n o r m a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d mystically, s o m e cases m a y b e e x p l a i n e d i n n o n mystical terms. A m o n g the T u n g u s reindeer herders of Siberia, who p r o v i d e t h e locus classicus of s h a m a n i s m (since shaman is a T u n g u s w o r d ) , hysterical states, involving trembling a n d the compulsive imitation of w o r d s a n d g e s t u r e s , a r e n o t necessarily a l w a y s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e action of s p i r i t s . In fact t h e t e r m olon (from a v e r b m e a n i n g to be frightened) i s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e s u c h p e r s o n s w h o e x h i b i t this b e h a v i o u r b u t a r e not considered to be possessed by spirits. T h o s e concerned here are sometimes y o u n g w o m e n uncontrollably repeating t a b o o ' d obscene e x p r e s s i o n s i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f old w o m e n a n d m e n . S u c h d e m u r e m a i d e n s a r e t h e n e m p l o y i n g l a n g u a g e n o r m a l l y reserved for their elders a n d b e t t e r s ; a n d a d d i n g insult t o i n j u r y b y d o i n g this i n t h e c o m p a n y o f t h o s e w h o m t h e y s h o u l d respect a n d h o n o u r . T h e r e i s t h u s involved an e l e m e n t of r e b e l l i o u s , f l a u n t i n g b e h a v i o u r w h i c h is clearly p r e s e n t i n m y f a v o u r i t e e x a m p l e o f this p h e n o m e n o n . T h i s c o n c e r n s t h e scand a l o u s affair o f t h e T h i r d ( T u n g u s ) B a t t a l i o n o f t h e T r a n s B a i k a l C o s s a c k s . T h e b a t t a l i o n w a s b e i n g h a r a n g u e d b y its irascible R u s s i a n c o l o n e l , a n d s u d d e n l y b e g a n t o r e p e a t after h i m all his c o m m a n d s a n d g e s t u r e s , a n d , a s t h e s e w e r e n o t o b e y e d , t h e flood o f o b s c e n e curses w h i c h followed. W h a t h a p p e n e d a f t e r w a r d s i s n o t r e c o r d e d a n d i s i n any case irrelevant here. We should note, however, the behaviour of this k i n d , w h i c h is n o t i n t e r p r e t e d as mystically c a u s e d , r a p i d l y s h a d e s a m o n g s t t h e T u n g u s i n t o states w h e r e a mystical aetiology is invoked.
T h e altered state of consciousness (which m a y vary very considerably
in d e g r e e ) a n d w h i c h for c o n v e n i e n c e we call t r a n c e is, in t h e c i r c u m stances i n w h i c h i t o c c u r s , o p e n t o different c u l t u r a l c o n t r o l s a n d t o various cultural interpretations. Indeed, as with adolescence, trance i s subject t o b o t h physiological a n d c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n . S o m e c u l t u r e s follow o u r o w n m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e in spirit if n o t in d e t a i l in s e e i n g this c o n d i t i o n as a state of m e n t a l a b e r r a t i o n w h e r e no m y s t i c a l factors are involved. O t h e r cultures see t r a n c e as mystically c a u s e d ; a n d o t h e r s a g a i n i n t e r p r e t t h e s a m e physiological p h e n o m e n o n i n different w a y s i n different c o n t e x t s . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f rival a n d a p p a r e n t l y m u t u a l l y opposed interpretations of trance occurs of course today in o u r own society. W i t h t h e a d v a n c e o f m e d i c a l s c i e n c e , t h e i n c i d e n c e o f t r a n c e states interpreted by the C h u r c h as signs of possession h a s progressively d e c r e a s e d since t h e M i d d l e A g e s . Yet o u t s i d e this rigid f r a m e w o r k o f established religion, fringe cults h a v e increasingly t a k e n o v e r a mystical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t r a n c e as t h e sign of d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n . T h i s is certainly the m a n n e r in which trance is overwhelmingly understood i n revivalist m o v e m e n t s like t h o s e o f t h e ' B i b l e Belt' o f t h e U S A , a n d seems also to be g r o w i n g in significance in t h e n e w e r protest cult g r o u p s which employ drugs such as L S D a n d other psychedelic stimulants. T h e ideological l e a p from a n o n - m y s t i c a l to a m y s t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f t r a n c e m a y b e illustrated b y t h e I n d i a n S h a k e r cult f o u n d e d b y J o h n S l o c u m i n W a s h i n g t o n state a t t h e e n d o f t h e last c e n t u r y ( B a r n e t t , 1957). H e r e , u n c o n t r o l l a b l e bodily a g i t a t i o n a n d t r a n c e states a c h i e v e d i n e m o t i o n a l l y c h a r g e d c h u r c h services, a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s ' s h a k i n g ' , i n t h e m a n n e r w e h a v e a l r e a d y seen a m o n g s t t h e S a m b u r u t r i b e o f K e n y a . But w h e r e a s for t h e S a m b u r u this c o n d i t i o n h a s n o m y s t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , a m o n g s t t h e S h a k e r s (as w i t h t h e e a r l y Q u a k e r s ) e a c h seizure r e p r e s e n t s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e H o l y S p i r i t . T r a n c e i n d e e d i s b o t h p e r s o n a l i z e d a n d objectified, s o t h a t a n I n d i a n s p e a k s o f ' h i s s h a k e ' as a distinctive vital force, or p o w e r , a n d p e o p l e will say in s u p p o r t o f their convictions: ' S o - a n d - s o i s t r u e , b e c a u s e m y s h a k e told me s o . ' H e r e trance has become divine possession. If, h o w e v e r , possession b y a n e x t e r n a l a g e n c y o r spirit m a y b e o n e e x p l a n a t i o n of t r a n c e , it d o e s n o t follow t h a t all c o n d i t i o n s in w h i c h spirit possession i s p o s t u l a t e d n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e t r a n c e . M u c h confusion i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n spirit possession r e s u l t s d i r e c t l y from a s s u m i n g t h a t these t w o states a r e n e c e s s a r i l y a n d a l w a y s e q u i v a l e n t . A s w e shall i n c r e a s i n g l y see, i n m a n y c u l t u r e s w h e r e possession b y a spirit is t h e m a i n or sole i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t r a n c e , possession m a y b e d i a g n o s e d l o n g before a n a c t u a l s t a t e o f t r a n c e h a s b e e n r e a c h e d .
39
ECSTATIC RELIGION
F r e q u e n t l y , for e x a m p l e , illness is seen as a form of possession; yet t h e p o s s e s s e d p a t i e n t is far from b e i n g in t r a n c e . I n d e e d it is r e g u l a r l y o n l y i n t h e a c t u a l t r e a t m e n t o f possession, e i t h e r b y e x o r c i s m , o r b y a p r o c e d u r e w h i c h a i m s at a c h i e v i n g a viable a c c o m m o d a t i o n b e t w e e n v i c t i m a n d p o s s e s s i n g a g e n c y , t h a t t r a n c e in t h e full sense is i n d u c e d . A s t h e g r e a t G e r m a n m e d i c a l s t u d e n t o f possession, T . K . O e s t e r r e i c h , n o t i c e d of m e d i e v a l t r e a t m e n t s , it w a s frequently only in t h e full throes of clerical e x o r c i s m t h a t ' p o s s e s s i o n ' ( i . e . t r a n c e ) in t h e clinical sense really o c c u r r e d . T h i s p e n e t r a t i n g o b s e r v a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s v e r y well with the evidence of C h a r c o t ' s experiences at the Salpetiere mental h o s p i t a l i n P a r i s i n t h e s e c o n d half o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e r e , a s n o w s e e m s c l e a r , i t w a s t h e g r e a t p h y s i c i a n himself w h o often induced the more extravagant manifestations of 'grand hysteria' in his p a t i e n t s ! S p i r i t possession t h u s e m b r a c e s a w i d e r r a n g e o f p h e n o m e n a t h a n t r a n c e , a n d i s r e g u l a r l y a t t r i b u t e d t o p e o p l e w h o a r e far from b e i n g m e n t a l l y disassociated, a l t h o u g h they m a y b e c o m e s o i n t h e t r e a t m e n t s w h i c h t h e y s u b s e q u e n t l y u n d e r g o . It is a c u l t u r a l e v a l u a t i o n of a p e r s o n ' s c o n d i t i o n , a n d m e a n s precisely w h a t i t says: a n i n v a s i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l by a spirit. It is n o t t h u s for us to j u d g e w h o is a n d w h o is n o t really ' p o s s e s s e d ' . If s o m e o n e is, in his o w n c u l t u r a l m i l i e u , g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d to be in a s t a t e of spirit possession, t h e n he (or she) is p o s s e s s e d . T h i s is t h e s i m p l e definition w h i c h we shall follow in this book. T h i s , of course, is not to d e n y that there are degrees of p o s s e s s i o n . As we shall see, this is w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d in those c u l t u r e s w h i c h e m p l o y this m y s t i c a l a e t i o l o g y . S p i r i t p o s s e s s i o n , t h e n , i s o n e o f t h e m a i n , widely d i s t r i b u t e d mystical interpretations of trance a n d of other associated conditions. T h e o t h e r m a j o r m y s t i c a l t h e o r y i s t h a t w h i c h a t t r i b u t e s these states t o t h e t e m p o r a r y a b s e n c e o f t h e v i c t i m ' s soul, a n d i s c o n s e q u e n t l y u s u a l l y k n o w n i n a n t h r o p o l o g y a s ' s o u l - l o s s ' . T h e Belgian a n t h r o pologist L u c d e H e u s c h h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e s e t w o mystical e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e m u t u a l l y n e c e s s a r y ( d e H e u s c h , 1962; 1971). Possession c a n o n l y o c c u r if at t h e s a m e t i m e t h e r e is a ' d e p o s s e s s i o n ' of t h e self, such as is i m p l i e d in t h e d o c t r i n e of soul-loss. At first sight this seems to m a k e e x c e l l e n t s e n s e . B u t i n p r a c t i c e w e f i n d e m p i r i c a l l y t h a t while t h e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s m a y co-exist i n s o m e c u l t u r e s , o r i n s o m e c o n t e x t s of t r a n c e in a p a r t i c u l a r society, o t h e r p e o p l e , if t h e y e v e n explicitly d r a w this logical i n f e r e n c e , d o n o t t r o u b l e t o stress it. T h e p i c t u r e i s also f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e fact t h a t i n m a n y c u l t u r e s m a n i s
40
c o n s i d e r e d to possess n o t o n e b u t several souls. A few e x a m p l e s will show t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e s i t u a t i o n . T h e Y a r u r o I n d i a n s o f V e n e z u e l a e v i d e n t l y follow d e H e u s c h ' s logic. T h e y believe t h a t w h e n t h e i r s h a m a n s j o u r n e y t o t h e spirit l a n d they leave b e h i n d t h e m a m e r e h u s k of their personality. T h i s r e s i d u u m serves as a link in t h e c h a n n e l of c o m m u n i c a t i o n w h i c h in t r a n c e t h e y establish with t h e spirit p o w e r s . I n this s t a t e o f d e p o s s e s s i o n t h e y a r e possessed b y visiting h e l p e r s p i r i t s . H e r e clearly, a n d fairly explicitly, soul-loss is seen as a n e c e s s a r y p r e - c o n d i t i o n for spirit possession. T h e A k a w a i o C a r i b s o f British G u i a n a t a k e a r a t h e r s i m i l a r view w h i c h they e x p r e s s in a v e r y i m a g i n a t i v e w a y . T h e y b e l i e v e t h a t in t r a n c e , which i s i n d u c e d b y c h e w i n g t o b a c c o , t h e s h a m a n ' s spirit ( o r soul) b e c o m e s very small a n d light a n d i s a b l e t o d e t a c h itself from h i s b o d y a n d fly with the aid of ' l a d d e r spirits' into t h e skies. T h e swallow-tailed kite, k n o w n colloquially a s ' c l a i r v o y a n t w o m a n ' , h e l p s t h e s h a m a n ' s spirit t o soar aloft t o c o m m u n e w i t h o t h e r s p i r i t s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , his b o d y , which is left b e h i n d as an e m p t y receptacle, is filled by v a r i o u s forest spirits. It is these w h i c h n o w possess his b o d y a n d s p e a k t h r o u g h it. H o w e v e r , t o c o m p l i c a t e m a t t e r s , t h e A k a w a i o also believe t h a t t h e s h a m a n ' s b o d y can b e c o n c u r r e n t l y occupied b y several ghosts o r spirits as well as by his o w n spirit or soul. I n d e e d a successful s h a m a n ' s h e l p i n g familiars stay w i t h h i m all t h e t i m e . T h u s h e m a y b e i n a c o n s t a n t state o f l a t e n t possession, b u t o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y , a t s e a n c e s , in full t r a n c e ( B u t t , 1967). I n H a i t i a n v o o d o o , likewise, a t least a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d o c t r i n e s o f the s h a m a n i s t i c priests t h e m s e l v e s , w h e n a loa spirit m o v e s i n t o t h e h e a d of an i n d i v i d u a l it d o e s so by first d i s p l a c i n g his gros bon ange, o n e o f t h e t w o souls w h i c h e a c h p e r s o n c a r r i e s i n himself. T h i s t e m p o r a r y eviction o f t h e ' g o o d a n g e l ' soul, c a u s e s t r e m b l i n g a n d c o n v u l s i o n s w h i c h a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e o p e n i n g s t a g e s o f possession a n d t r a n c e . S i m i l a r l y a m o n g t h e S a o r a t r i b e s m e n o f O r i s s a , i n I n d i a , w h e n a s h a m a n goes into t r a n c e a n d t h e spirit c o m e s u p o n h i m , his o w n soul is t e m p o r a r i l y expelled a n d t h e spirit t a k e s its p l a c e in his h e a r t o r A d a m ' s a p p l e . F i n a l l y , i n t h i s v e i n , t h e A r c t i c T u n g u s believe t h a t e a c h m a n h a s t w o o r t h r e e souls. T h e f i r s t soul m a y l e a v e the b o d y c a u s i n g u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s , b u t n o t h i n g m o r e s e r i o u s . P r o l o n g e d a b s e n c e o f t h e s e c o n d soul, h o w e v e r , l e a d s t o d e a t h ; a n d after d e a t h this soul goes t o t h e w o r l d o f t h e d e a d . T h e t h i r d soul remains with the body until it has decomposed a n d t h e n leaves the b o d y t o live o n w i t h t h e d e a d m a n ' s r e l a t i v e s . T u n g u s s h a m a n i s m
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w h i c h , a s w e shall see, i n v o l v e s possession m a y b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y a d i s p l a c e m e n t of o n e of t h e s e t h r e e souls. A m o n g s t n u m e r o u s o t h e r peoples with w h o m w e shall b e c o n c e r n e d i n t h i s s t u d y , h o w e v e r , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t possession b y a n e x t e r n a l a g e n t c a n o n l y o c c u r i f t h e s u b j e c t ' s o w n soul i s t e m p o r a r i l y displaced i s n o t e m p h a s i z e d , a n d s o m e t i m e s receives n o explicit r e c o g n i t i o n . T h i s , for e x a m p l e , i s t h e position a m o n g s t t h e M u s l i m S o m a l i n o m a d s of n o r t h - e a s t Africa, w h e r e possession is c o n c e i v e d of as an ' e n t e r i n g ' by a spirit w i t h o u t a n y d o c t r i n e t h a t this e n t a i l s t h e a b s e n c e of t h e p e r s o n ' s o w n soul. T h e l a t t e r , i n a n y c a s e , i s believed t o leave t h e h u m a n b o d y o n l y o n d e a t h . A n d e v e n w h e r e , a s i n s o m e o f t h e cases w h i c h we shall e x a m i n e later, o n e p e r s o n is believed to possess a n o t h e r so t h a t t h e p o s s e s s i n g a g e n c y is in s o m e sense an e m a n a t i o n of a living p e r s o n this is n o t necessarily viewed as involving the displacem e n t o f e i t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t ' s s o u l . T h i s lack o f explicit c o n c e r n with t h e i n n e r m e c h a n i s m of possession is, in fact, a g e n e r a l feature of a g r e a t m a n y c u l t u r e s w h e r e t h e d o c t r i n e o f possession i s stressed. C o n v e r s e l y , i n m a n y o t h e r societies, w h e r e little e m p h a s i s i s given to p o s s e s s i o n in t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t r a n c e a n d illness, soul-loss is the p r i m a r y i d i o m i n w h i c h these p h e n o m e n a a r e described. I n Africa, this p a t t e r n of e x p l a n a t i o n i n v o l v i n g soul-loss w i t h o u t possession seems g e n e r a l l y r a r e . O n e good e x a m p l e , h o w e v e r , w h i c h will serve t o illustrate t h e d i s t i n c t i o n , c o n c e r n s the h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g B u s h m e n o f t h e K a l a h a r i d e s e r t i n S o u t h Africa. I n this c u l t u r e t r a n c e states a r e a m o n o p o l y o f m e n . T h e y a r e u s e d t h e r a p e u t i c a l l y t o release t h e p o w e r o f t h e spirit i n t h e h u m a n b o d y t o f i g h t t h e evil p o w e r s w h i c h c a u s e illness, a n d t o c u r e sickness i n t h e afflicted. I n h e a l i n g d a n c e c e r e m o n i e s t o t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f singing a n d h a n d - c l a p p i n g , adult m e n w o r k t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a s t a t e o f t r a n c e . I n this s t i m u l a t i n g a t m o s p h e r e t h e spirit (or soul) boils up in a m a n ' s b o d y a n d goes to his h e a d . Perception is altered. T h i n g s a p p e a r to be smaller than usual and to fly a b o u t . E v e n t u a l l y t h e spirit t e m p o r a r i l y leaves t h e b o d y , a n d sets o u t t o f i g h t t h o s e p o w e r s w h i c h t h e B u s h m e n fear a s t h e c a u s e o f s i c k n e s s a n d d e a t h . I n this spiritually active c o n d i t i o n , m e n lay t h e i r h a n d s o n t h e sick p a t i e n t a n d r u b s w e a t i n t o his b o d y until h e i s b e l i e v e d t o b e c u r e d . Soul-loss t r a n c e s o m e t i m e s also o c c u r s spont a n e o u s l y in r e s p o n s e to a s u d d e n fright or terrifying e x p e r i e n c e . T h e p r e s e n c e of a m a r a u d i n g lion, for i n s t a n c e , m a y trigger off t r a n c e states. As a m o n g s t the S a m b u r u , whose non-mystical conception of trance w e c o n s i d e r e d e a r l i e r , t h e B u s h m e n associate soul-loss t r a n c e with t h e
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e x p r e s s i o n o f fear a n d a g g r e s s i o n ( M a r s h a l l , 1969, p p . 3 4 7 - 8 1 ; see also K a t z , 1982). T h i s c u l t u r a l l y d e t e r m i n e d e m p h a s i s o n soul-loss, r a t h e r t h a n o n spirit possession, is a strongly d e v e l o p e d religious m o t i f in m a n y N o r t h A m e r i c a n I n d i a n societies. O u t s i d e t h a t a r e a , possession i s e i t h e r t h e d o m i n a n t e l e m e n t o r co-exists, i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f e m p h a s i s , w i t h soul-loss a s t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t r a n c e a n d a s s o c i a t e d p h e n o m e n a . I t is w i t h this possession ideology, t h a t we a r e m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d in t h i s book.
III
W e h a v e a l r e a d y m a d e free u s e o f t h e o r i g i n a l l y T u n g u s t e r m ' s h a m a n ' , a n d its c o n v e n i e n t a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d e r i v a t i v e ' s h a m a n i s m ' . ' S h a m a n ' i s widely e m p l o y e d b y A m e r i c a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , b u t rarely by t h e i r British colleagues, to d e n o t e a v a r i e t y of social roles, t h e lowest c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r o f w h i c h i s t h a t o f i n s p i r e d priest (see L e w i s , 1986, p p . 9 4 - 1 0 7 ) . W e a r e n o w i n a p o s i t i o n t o e x a m i n e m o r e closely the c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s h a m a n s o c o n c e i v e d a n d p o s s e s s i o n . According to M i r c e a Eliade, the diagnostic features of s h a m a n i s m in t h e classical Arctic sense a r e q u i t e specific. T h e s h a m a n is an inspired priest w h o , i n ecstatic t r a n c e , a s c e n d s t o t h e h e a v e n s o n ' t r i p s ' . I n the c o u r s e o f t h e s e j o u r n e y s h e p e r s u a d e s o r e v e n fights w i t h t h e g o d s i n o r d e r t o secure benefits for his fellow m e n . H e r e , i n t h e o p i n i o n of E l i a d e , spirit possession is n o t an essential c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n d is n o t a l w a y s p r e s e n t . A s h e h i m s e l f p u t s it: T h e specific e l e m e n t o f s h a m a n i s m i s n o t t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f spirits b y t h e s h a m a n , b u t t h e e c s t a s y p r o v o k e d b y t h e a s c e n sion to t h e sky or by t h e d e s c e n t to H e l l : t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n of spirits a n d possession b y t h e m a r e u n i v e r s a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d p h e n o m e n a , but they do not belong necessarily to s h a m a n i s m i n t h e strict sense ( E l i a d e , 1 9 5 1 , p . 4 3 4 ) . M o r e o v e r , i n E l i a d e ' s v i e w , different e l e m e n t s i n t h e s h a m a n i s t i c c o m p l e x can b e a s s i g n e d t o different stages o f historical d e v e l o p m e n t : It is b e y o n d d o u b t t h a t t h e celestial a s c e n s i o n of t h e s h a m a n is a survival, profoundly modified a n d sometimes d e g r a d e d , of the a r c h a i c religious ideology w h i c h w a s c e n t r e d on faith in a
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S u p r e m e C e l e s t i a l B e i n g a n d t h e belief i n c o n c r e t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e sky a n d e a r t h . . . T h e d e s c e n t to H e l l , t h e f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e evil s p i r i t s , a n d also t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y familiar r e l a t i o n s w i t h spirits w h i c h a i m a t t h e i r i n c o r p o r a t i o n o r a t t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e s h a m a n b y t h e m , a r e all i n n o v a t i o n s , for t h e most part recent e n o u g h , a n d to be i m p u t e d to the general t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e r e l i g i o u s c o m p l e x ( E l i a d e , 1 9 5 1 , p . 438). As w i t h o t h e r religious p h e n o m e n a , s h a m a n i s m is obviously subject to historical development a n d change. T h a t is not in dispute. But a n y o n e w h o c a r e s t o e x a m i n e t h e d a t a will b e i m p r e s s e d b y the slender a n d a m b i g u o u s c h a r a c t e r o f t h e e v i d e n c e o n t h e basis o f w h i c h this p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is so confidently a s s e r t e d . It is n o t n e c e s s a r y for o u r p u r p o s e s , h o w e v e r , t o e n t e r i n t o a n y d e t a i l e d discussion o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f this p a r t i c u l a r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f A s i a t i c s h a m a n i s m . O u r c o n c e r n i s t o see w h e t h e r E l i a d e i s correct in s e e k i n g to d r i v e a w e d g e b e t w e e n spirit possession a n d s h a m a n i s m . O t h e r w r i t e r s o n t h e subject clearly a c c e p t his j u d g e m e n t . T h u s , i n his s t i m u l a t i n g c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y , L u c d e H e u s c h h a s s o u g h t t o d e v e l o p t h e s e i d e a s i n t o a n a m b i t i o u s , formalistic t h e o r y o f religious p h e n o m e n a . H e r e s h a m a n i s m (in E l i a d e ' s sense) a n d spirit possession a r e t r e a t e d a s a n t i t h e t i c a l p r o c e s s e s . T h e f i r s t i s a n ascent o f m a n t o the gods: the second the descent of the gods on m a n . S h a m a n i s m , in de H e u s c h ' s v i e w , is t h u s an ' a s c e n s u a l m e t a p h y s i c ' a m o v e m e n t o f ' p r i d e ' i n w h i c h m a n sees h i m s e l f a s t h e e q u a l o f t h e gods. Possession, on the other h a n d , is an incarnation. This, and other alleged distinctions, are developed by de Heusch into an elaborate complex of structural antitheses which he somewhat grandiloquently d e s c r i b e s a s t h e ' g e o m e t r y o f t h e s o u l ' . H o w e v e r logically satisfying these H e g e l i a n c o n t r a s t s m a y s e e m , t h e crucial question h e r e is w h e t h e r the e m p i r i c a l evidence s u p p o r t s , or refutes, the distinction which Eliade a n d d e H e u s c h seek t o m a k e b e t w e e n s h a m a n i s m a n d spirit possession. T o settle this issue w e m u s t g o b a c k t o t h e m a i n p r i m a r y a c c o u n t s o f A r c t i c s h a m a n i s m utilized b y E l i a d e a n d also b y d e H e u s c h . W h e n we e x a m i n e t h e s e s o u r c e s carefully we find t h a t this d i s t i n c t i o n is in fact u n t e n a b l e . S h a m a n i s m a n d spirit possession r e g u l a r l y o c c u r t o g e t h e r a n d this is t r u e p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e A r c t i c locus classicus of s h a m a n i s m . T h u s , a m o n g s t both the Eskimos a n d the East Siberian C h u k c h e e , s h a m a n s a r e possessed b y spirits. M o r e significantly still, this i s also t r u e o f t h e A r c t i c T u n g u s from w h o s e l a n g u a g e t h e w o r d
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shaman derives, a n d w h o m , therefore, we m a y take to epitomize the p h e n o m e n a u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . L e t u s start a t t h e b e g i n n i n g . T h e T u n g u s w o r d shaman ( p r o n o u n c e d saman a m o n g t h e adjacent M a n c h u s ) m e a n s literally ' o n e w h o i s e x c i t e d , m o v e d , o r r a i s e d ' ( a n d t h i s , incid e n t a l l y , is very s i m i l a r to t h e c o n n o t a t i o n s of o t h e r w o r d s in o t h e r l a n g u a g e s e m p l o y e d to d e s c r i b e p o s s e s s i o n ) . M o r e specifically, a s h a m a n is a p e r s o n of e i t h e r sex w h o h a s m a s t e r e d spirits a n d w h o can a t will i n t r o d u c e t h e m i n t o his o w n b o d y . O f t e n , i n fact, h e p e r m a n e n t l y i n c a r n a t e s these spirits a n d c a n c o n t r o l t h e i r m a n i f e s t a tions, g o i n g into c o n t r o l l e d states o f t r a n c e i n a p p r o p r i a t e c i r c u m stances. A s Shirokogoroff, t h e great R u s s i a n a u t h o r i t y o n t h e T u n g u s , p u t s it, t h e s h a m a n ' s b o d y is a ' p l a c i n g ' , or r e c e p t a c l e , for t h e s p i r i t s . It is in fact by his p o w e r o v e r t h e spirits w h i c h he i n c a r n a t e s t h a t t h e s h a m a n i s able t o t r e a t a n d c o n t r o l afflictions c a u s e d b y p a t h o g e n i c spirits in o t h e r s . S h a m a n i s m i s tied t o t h e T u n g u s clan s t r u c t u r e o f w h i c h , i n d e e d , i t i s a n essential c o m p o n e n t . T u n g u s c l a n s a r e s m a l l , s c a t t e r e d patrilineal units, rarely boasting m o r e than a t h o u s a n d m e m b e r s . As well a s family a n d l i n e a g e h e a d s , o r e l d e r s , a n d politically significant ' b i g - m e n ' w h o a r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h d i r e c t i n g t h e s e c u l a r life o f t h e g r o u p , e a c h clan n o r m a l l y h a s a t least o n e g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d s h a m a n . T h i s ' m a s t e r of s p i r i t s ' is essential to t h e w e l l - b e i n g of t h e c l a n , for h e c o n t r o l s t h e c l a n ' s o w n a n c e s t r a l spirits a n d o t h e r foreign spirits w h i c h h a v e b e e n a d o p t e d i n t o its spirit h i e r a r c h y . I n t h e free state, these spirits a r e e x t r e m e l y d a n g e r o u s t o m a n . M o s t a r e hostile and pathogenic a n d are regarded as the sources of the m a n y diseases which affect t h e T u n g u s . M o s t diseases, t h u s , a r e seen as h a v i n g a mystical basis in t h e action o f these n o x i o u s spirits. A s l o n g a s t h e clan s h a m a n i s d o i n g his j o b p r o p e r l y , h o w e v e r , i n i n c a r n a t i n g t h e s e spirits a n d t h u s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e m by c o n t a i n i n g t h e m , all is well. I n d e e d w i t h t h e i n d u c e m e n t of r e g u l a r offerings, these t a m e d spirits a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o p r o t e c t t h e c l a n from a t t a c k b y o t h e r alien spirits a n d also t o e n s u r e t h e fertility a n d prosperity of its m e m b e r s . T h e s e ' m a s t e r e d ' spirits c a n t h u s be a p p l i e d to fight off, or o v e r c o m e , o t h e r hostile spirits w h i c h h a v e n o t yet b e e n rendered harmless by h u m a n incarnation. W i t h the aid of the t a m e d spirits, t h e clan s h a m a n c a n divine a n d treat such sickness a n d affliction as d o e s strike his k i n s m e n . T h e s h a m a n is t h u s in a sense a h o s t a g e t o t h e spirits, a n d Shirokogoroff lays p a r t i c u l a r stress o n t h e s t r e n u o u s a n d d e m a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r o f his c a l l i n g .
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A l t h o u g h t h e s h a m a n acts i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s also, t h e m a i n c e n t r e o f his a c t i v i t y i s t h e s e a n c e . S e a n c e s m a y b e h e l d t o m a k e c o n t a c t with t h e spirits o f t h e u p p e r o r l o w e r w o r l d s . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s h a m a n m a y b e c o n s u l t e d b y his c l a n s m e n t o r e v e a l t h e c a u s e s o f a n o u t b r e a k o f d i s e a s e , or to d i s c o v e r t h e r e a s o n for a r u n of b a d luck in h u n t i n g . T h i s r e q u i r e s h i m t o call u p t h e spirits i n t o h i m s e l f a n d , h a v i n g established the cause of the misfortune, to take appropriate action. He m a y , for e x a m p l e , consider it necessary to take a sacrificial reindeer t o t h e spirits o f t h e l o w e r w o r l d a n d seek t o p e r s u a d e t h e m t o r e m o v e t h e difficulties h i s kin a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g . O t h e r s e a n c e s a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e spirits o f t h e u p p e r w o r l d , or w i t h spirits living in this world. S h a m a n i s t i c rites addressed to spirits in t h e l a t t e r c a t e g o r y m a y i n v o l v e t h e l i b e r a t i o n of a p e r s o n or clan from t h e spirits of a hostile s h a m a n , or c l a n , or o t h e r foreign s o u r c e ; sacrifice to b e n e v o l e n t or m a l e v o l e n t spirits; a n d d i v i n a t i o n of a w i d e r a n g e o f afflictions w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e s h a m a n ' s spirits. S o m e t i m e s t h e s h a m a n m a y p r a c t i s e his a r t m u c h m o r e informally, c o n c e n t r a t i n g his p o w e r with the aid of the brass m i r r o r which is one of the c o m m o n e s t i n c a r n a t i o n s o f a T u n g u s s h a m a n ' s familiars. I n this case e c s t a s y is likely to be l i m i t e d to s h a k i n g . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e seance r e m a i n s t h e m a i n r i t u a l d r a m a o f s h a m a n i s m a n d includes possession. S h i r o k o g o r o f f gives a vivid d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e a t m o s p h e r e in which it is c o n d u c t e d , w h i c h coincides closely with a c c o u n t s of seances in m a n y of t h e o t h e r possession cults w h i c h we d i s c u s s in this b o o k . T h e r h y t h m i c music a n d singing, a n d later the dancing of the s h a m a n , gradually involve every participant m o r e a n d m o r e in a collective a c t i o n . W h e n t h e a u d i e n c e b e g i n s t o r e p e a t t h e r e f r a i n s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n t s , o n l y those w h o a r e defective fail t o j o i n t h e c h o r u s . T h e t e m p o o f t h e a c t i o n i n c r e a s e s , t h e s h a m a n w i t h a spirit i s n o m o r e a n o r d i n a r y m a n o r r e l a t i v e , b u t is a ' p l a c i n g ' ( i . e . i n c a r n a t i o n ) of t h e spirit; t h e s p i r i t a c t s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a u d i e n c e , a n d this is felt by everyo n e . T h e state of m a n y participants is now near to that of the s h a m a n himself, a n d o n l y a s t r o n g belief t h a t w h e n t h e s h a m a n i s t h e r e t h e spirit m a y o n l y e n t e r h i m , r e s t r a i n s t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s f r o m b e i n g possessed in m a s s by t h e spirit. T h i s is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t condition of s h a m a n i z i n g which does not however reduce m a s s susceptibility to the suggestion, hallucinations, a n d uncons c i o u s a c t s p r o d u c e d i n a s t a t e o f m a s s ecstasy. W h e n t h e s h a m a n
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feels t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e i s w i t h h i m a n d follows h i m h e b e c o m e s still m o r e active a n d this effect is t r a n s m i t t e d to his a u d i e n c e . After s h a m a n i z i n g , t h e a u d i e n c e recollects v a r i o u s m o m e n t s o f the performance, their great psychophysiological emotion a n d the h a l l u c i n a t i o n s o f sight a n d h e a r i n g w h i c h t h e y h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d . T h e y t h e n h a v e a d e e p satisfaction m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t from e m o t i o n s p r o d u c e d b y t h e a t r i c a l a n d m u s i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e s , l i t e r a t u r e a n d g e n e r a l artistic p h e n o m e n a o f t h e E u r o p e a n c o m plex, b e c a u s e i n s h a m a n i z i n g t h e a u d i e n c e a t t h e s a m e t i m e acts a n d p a r t i c i p a t e s (Shirokogoroff, 1935). T h i s psychologically highly c h a r g e d a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e s e a n c e m a k e s it, w h e n it is a p p l i e d to c u r i n g t h e sick, no d o u b t h i g h l y effective in t h e treatment of certain neurotic or psychosomatic disturbances. A n d as Shirokogoroff also p o i n t s o u t , e v e n in t h e case of o r g a n i c illnesses, it probably also h a s considerable significance in s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e p a t i e n t ' s will t o r e c o v e r . T h u s , b o t h from t h i s p o i n t o f view a n d from its p u r e l y ritual aspects, s h a m a n i s m plays a highly significant role in T u n g u s clan life. N o clan i s s e c u r e w i t h o u t its s h a m a n . C o n s e q u e n t l y w h e n t h e s h a m a n ' s p o w e r s o f c o n t r o l o v e r t h e spirits a r e w a n i n g a n u r g e n t s e a r c h begins for a successor. S h o u l d t h e old s h a m a n lose his p o w e r s completely, or die before he can be replaced, t h e spirits will be freed to w r e a k h a v o c in t h e c l a n . T h i s m u s t b e a v o i d e d a t all costs. T h e p o s i t i o n m a y i n fact be inherited, or it may be acquired by an unrelated young s h a m a n who h a s g i v e n a m p l e p r o o f o f his c o m m a n d o f t h e e c s t a t i c t e c h n i q u e a n d c o n t r o l o v e r spirits. T h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h this i n s t i t u t i o n i s l i n k e d w i t h c l a n s h i p is seen in t h e fact t h a t w h e n a c l a n g r o w s l a r g e a n d splits i n t o two n e w e x o g a m i c g r o u p s , e a c h n a s c e n t n e w c l a n m u s t h a v e its o w n s h a m a n . S h a m a n s h i p a n d spirits a r e p a r t o f t h e c l a n p a t r i m o n y . A m o n g t h e T u n g u s , t h e n , possession b y p a t h o g e n i c spirits i s a c o m m o n e x p l a n a t i o n o f illness ( t h o u g h n o t t h e o n l y o n e ) , a n d a t t h e same time the normal road to the assumption of the s h a m a n ' s calling. T h e stock indication of a p e r s o n ' s initial seizure by a spirit is culturally s t e r e o t y p e d ' h y s t e r i c a l ' b e h a v i o u r ( a l t h o u g h such b e h a v i o u r , a s w e h a v e s e e n , m a y also b e i n t e r p r e t e d n o n - m y s t i c a l l y ) . T h e signs o f this 'Arctic hysteria', as it is usually k n o w n in the literature, are: hiding from t h e light, hysterically e x a g g e r a t e d c r y i n g a n d s i n g i n g , s i t t i n g passively in a w i t h d r a w n s t a t e on a b e d or on t h e g r o u n d , r a c i n g off hysterically ( i n v i t i n g p u r s u i t ) , h i d i n g i n r o c k s , c l i m b i n g u p t r e e s , e t c . U n l e s s there a r e c o n t r a - i n d i c a t i o n s , people w h o exhibit these s y m p t o m s
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of h y s t e r i c a l flight a r e likely to be r e g a r d e d as possessed by a spirit, a n d m a y , or m a y not, be encouraged to become s h a m a n s . If they do r e c e i v e s u p p o r t a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t , t h e y q u i c k l y l e a r n t o cultivate t h e p o w e r of e x p e r i e n c i n g d e m o n s t r a b l e ecstasy. A n d w h e n in response t o s u c h a p p r o p r i a t e stimuli a s d r u m m i n g a n d singing they can p r o d u c e this s t a t e a t will, t h e y a r e well o n t h e r o a d t o p u b l i c r e c o g n i t i o n a s ' m a s t e r s of spirits'. T h e controlled production of trance is taken as e v i d e n c e o f c o n t r o l l e d possession b y spirits. H e r e w e should n o t e , a l t h o u g h as we shall see t h e d i s t i n c t i o n is n o t u n a m b i g u o u s , t h a t t h e T u n g u s d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n a p e r s o n possessed ( i n v o l u n t a r i l y ) by a s p i r i t , a n d a spirit p o s s e s s e d ( v o l u n t a r i l y ) by a p e r s o n . T h e first is u n c o n t r o l l e d t r a n c e i n t e r p r e t e d as illness; t h e s e c o n d is controlled t r a n c e , t h e essential r e q u i r e m e n t for t h e exercise o f t h e s h a m a n i s t i c v o c a t i o n . T h e a c c u r a c y of Shirokogoroff's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h e r e is a m p l y c o n f i r m e d in exhaustive m o d e r n re-appraisals of t h e T u n g u s a n d Arctic s h a m a n i s m b y such l e a d i n g specialists a s D e l a b y , 1976, Siikala, 1978, a n d B a s i l o v , 1984. W e c a n see n o w t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o t h e views o f Eliade a n d d e H e u s c h , i n its T u n g u s form s h a m a n i s m involves c o n t r o l l e d spirit possession; a n d t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e social c o n t e x t , t h e s h a m a n i n c a r n a t e s spirits in b o t h a l a t e n t a n d an active f o r m , b u t a l w a y s in a controlled fashion. H i s b o d y i s a vehicle for t h e spirits. W e c a n also see t h a t t h e s h a m a n ' s v o c a t i o n i s n o r m a l l y a n n o u n c e d b y a n initially u n c o n t r o l l e d state o f p o s s e s s i o n : a t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e n c e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h y s t e r o i d , ecstatic b e h a v i o u r . T h i s , I t h i n k , is a u n i v e r s a l f e a t u r e in t h e a s s u m p t i o n of s h a m a n i s t i c roles a n d i s e v e n p r e s e n t , t h o u g h i n m u t e d f o r m , w h e n t h e s e p a s s b y i n h e r i t a n c e from o n e k i n s m a n t o a n o t h e r . T h u s , i n t h e case o f t h o s e w h o persist i n t h e s h a m a n i s t i c calling, t h e u n c o n t r o l l e d , u n s o l i c i t e d , initial possession s e i z u r e leads to a state w h e r e possession c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d a n d c a n b e t u r n e d o n a n d off a t will i n s h a m a n i s t i c seances. T h i s is t h e controlled p h a s e of possession, w h e r e as the T u n g u s say, t h e s h a m a n 'possesses' his spirits ( a l t h o u g h they also possess h i m ) . L u c d e H e u s c h h a s s o u g h t t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n these two p h a s e s in t e r m s of a m u c h m o r e t h o r o u g h - g o i n g a n d w i d e - r e a c h i n g distinction b e t w e e n w h a t h e calls ' i n a u t h e n t i c ' a n d ' a u t h e n t i c ' possession. T h e first of t h e s e he sees as an u n d e s i r e d illness, a b a n e f u l spirit i n t r u s i o n , w h i c h c a n only be t r e a t e d by t h e expulsion, or exorcism, of the intrusive a g e n c y . T h e s e c o n d , in c o n t r a s t , is t h e v e r y stuff of religious e x p e r i e n c e : a ' j o y o u s D i o n y s i a n e p i p h a n y ' . T h i s d e s i r e d state o f e x a l t a t i o n is r e a l i z e d by w h a t is in effect a ' s a c r e d t h e a t r e ' . T h u s for de H e u s c h ,
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these a r e not m e r e l y s e p a r a t e p h a s e s , a s I h a v e d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e m , w i t h i n t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e m y s t i c a l calling; b u t , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , totally o p p o s e d e x p e r i e n c e s b e l o n g i n g t o t w o s e p a r a t e t y p e s o f c u l t . I n his view t h e f i r s t cult i s b a s e d o n e x o r c i s m , t h e s e c o n d o n t h e deliberate cultivation of ecstatic states. E r i c a B o u r g u i g n o n , w h o in contrast realizes correctly t h a t these a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y totally o p p o s e d experiences characteristic of different k i n d s of religious cult, calls t h e m ' n e g a t i v e ' a n d ' p o s i t i v e ' possession ( B o u r g u i g n o n , 1967). I prefer t h e m o r e n e u t r a l a n a l y t i c a l t e r m s ' u n c o n t r o l l e d ' a n d ' c o n t r o l l e d ' possession, or ' u n s o l i c i t e d ' a n d ' s o l i c i t e d ' p o s s e s s i o n w h i c h , as I h o p e will become increasingly clear, have greater explanatory utility. Finally, w e m a y n o t e h e r e h o w a s A n n a - L e e n a Siikala (1978) h a s e m p h a s i z e d , beliefs i n p a t h o g e n i c d e m o n i c possession o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d spiritinspired s h a m a n i z i n g on the o t h e r , far from b e l o n g i n g to s e p a r a t e cultic o r religious t r a d i t i o n s , r e g u l a r l y reinforce e a c h o t h e r w i t h i n t h e s a m e religion. I t will b e e v i d e n t , t h e n t h a t t h e T u n g u s e v i d e n c e m a k e s n o n s e n s e o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t s h a m a n i s m a n d spirit possession a r e totally s e p a r a t e p h e n o m e n a , b e l o n g i n g n e c e s s a r i l y t o different c o s m o l o g i c a l systems a n d t o s e p a r a t e historical stages o f d e v e l o p m e n t . W i t h o u t wishing to w a n d e r too far from the present a r g u m e n t , we might note parenthetically that this m i s l e a d i n g m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a s b e e n applied q u i t e widely in o t h e r contexts. T h u s in his discussion of G r e e k religion, E . R . D o d d s t a k e s soul-loss a s t h e definitive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s h a m a n i s m . O n this basis h e treats the rise o f s h a m a n s , a m o n g s t w h o m h e n u m b e r s P y t h a g o r a s , a s a n ideologically distinct l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t of G r e e k religion r e p l a c i n g t h e e a r l i e r s p i r i t - i n s p i r e d w o r l d of t h e A p o l l o n i a n oracles a n d t h e cult o f D i o n y s u s ( D o d d s , 1951). C l a s s i c a l scholars will k n o w w h e t h e r t h e cosmological c h a n g e s D o d d s infers a r e justified. But since at least t h e c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n in t e r m s of w h i c h they a r e d e s c r i b e d is n o t , it s e e m s possible t h a t t h e i m p o s i t i o n of a misleading model may have skewed his interpretation. W e c a n see n o w t h a t w e a r e perfectly justified i n a p p l y i n g t h e t e r m s h a m a n t o m e a n , a s R a y m o n d F i r t h ( F i r t h , 1959, p p . 1 2 9 - 4 8 ; 1967) rightly stresses, a ' m a s t e r of s p i r i t s ' , w i t h t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t this i n s p i r e d priest i n c a r n a t e s s p i r i t s , b e c o m i n g p o s s e s s e d v o l u n t a r i l y i n controlled circumstances. T h e evocative Polynesian expression 'godbox' expresses the relationship between the s h a m a n a n d the power h e i n c a r n a t e s v e r y e x a c t l y . All s h a m a n s a r e t h u s m e d i u m s a n d , a s t h e Black C a r i b s o f British H o n d u r a s s o e x p r e s s i v e l y p u t it, t e n d t o
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function a s a ' t e l e p h o n e e x c h a n g e ' b e t w e e n m a n a n d g o d . I t does not follow, o f c o u r s e , t h a t all m e d i u m s a r e necessarily s h a m a n s , a l t h o u g h a s will b e s h o w n i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r t h e t w o a r e usually linked. People w h o r e g u l a r l y e x p e r i e n c e possession by a p a r t i c u l a r spirit m a y be said t o act a s m e d i u m s for t h a t d i v i n i t y . S o m e , b u t n o t all such m e d i u m s a r e likely to g r a d u a t e in t i m e to b e c o m e controllers of spirits, a n d once t h e y ' m a s t e r ' t h e s e p o w e r s in a c o n t r o l l i n g fashion t h e y a r e p r o p e r l y s h a m a n s . T h u s , w h a t so often b e g i n s as a hostile spirit i n t r u s i o n , m a y be l a t e r e v a l u a t e d as t h e first sign of g r a c e in t h e a s s u m p t i o n of the s h a m a n i s t i c calling. N o t all such t r a u m a t i c experiences necessarily h a v e this o u t c o m e . B u t all s h a m a n s s e e m t o h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e t h i n g of t h i s initial t r a u m a . T h e s e a r e t h u s , v e r y f r e q u e n t l y , p h a s e s in a f o r w a r d - g o i n g p r o c e s s , r a t h e r t h a n s i g n - p o s t s t o totally distinct types of c u l t . P e r h a p s t h e r e a d e r will a c c e p t this for t h e m o m e n t a n d , if u n c o n v i n c e d , suspend final j u d g e m e n t until the problem is explored m o r e fully i n l a t e r c h a p t e r s .
IV W e m u s t n o w e x a m i n e t h e sorts o f r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h people o f different c u l t u r e s conceive t o exist b e t w e e n s h a m a n s a n d m e d i u m s a n d their possessing familiars. A m o n g s t the T u n g u s , some emphasis is given to the idea that a contractual relationship binds the s h a m a n and the spirits which he incarnates. T h i s conception of an agreement of c o m p a c t , s o m e t i m e s i n v o l v i n g t h e s u r r e n d e r o f t h e s h a m a n ' s o w n soul (as i n t h e F a u s t l e g e n d ) , i s stressed a m o n g s t t h e E s k i m o s . T h e r e , t h e s h a m a n - t o - b e w h o h a s received a spiritual call gives up his soul to those s p i r i t s w h i c h a r e h e n c e f o r t h b o u n d t o h i m a s familiars. T h u s R a s m u s s e n reports that the first thing which the neophyte's instructor h a s t o d o i s t o w i t h d r a w t h e soul from t h e p u p i l ' s e y e s , b r a i n a n d e n t r a i l s , a n d t o h a n d i t o v e r t o t h e h e l p i n g spirits w h i c h t h e n b e c o m e his f a m i l i a r s . T h e a p p r e n t i c e s h a m a n m u s t also l e a r n h o w t o a t t a i n e n l i g h t e n m e n t or 'light', that mysterious l u m i n o u s fire which the s h a m a n s u d d e n l y feels i n his b o d y a n d w h i c h e n a b l e s h i m t o see all t h a t i s o t h e r w i s e h i d d e n from m o r t a l e y e s . T h i s gift of i l l u m i n a t i o n , in r e t u r n for a s u r r e n d e r i n g of t h e self or p a r t of t h e self, d e s c r i b e d in t h e classical l a n g u a g e of m y s t i c i s m as g n o s i s a fusing of m a n a n d d i v i n i t y is p a r t of c o n t r o l l e d spirit possession e v e r y w h e r e . I n s o m e cases t h e i m m e d i a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p m a y initially b e w i t h m i n o r p o w e r s o r t u t e l a r y spirits t h e ' c o n t r o l s ' o r
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'guides' of western Spiritualism, through whose help the s h a m a n is able t o i n c a r n a t e a n d c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h h i g h e r d i v i n i t i e s o r p o w e r s . I n o t h e r cases, t h e r e m a y b e a m o r e d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p , w i t h o u t s u c h i n t e r m e d i a r i e s , w i t h a m o r e c e n t r a l d i v i n i t y , or ' r e f r a c t i o n ' of t h a t divinity, a n d v e r y frequently, a s t h e s h a m a n ' s p o w e r g r o w s , his r e p e r toire o f i n c a r n a b l e spirits i n c r e a s e s i n t h e s a m e m e a s u r e . W h a t e v e r the c o n c e p t u a l details involved, s h a m a n i s m includes a special relationship w i t h a d i v i n i t y or d i v i n i t i e s , a r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h , of c o u r s e , is m o s t d r a m a t i c a l l y realized i n full i n c a r n a t i o n w h e n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f the possesed is totally effaced. E c s t a t i c c o m m u n i o n is t h u s essentially a mystical union; and, as the Song of Solomon a n d other mystical p o e t r y so a b u n d a n t l y illustrate, e x p e r i e n c e s of this k i n d a r e f r e q u e n t l y d e s c r i b e d i n t e r m s b o r r o w e d from erotic l o v e . I n d e e d , a s E r n e s t J o n e s (1949) h a s justly observed, t h e notion t h a t 'sexual intercourse c a n o c c u r b e t w e e n m o r t a l s a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s is o n e of t h e m o s t w i d e s p r e a d o f h u m a n beliefs'. This imagery is by no means absent in that widespread symbolism for possession a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e s p i r i t , w h e n i n c a r n a t e d in its e a r t h l y host, is said to ride its ' h o r s e ' . T h u s , for i n s t a n c e , in t h e richly d r a m a t i c bori spirit possession cult of t h e H a u s a - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s of west Africa ( w h i c h we shall i n v e s t i g a t e m o r e fully l a t e r ) possessed w o m e n a r e d e s c r i b e d a s t h e ' M a r e s o f t h e G o d s ' . T h e spirits ' m o u n t ' t h e m ; b u t they also ' m o u n t ' t h e spirits. A m o n g s t t h e S i d a m o t r i b e s of s o u t h e r n E t h i o p i a , this i d i o m is e v e n e x t e n d e d to differentiate b e t w e e n t h e possession o f m e n a n d o f w o m e n . M e n a r e ' h o r s e s ' for the spirits, a n d w o m e n a r e ' m u l e s ' . S u c h f i n e distinctions a r e n o t m a d e everywhere. T h i s expressive l a n g u a g e o f t h e s t a b l e s , w h i c h i s w i d e l y e m p l o y e d i n possession cults a n d often c o n t a i n s s e x u a l i n n u e n d o e s , m a y h a v e several c o m p o n e n t s . T h u s i n m a n y c u l t u r e s w e f i n d t h e n o t i o n t h a t in a s t a t e of l a t e n t or i n c i p i e n t possession p r i o r to a c t u a l t r a n c e t h e spirit is p e r c h e d on t h e s h o u l d e r s or n e c k of its h o s t . It m o u n t s i n t o his h e a d , o r s o m e o t h e r c e n t r e o f t h e b o d y , a s s u m i n g full possession o f its r e c e p t a c l e only w h e n c o m p l e t e t r a n c e o c c u r s . T h u s t h e G r e e k oracle a t D e l p h i w a s m o u n t e d b y t h e G o d A p o l l o w h o r o d e o n t h e nape of her neck; a n d the same imagery a p p e a r s in H a i t i a n voodoo a n d e l s e w h e r e . Full possession itself is w i d e l y p e r c e i v e d as a form of t e m p o r a r y d e a t h , s o m e t i m e s called ' h a l f - d e a t h ' , o r 'little d e a t h ' . A t the s a m e t i m e , t h o u g h b y n o m e a n s u n i v e r s a l l y , ecstatic p o s s e s s i o n seizures a r e s o m e t i m e s explicitly i n t e r p r e t e d as acts of m y s t i c a l s e x u a l
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i n t e r c o u r s e b e t w e e n t h e subject a n d his o r h e r possessing spirit. A m o n g t h e D a y a k s o f s o u t h e r n B o r n e o , i n p u b l i c r i t u a l s i n w h i c h t h e priests a n d priestesses of the c o m m u n i t y b e c o m e possessed by the two s u p r e m e d e i t i e s of t h e c o s m o s t h e H o r n b i l l of t h e u p p e r w o r l d , a n d t h e W a t e r s n a k e of t h e lower world this is r e p r e s e n t e d as a divine coition. T h i s t h e m e is directly evoked in the a c c o m p a n y i n g chants, and r e p r o d u c e d i n acts o f i n t e r c o u r s e a m o n g s t t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n . A s t h e h y m n s s u n g e x p r e s s it: ' T h e j o u r n e y o f J a t a ( t h e W a t e r s n a k e ) i n h e r g o l d e n b o a t i s e n d e d ; M a h a t a l a ( t h e H o r n b i l l ) h a s a r r i v e d i n his b o a t o f j e w e l s . T h e y let d o w n t h e pole into t h e v a g i n a o f t h e W a t e r s n a k e ; they l o w e r t h e staff of t h e H o r n b i l l into t h e o p e n g o n g . ' (Scharer, 1963, p . 135). T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e d e v o t e e a n d t h e spirit, which h e o r s h e r e g u l a r l y i n c a r n a t e s , i s often r e p r e s e n t e d directly i n t e r m s e i t h e r of m a r r i a g e or of k i n s h i p . To s o m e e x t e n t , which of these idioms i s c h o s e n s e e m s t o d e p e n d u p o n t h e sexual identity a n d c h a r a c t e r b o t h o f t h e subject a n d o f t h e spirit i n v o l v e d . T h u s , m a l e s h a m a n s w h o i n c a r n a t e t h e i r o w n a n c e s t o r spirits a r e h a r d l y likely t o conceive o f their m u t u a l relationship other than in terms of descent. Conversely, t h e i d i o m of m a r r i a g e s e e m s to be f a v o u r e d w h e r e stress is laid on t h e c o n t r a c t u a l r a t h e r t h a n t h e biologically d e t e r m i n e d n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , a n d w h e r e t h e possessed subject a n d possessing spirit a r e o f o p p o s i t e sex. ' M a r r i a g e ' b e t w e e n m e n a n d m a s c u l i n e divinities i s n o t , h o w e v e r , a b s o l u t e l y e x c l u d e d . N o r s h o u l d w e i g n o r e t h e potential i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e t h e m e o f incest h e r e . F o r t h e t w o s e p a r a t e ideologies o f m a r r i a g e a n d d e s c e n t m a y b e c o m b i n e d a s i n t h e case o f effeminate m a l e B u r m e s e s h a m a n s , possessed b y female nat spirits, w h o a r e r e p r e s e n t e d as their ' m o t h e r s ' or 'sisters' (Spiro, 1967). M o r e explicitly a n d dramatically, a m o n g the T u k a n o A m a z o n i a n Indians of Colombo w i t h t h e a i d of a local h a l l u c i n o g e n i c p r e p a r a t i o n , s h a m a n s e x p e r i e n c e e c s t a t i c visions o f a n i n c e s t u o u s r e t u r n t o t h e c o s m i c w o m b ( R e i c h e l Dolmatoff, 1971). T h e m e t a p h o r o f s p i r i t u a l m a r r i a g e i s familiar t o u s from o u r o w n C h r i s t i a n tradition. T h i s is the relationship traditionally postulated b e t w e e n t h e C h u r c h a n d C h r i s t ; a n d , a s w e k n o w , n u n s a r e specifically b o u n d in spiritual union to the Sacred Bridegroom. M a n y Christian m y s t i c s h a v e u s e d t h e s a m e i d i o m , for e x a m p l e S t B e r n a r d , w h o w r o t e o f C h r i s t a s h i s s o u l ' s B r i d e g r o o m ; a n d this i m a g e r y h a s often been employed by Islamic mystics both in relation to the Prophet M u h a m m a d , and even to Allah. This usage, however, is by no means a m o n o p o l y of t h e s e r e l i g i o n s . All o v e r t h e w o r l d , we find this
52
conception of a spiritual u n i o n , parallelling h u m a n m a r r i a g e , used to i m a g e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a spirit a n d its r e g u l a r d e v o t e e . S u c h u n i o n s , a s with t h e i r h u m a n c o u n t e r p a r t s , a r e m o r e o v e r often b l e s s e d with issue. F e w a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e b e e n p r i v i l e g e d t o d i s c o v e r t h i s q u i t e a s directly a s Professor R a y m o n d F i r t h d i d o n t h e P o l y n e s i a n island o f T i k o p i a . T h e r e , following a n illness w h i c h w a s t a k e n b y t h e T i k o p i a n s t o signify t h a t h e h a d b e e n ' o v e r c o m e ' b y t h e p o w e r f u l female spirit P u f i n e - i - V a i s i k u , F i r t h w a s s u r p r i s e d t o d i s c o v e r t h a t h e h a d i n a d v e r t e n t l y b e g o t t e n several spirit s o n s . T h i s o c c u r r e d d u r i n g his first w o r k i n t h e island i n 1929. W h e n h e r e t u r n e d t w e n t y - t h r e e years l a t e r , h e f o u n d t h a t t h e i n c i d e n t w a s still r e m e m b e r e d . H e w a s asked a b o u t his spirit sons ( w h o p r e s u m a b l y h a d g r o w n u p i n t h e interval) and eventually a r r a n g e d to m a k e contact with t h e m t h r o u g h a friendly m e d i u m ( F i r t h , 1967, p. 3 1 9 ) . In M u s l i m M a l a y s i a in 1986, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , a w o m a n w h o c l a i m e d to h a v e h a d a child by a spirit t o w h i c h she w a s ' m a r r i e d ' w a s f i n e d b y a n I s l a m i c c o u r t for committing adultery. T h i s uxorial i m a g e r y i s also e m p l o y e d i n H a i t i a n v o o d o o ; a m o n g s t the A k a w a i o C a r i b - s p e a k i n g I n d i a n s o f British G u i a n a w h e r e t h e s h a m a n , t h e ' o n e w h o p e r c e i v e s ' , h a s t h e s w a l l o w - t a i l e d kite a s h i s spiritual p a r t n e r ; in B u d d h i s t B u r m a ; in Bali w i t h its highly t h e a t r i c a l possession cults; i n t h e e l a b o r a t e possession cults o f D a h o m e y a n d S o n g h a y in west Africa; in E t h i o p i a ; a n d in m a n y o t h e r African possession cults e l s e w h e r e . W i t h this w i d e s p r e a d d i s t r i b u t i o n , a d e t a i l e d e n u m e r a t i o n o f e x a m p l e s h e r e w o u l d m a k e dull r e a d i n g a n d serve little p u r p o s e . Several cases, h o w e v e r , raise p o i n t s of w i d e r significance a n d are t h e r e f o r e w o r t h d i s c u s s i o n briefly. A m o n g s t t h e S a o r a t r i b e s m e n o f O r i s s a , l i v i n g o n t h e fringes o f H i n d u caste society, a s h a m a n is often chosen by t h e direct i n t e r v e n t i o n of a female spirit, m a r r i a g e with w h i c h effects t h e n e w p r i e s t ' s d e d i c a tion. T h u s , a s o n e s h a m a n p l a i n t i v e l y p u t it. I t o o h a d m u c h t r o u b l e before I m a r r i e d , for several t u t e l a r y ( i . e . spirit) girls w e r e after m e . . . ' A n d a n o t h e r m a n h a p p i l y w e d d e d t o his spirit p a r t n e r told V e r r i e r Elwin h o w , o n t h e a d v i c e o f a n e s t a b l i s h e d s h a m a n , h e h a d m a r r i e d a spirit girl ( E l w i n , 1955). T h e m a r r i a g e p r o v e d fruitful a n d the s h a m a n h a d t h u s a c q u i r e d t h r e e f i n e spirit b o y s , t h e celestial c o u n t e r p a r t s of his e a r t h l y family of t h r e e s o n s a n d a d a u g h t e r . Significantly, such s p i r i t u a l wives a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e H i n d u s , i n distinction to their earthly p a r t n e r s , a n d exact a strict code of b e h a v i o u r from t h e i r s p o u s e s . Before a n y i m p o r t a n t sacrifice, for e x a m p l e , t h e
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s h a m a n m u s t fast a n d a b s t a i n from e a r t h l y sexual i n t e r c o u r s e . W h e n h e d i e s , h e i s ' t a k e n a w a y ' b y his t u t e l a r y p a r t n e r a n d j o i n s h e r i n t h e u n d e r w o r l d . In t h e p r o c e s s he h i m s e l f b e c o m e s a spirit a n d a H i n d u , a n d i s t h u s s e p a r a t e d from his m o r t a l s p o u s e w h o , w h e n she in t u r n dies, m a y not join h i m . T h u s t h e s h a m a n ' s s p i r i t u a l u n i o n not only defines his d e d i c a t i o n to a p a r t i c u l a r spirit, b u t also sets h i m a p a r t from o t h e r m e m b e r s of his society a n d i m p o s e s a b a r r i e r in his r e l a t i o n s w i t h m o r t a l w o m e n . T h i s i s m o s t m a r k e d i n t h e case o f w o m e n w h o b e c o m e s h a m a n s . T h e spirit p a r t n e r s o f s u c h w o m e n r e g u l a r l y c o m e t o lie w i t h t h e m a n d t e n d to m o n o p o l i z e their affections. Since, m o r e o v e r , the spirit h u s b a n d is a H i n d u , this r e p r e s e n t s a step up for his m o r t a l wife. As c a n readily be i m a g i n e d , while giving the w o m a n increased status and freedom, this also r e n d e r s h e r a f o r m i d a b l e m a r r i a g e p a r t n e r t o o r d i n a r y m e n . W e shall e x a m i n e t h e s e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f this c o m m o n situation m o r e fully in t h e following c h a p t e r . A m o n g s t the Arctic C h u k c h e e there are further complications w i t h i n t h e s a m e t h e m e . H e r e t h e sexually n o r m a l m a l e s h a m a n often h a s a spirit wife w h o is c o n s i d e r e d to take p a r t in t h e everyd a y life of t h e family in w h i c h she is t h u s i n c o r p o r a t e d . W o m e n s h a m a n s , h o w e v e r , a r e d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s l y p l a c e d , since their spirit f a m i l i a r s recoil from a n y c o n t a c t w i t h t h e b i r t h o f c h i l d r e n . T h u s w o m e n w i t h s h a m a n i s t i c v o c a t i o n s find t h a t t h e i r p o w e r s w a n e w h e n t h e y h a v e c h i l d r e n , a n d t h e y d o n o t r e c o v e r t h e m fully until they have stopped bearing. This opposition between m u n d a n e a n d celestial m a t e r n i t y o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y in spirit possession cults a n d h a s significant i m p l i c a t i o n s , as we shall see later. Its effect a m o n g t h e C h u k c h e e i s o f c o u r s e t o s t r e n g t h e n m e n ' s control of t h e s h a m a n i s t i c profession w h i c h , h o w e v e r , is e q u a l l y o p e n to homosexual and to heterosexual males. T h e former, known as ' s o f t - m e n ' , fall i n t o v a r i o u s c a t e g o r i e s a c c o r d i n g to t h e d e g r e e of feminine behaviour which they exhibit. Some extreme homosexual s h a m a n s , w h o a r e g r e a t l y feared for t h e i r m y s t i c a l p o w e r , h a v e spirit ' h u s b a n d s ' a s well a s t h e h u m a n h u s b a n d s with w h o m they live. T h e s e l a t t e r , h o w e v e r , a r e n o t in a v e r y e n v i a b l e position, since they a r e kept i n o r d e r b y t h e spirit s p o u s e w h o i s r e g a r d e d a s t h e t r u e h e a d o f t h e family ( B o g o r a s , 1907). T h u s s p i r i t u a l liaisons a r e e v i d e n t l y a d a p t e d t o all t a s t e s , a n d e x h i b i t a s m u c h v a r i e t y a s those o f t h e m o r t a l p a r t n e r s h i p s w h i c h t h e y m i r r o r . As M i l t o n r e m i n d s us in Paradise Lost: ' S p i r i t s w h e n t h e y p l e a s e , c a n e i t h e r sex a s s u m e , o r b o t h ! '
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A voodoo marriage certificate recording the mystical union of a woman with

her spirit (DAMBALLAH) LIBERTE, EGALITE, F R A T E R N I T E
Republic of Haiti, 5.847 The year 1949 and sixth day of the month of January at 3 o'clock in the afternoon. We, Jean Jumeau, Registrar of Port-au-Prince, certifies (sic) that citizens Damballah Toquan Miroisse and Madame Andremise Cetoute appeared before us to be united by the indissoluble bond of the marriage sacrament. Inasmuch as Madame Cetoute must consecrate Tuesday and Thursday to her husband Damballah without ever a blemish on herself, it being understood Monsieur Damballah's duty is to load his wife with good luck so that Madame Cetoute will never know a day's poverty: the husband Monsieur Damballah is accountable to his wife and owes her all necessary protection as set down in the contract. It is with work that spiritual and material property is amassed. In execution of article 15.1 of the Haitian Code. They hereto agreed in the affirmative before qualified witnesses whose names are given. [Signatures.] (From Metraux, 1959, p. 215)
Finally, let us look briefly at t h e very explicit use m a d e in E t h i o p i a n zar possession a n d in H a i t i a n v o o d o o of celestial m a r r i a g e as the r e g u l a r m e a n s o f i n d u c t i o n into t h e r a n k s o f t h e c h r o n i c a l l y p o s s e s s e d . I n E t h i o p i a , t h e n e w a c o l y t e , far from yet b e i n g a s h a m a n , is r e f e r r e d to as a 'bride' a n d is assigned two h u m a n protectors or ' b e s t - m e n ' , just as in mortal unions the bride is attended by two supporters to w h o m she m a y a f t e r w a r d s t u r n for h e l p i f she h a s difficulties w i t h h e r h u s b a n d . She t h u s takes as s p i r i t u a l p a r t n e r a spirit of o p p o s i t e sex. T h i s marital t h e m e is even m o r e elaborately developed in t h e v o o d o o cults o f H a i t i . T h e r e a p e r s o n w h o w i s h e s t o s e c u r e t h e p e r m a n e n t p r o t e c t i o n of o n e of t h e loa or ' m y s t e r i e s ' m a y m a k e a formal p r o p o s a l o f m a r r i a g e , a n d s o m a y t h e g o d . Ezili, t h e p a t r o n g o d d e s s o f l o v e r s , i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u x o r i o u s a n d r e g u l a r l y offers h e r h a n d t o a n y m a n w h o serves h e r zealously, especially if he is a b o u t to t a k e a m o r t a l wife! She t h e n insists o n m a r r y i n g h e r d e v o t e e f i r s t , i n case h e s h o u l d forget her. Such marriages are celebrated with elaborate ceremonies which M e t r a u x h a s r e c o r d e d i n d e t a i l ( M e t r a u x , 1959). M o r t a l u n i o n s a r e exactly paralleled e v e n to t h e e x t e n t of t h e i s s u i n g of a w e d d i n g certificate (see a b o v e ) . I n s p i r i t u a l u n i o n s t h e m a r r i a g e v o w s a p p l y particularly strongly. W h e n the god, a n d his or her mortal p a r t n e r , have p r o n o u n c e d the ritual phrases a n d exchanged rings (by proxy) as a sign of plighted t r o t h , t h e y s h a r e a c o m m o n d e s t i n y . T h e loa's
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d u t y i s t o w a t c h o v e r his s p o u s e , b u t h e m u s t b e given p r e s e n t s i n r e t u r n . T h e n i g h t o f t h e d a y c o n s e c r a t e d t o his w o r s h i p m u s t also b e r e s e r v e d for h i m a n d n o t s h a r e d w i t h m o r t a l p a r t n e r s . S o m e h u m a n s p o u s e s m a k e up a s e p a r a t e b e d for t h e i r spirit a n d sleep on it on t h e allotted n i g h t . A s i n o t h e r cases, b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n c o n t r a c t such u n i o n s which a r e m u c h m o r e b i n d i n g a n d s t r o n g l y s a n c t i o n e d t h a n those i n m o r t a l society. T h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r s o l i d a r y c h a r a c t e r i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t in t h o s e special cases w h i c h h a v e a m o r e sinister q u a l i t y i n v o l v i n g as t h e y do a c o m p a c t w i t h a spirit m a d e specifically to gain success a n d riches. H e r e t h e F a u s t i a n t h e m e i s strongly e m p h a s i z e d , a n d the person w h o seeks t o a d v a n c e h i s f o r t u n e s t h r o u g h such a ' c o m m i t m e n t ' m a y be a l l o w e d o n l y a specified s p a n of y e a r s before he is ' t a k e n ' by the evil s p i r i t , or ' h o t p o i n t ' (point chaud), to w h o m he is e n g a g e d . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , after h i s d e a t h , s u c h a spirit force m a y e n t e r t h e d e c e a s e d ' s family e s t a t e a n d p a s s to his h e i r s as a t r a n s f o r m e d b e n e v o l e n t loa ( L a r o s e , 1977). As I said e a r l i e r , a l t h o u g h this m a r i t a l i m a g e r y is v e r y widely used t o r e p r e s e n t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a n a n d spirits, t h e b o n d o f m y s t i c a l u n i o n m a y also be e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of a direct bloodr e l a t i o n s h i p . H e r e t h e s h a m a n or d e v o t e e is d e s c r i b e d as a child (a son or d a u g h t e r , a c c o r d i n g to sex), or occasionally, as a y o u n g e r sibling of t h e spirit. T h i s filial i d i o m is e m p l o y e d in p a r t s of S o u t h A m e r i c a . It is p r o m i n e n t in t h e possession societies k n o w n as candombles in Brazil a n d i n t h e l i n k e d s y n c r e t i c religion o f U m b a n d a ( c o m p o u n d i n g A m e r i n d i a n , African, a n d E u r o p e a n e l e m e n t s ) which is sweeping from the great Brazilian u r b a n centres into the interior of the country in the wake of socio-economic change and modern communications (Pressel, 1977). S o m e t i m e s this genetic symbolism occurs together with the m a r r i a g e i m a g e r y which we h a v e j u s t discussed, cult devotees being collectively called ' t h e c h i l d r e n ' o f t h e spirits, b u t e a c h individual h a v i n g his o r h e r o w n spirit p a r t n e r . B o t h these i m a g e s , o f c o u r s e , a r e p r e s e n t in C h r i s t i a n i t y w h e r e t h e s h a m a n J e s u s is t h e ' S o n ' of G o d , d i r e c t issue o f t h e m y s t i c a l u n i o n o f t h e ' V i r g i n M a r y ' with G o d ; a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l C h u r c h itself, i n c a r n a t i n g t h e H o l y Spirit, i s further u n i t e d t o its s p i r i t u a l B r i d e g r o o m , C h r i s t . W e n e e d n o t p u r s u e these i n t r i c a t e familial r e l a t i o n s h i p s f u r t h e r h e r e . Sufficient h a s b e e n said t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e t w o p r i n c i p a l m e t a p h o r s i n which t h e link b e t w e e n m a n a n d spirit i s f i g u r e d .
56
W e b e g a n this c h a p t e r b y n o t i n g t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f states o f a l t e r e d consciousness a n d d i s s o c i a t i o n , a n d s a w t h a t t h e s e m a y b e e x p l a i n e d in different cultures either mystically or non-mystically ( a n d s o m e t i m e s in b o t h w a y s in different c o n t e x t s ) . Spirit possession a n d soul-loss (sometimes more accurately described by L i n t o n ' s term 'soulprojection') a r e t h e two principal mystical e x p l a n a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h t h e y m a y exist side b y s i d e , u s u a l l y e m p h a s i s i s p l a c e d o n o n e r a t h e r t h a n the o t h e r , a n d it is of c o u r s e t h e possession a e t i o l o g y t h a t chiefly c o n c e r n s u s . Possession i s b e l i e v e d t o b e b o t h i n v o l u n t a r y (or uncontrolled), and voluntary (or controlled). Those who practise c o n t r o l l e d possession, ' m a s t e r i n g ' spirits, a r e i n t h e A r c t i c c o n t e x t k n o w n a s ' s h a m a n s ' . I r e t a i n this t e r m for m e n o r w o m e n w h o p l a y a w i d e r e p e r t o i r e of social roles on this b a s i s . T h e attainment of the s h a m a n ' s calling is normally the climax of a series of t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e n c e s a n d ' c u r e s ' in t h e c o u r s e of w h i c h the e x t e n t of his c o n t r o l of t r a n c e p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s e s . U l t i m a t e l y he achieves a stable relationship with a spirit which is f o r m u l a t e d , either in t e r m s of m a r r i a g e , or of direct k i n s h i p . F i n a l l y , h o w e v e r b i z a r r e o r e c c e n t r i c possession m a y s e e m t o u s , it c a n n o t be too strongly emphasized that in t h e religions w h i c h we explore in this b o o k , possession is a c u l t u r a l l y n o r m a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e . For o u r purposes whether or not people are actually in trance, they are only 'possessed' when they consider they are, a n d w h e n other m e m b e r s o f t h e i r society e n d o r s e this c l a i m o r i n d e e d i n i t i a t e it. T h u s as S t e w a r t h a s p u t it: I t m a t t e r s little w h e t h e r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f possession a r e i n r e a l i t y d u e t o physical o r p h y s i c a l a b n o r m a l i t i e s o r w h e t h e r t h e y a r e artificially i n d u c e d b y a u t o - s u g g e s t i o n . T h e essential factor i n possession is t h e belief t h a t a p e r s o n h a s b e e n i n v a d e d by a s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g a n d i s t h u s t e m p o r a r i l y b e y o n d self-control, his e g o b e i n g s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h a t o f t h e i n t r u d e r ( S t e w a r t , 1946, p . 325). T h e subjective experience of possession in this sense, a l t h o u g h it o c c u r s in a w e s t e r n S p i r i t u a l i s t c o n t e x t w h i c h is o n l y m a r g i n a l l y n o r m a t i v e i n o u r secular c u l t u r e , h a s b e e n v e r y well d e s c r i b e d b y t h e G e n e v e s e
1
For an intriguing anthropological account of contemporary spiritualism in Wales, see Skultans, 1974.
1
57
ECSTATIC RELIGION
m e d i u m H e l e n e S m i t h t o h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r F l o u r n o y . T h e latter gives t h e following a c c o u n t in his i n t e r e s t i n g b o o k , Des Indes a la planete Mars ( P a r i s , 1900): H e l e n e h a s m o r e t h a n o n c e d e s c r i b e d t o m e t h a t she h a d t h e i m pression of becoming and momentarily being Leopold (Leopold Cagliostro, the eighteenth-century magician). This happens to her d u r i n g the night or particularly on waking in the m o r n i n g ; s h e first h a s a fugitive vision of h e r c a v a l i e r , a n d t h e n he s e e m s t o p a s s g r a d u a l l y i n t o h e r : she feels h i m a s i t w e r e i n v a d e a n d p e n e t r a t e h e r w h o l e o r g a n i c s u b s t a n c e a s i f h e b e c a m e herself o r s h e h i m . It is in s h o r t a s p o n t a n e o u s i n c a r n a t i o n . . . In the cults with which we deal next, personal interpretation of this k i n d a r e c u l t u r a l l y s t a n d a r d i z e d a n d form p a r t o f o r t h o d o x , e v e r y d a y belief.
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Chapter
Three
AFFLICTION AND ITS APOTHEOSIS
I
Possession b y a n i n t r u s i v e spirit i s b y n o m e a n s i n v a r i a b l y a s w a r m l y w e l c o m e d a s i t e v i d e n t l y w a s i n t h e case o f H e l e n e S m i t h . T h e initial experience of possession, particularly, is often a d i s t u r b i n g , even t r a u m a tic experience, a n d not u n c o m m o n l y a response to p e r s o n a l affliction a n d adversity. Up to a p o i n t , this is e v e n t h e case in those societies w h e r e t h e position o f s h a m a n - p r i e s t h a s b e c o m e firmly i n s t i t u t e d a n d passes m o r e o r less a u t o m a t i c a l l y t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e h e i r b y title r a t h e r t h a n b y p e r s o n a l a t t a i n m e n t . I n t h e first p l a c e , i n s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s n o t e v e r y heir is as keen to succeed to his p r e d e c e s s o r ' s p o s i t i o n as t h e spirits a r e anxious to effect this t r a n s i t i o n . W h e r e t h e successor shows r e l u c t a n c e in a s s u m i n g his o n e r o u s d u t i e s , t h e spirits r e m i n d h i m forcefully o f h i s o b l i g a t i o n s b y b a d g e r i n g h i m w i t h trials a n d t r i b u l a t i o n s u n t i l h e a c k n o w l e d g e s defeat a n d a c c e p t s t h e i r insistent p r o d d i n g . W e find examples of this spiritual blackmail in all those societies w h e r e , as a m o n g the T u n g u s , the position of s h a m a n is r e g a r d e d as an i n h e r i t e d office. An i n s t a n c e from t h e M a c h a G a l l a o f E t h i o p i a will serve t o illustrate t h e general situation. T h e old s h a m a n o f o n e o f t h e M a c h a clans sent his son to Addis A b a b a to be educated. T h e r e the E m p e r o r helped him a n d h e a c q u i r e d a good s c h o o l i n g . W h i l e h e w a s still a t A d d i s A b a b a u n d e r the E m p e r o r ' s p r o t e c t i o n , h i s father d i e d a n d h e i m m e d i a t e l y fell ill. H e h a d n o s t r e n g t h , a n d d i d n o t w a n t t o r e t u r n t o h i s h o m e t h e r e t o succeed to his f a t h e r ' s p o s i t i o n as c l a n s h a m a n . After a l o n g p e r i o d of illness, h o w e v e r , t h e E m p e r o r a d v i s e d h i m : ' Y o u will n o t get well h e r e a n d y o u r e d u c a t i o n affords y o u n o j o y . R e t u r n t o y o u r f a t h e r ' s l a n d a n d live a s y o u r c u s t o m b i d s y o u . ' T h e n t h e son r e t u r n e d h o m e a n d b e c a m e a s h a m a n a n d soon r e c o v e r e d ( K n u t s s o n , 1967, p . 7 4 ) .
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M o r e o v e r , in such societies w h e r e in t h e o r y t h e position of inspired priest is an i n h e r i t e d e n d o w m e n t , in p r a c t i c e it c a n also be a c h i e v e d , e v e n if o n l y in e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e s , by i n d i v i d u a l initiative. A n d t h e less well-qualified b y b i r t h r i g h t t h e a s p i r i n g s h a m a n is, t h e m o r e violent a n d d r a m a t i c will be t h e possessions by which he seeks to d e m o n s t r a t e t h e efficacy of his c a l l i n g . As is r e c o g n i z e d in H a i t i a n v o o d o o , in such cases t h e n e w d e v o t e e i s like a n u n b r o k e n h o r s e , t h r o w i n g himself a n d his spirit r i d e r a b o u t w i t h v i o l e n t , wild p l u n g i n g s . T h u s while s o m e s h a m a n s slip w i t h o u t fuss into the m a n t l e s of their p r e d e c e s s o r s , o r a r e s u m m o n e d b y d r e a m s a n d visions t o their calling, this i s b y n o m e a n s t h e u n i v e r s a l p a t t e r n o f r e c r u i t m e n t . V e r y c o m m o n l y , as with St P a u l , t h e r o a d to the a s s u m p t i o n of the s h a m a n ' s v o c a t i o n lies t h r o u g h affliction v a l i a n t l y e n d u r e d a n d , i n t h e e n d , t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o s p i r i t u a l g r a c e . I n Bali m a n y o f the t e m p l e m e d i u m s are r e c r u i t e d following an illness which is later reinterpreted as a benign i n s p i r a t i o n . I n H a i t i , similarly, possession a n d initiation into the cults of t h e loa m y s t e r i e s often follow a s e r i o u s illness or o t h e r affliction. A n d h e r e it is v e r y n o t i c e a b l e t h a t t h o s e w h o s e lives flow s m o o t h l y w i t h o u t m u c h difficulty o r distress a r e rarely s u m m o n e d b y the spirits. F o r t h e less f o r t u n a t e , it is o n l y by i n d u c t i o n i n t o t h e loa cult g r o u p t h a t p r o t e c t i o n a n d s e c u r i t y a r e e n s u r e d . H e n c e - f o r w a r d those w h o h a v e b e e n severely tried f i n d c o m f o r t a n d solace i n t h e e v e r - p r e s e n t c a r e of t h e i r g u a r d i a n spirit. If t h e y a r e h u n g r y , t h e loa a p p e a r s to t h e m s a y i n g ' T a k e c o u r a g e ; y o u will h a v e m o n e y . ' A n d t h e p r o m i s e d h e l p c o m e s ( M e t r a u x , 1959, p . 9 5 ) . H e r e , clearly, i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e r a n k s o f t h e c h r o n i c a l l y possessed is in t h e n a t u r e of a c u r e . M o r e o v e r , as elsewhere, the devotee is p r o n e to e x p e r i e n c e possession in difficult, stressful s i t u a t i o n s , from which t h e r e i s o t h e r w i s e n o satisfactory e s c a p e . T h u s M e t r a u x r e p o r t s t h a t t h e H a i t i a n p a t i e n t u n d e r g o i n g a painful o p e r a t i o n m a y achieve, t h r o u g h b e c o m i n g p o s s e s s e d , a fuller a n a e s t h e s i s t h a n t h a t p r o v i d e d b y t h e m e d i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . S h o c k following traffic a c c i d e n t s similarly s o m e t i m e s manifests itself as possession by a loa. A n d even shipwrecked sailors, helplessly f l o u n d e r i n g i n t h e sea, h a v e s o m e t i m e s b e e n visited b y t h e spirits a n d t h u s c a r r i e d i n safety t o t h e s h o r e . I n exactly t h e s a m e w a y , possession b y spirits o f t h e S h a n g o cult c o n v e n i e n t l y s u p e r v e n e s in T r i n i d a d in s i t u a t i o n s of difficulty a n d conflict a n d is n o t u n k n o w n in t h e h e a r i n g of a case in c o u r t ( M i s c h e l , 1958, p p . 249-60). Likewise, in the Arctic, there are m a n y similar reports of the same
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AFFLICTION A N D ITS A P O T H E O S I S
a m b i g u o u s association b e t w e e n affliction, or illness, a n d d i v i n e inspiration. T h e C h u k c h e e , for e x a m p l e , c o m p a r e t h e p r e p a r a t o r y p e r i o d i n the a s s u m p t i o n of t h e s h a m a n ' s calling to a l o n g a n d severe illness, a n d in fact t h e call of t h e spirits is often a d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e of an actual illness, m i s f o r t u n e , o r d a n g e r . O n e C h u k c h e e o u t h a r p o o n i n g seal o n a n ice-flow s l i p p e d i n t o t h e w a t e r a n d w o u l d , a s h e l a t e r s a i d , certainly h a v e d r o w n e d b u t for t h e m i r a c u l o u s a p p e a r a n c e of a friendly w a l r u s w h i c h c o m f o r t e d h i m a n d h e l p e d h i m t o r e g a i n a foothold o n the ice, so t h a t he w a s a b l e to s c r a m b l e to safety. A f t e r w a r d s , full of g r a t i t u d e for his safe d e l i v e r a n c e , h e m a d e offerings t o t h e w a l r u s a n d b e c a m e a s h a m a n w i t h t h a t c r e a t u r e a s his h e l p i n g spirit. T h e b i o g r a p h y o f the C h u k c h e e s h a m a n called ' S c r a t c h i n g - W o m a n ' reported b y Bogoras illustrates t h e s a m e t h e m e ( B o g o r a s , 1907, p . 424). T h i s s h a m a n ' s father w a s a s m a l l sickly fellow w i t h a few r e i n d e e r w h i c h he finally lost in a thick fog. He d i e d of s t a r v a t i o n in t h e s e a r c h for t h e m i s s i n g h e r d , b u t his wife a n d son s u r v i v e d , b e i n g c a r e d for b y relatives. T h e n followed m a n y y e a r s o f p r i v a t i o n a n d m i s e r y for t h e s o n . As a b o y , he h a u l e d fuel on a sledge for r i c h e r folk a n d w a s p a i d with a little m e a t a n d b l o o d . W h a t h e c o u l d t h u s e a r n w a s , h o w e v e r , far from a d e q u a t e a n d h e r e m a i n e d w e a k a n d sickly. T h e n one d a y h e b e g a n t o b e a t t h e d r u m ( u s e d b y t h e C h u k c h e e for s u m m o n i n g spirits), a n d t o call for s p i r i t s . O n e b y o n e all t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s a p p e a r e d before h i m , a n d h e b e c a m e a s h a m a n . T h e spirit of t h e M o t i o n l e s s S t a r visited h i m in a d r e a m a n d said: ' C e a s e b e i n g such a w e a k l i n g . Be a s h a m a n a n d be s t r o n g , a n d y o u will h a v e plenty o f food!' W i t h this i n s p i r a t i o n a l g u i d a n c e a n d e x h o r t a t i o n , S c r a t c h i n g - W o m a n soon f o u n d luck h a d c h a n g e d i n his f a v o u r . H e quickly a m a s s e d a l a r g e r e i n d e e r h e r d a n d m a r r i e d i n t o a w e l l - t o - d o family. W h e n his f a t h e r - i n - l a w d i e d , h e b e c a m e h e a d o f t h e family, his wife b e i n g t h e eldest child. T h u s from his lowly o r p h a n b e g i n n i n g s , the spirits m a d e h i m a successful s h a m a n a n d h e r d e r . A m o n g s t t h e E s k i m o t h e r e a r e m a n y s i m i l a r a c c o u n t s o f t h e rise t o fame a n d f o r t u n e o f s h a m a n s w h o s e o r i g i n s w e r e full o f m i s e r y a n d privation. I n d e e d , a m o n g t h e Iglulik E s k i m o , R a s m u s s e n w a s told h o w t h e p r i m e v a l s h a m a n h a d first a p p e a r e d at a t i m e of d e s p e r a t e affliction a n d a d v e r s i t y . A n d i n m a n y o f t h e b i o g r a p h i e s h e collected, t h e h e l p i n g spirits m a d e t h e i r f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e b y m o l e s t i n g t h e p e r s o n they were later t o befriend a n d m a k e a s h a m a n . T h u s t h e m o s t d r e a d e d of all h e l p i n g spirits, t h e s e a - e r m i n e , w o u l d a t t a c k m e n while t h e y w e r e out i n t h e i r k a y a k s , s l i p p i n g u p t h e sleeves o f t h e i r c l o t h e s a n d
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r u n n i n g over their bodies filling t h e m with ' s h u d d e r i n g horror'. Such d a n g e r o u s a n d terrifying e n c o u n t e r s frequently f i g u r e d a s t h e p r e l u d e t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e s h a m a n i s t i c v o c a t i o n ( R a s m u s s e n , 1929, p . 122). Similar motifs, of course, a b o u n d in o u r own culture. T h e New T e s t a m e n t t r a d i t i o n s e m p h a s i z e t h e lowly o r i g i n s o f t h e C a r p e n t e r o f N a z a r e t h a n d H i s early spiritual travails, particularly His temptation b y t h e D e v i l o n t h e m o u n t a i n ; a n d s u c h t h e m e s r e c u r i n t h e inspirat i o n a l b i o g r a p h i e s of a host of l a t e r a n d lesser C h r i s t i a n figures. If it w a s o n l y after h e r d e a t h a t t h e stake t h a t f i n a l a u t h e n t i c i t y w a s g r a n t e d t o t h e a m b i g u o u s 'voices' o f J o a n o f A r c , s o m e o t h e r m o r e recent C h r i s tian mystics of similar b a c k g r o u n d have sometimes been more fortunate. O n e o f t h e less well k n o w n , b u t n o t least i n t e r e s t i n g , o f these w a s the Swedish tailor's d a u g h t e r , C a t h a r i n a Fagerberg, who was born in 1 7 0 0 . After a p e r i o d of e m p l o y m e n t as a d o m e s t i c , she l e a r n t to w e a v e l i n e n a n d , w h i l e following this t r a d e , rejected t h e a d v a n c e s o f a l e a t h e r - w o r k e r w h o w i s h e d t o m a r r y h e r . T h e n followed seven years o f s e v e r e m e n t a l a n d physical t o r m e n t i n t h e c o u r s e o f which she w a s f r e q u e n t l y visited by a ' g o o d s p i r i t ' , w h o e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e c a u s e of h e r a n g u i s h lay i n h e r possession b y devils w h i c h h a d b e e n sent t o t r o u b l e h e r by a b l a c k m a g i c i a n at t h e b e h e s t of h e r slighted suitor. G r a d u a l l y h o w e v e r , i n s p i r e d as she believed by G o d , C a t h a r i n a a c q u i r e d t h e p o w e r t o c o n t a i n h e r affliction a n d t o d i a g n o s e a n d c u r e d i s e a s e i n o t h e r s . H e r r e p u t a t i o n a s a faith-healer soon s p r e a d a n d she i n e v i t a b l y c a m e i n t o conflict with t h e ecclesiastical authorities. But, in a c e n t u r y in w h i c h w i t c h - t r i a l s w e r e o u t m o d e d , she w a s a c q u i t t e d , l e a v i n g h e r s p i r i t u a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s t o b e d i s m i s s e d b y h e r sceptical o p p o n e n t s a s m o r b i d f a n t a s i e s . H o w e v e r , i n a w o r l d w h e r e m a n y still b e l i e v e d in evil spirits a n d witchcraft, as well as in d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n , C a t h a r i n a enjoyed w i d e success as a local s h a m a n i s t i c healer. She w a s s u p p o s e d t o i n c a r n a t e ' g o o d ' a n d ' e v i l ' spirits, a n d , b y s e n d i n g o u t h e r o w n 'life-spirit', t o d i v i n e d i s t a n t e v e n t s ( E d s m a n , 1967). T h e s e e x a m p l e s r e m i n d u s h o w , f r e q u e n t l y , those w h o m t h e gods call t h e y f i r s t h u m b l e w i t h affliction a n d d e s p a i r . M o r e o v e r , a s w e saw a m o n g s t t h e T u n g u s , t h e p o w e r s involved a r e often, e i t h e r directly o r i n d i r e c t l y , b o t h t h e c a u s e s o f m i s f o r t u n e a n d t h e m e a n s o f its c u r e . T h o s e w h o b e c o m e s h a m a n s t h u s c o m m o n l y act, i n effect, o n the basis o f t h e c r u d e s l o g a n : i f y o u c a n ' t b e a t t h e m , j o i n t h e m . I t is, furtherm o r e , precisely b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g his o w n successful m a s t e r y o f t h e
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g r o u n d s o f affliction t h a t t h e s h a m a n e s t a b l i s h e s t h e v a l i d i t y o f h i s power to heal. This conception of the s h a m a n as the ' w o u n d e d s u r g e o n ' , t o b o r r o w T . S . E l i o t ' s m e m o r a b l e p h r a s e , will b e e x a m i n e d m o r e fully l a t e r . F o r t h e m o m e n t , all w e n e e d t o n o t e i s t h a t , w h i l e t h e r e is a real sense in w h i c h all r e l i g i o n s a r e essentially cults of affliction, in t h e i n s p i r a t i o n a l calling this a s s o c i a t i o n h a s a p a r t i c u l a r a n d p o i g n a n t significance. I n t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e o l o g y , t h e s h a m a n ' s initial crisis r e p r e s e n t s t h e h e a l e r ' s p a s s i o n , o r , a s t h e A k a w a i o I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s p u t it, ' a m a n m u s t d i e before h e b e c o m e s a s h a m a n ' .
II T h e link between affliction a n d its c u r e as t h e royal r o a d to t h e a s s u m p tion of t h e s h a m a n i s t i c v o c a t i o n is t h u s p l a i n e n o u g h in t h o s e societies w h e r e s h a m a n s p l a y t h e m a i n o r m a j o r role i n religion a n d w h e r e possession is highly v a l u e d as a religious e x p e r i e n c e . H e r e w h a t b e g i n s as an illness, or otherwise deeply d i s t u r b i n g e x p e r i e n c e , e n d s in ecstasy; a n d t h e p a i n a n d suffering of the initial crisis a r e obliterated in its subseq u e n t r e - e v a l u a t i o n as a u n i q u e l y efficacious sign of d i v i n e f a v o u r . I n o t h e r societies, h o w e v e r , w h e r e s h a m a n s p l a y o n l y a m i n o r role a n d a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h d i s e a s e - b e a r i n g spirits w h i c h a r e n o t c e n t r a l to t h e religious life of t h e c o m m u n i t y this a p o t h e o s i s , a l t h o u g h it still o c c u r s , is t h r u s t into t h e b a c k g r o u n d . I n d e e d , in t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n suffering a n d possession is so o v e r w h e l m i n g t h a t at first sight it s e e m s to c o n s t i t u t e an e n d in itself, r a t h e r t h a n an e n d a n d a b e g i n n i n g . H e r e , ostensibly a t least, possession c o n n o t e s m i s f o r t u n e s a n d sickness, a n d cult activity i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d t o alleviate d i s t r e s s r a t h e r t h a n t o a t t a i n ecstasy. T h e e m p h a s i s i s o n d i s e a s e a n d its c u r e , a n d n o t , overtly at least, on affliction as a m e a n s to t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of mystical e x a l t a t i o n . It is this f e a t u r e , as we s a w in t h e last c h a p t e r , which h a s led s o m e w r i t e r s t o c h a r a c t e r i z e such h e a l i n g cults a s b e i n g concerned only with ' i n a u t h e n t i c ' , or ' n e g a t i v e ' possession, a n d to c o n t r a s t these w i t h religions w h e r e ' a u t h e n t i c ' possession i s r e a l i z e d a s a d i v i n e ecstasy. T o e l u c i d a t e this m i s l e a d i n g , a n d u l t i m a t e l y false, antithesis we m u s t look m o r e closely at such a p p a r e n t l y ' n e g a t i v e ' cults. T h i s n e g a t i v e aspect is s t r o n g l y reflected in t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e spirits involved. F o r by those w h o believe in t h e m , b u t actually w o r s h i p o t h e r g o d s , these m a l i g n p a t h o g e n i c spirits a r e r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g e x t r e m e l y c a p t i o u s a n d c a p r i c i o u s . T h e y strike w i t h o u t r h y m e o r
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r e a s o n ; o r a t least w i t h o u t a n y s u b s t a n t i a l c a u s e which can b e referred t o social c o n d u c t . T h e y a r e n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h m a n ' s b e h a v i o u r t o m a n . T h e y h a v e n o interest i n d e f e n d i n g t h e m o r a l c o d e o f society, a n d those w h o s u c c u m b to their u n w e l c o m e attentions are morally b l a m e l e s s . At t h e s a m e t i m e t h e y a r e a l w a y s on t h e look-out for a convenient excuse to harass their victims, a n d they are inordinately sensitive t o h u m a n e n c r o a c h m e n t . T o step o n o n e i n a d v e r t e n t l y , o r o t h e r w i s e u n w i t t i n g l y a n n o y it, is sufficient to so inflame t h e s p i r i t ' s w r a t h t h a t i t a t t a c k s a t o n c e , p o s s e s s i n g its t r e s p a s s e r , a n d m a k i n g h i m ill o r c a u s i n g h i m m i s f o r t u n e . T h e s e u n a t t r a c t i v e characteristics a r e d i s p l a y e d b y all these hostile spirits, w h e t h e r t h e y a r e conceived o f a s a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c p o w e r s , o r a s p u c k i s h n a t u r e sprites. S i n c e t h e y a r e s o p o i n t e d l y indifferent t o h u m a n c o n d u c t , i t w o u l d b e r e a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e s e u n p l e a s a n t spirits w o u l d b e q u i t e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e in t h e i r selection of h u m a n p r e y . T h i s , h o w e v e r , is far from b e i n g t h e c a s e . C o n t r a r y t o w h a t m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , they show a special predilection for the weak a n d oppressed. We should be w r o n g , h o w e v e r , to l e a p i m m e d i a t e l y to a pessimistic a s s e s s m e n t of t h e w o r k i n g s of p r o v i d e n c e in these cases. F o r as we shall see, it is often precisely t h r o u g h s u c c u m b i n g t o these s e e m i n g l y w a n t o n visitations t h a t p e o p l e in s u c h a d v e r s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s e c u r e a m e a s u r e of h e l p a n d s u c c o u r . T h u s , i n c o m p l e t e c o n t r a s t t o t h e s u b l i m e indifference to t h e h u m a n condition which they a r e supposed to display, such spirits a r e in fact a c u t e l y sensitive to t h e plight of t h e u n d e r - p r i v i l e g e d a n d o p p r e s s e d . T h e s e a s s e r t i o n s , f o r t u n a t e l y , c a n easily b e c o n f i r m e d . All we h a v e to do is to look closely at a n u m b e r of societies w h e r e illness i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s m a l i g n a n t possession, p a y i n g p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c a t e g o r i e s of p e r s o n m o s t at risk a n d to t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s in which t h e y m o s t f r e q u e n t l y s u c c u m b t o possession. S i n c e w e a r e h e r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i n c i d e n c e of d i s e a s e , we shall in fact be following w h a t in m e d i c a l p a r l a n c e w o u l d be called an epidemiological approach. Let me begin with d a t a on the Somali pastoralists of north-east Africa w h i c h I collected in t h e c o u r s e of field-work in w h a t is n o w t h e S o m a l i R e p u b l i c ( L e w i s , 1969). I n this s t r o n g l y patrilineal M u s l i m society, witchcraft a n d s o r c e r y a s t h e s e p h e n o m e n a a r e k n o w n e l s e w h e r e do n o t figure p r o m i n e n t l y in t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of illness a n d m i s f o r t u n e . T h e i r m a i n religious life is c o n c e r n e d with the cult of Allah w h o m Somalis a p p r o a c h t h r o u g h the mediation of the Prophet M u h a m m a d a n d a host o f m o r e i m m e d i a t e l i n e a g e a n c e s t o r s a n d
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o t h e r figures o f real o r i m p u t e d piety w h o , a s i n R o m a n C a t h o l i c i s m , play a vital role as m e d i a t i n g s a i n t s . As in o t h e r M u s l i m c o u n t r i e s , this p u b l i c cult i s a l m o s t exclusively d o m i n a t e d b y m e n , w h o h o l d all the m a j o r positions o f religious a u t h o r i t y a n d p r e s t i g e . W o m e n a r e i n fact e x c l u d e d from t h e m o s q u e s i n w h i c h m e n w o r s h i p a n d t h e i r role in religion t e n d s to be little m o r e t h a n t h a t of p a s s i v e s p e c t a t o r s . M o r e generally, in the Somali scheme of things, w o m e n are regarded a s w e a k , s u b m i s s i v e c r e a t u r e s . T h i s i s t h e case d e s p i t e t h e e x a c t i n g n a t u r e of their n o m a d i c life, a n d the a r d u o u s c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r h e r d i n g tasks i n m a n a g i n g t h e flocks o f s h e e p a n d g o a t s , a n d t h e d r a u g h t c a m e l s , w h i c h c a r r y t h e i r t e n t s a n d effects from c a m p i n g - g r o u n d t o camping-ground. I n this m a l e - d o m i n a t e d a n d highly p u r i t a n i c a l c u l t u r e , spirit possession, w h i c h is r e g a r d e d as o n e c a u s e a m o n g o t h e r s of a w i d e r a n g e of c o m p l a i n t s ( r a n g i n g from slight m a l a i s e to a c u t e o r g a n i c diseases such as t u b e r c u l o s i s ) , o c c u r s in a few well-defined c o n t e x t s . T h e first of these w h i c h I shall discuss h e r e c o n c e r n s cases of f r u s t r a t e d love a n d p a s s i o n , a n d involves e m o t i o n s w h i c h , especially o n t h e p a r t o f m e n , a r e not t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e c o g n i z e d o r o v e r t l y a c k n o w l e d g e d . T h e stiff-lipped t r a d i t i o n a l view is t h a t t h e o p e n d i s p l a y of affection a n d love b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n i s u n m a n l y a n d s e n t i m e n t a l a n d m u s t b e s u p p r e s s e d . T h e e x p r e s s i o n o f love t o w a r d s G o d , i n c o n t r a s t , i s a highly a p p r o v e d e m o t i o n which is widely e n c o u r a g e d a n d r a p t u r o u s l y p h r a s e d i n S o m a l i mystical p o e t r y . B u t t h e d i r e c t a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t o f s i m i l a r feelings b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n i s totally o u t o f p l a c e . T h u s , if a girl w h o h a s b e e n jilted by a b o y she loved a n d w h o privately undertook to m a r r y her exhibits s y m p t o m s of extreme lassitude, w i t h d r a w a l , o r e v e n m o r e distinct signs o f p h y s i c a l illness, h e r c o n d i tion is likely to be a t t r i b u t e d to possession by t h e object of h e r affections. H e r e , as in all o t h e r cases of S o m a l i p o s s e s s i o n , t h e v i c t i m is d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g b e e n ' e n t e r e d ' . ( A l t h o u g h in this case it is strictly t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f h e r f o r m e r lover w h i c h i s s u p p o s e d t o h a v e ' s e i z e d ' her, r a t h e r t h a n a free spirit e n t i t y , I m a k e no a p o l o g y for m e n t i o n i n g this t y p e of possession h e r e since it serves as a useful p r o l o g u e to w h a t follows.) T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e d i s a p p o i n t e d girl's state is consistent w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l sex m o r a l i t y w h e r e t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f r o m a n t i c a t t a c h m e n t w a s , a s I h a v e i n d i c a t e d , e x c l u d e d . O n l y w i t h i n t h e last t w e n t y years or so h a s this rigid a t t i t u d e b e g u n to c h a n g e especially in t h e t o w n s w h i c h , as e l s e w h e r e in Africa, a r e t h e foci of social c h a n g e a n d
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m o d e r n i t y . T h e r e t o d a y , a m o n g t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n , t h e explicit r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c e p t a n c e of r o m a n t i c love is a p o p u l a r t h e m e given w i d e c u r r e n c y i n c o n t e m p o r a r y S o m a l i verse a n d r a d i o ' p o p ' songs w h i c h s c a n d a l i z e m e n o f t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n . W i t h these e n l i g h t e n e d v i e w s , y o u n g w e s t e r n - e d u c a t e d S o m a l i s t o d a y d e s c r i b e such cases o f y o u n g w o m e n ' s p o s s e s s i o n , i n t h e S h a k e s p e r i a n i d i o m o f 'lovesickness'. T h e traditional attitude, on the other h a n d , is m u c h more in k e e p i n g with t h a t exhibited by s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y F r e n c h C a t h o l i c ecclesiastics in t h e i r h a n d l i n g of t h e c e l e b r a t e d case of the hysterical Sister J e a n n e d e s A n g e s , p r i o r e s s o f t h e c o n v e n t school a t L o u d o n , a n d h e r f r u s t r a t e d i n f a t u a t i o n for t h e n o t o r i o u s l y a m o r o u s C a n o n U r b a i n G r a n d i e r . A s r e a d e r s o f A l d o u s H u x l e y ' s lively e v o c a t i o n i n The Devils of Loudon will recall, this p o o r n u n ' s condition was a t t r i b u t e d t o possession b y m a l e v o l e n t spirits a n d G r a n d i e r w a s held responsible. H e w a s c o n v i c t e d o f witchcraft a n d b u r n e d a t t h e stake i n 1634. I n t h e S o m a l i R e p u b l i c these m a t t e r s a r e dealt with less drastically, a n d n o legal a c t i o n c a n b e t a k e n a g a i n s t t h e m a n i n v o l v e d . T h e interp r e t a t i o n w h i c h t h e s e facts suggest is virtually t h a t given by y o u n g e d u c a t e d S o m a l i s t h e m s e l v e s . F o r a jilted girl no o t h e r institutionalized m e a n s a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y a v a i l a b l e t o e x p r e s s h e r o u t r a g e d feelings. F o r it is o n l y w h e r e a formal e n g a g e m e n t h a s b e e n c o n t r a c t e d , with t h e c o n s e n t of t h e t w o p a r t i e s of k i n , t h a t a suit c a n be filed for b r e a c h o f p r o m i s e . T h e d i s a p p o i n t e d g i r l ' s p r i v a t e e m o t i o n s a n d feelings a r e o f little m o m e n t i n t h e j u r a l w o r l d o f m e n . H e n c e illness, a n d the c a r e a n d s o l i c i t u d e w h i c h it b r i n g s , at least offer s o m e solace for h e r w o u n d e d p r i d e . O f t h e t r e a t m e n t a d m i n i s t e r e d t o t h e possessed girl, all t h a t n e e d b e said h e r e i s t h a t , a s with Sister J e a n n e des A n g e s , t h e i n v a d i n g f a m i l i a r m a y be e x o r c i z e d by a cleric in this case a M u s l i m m a n of religion. T h e o t h e r c o n t e x t o f S o m a l i possession i s similarly r e g a r d e d a s a n illness a n d i n v o l v e s parallel s y m p t o m s r a n g i n g from m i l d h y s t e r i a o r light d e p r e s s i o n to actual o r g a n i c disorders. In this case, however, these d i s t u r b a n c e s a r e u n e q u i v o c a l l y a t t r i b u t e d to t h e ingress of a hostile spirit o r d e m o n . A s elsewhere i n I s l a m , Somalis believe that a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c jinns l u r k i n e v e r y d a r k a n d e m p t y c o r n e r , poised r e a d y t o strike c a p r i c i o u s l y a n d w i t h o u t w a r n i n g a t t h e u n s u s p e c t i n g passerb y . T h e s e m a l e v o l e n t sprites a r e t h o u g h t t o b e c o n s u m e d b y e n v y a n d g r e e d , a n d t o h u n g e r especially after d a i n t y foods, l u x u r i o u s clothing, j e w e l l e r y , p e r f u m e , a n d o t h e r finery. I n t h e c o n t e x t w h i c h I a m a b o u t to d e s c r i b e , t h e y a r e k n o w n g e n e r a l l y as sar, a w o r d w h i c h describes
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both t h e spirits t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e illness a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e m . T h e s m i t t e n victim i s said t o h a v e b e e n ' e n t e r e d ' , ' s e i z e d ' o r ' p o s s e s s e d ' by t h e sar. T h e p r i m e t a r g e t s for t h e u n w e l c o m e a t t e n t i o n s o f t h e s e m a l i g n spirits a r e w o m e n , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y m a r r i e d w o m e n . T h e stock e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n is t h a t of t h e h a r d - p r e s s e d wife, s t r u g g l i n g t o s u r v i v e a n d feed h e r c h i l d r e n i n this h a r s h e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d liable to s o m e degree of neglect, real or i m a g i n e d , on t h e p a r t of h e r h u s b a n d . Subject t o f r e q u e n t , s u d d e n a n d often p r o l o n g e d a b s e n c e s b y h e r h u s b a n d a s h e follows his m a n l y p a s t o r a l p u r s u i t s , t o t h e j e a l o u s i e s a n d t e n s i o n s of p o l y g y n y w h i c h a r e n o t v e n t i l a t e d in a c c u s a t i o n s of sorcery a n d witchcraft, a n d a l w a y s m e n a c e d b y t h e p r e c a r i o u s n e s s o f m a r r i a g e in a society w h e r e d i v o r c e is f r e q u e n t a n d easily o b t a i n e d by m e n , the Somali w o m a n ' s lot offers little stability or security. T h e s e , I hasten to add, are not ethnocentric j u d g e m e n t s read into the d a t a by a t e n d e r - m i n d e d w e s t e r n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , b u t , as I k n o w from my o w n direct e x p e r i e n c e , e v a l u a t i o n s w h i c h s p r i n g r e a d i l y t o t h e lips o f Somali w o m e n a n d which I have frequently h e a r d discussed. Somali t r i b e s w o m e n a r e far from b e i n g a s n a i v e a s t h o s e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s (see e.g. W i l s o n , 1967, p p . 6 7 - 7 8 ) w h o s u p p o s e t h a t t r i b a l life c o n d i t i o n s its w o m e n f o l k t o a n u n f l i n c h i n g a c c e p t a n c e o f h a r d s h i p a n d t o a n unquestioning endorsement of the position accorded t h e m by m e n . My interpretation h e r e is further c o r r o b o r a t e d from a m o d e r n w o m a n ' s p e r s p e c t i v e b y R a q i y a A b d a l l a ' s ( 1 9 8 2 ) s t u d y o f female c i r c u m c i s i o n a n d infibulation a n d , m o r e i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c a l l y p e r h a p s , i n N u r u d d i n F a r a h ' s early n o v e l , From a Crooked Rib ( 1 9 7 0 ) . I n these c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t m a n y w o m e n ' s ailments, whether accompanied by definable physical s y m p t o m s or not, should so readily be i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e m as possession by sar spirits which d e m a n d l u x u r i o u s c l o t h e s , p e r f u m e , a n d exotic d a i n t i e s from their m e n f o l k . T h e s e r e q u e s t s a r e voiced i n n o u n c e r t a i n fashion b y the spirits s p e a k i n g t h r o u g h t h e lips of t h e afflicted w o m e n , a n d u t t e r e d with a n a u t h o r i t y w h i c h t h e i r p a s s i v e r e c e p t a c l e s c a n r a r e l y a c h i e v e t h e m s e l v e s . T h e spirits, o f c o u r s e , h a v e t h e i r o w n l a n g u a g e b u t t h i s is readily i n t e r p r e t e d (for a suitable fee) by female s h a m a n s w h o k n o w h o w t o h a n d l e t h e m . I t i s o n l y w h e n s u c h costly d e m a n d s h a v e b e e n m e t , as well as all t h e e x p e n s e i n v o l v e d in t h e m o u n t i n g of a c a t h a r t i c d a n c e ( ' b e a t i n g t h e sar') a t t e n d e d b y o t h e r w o m e n a n d d i r e c t e d b y t h e s h a m a n , t h a t t h e p a t i e n t c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o r e c o v e r . E v e n after such o u t l a y s , relief from t h e sar affliction m a y be o n l y t e m p o r a r y .
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S i g n i f i c a n t l y , in s o m e cases t h e o n s e t of this spirit illness coincides with a h u s b a n d ' s o p e n i n g moves to m a r r y an additional spouse; a n d in e v e r y e x a m p l e which I e n c o u n t e r e d s o m e g r u d g e against h e r p a r t n e r w a s b o r n e b y t h e w o m a n i n v o l v e d . I t scarcely r e q u i r e s a n y e l a b o r a t e forensic t e c h n i q u e t o r e a c h s o m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t i s involved here; certainly, Somali m e n d r a w their own conclusions. W h a t the w o m e n call sar p o s s e s s i o n , t h e i r h u s b a n d s call m a l i n g e r i n g , a n d t h e y i n t e r p r e t this affliction as yet a n o t h e r device in t h e repertoire of deceitful tricks w h i c h t h e y c o n s i d e r w o m e n r e g u l a r l y e m p l o y against m e n . T h i s u n g a l l a n t charge m e n support by alleging that the incidence of the d i s e a s e i s m a r k e d l y h i g h e r a m o n g s t t h e wives o f t h e w e a l t h y t h a n a m o n g s t t h o s e o f t h e p o o r . W o m e n i n t h e i r t u r n c o u n t e r this i n s i n u a tion w i t h t h e i n g e n i o u s s o p h i s t r y t h a t t h e r e a r e s o m e sar spirits w h i c h o n l y a t t a c k t h e w e a l t h y while o t h e r s molest t h e p o o r . N o t surprisingly, sar s p i r i t s a r e said to h a t e m e n . D e s p i t e t h e i r essentially sociological view o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , m e n ' s a t t i t u d e s a r e in fact a m b i v a l e n t . T h e y believe in t h e existence of these sar spirits (for w h i c h t h e Q u r a n p r o v i d e s s c r i p t u r a l w a r r a n t , since they a r e a s s i m i l a t e d t o jinn), b u t w i t h typical S o m a l i p r a g m a t i s m t h e y a r e sceptical w h e n t h e i r o w n w o m e n f o l k a n d pockets a r e directly affected. D e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e m a r i t a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d t h e value placed u p o n t h e wife c o n c e r n e d , t h e n o r m a l r e a c t i o n is for t h e h u s b a n d to accept r e l u c t a n t l y a few b o u t s of this k i n d , especially if t h e y a r e n o t too f r e q u e n t . B u t if t h e affliction b e c o m e s c h r o n i c , as it is a p t t o , a n d t h e wife b e c o m e s a m o r e or less r e g u l a r m e m b e r of a circle of sar devotees, t h e n , save in exceptional c i r c u m s t a n c e s , the h u s b a n d ' s patience is liable to w e a r t h i n . If a g o o d b e a t i n g will n o t do t h e trick ( a n d it often seems v e r y effective), t h e r e is a l w a y s t h e t h r e a t of d i v o r c e a n d , unless t h e wife a c t u a l l y w a n t s this ( a s she m a y ) , or is g e n u i n e l y physically ill (as she m a y v e r y well be) or severely psychologically d i s t u r b e d , this t h r e a t u s u a l l y w o r k s . L e a v i n g a s i d e for t h e m o m e n t t h e w i d e r i m p l i c a t i o n s of m e m b e r s h i p of a r e g u l a r a s s o c i a t i o n of sar d e v o t e e s , it is e v i d e n t t h a t this characteristically female affliction o p e r a t e s a m o n g s t the Somali as a l i m i t e d d e t e r r e n t a g a i n s t t h e a b u s e s of neglect a n d injury in a c o n j u g a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h is heavily b i a s e d in favour of m e n . W h e r e t h e y a r e g i v e n little d o m e s t i c s e c u r i t y a n d a r e o t h e r w i s e ill-protected from t h e p r e s s u r e s a n d e x a c t i o n s o f m e n , w o m e n m a y t h u s resort t o spirit p o s s e s s i o n as a m e a n s b o t h of a i r i n g t h e i r g r i e v a n c e s o b l i q u e l y , a n d o f g a i n i n g s o m e satisfaction. S o m a l i w o m e n h a v e a s t r o n g a n d explicit sense of sexual solidarity
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a n d feelings o f g r i e v a n c e a n d a n t a g o n i s m t o w a r d s m e n w h o , i n t h e i r t u r n , r e g a r d t h e o p p o s i t e sex as p o s s e s s i n g a u n i q u e e n d o w m e n t of guile a n d t r e a c h e r y . O f c o u r s e , b o t h t h e s e sexual s t e r e o t y p e s a r e m u t u a l l y reinforcing. I t m i g h t e v e n b e a r g u e d , w i t h o u t s t r e t c h i n g t h e facts too far, that h e r e , as in o t h e r societies w h e r e sexual differentiation is e q u a l l y strongly e n g r a i n e d , t h e r e a r e in effect t w o c u l t u r e s t h e officially d o m i n a n t w o r l d o f m e n , a n d t h e s u b o r d i n a t e s p h e r e o f w o m e n . It is certainly in t e r m s of such a w i d e - r a n g i n g d i c h o t o m y t h a t S o m a l i m e n see w o m e n ' s possession as a specialized s t r a t e g y d e s i g n e d t o f o r w a r d f e m i n i n e interests a t t h e i r e x p e n s e . T h i s ' s e x - w a r ' view o f the s i t u a t i o n is v e r y e v i d e n t in t h e following folk-tale w h i c h , w h e t h e r it r e c o r d s a t r u e e p i s o d e or n o t , h a s a v e r y clear m o r a l . T h e wife of a well-to-do official w a s feeling o u t of sorts o n e m o r n i n g a n d sitting m o r o s e l y i n h e r h o u s e , w h e r e t h e r e h a p p e n e d t o b e f i f t y p o u n d s o f r e a d y cash b e l o n g i n g t o h e r h u s b a n d . A n old w o m a n ( a sar specialist) c a m e to visit t h e dejected wife a n d soon c o n v i n c e d h e r that she w a s possessed by a sar spirit a n d w o u l d n e e d to p a y a lot of m o n e y for t h e m o u n t i n g of a c a t h a r t i c d a n c e c e r e m o n y , if she w e r e to recover. T h e necessary sar e x p e r t w a s quickly e n g a g e d , food b o u g h t , and neighbouring w o m e n s u m m o n e d to join in the party. W h e n the h u s b a n d r e t u r n e d from his w o r k a t m i d d a y for his l u n c h , h e w a s s u r p r i s e d t o f i n d t h e d o o r o f his h o u s e t i g h t l y b a r r e d a n d t o h e a r a g r e a t h u b b u b i n s i d e . T h e s h a m a n o r d e r e d his wife n o t t o let h i m i n , o n p a i n o f serious illness, a n d after k n o c k i n g a n g r i l y for s o m e t i m e the h u s b a n d lost p a t i e n c e a n d w e n t a w a y to eat his l u n c h in a t e a s h o p . W h e n , i n t h e e v e n i n g , t h e h u s b a n d finally got b a c k from w o r k the p a r t y w a s over. T h e wife, w h o h a d r e c o v e r e d r e m a r k a b l y q u i c k l y , met h i m a n d explained that she h a d been s u d d e n l y t a k e n ill. Sar possession h a d b e e n d i a g n o s e d , a n d i n c o n s e q u e n c e she h a d u n f o r t u n a t e l y t o s p e n d all h e r h u s b a n d ' s r e a d y cash t o p a y for t h e c u r i n g c e r e m o n y . T h e h u s b a n d a c c e p t e d this d i s t u r b i n g n e w s w i t h s u r p r i s i n g r e s t r a i n t . O n t h e following d a y , w h i c h w a s a h o l i d a y , w h i l e his wife w a s o u t s h o p p i n g i n t h e m a r k e t , t h e h u s b a n d t o o k all h e r gold a n d silver jewellery a n d h e r c h e r i s h e d s e w i n g - m a c h i n e t o a m o n e y - l e n d e r from w h o m h e received a s u b s t a n t i a l a d v a n c e . W i t h this m o n e y h e a s s e m b l e d a p a r t y o f holy m e n a n d s h e i k h s a n d feasted t h e m r o y a l l y i n his h o u s e . W h e n his wife r e t u r n e d l a t e r i n t h e d a y , she f o u n d t h e d o o r firmly closed a n d h e a r d s o u n d s of e x u b e r a n t h y m n - s i n g i n g w i t h i n . After t r y i n g unsuccessfully to get in, she in h e r t u r n w e n t off p u z z l e d t o i n q u i r e from n e i g h b o u r s w h a t w a s g o i n g o n . W h e n she finally
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r e t u r n e d h o m e l a t e r , she f o u n d h e r h u s b a n d sitting q u i e t l y b y himself a n d a s k e d w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d . ' O h ' , said t h e h u s b a n d , ' I was suddenly t a k e n ill, a n d to r e c o v e r I h a d to s u m m o n a g r o u p of holy m e n to say p r a y e r s a n d s i n g h y m n s o n m y behalf. N o w , mercifully, I a m b e t t e r ; b u t , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , since t h e r e w a s n o r e a d y cash i n t h e h o u s e I h a d t o p a w n all y o u r j e w e l s a n d e v e n y o u r s e w i n g - m a c h i n e i n o r d e r t o entertain my guests.' At these words, as can be imagined, the w o m a n r a i s e d a l o u d l a m e n t . B u t after a s h o r t p e r i o d of reflection h e r a n g e r s u b s i d e d , a s she p e r c e i v e d t h e r e a s o n s for h e r h u s b a n d ' s a c t i o n . She p r o m i s e d fervently n e v e r a g a i n t o ' b e a t t h e sar'. H e r h u s b a n d i n his t u r n u n d e r t o o k n e v e r a g a i n t o e n t e r t a i n holy m e n a t his wife's expense a n d l a t e r r e d e e m e d h e r r i c h e s . A n d so, w e p r e s u m e , the c o u p l e lived on afterwards in amity. T h e u s e by w o m e n of sar spirit possession, w h i c h this simple tale so well i l l u s t r a t e s , is n o t c o n f i n e d only to t h e M u s l i m S o m a l i . T h i s p a t t e r n of possession exists also in E t h i o p i a ( u n d e r the n a m e zar), where it a p p e a r s to have originated, a n d in the M u s l i m S u d a n , Egypt, parts o f N o r t h Africa, a n d t h e A r a b i a n G u l f w h e r e i t h a s e v e n p e n e t r a t e d t h e s a c r e d city o f M e c c a . I n C h r i s t i a n E t h i o p i a , its psychological a n d d r a m a t i c a s p e c t s h a v e b e e n e x p l o r e d b y t h e F r e n c h surrealist poet a n d e t h n o g r a p h e r , M i c h e l L e i r i s ( L e i r i s , 1958; see also T u b i a n a , 1983). F u r t h e r light o n its social significance t h e r e h a s b e e n shed b y subseq u e n t a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h b y M e s s i n g (1958), Y o u n g (1975), a n d M o r t o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) . M e s s i n g r e c o r d s h o w wives use t h e cult i n S o m a l i fashion to extort e c o n o m i c sacrifices from their h u s b a n d s by t h r e a t e n i n g a r e l a p s e w h e n t h e i r d e m a n d s a r e i g n o r e d a process which the h u s b a n d s seek t o c h e c k b y a d v o c a t i n g C h r i s t i a n e x o r c i s m a s t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e t r e a t m e n t . A l t h o u g h m o r e e x p e n s i v e initially, this l a t t e r p r o c e d u r e is theoretically efficacious as a single t r e a t m e n t . T h i s avoids t h e u n a t t r a c t i v e p r o s p e c t , following t h e initial i n i t i a t o r y illness, of t h e wife d r i f t i n g i n t o a zar c o t e r i e w h i c h w o u l d d a m a g e t h e h u s b a n d ' s r e p u t a t i o n as a r e s p e c t a b l e E t h i o p i a n C h r i s t i a n . It is t h u s , p e r h a p s , n o t i n a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t t h e zar spirit a n d i n i t i a t o r y illness should also be k n o w n as ' c r e d i t o r ' (kureyna) c r e a t i n g o n e r o u s debts which extend t h r o u g h t h e spirit-possessed v i c t i m t o b u r d e n h e r m a l e k i n . M u c h t h e same a p p e a r s to be the case with economically depressed women in C a i r o , a l t h o u g h zar possession s e e m s to h a v e an a p p e a l for s o m e rich w o m e n t o o , a n d zar c e r e m o n i e s h a v e b e c o m e folkloric e v e n t s a n d even m a d e t h e b a s i s for a d i s t i n c t i v e ' O r i e n t e d ' ballet d a n c e style {Arabesque, 1 9 7 8 ; 1983). To t h e e x t e n t t h a t zar possession offers o n e
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e x p l a n a t i o n o f illness, i m p r o v e d m e d i c a l facilities a n d o t h e r a s p e c t s of modernization seem to have a s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s impact on the p h e n o m e n o n . I n t h e E g y p t i a n c o u n t r y s i d e w h e r e village w o m e n a r e less secluded t h a n their b o u r g e o i s sisters cherished by their h u s b a n d s as s y m b o l s of I s l a m i c r e s p e c t a b i l i t y t h e y a r e r e p o r t e d to be less intensively involved i n t h e cult t h a n t h e l a t t e r ( S a u n d e r s , 1977). I n some villages such possession is k n o w n as t h e ' e x c u s e ' a n d the possessed victim referred to literally as ' e x c u s e d ' as i n d e e d she is from h e r r o u t i n e tasks ( M o r s y , 1977; 1978). T h e s e t h e m e s a r e v e r y explicitly displayed in the suburbs of K h a r t o u m , capital of the S u d a n republic. T h e r e r e s e a r c h e r s r e p o r t t h a t zar spirits p o s s e s s i n g wives m a y n o t o n l y d e m a n d gifts, i n c l u d i n g in o n e case several gold t e e t h , b u t also r o u n d l y upbraid the h u s b a n d s in terms which would not be tolerated were they e x p r e s s e d directly b y t h e w o m e n t h e m s e l v e s ( C o n s t a n t i n i d e s , 1977, 1985; a l - S h a h i , 1984).
III
As an e x p l a n a t i o n of a w i d e r a n g e of symptoms, zar possession p r o v i d e s w o m e n p a t i e n t s ( a c t i n g consciously o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y ) w i t h a n o p p o r tunity to pursue their interests a n d d e m a n d s in a context of male d o m i n a n c e . S o m e t i m e s t h e y a r e clearly c o m p e t i n g w i t h o t h e r w o m e n ( e . g . co-wives) for a fuller s h a r e of t h e i r h u s b a n d ' s a t t e n t i o n s a n d r e g a r d . T h i s m a y b e r e l a t e d t o difficulties o r inabilities i n fulfilling a n d s u s t a i n i n g m e n ' s ideal female roles a s , for i n s t a n c e , w i t h fertility p r o b l e m s . I n o t h e r c a s e s , t h e y m a y b e d i r e c t l y s t r i v i n g for m o r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n a n d respect a n d s o m e t i m e s a c t u a l l y c o m p e t i n g w i t h t h e h e a d of t h e family for a l a r g e r slice of t h e d o m e s t i c b u d g e t . T h e s e ' s e x - w a r ' aspects a r e b y n o m e a n s r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e zar c o m p l e x . W i t h o u t a t t e m p t i n g a n y c o m p r e h e n s i v e s u r v e y o f all s i m i l a r c u l t s e l s e w h e r e , let us look briefly at a few selected e x a m p l e s w h i c h a r e illuminating in various respects. I n African e t h n o g r a p h y , o n e o f t h e earliest a n d m o s t vivid d e s c r i p tions is given by L i n d b l o m in his s t u d y of t h e K a m b a of E a s t Africa ( L i n d b l o m , 1920). In this society a s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n is m a d e b e t w e e n the local a n c e s t r a l spirits w h i c h u p h o l d m o r a l i t y a n d r e p r e s e n t t h e o n g o i n g interests o f t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s , a n d o t h e r , c a p r i c i o u s s p i r i t s . T h e s e latter d e m o n s a r e typically spirit r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of n e i g h b o u r i n g peoples M a s a i , G a l l a a n d o t h e r t r i b e s i n c l u d i n g E u r o p e a n s . T h e s e e x t e r n a l o r ' p e r i p h e r a l ' spirits o f foreign o r i g i n a r e n o t
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worshipped directly as the ancestors are, but regularly plague K a m b a w o m e n . A s e l s e w h e r e , t h e afflicted w o m e n ' s p e a k w i t h t o n g u e s ' i n a foreign dialect in a c c o r d a n c e with t h e p r o v e n a n c e of t h e invasive spirit. T h e s p i r i t s ' d e m a n d s , h o w e v e r , a r e q u i t e clear. W h a t t h e y seek a r e gifts a n d a t t e n t i o n from t h e m e n f o l k , u s u a l l y from t h e h u s b a n d s , each spirit r e q u e s t i n g t h i n g s w h i c h reflect its t r i b a l i d e n t i t y . Swahili spirits t h u s d e m a n d richly e m b r o i d e r e d A r a b - s t y l e h a t s , a n d E u r o p e a n spirits articles which the K a m b a take to symbolize E u r o p e a n identity. W o m e n ' s c l o t h e s a r e a p o p u l a r r e q u e s t , s o t h a t t h e spirits h e l p t o e n l a r g e t h e w a r d r o b e s o f t h o s e t h e y possess. T h a t c o n s c i o u s d e c e p tion is s o m e t i m e s i n v o l v e d h e r e is clearly i n d i c a t e d in a p o i g n a n t little case h i s t o r y r e c o r d e d by L i n d b l o m . A w o m a n w i t h a c r a v i n g for m e a t could only gain her h u s b a n d ' s consent to the slaughter of an animal b y r e s o r t t o possession i n w h i c h h e r h u n g e r w a s voiced b y t h e spirit. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h o w e v e r , o n c e h e r d e s i r e s w e r e satisfied she m a d e t h e s e r i o u s m i s t a k e of b o a s t i n g h e r successful d e c e p t i o n so o p e n l y t h a t it c a m e t o t h e e a r s o f t h e h u s b a n d w h o , o u t r a g e d , sent h e r p a c k i n g t o her father. Parallel cases a r e r e p o r t e d from T a n z a n i a , w h e r e , s o m e thirty years a g o , K o r i t s c h o n e r d e s c r i b e d t h e h i g h i n c i d e n c e i n w o m e n o f a n affliction p o p u l a r l y called ' d e v i l ' s d i s e a s e ' in Swahili. A g a i n the possessing spirit, w h i c h m a n i f e s t s its p r e s e n c e b y hysterical a n d o t h e r s y m p t o m s , d e m a n d s gifts which reflect its origin. T r e a t m e n t h e r e is often a lengthy b u s i n e s s ; a n d involves n o t o n l y t h e u s u a l costly c a t h a r t i c d a n c e s b u t also t h e p r e s e n c e for s o m e t i m e of t h e t h e r a p i s t w i t h i n t h e family of t h e afflicted w o m a n . In this e n l i g h t e n e d t h e r a p y , t h e sick wife is m a d e to feel t h e c e n t r e of a t t e n t i o n a n d h e r h u s b a n d m a y even be constrained t o m o d i f y h i s b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s h i s s p o u s e ( K o r i t s c h o n e r , 1936, p p . 2 0 9 - 2 1 7 ) . A m o n g t h e S w a h i l i o f s o u t h e r n K e n y a , similar possession illnesses i n w i v e s , e x p r e s s i n g c o n j u g a l strife, a r e t r e a t e d b y e x p e n s i v e e x o r c i s m s controlled by m e n . In t h e e x o r c i s m a sort of b a r g a i n i n g from a position of weakness ensues in which: ' d e m a n d s m a d e by w o m e n i n m a r r i a g e (for m o n e y , c l o t h e s a n d c o n s u m e r goods) a n d refused, a r e m a d e i n t h e voice o f a m a l e spirit a n d g r a n t e d . H u s b a n d s a r e p u b l i c l y b o u n d t o p r o v i d e t h e g o o d s w h i c h will b e u s e d b y t h e wife i n t h e n a m e o f t h e spirit after " c u r e " h a s b e e n effected.' ( G o m m , 1975, p . 5 3 4 : o n p a t t e r n s o f S w a h i l i possession m o r e generally see G i l e s , 1987.) A g a i n , a m o n g t h e L u o o f K e n y a a n o t h e r a c c o u n t describes a similar cult of a m o r a l , m a l e v o l e n t spirits of e x t e r n a l o r i g i n , e x i s t i n g alongside
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the ancestor cult which sustains local m o r a l i t y . T h e L u o ancestors c a u s e sickness a n d m i s f o r t u n e a m o n g s t t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s w h e n p e o p l e , neglecting c u s t o m a r y rules, c o m m i t sins. B u t t h e foreign n o n - a n c e s t r a l spirits, w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r l y single o u t w o m e n for t h e i r a t t e n t i o n s , a r e not c o n c e r n e d with a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e social c o d e . T h e y c a u s e a w i d e range of afflictions r a n g i n g from o r g a n i c illnesses to such m i n o r t r o u b l e s as constipation. T r e a t m e n t , which as usual is expensive a n d involves d a n c i n g a n d feasting, is u n d e r t a k e n by a female s h a m a n w h o s u m m o n s t h e spirit possessing t h e p a t i e n t a n d finds o u t w h a t i t w a n t s . O f t e n a victim h a s t o b e t e m p o r a r i l y ' h o s p i t a l i z e d ' i n t h e s h a m a n ' s h o m e , thus enjoying a p l e a s a n t respite from t h e w o r k - a - d a y w o r l d of t h e h a r d pressed L u o housewife. I n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e t h e r a p y , t h e spirit a g e n c y involved is not so m u c h p e r m a n e n t l y expelled as b r o u g h t u n d e r control. A n d o n c e p r o n o u n c e d f i t , a n d r e s t o r e d t o t h e b o s o m o f h e r family, the wife m u s t h e n c e f o r t h b e t r e a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n lest t h e d r e a d e d affliction r e c u r ( W h i s s o n , 1964). Finally from E a s t Africa, a m o n g t h e T a i t a , G r a c e H a r r i s h a s described a similar w o m a n ' s possession affliction caused by spirits o t h e r t h a n those which sanction m o r a l i t y , a n d f u n c t i o n i n g i n m u c h t h e s a m e way t o e x e r t p r e s s u r e o n m e n . H e r e a n e l e m e n t w h i c h i s p r e s e n t i n m a n y of these c a t h a r t i c r i t u a l s a n d w h i c h is in this case p a r t i c u l a r l y stressed i s t h e a s s u m p t i o n b y possessed w o m e n o f m a l e p o s t u r e s a n d d r e s s . H e r e too t h e r e is direct e v i d e n c e , w h i c h is n o t a l w a y s so well elucidated, that w o m e n actually envy m e n a n d resent t h e m a l e d o m i n a tion w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o s o m e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , t h e y s h o u l d b e c o n d i tioned t o e n d u r e w i t h e q u a n i m i t y a n d p a s s i v e a c c e p t a n c e ( H a r r i s , 1957, p p . 1 0 4 6 - 6 6 ) . T h e n u m b e r of cults of this t y p e in Africa is legion a n d we shall h a v e space h e r e for only o n e further e x a m p l e , from W e s t Africa, w h i c h is p a r t i c u l a r l y e l a b o r a t e a n d well d e v e l o p e d . Like its e a s t e r n a n a l o g u e zar, t h e H a u s a bori spirit cult of N i g e r i a a n d N i g e r h a s s p r e a d to N o r t h Africa a n d h a s a w i d e d i s t r i b u t i o n (see e . g . T r e m e a r n e , 1914; D e r m e n g h e m , 1954; M o n f o u g a - N i c o l a s , 1972; E c h a r d , 1978; B e s m e r , 1983). T h e cult i s b a s e d u p o n a n i m p o s i n g p a n t h e o n o f s o m e t w o h u n d r e d individually n a m e d divinities which are related a m o n g s t t h e m s e l v e s in a m a n n e r r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e g o d s of a n c i e n t G r e e c e . T h e s e spirits r a n g e i n d e s c e n d i n g o r d e r o f g r a n d e u r from t h e m i g h t y ' K i n g of the jinns' to a t i n y c l u s t e r of s p r i t e s k n o w n familiarly as ' t h e little s p o t s ' w h i c h , d e s p i t e t h e i r i n n o c e n t - s o u n d i n g n a m e , a r e h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e n o t o n l y for a n u m b e r of m i n o r a i l m e n t s b u t also for
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s m a l l p o x . As w i t h m a n y of its less e x p a n s i v e c o u n t e r p a r t s , this bori g a l a x y is t h u s n o t m e r e l y a c e n s u s of s p i r i t u a l forces, b u t e q u a l l y a m e d i c a l d i c t i o n a r y . E a c h spirit is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p of s y m p t o m s , although there is inevitably some overlap. B o t h a m o n g s t t h e M u s l i m H a u s a i n W e s t Africa p r o p e r , a n d i n its n o r t h e r n e x t e n s i o n in N o r t h Africa this cult is a g a i n p r e d o m i n a n t l y one of w o m e n . W o m e n are the regular devotees in shamanistic exercises designed to cure a n d control the grounds of their ailments. H e r e , a s e l s e w h e r e , i n t h e p o l y g y n o u s family, w o m e n s u c c u m b t o afflictions c a u s e d by t h e s e p a t h o g e n i c spirits in s i t u a t i o n s of d o m e s t i c conflict a n d strife. It is t h u s m o s t significant t h a t a m o n g s t the residual, p a g a n H a u s a , w h e n a m a n t u r n s t o e m b r a c e I s l a m , his wife i s a p t to j o i n t h e bori cult ( L a s t , 1979). W h e n possessed, such wives are treated with a deference a n d respect which they are not otherwise accorded. T h u s , a s a N i g e r i a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t h a s p u t it, wives m a n i p u l a t e bori e p i s o d e s in s u c h a w a y as to r e d u c e t h e i r h u s b a n d s to social a n d e c o n o m i c s t r a i t s . H e n c e bori is n o t only a symbolic b u t also a real w a y o f d e f y i n g t h e m a l e d o m i n a n c e w h i c h p e r v a d e s H a u s a society. In bori w o m e n find an e s c a p e from a world d o m i n a t e d b y m e n ; a n d t h r o u g h bori t h e w o r l d o f w o m e n t e m p o r arily subdues and humiliates the world of m e n (Onwuejeogwu, 1969). I t i s n o t m y i n t e n t i o n t o p r o l o n g this recital o f w o m e n ' s c o m p l a i n t s i n d e f i n i t e l y . A few brief e x a m p l e s o u t s i d e Africa m u s t , h o w e v e r , be g i v e n if o n l y to i n d i c a t e t h a t w h a t we a r e d i s c u s s i n g is far from b e i n g a u n i q u e l y African s y n d r o m e . In the Polar regions, w o m e n are especially p r o n e t o c o n t r a c t ' A r c t i c h y s t e r i a ' w h i c h m a y b e d i a g n o s e d as p o s s e s s i o n by a spirit. T h e i n c i d e n c e of this affliction is h i g h e s t in the harsh winter m o n t h s w h e n the struggle to survive is most acute. G u s s o w , w h o h a s i n t e r p r e t e d this c o n d i t i o n i n F r e u d i a n t e r m s , refers t o t h e h y s t e r i c a l flights, t o w h i c h t h o s e affected a r e p r o n e , a s u n conscious seductive m a n o e u v r e s and invitations to male pursuit. It is, h e a r g u e s , t h e refuge o f t h o s e w o m e n w h o i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f a d v e r s i t y a n d f r u s t r a t i o n seek l o v i n g r e a s s u r a n c e . S t r i p p e d o f its F r e u d i a n c a d e n c e s , t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n closely parallels t h e line of a n a l y s i s w h i c h w e h a v e b e e n following ( G u s s o w , 1960). S i m i l a r l y , i n p a r t s o f S o u t h A m e r i c a , w h e r e t r a d i t i o n a l deities still u p h o l d c u s t o m a r y m o r a l i t y a n d a r e m o n o p o l i z e d b y m e n , w e find
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w o m e n p r o n e t o a t t a c k b y p e r i p h e r a l spirits o f t h e sort w e h a v e c o m e t o a n t i c i p a t e . T h i s i s t h e c a s e , for i n s t a n c e , a m o n g s t t h e M a p u c h e o f C h i l e , w h e r e such afflicted w o m e n m a y i n t h e c o u r s e o f t i m e g r a d u a t e t o b e c o m e female s h a m a n s . T h e Black C a r i b w o m e n o f B r i t i s h H o n d u r a s a r e likewise p l a g u e d by a v a r i e t y of evil spirits w h i c h h a v e no connection with the ancestors w h o , within a Christian framework, uphold morality. O n e such is a d e m o n bush-sprite which lurks in s h a d y places, a n d i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t e d t o p r e g n a n t o r m e n s t r u a t i n g w o m e n . I t w o o s w o m e n i n t h e i r d r e a m s a n d inflicts sickness u p o n t h e m . B u t the m o s t feared of all s u c h spirits in this c u l t u r e is t h a t described as the ' d e v o u r e r ' , which is claimed to be k n o w n in English b y t h e o u t l a n d i s h title o f ' b e l z i n g - b u g ' . T h i s terrifying c r e a t u r e c a n a s s u m e such v a r i o u s forms as a c r a b , s n a k e , h e n , a r m a d i l l o , or i g u a n a , a n d possesses girls, m a k i n g t h e m d a n c e . T h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s e afflictions is, as we h a v e n o w l e a r n t to e x p e c t , as r e w a r d i n g to t h e w o m e n molested a s i t i s e c o n o m i c a l l y d a m a g i n g t o t h e i r h u s b a n d s a n d menfolk ( T a y l o r , 1951). T h i s sex-linked possession s y n d r o m e w e a r e t r a c i n g s e e m s t o b e equally prevalent in India a n d in South East Asia generally. In U t t a r P r a d e s h disaffiliated m a l e v o l e n t spirits, o r g h o s t s , h a u n t t h e w e a k a n d v u l n e r a b l e a n d those w h o s e social c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e p r e c a r i o u s . T h u s the y o u n g b r i d e ' b e s e t b y h o m e s i c k n e s s , fearful t h a t she m a y n o t b e able t o p r e s e n t sons t o h e r h u s b a n d a n d his family m a y label h e r w o e s a form of ghost p o s s e s s i o n ' . A n d , 'if she h a s b e e n i g n o r e d a n d s u b o r d i n a t e d , t h e spirit possession m a y t a k e a n e v e n m o r e d r a m a t i c a n d strident form as a c o m p e n s a t i o n for t h e o b s c u r i t y u n d e r w h i c h she h a s l a b o u r e d ' ( O p l e r , 1 9 5 8 , D u b e , 1970). A m o n g s t t h e H a v i k B r a h m i n s o f M y s o r e , w h e r e a s m a n y a s t w e n t y p e r c e n t o f all w o m e n a r e likely t o e x p e r i e n c e p e r i p h e r a l possession a t s o m e p o i n t i n t h e i r lives, t h e p a t t e r n is similar. H e r e it is a g a i n m a i n l y i n s e c u r e y o u n g b r i d e s ( o r older, infertile w o m e n ) w h o a r e m o s t e x p o s e d t o this form o f possession. M o r e g e n e r a l l y , w o m e n a s a class a r e c o n s i d e r e d w e a k a n d v u l n e r a b l e a n d t h u s easily o v e r c o m e b y spirits w h i c h , flatteringly, a r e believed t o b e a t t r a c t e d b y t h e i r b e a u t y . I n p o s s e s s i o n , t h e spirit c o n v e y s ' i t s ' d e m a n d s , c a u s i n g t h e h u s b a n d a n d his family t o m o u n t an expensive ceremony designed to placate it a n d to persuade it to leave t h e sick h o s t . U n t i l wives h a v e g a i n e d m o r e s e c u r e p o s i t i o n s i n their families o f m a r r i a g e a n d h a v e g i v e n b i r t h t o h e i r s , t h e illness i s liable t o r e c u r , t h u s g r a n t i n g t h e sick w o m a n all t h e a t t e n t i o n a n d influence w h i c h she i s o t h e r w i s e d e n i e d ( H a r p e r , 1 9 6 3 , p p . 1 6 5 - 1 7 7 ) .
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R e p o r t s from M u s l i m M a l a y s i a h a v e , likewise, t e n d e d t o focus a t t e n tion o n t h e d r a m a t i c d i a g n o s t i c a n d h e a l i n g seances o f t h e inspired s h a m a n (bomoh). M o r e recently, h o w e v e r , as well as p r e s e n t i n g a subtle a n a l y s i s of t h e s y m b o l i s m of t h e s e a n c e , C l i v e Kessler (1977) h a s carefully a n a l y s e d t h e e p i d e m i o l o g y of possession afflictions which p r i n c i p a l l y affect w o m e n . T h e r e a r e t h r e e m a i n c a t e g o r i e s o f female v i c t i m : r e l u c t a n t y o u n g b r i d e s i n a r r a n g e d m a r r i a g e s ; o l d e r wives c a u g h t in t h e stresses of p o l y g y n o u s m a r r i a g e with the threat of divorce; a n d w i d o w s a n d d i v o r c e e s . T h e i n s i d e n c e o f possession i n all t h r e e c a s e s , a s K e s s l e r ( 1 9 7 7 , p . 316) s h o w s , ' d e r i v e s from a n d also q u i t e o p e n l y e x p r e s s e s t h e p r o b l e m a t i c r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e sexes i n K e l a n t a n e s e peasant society'. T h e evidence thus confirms 'the c o n n e x i o n ' , w e a r e t r a c i n g b e t w e e n ' s t r e s s , illness a n d p o s s e s s i o n ' , a n d ' t h e sexual politics involved h e r e a r e , m o r e o v e r , largely u n d e r s t o o d b y bomoh a n d e x p r e s s e d . . . i n t h e r i t u a l t h e r a p y t h e y e m p l o y ' . I n r u r a l Sri L a n k a , t h e s a m e possession p a t t e r n r e c u r s ; s u b o r d i n a t e w o m e n a r e f r e q u e n t l y beset b y d e m o n s w h i c h c a u s e sickness a n d voice t h e d e m a n d s of t h e afflicted host v e r y clearly. H e r e , as we h a v e seen i n s o m e p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e s , t h e r e i s also explicit e v i d e n c e t h a t w o m e n r e s e n t t h e position g r a n t e d t h e m b y m e n : t h e partial alleviation which t h e y a c h i e v e b y possession d o e s n o t e x h a u s t t h e i r a n t a g o n i s m . T h u s w o m e n f r e q u e n t l y p r a y t o b e r e b o r n a s m e n a n d give o t h e r indicat i o n s of t h e i r dissatisfaction w i t h t h e i r lot as a sex ( O b e y e s e k e r e , 1970, 1 9 8 1 ; see also K a p f e r e r , 1983). A g a i n i n B u r m a , a s S p i r o h a s s h o w n , t h e cult of a m o r a l nat spirits w h i c h is led by possessed w o m e n c o m p l e m e n t s t h e official B u d d h i s t religion d o m i n a t e d b y m e n , a n d p e r m i t s t h e f o r m e r sex t o p r o t e c t a n d a d v a n c e t h e i r interests ( S p i r o , 1967). S i m i l a r l y , in o n e of t h e v e r y r a r e sociological a n a l y s e s of these p h e n o m e n a in Indonesia, F r e e m a n has reported the same patterns of m a r r i e d w o m e n ' s spirit a i l m e n t s , a m o n g t h e I b a n o f w e s t e r n B o r n e o , w h i c h a r e a t t r i b u t e d i n this case t o possession b y lustful m a l e i n c u b i ( F r e e m a n , 1965). I n t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n e s e c u l t u r e a l s o , w o m e n a r e , a s ever, especially liable to possession by disaffiliated spirits a n d , as is well k n o w n , play a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t a s m e d i u m s a n d s h a m a n s . T h u s , i n a psychiatric s t u d y i n H o n g K o n g (to w h i c h I shall b e referring a g a i n later), w o m e n i n s i t u a t i o n s o f d o m e s t i c stress a n d conflict a r e s h o w n t o e m p l o y t h e s a m e feminist s t r a t e g y w i t h s i m i l a r results ( Y a p , 1960, p p . 1 1 4 - 3 7 ) . F i n a l l y , in t h e profusely syncretic J a p a n e s e religious tradition w h e r e a p e r e n n i a l s h a m a n i c c u r r e n t h a s flowed from t h e earliest t i m e s to t h e
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p r e s e n t , possessed w o m e n h a v e figured p r o m i n e n t l y . A c c o r d i n g t o H o r i (1968), t h e leading a u t h o r i t y on J a p a n e s e folk religion, the generic t e r m for s h a m a n , or possessed m e d i u m miko i m p l i e s t h a t t h e role is p r i m a r i l y a f e m i n i n e o n e . H i s t o r i a n s of t h e a n c i e n t ' t h e o c r a t i c ' period describe possessed female s h a m a n s a c t i n g a s c o u r t oracles a n d , i n s o m e t r a d i t i o n s , s u c h i n s p i r e d female s h a m a n s figure a s d y n a s t i c founders. In the H e i a n period (784-1185), c o n t e m p o r a r y sources r e c o u n t cases o f a r i s t o c r a t i c w o m e n possessed b y g o d s a n d spirits i n contexts of d o m e s t i c strife of t h e k i n d w i t h w h i c h we a r e n o w familiar. T h e e l e v e n t h - c e n t u r y Tale of Genji c o n t a i n s a n u m b e r of s t r i k i n g episodes o f j e a l o u s w o m e n possessed b y a g g r e s s i v e spirits i n c o n t e x t s o f p o l y g y n o u s a n d c o n c u b i n a l conflict, w i t h t h e u s u a l s e x - w a r o v e r tones ( B a r g e n , 1986). T h i s t r a d i t i o n o f female spirit possession h a s persisted t o t h e p r e s e n t ( B l a c k e r , 1975) a n d i n c o n t e m p o r a r y J a p a n spirit possession i s o n e o f t h e c o m m o n e s t p r o b l e m s b r i n g i n g w o m e n to seek refuge in t h e exorcistic J a p a n e s e ' N e w R e l i g i o n s ' w h o s e f o u n d e r s a r e frequently possessed w o m e n ( D a v i s , 1980). T h e l i n k a g e b e t w e e n w o m e n ' s spirit afflictions, a n d d o m e s t i c conflict is, p e r h a p s , t o d a y e v e n m o r e directly a n d p e r v a s i v e l y e v i d e n t i n S o u t h K o r e a (see e.g. H a r v e y , 1979; a n d K e n d a l l , 1985).
IV It will n o w be clear, I t h i n k , t h a t we a r e d e a l i n g w i t h a w i d e s p r e a d spiritual i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f female p r o b l e m s c o m m o n t o m a n y c u l t u r e s , w h o s e d i a g n o s i s a n d t r e a t m e n t gives w o m e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o g a i n ends (material and non-material) which they cannot readily secure m o r e directly. W o m e n a r e , in effect, m a k i n g a special v i r t u e of a d v e r sity a n d affliction, a n d , often q u i t e literally, c a p i t a l i z i n g o n t h e i r distress. T h i s cult of f e m i n i n e frailty w h i c h , in its a e t i o l a t e d f o r m , is familiar e n o u g h t o u s from t h e s w o o n i n g a t t a c k s e x p e r i e n c e d b y V i c t o r i a n w o m e n i n s i m i l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i s a d m i r a b l y well a d a p t e d to t h e life s i t u a t i o n of t h o s e w h o e m p l o y it. By b e i n g o v e r c o m e i n v o l u n t a r i l y b y a n a r b i t r a r y affliction for w h i c h t h e y c a n n o t b e h e l d a c c o u n t a b l e , these possessed w o m e n g a i n a t t e n t i o n a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n a n d , w i t h i n v a r i o u s l y defined l i m i t s , successfully m a n o e u v r e t h e i r h u s b a n d s a n d menfolk. Since the illnesses which they suffer a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as m a l i g n possessions in w h i c h t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y a n d volition a r e effaced by t h o s e of the spirits, i t i s o b v i o u s l y n o t t h e w o m e n t h e m s e l v e s w h o m a k e t h e s e
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w e a r i s o m e a n d costly d e m a n d s o n m e n . A l t h o u g h t h e spirits s p e a k i n g i n v a r i o u s t o n g u e s , all m o n o t o n o u s l y voice t h e s a m e (to m a l e ears) i r k s o m e r e q u e s t s , t h e i r e n u n c i a t i o n in this o b l i q u e fashion m a k e s it possible for m e n t o give i n t o t h e m w i t h o u t ostensibly d e f e r r i n g t o their wives or j e o p a r d i z i n g their position of d o m i n a n c e . A n d if, in the possession r i t u a l s , a s t h e y often d o , w o m e n ( n o d o u b t often i n m o c k e r y ) a s s u m e m e n ' s c l o t h i n g a n d a c c o u t r e m e n t s a n d b e h a v e a t least a s a g g r e s s i v e l y as t h e i r p a r t n e r s , is n o t i m i t a t i o n t h e sincerest form of flattery? H e n c e , w i t h i n b o u n d s w h i c h a r e n o t infinitely elastic, b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n a r e m o r e o r less satisfied: n e i t h e r sex loses face a n d t h e official i d e o l o g y of m a l e s u p r e m a c y is p r e s e r v e d . F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e t o l e r a n c e b y m e n o f p e r i o d i c , b u t a l w a y s t e m p o r a r y , assaults o n t h e i r a u t h o r i t y b y w o m e n a p p e a r s a s t h e price t h e y h a v e t o p a y t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r e n v i a b l e p o s i t i o n . T h e concessions w o m e n extract c a n b e r e g a r d e d , i n t u r n , a s ' r e w a r d s for c o l l u d i n g i n their o w n o p p r e s sion' ( G o m m , 1975, p. 541). I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n t h e a c t u a l c o n c e p t u a l i d e n t i t y o f t h e spirits g e n e r a l l y involved s e e m s h i g h l y significant. In m o s t cases these spirits a r e e i t h e r u n w e l c o m e a l i e n s o r i g i n a t i n g a m o n g hostile n e i g h b o u r i n g p e o p l e s , o r m i s c h i e v o u s n a t u r e s p r i t e s e x i s t i n g o u t s i d e society a n d c u l t u r e . I n o t h e r cases w h e r e this salient c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e x t e r n a l i t y i s m o r e n a r r o w l y d e f i n e d , t h e y a r e e i t h e r restive, disaffiliated ghosts, o r a n c e s t o r s b e l o n g i n g t o g r o u p s o t h e r t h a n those w h e r e t h e y c a u s e s o m u c h h a v o c . I n a w o r d , t h e y a r e o t h e r p e o p l e s ' spirits. T h e y a r e t h u s officially dissociated, as we h a v e seen, from t h e overt social n o r m s of t h e c o m m u n i t i e s in w h i c h t h e y figure so f r e q u e n t l y as sources of affliction. T h i s o s t e n s i b l y a m o r a l , r a t h e r t h a n i m m o r a l q u a l i t y m a k e s t h e m p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e as t h e c a r r i e r s of disease for w h i c h those w h o s u c c u m b t o t h e m c a n n o t possibly b e b l a m e d . A g a i n , b o t h w o m e n a n d m e n c a n h a v e a c l e a r c o n s c i e n c e o n this s c o r e .
1
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e special p r e d i l e c t i o n w h i c h these p e r i p h e r a l s p i r i t s d i s p l a y for w o m e n s e e m s also p e c u l i a r l y f i t t i n g . F o r w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e y b e r e g a r d e d a s p a w n s i n t h e m a r r i a g e g a m e s w h i c h LeviS t r a u s s a n d o t h e r alliance t h e o r y e n t h u s i a s t s insist m e n a r e always

To appreciate the full significance of this evasive action we have to go back to Job in the Old Testament. Like him, most tribal communities assume that a high proportion of misfortunes and illnesses are to be interpreted as punishments for sins. Possession by a peripheral spirit thus provides an explanation of sickness which does not carry this implication of guilt.
1
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p l a y i n g , t h e r e i s n o d o u b t t h a t i n m a n y , i f n o t m o s t societies w o m e n a r e i n fact t r e a t e d a s p e r i p h e r a l c r e a t u r e s . T h e p e r i p h e r a l i t y o f w o m e n in this sense is, irrespective of t h e system of descent followed, a general feature of all those societies in w h i c h m e n h o l d a s e c u r e m o n o p o l y of the m a j o r p o w e r positions a n d d e n y t h e i r p a r t n e r s effective j u r a l e q u a l i t y . H e r e , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e i s i n o n e sense a n o b v i o u s a n d vital c o n t r a d i c t i o n since, w h a t e v e r t h e i r legal p o s i t i o n , w o m e n a r e e q u a l l y essential to t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n of life a n d of m e n . It is t h e y w h o p r o d u c e a n d r e a r c h i l d r e n , a n d play a m a j o r p a r t i n t h e i r e a r l y t r a i n i n g a n d education. T h u s the t r e a t m e n t of w o m e n as marginal persons denies, o r a t least i g n o r e s , t h e i r f u n d a m e n t a l bio-social i m p o r t a n c e a n d i n social t e r m s clashes with their d e e p c o m m i t m e n t to a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e a n d society. R e t u r n i n g n o w to o u r previous a r g u m e n t , if, to a significant d e g r e e , it is in t e r m s of t h e m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n of w o m e n from full p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n social a n d political affairs a n d t h e i r f i n a l s u b j e c t i o n t o m e n t h a t w e should seek t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r m a r k e d p r o m i n e n c e i n p e r i p h e r a l possession we m u s t also r e m e m b e r that these cults which express sexual a n d d o m e s t i c t e n s i o n s a r e yet p e r m i t t e d t o exist b y m e n . I t s e e m s possible t h a t this t o l e r a n c e b y m e n o f t h e s e c u l t s , a s well a s t h e r i t u a l licence a n d blessing also a c c o r d e d t o w o m e n m o r e g e n e r a l l y , m a y reflect a s h a d o w y r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e injustice of this c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e official s t a t u s o f w o m e n a n d t h e i r a c t u a l i m p o r t a n c e t o society. If, in short, w o m e n a r e s o m e t i m e s , even in traditional societies, explicitly e n v i o u s o f m e n , t h e d o m i n a n t sex i n t u r n also acts i n w a y s which suggest t h a t i t r e c o g n i z e s t h a t w o m e n m a y h a v e s o m e g r o u n d for c o m p l a i n t . T h i s is n o t t h e o n l y factor affecting m e n ' s i n t e r e s t s a n d behaviour however. As R o g e r G o m m (1975) shrewdly observes, the redefinition of a p r o b l e m of discipline (of t h e h u s b a n d o v e r t h e wife) as a p r o b l e m of possession e n a b l e s m e n to m a i n t a i n 'a s t a n c e of c o m p e t e n c e in t h e face of conflicting e v i d e n c e a l t h o u g h at a financial c o s t ' . M o r e o v e r , t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of a m a r i t a l p r o b l e m ' i n t o o n e of possession' e n a b l e s all p a r t i e s to c o - o p e r a t e in effecting a ' c u r e ' . T h e s e aspects a r e p e r h a p s m o r e e v i d e n t w h e n w e c o n s i d e r t h e w i d e r e l a b o r a t i o n s of w o m e n ' s p e r i p h e r a l p o s s e s s i o n . A l t h o u g h I h a v e r e p e a t e d l y u s e d t h e t e r m ' c u l t ' , s o far I h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t h e u s e m a d e b y w o m e n i n t h e i r d o m e s t i c s i t u a t i o n o f possession afflictions as an oblique protest strategy against h u s b a n d s a n d menfolk. T h e i r possession i s diagnosed a n d treated a s a n illness. T h e p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s is s o m e t i m e s initially on t h e c a s t i n g o u t , or e x o r c i s m of t h e i n t r u s i v e
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p a t h o g e n i c spirit. B u t since such c o m p l a i n t s t e n d t o b e h a b i t - f o r m i n g , w h a t is e v e n t u a l l y a c h i e v e d is often m o r e in t h e n a t u r e of an a c c o m m o d a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c h r o n i c a l l y possessed p a t i e n t a n d h e r familiar. T h e p a t i e n t l e a r n s , in effect, to live with h e r spirit. T h e spirit i s t h u s finally ' t a m e d ' a n d b r o u g h t u n d e r c o n t r o l , b u t usually only at t h e cost of r e c u r r e n t c e r e m o n i e s in its h o n o u r . T h i s process is n o r m a l l y realized b y t h e w o m a n c o n c e r n e d j o i n i n g a c l u b , o r g r o u p of o t h e r similarly p l a c e d w o m e n u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n of a female s h a m a n . S u c h societies m e e t p e r i o d i c a l l y t o h o l d d a n c e s a n d feasts for the spirits in which their m e m b e r s i n c a r n a t e their familiars a n d perform rituals in their honour. A s l o n g a s w e m a i n t a i n t h e e x t e r n a l view w h i c h m e n e n d o r s e t h a t all these activities a r e d e s i g n e d to c o m b a t sickness a n d disease, we can consider t h e m as directly therapeutic in intention. T h e y are e s s e n t i a l l y c u r e s , a n d i n p s y c h i a t r i c t e r m s , t h e cult m e e t i n g s a s s u m e m u c h o f t h e c h a r a c t e r o f g r o u p t h e r a p y sessions. ( T h i s i s a n aspect o f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r w h i c h w e shall discuss m o r e fully l a t e r . ) H o w e v e r , from r e p o r t s of t h e e l a b o r a t e , if furtive, r i t u a l p r o c e d u r e s involved a n d f r o m w h i c h m e n a r e r i g o r o u s l y e x c l u d e d it is a b u n d a n t l y clear t h a t s u c h o c c a s i o n s a r e for t h e w o m e n t h e m s e l v e s m o r e i n t h e n a t u r e of r e l i g i o u s services. T h u s t h e h e a l i n g cult is, for its p a r t i c i p a n t s , a c l a n d e s t i n e religion, a n d w o m e n a r e for o n c e e x e r c i s i n g a d o u b l e s t a n d a r d . W h a t m e n reluctantly accept at face value as illness a n d c u r e , t h e w e a k e r sex enjoys as a r e l i g i o u s d r a m a . W h a t is for b o t h initially an illness, t h u s b e c o m e s for w o m e n a t r a u m a t i c i n d u c t i o n i n t o a cult g r o u p . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w e h a v e h e r e a feminist s u b - c u l t u r e , with a n e c s t a t i c r e l i g i o n r e s t r i c t e d t o w o m e n a n d p r o t e c t e d from m a l e a t t a c k t h r o u g h its r e p r e s e n t a t i o n as a t h e r a p y for illness. J u s t as with those o t h e r p o s s e s s i o n cults i n v o l v i n g m e n , w h i c h o c c u p y a c e n t r a l position i n society a n d w h e r e t h e r o y a l r o a d t o d i v i n e election lies t h r o u g h affliction, so also h e r e w h a t begins in suffering e n d s in religious ecstasy. T h e s e a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y , b u t i n reality highly c o m p a t i b l e , e l e m e n t s a r e all p r e s e n t in t a r a n t i s m as it s u r v i v e s t o d a y in s o u t h e r n Italy a n d S a r d i n i a . T h i s , as we saw in t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , is officially a n illness c a u s e d b y t h e bite o f t h e d r e a d e d t a r a n t u l a spider. B u t since, o f t h e t w o t a r a n t u l a s p i d e r s , t h e o n e w h o s e bite i s actually h a r m l e s s is t h a t selected as t h e o s t e n s i b l e c a u s e of this d i s e a s e , t h e r e is clearly m o r e t o t a r a n t i s m t h a n a t f i r s t a p p e a r s . O t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s fully c o n f i r m this s u s p i c i o n . T h o s e w h o h a v e b e e n ' b i t t e n ' o n c e , ree x p e r i e n c e t h e effects o f t h e ' b i t e ' a t r e g u l a r , often a n n u a l , i n t e r v a l s .
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T h e bite c a n also e v e n r u n i n families. Its f i r s t o c c u r r e n c e c o i n c i d e s with t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f stress a n d conflict b y t h e v i c t i m . A n d w o m e n , t h o u g h they a r e actually less likely to be in c o n t a c t w i t h t h e real t a r a n tula w h i c h could c a u s e t h e i r s y m p t o m s , a r e m u c h m o r e p r o n e t o c o n t r a c t this disease t h a n m e n . T h a t w e a r e c o n c e r n e d h e r e w i t h s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e e x a l t e d a n d a r c a n e t h a n t h e effects o f a real spider bite, is further indicated by t h e rich m y t h o l o g y a n d ritual w h i c h , c o n t r a r y to t h e a p p a r e n t l y n o n - m y s t i c a l aetiology of t h e affliction, lies at t h e h e a r t of t a r a n t i s m . In t h e first p l a c e , t h e s p i d e r i n v o l v e d is no o r d i n a r y insect b u t a macabre cultural construct ambiguously connected with St Paul. F o l l o w i n g t h e c e l e b r a t e d i n c i d e n t w i t h t h e s e r p e n t s in M a l t a , it is t h i s saint w h o a l o n e i s c r e d i t e d w i t h t h e gift o f c u r i n g t h e b i t e ; a n d w h a t he c u r e s , he also causes. So the Apostle P a u l is a m b i v a l e n t l y assimilated t o t h e mystical s p i d e r , a n d i n A p u l i a t h e rites o f e x o r c i s m n o w t a k e place m a i n l y a t s h r i n e s d e d i c a t e d t o h i m . I n t h e p r o v i n c e o f S a l e n t e , w h e r e t a r a n t i s m h a s b e e n s t u d i e d o n t h e spot b y t h e I t a l i a n s c h o l a r , d e M a r t i n o , t h e m a i n c e r e m o n i e s t a k e place i n S t P a u l ' s c h a p e l i n the c h u r c h a t G a l a t i n a . H e r e t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a s s e m b l e a n n u a l l y o n the s a i n t ' s feast-day i n J u n e a n d d a n c e a n d sing t o t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t of r h y t h m i c clapping. T h o s e w h o seek a c u r e a n d those w h o c o m e t o celebrate their recovery, s u m m o n t h e saint with t h e i n v o c a t i o n : ' M y S t P a u l o f t h e T a r a n t i s t s w h o p r i c k s t h e girls i n t h e i r v a g i n a s : M y S t Paul of the Serpents w h o pricks the boys in their testicles.' T h i s strangely i n c o n g r u o u s identification of t h e libertine spider with the ascetic A p o s t l e is n o t as w a y w a r d as it a p p e a r s . F o r in e a r l i e r c e n t u r i e s , t h e revelries of t h e t a r a n t i s t s c e r t a i n l y h a d a h i g h l y e r o t i c c h a r a c t e r , e c h o i n g t h e frenzied d a n c i n g o f t h e m a e n a d s o f D i o n y s u s from w h i c h t h e r e i s s o m e r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h e y m a y a c t u a l l y h a v e developed. A n d since t a r a n t i s m t o d a y involves possession by t h e h y b r i d s p i d e r - s a i n t (for t h a t is w h a t t h e ' b i t e ' really signifies), t h e e x p r e s s i o n of this in t h e l a n g u a g e of physical love is, as we h a v e n o w so often seen, far from u n u s u a l . T h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e s a i n t ' s special p o w e r t o c u r e t h e affliction h a s t h u s e n a b l e d w h a t w a s p r o b a b l y , i n o r i g i n , a p r e - C h r i s t i a n a n d possibly o n c e D i o n y s i a n p o p u l a r cult t o b e a c c o m m o d a t e d w i t h i n t h e local p r a c t i c e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . W h a t is clearly i n v o l v e d h e r e t o d a y is a loosely C h r i s t i a n i z e d p e r i p h e r a l cult p r a c t i s e d m a i n l y b y p e a s a n t w o m e n . A s i n t h e o t h e r e x a m p l e s w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d , e n t r y t o t h e cult i s a c h i e v e d b y s u c c u m b i n g to an illness for w h i c h t h e m y t h i c a l t a r a n t u l a is h e l d
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r e s p o n s i b l e . T r e a t m e n t consists o f t h e u s u a l c a t h a r t i c d a n c e rituals conducted traditionally in the patient's own h o m e to the tune of the tarantella, b u t held increasingly today in the saint's chapel. As e l s e w h e r e , all this is a costly b u s i n e s s for, w h i l e t h e c h u r c h profits (as well a s t h e p a t i e n t ) , h e a v y e x p e n s e s fall u p o n t h e v i c t i m ' s h u s b a n d a n d m a l e k i n . O n c e b i t t e n , t h e subject i s n o r m a l l y b o u n d t o the spiders a i n t for life. T h e s y m p t o m s r e a p p e a r a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s , b e i n g i n t e r p r e t e d a s f u r t h e r bites b y t h e o r i g i n a l s p i d e r , a n d a b a t e only after t h e d a n c e i n its h o n o u r h a s b e e n c e l e b r a t e d . T h e association o f t h e s p i d e r w i t h S t P a u l , a n d o f t h e p r i n c i p a l c u r i n g c e r e m o n i e s w i t h his feast d a y , i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e cult w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h c a l e n d a r . A t y p i c a l e x a m p l e of t h e onset a n d s u b s e q u e n t t r e a t m e n t of t h e bite will s h o w h o w e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h a s b e e n said p r e v i o u s l y o f these cults a p p l i e s e q u a l l y h e r e ( d e M a r t i n o , 1966, p p . 75 ff). A girl, whose father h a d d i e d w h e n she w a s t h i r t e e n , w a s b r o u g h t u p i n p o o r circumstances b y a n a u n t a n d u n c l e . A t t h e a g e o f e i g h t e e n M a r i a fell i n love with a b o y w h o , since his family d i s a p p r o v e d of t h e m a t c h b e c a u s e of t h e girl's p o v e r t y , s u b s e q u e n t l y a b a n d o n e d her. M a r i a suffered m u c h from t h i s . O n e S u n d a y while g a z i n g listlessly o u t o f h e r w i n d o w , she w a s ' b i t t e n ' b y t h e s p i d e r a n d felt c o n s t r a i n e d t o d a n c e . A b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e , a w o m a n of t h e district b e g a n to t h i n k of M a r i a as a possible s p o u s e for h e r s o n . W h e n a s u i t a b l e o c c a s i o n p r e s e n t e d itself, t h e m o t h e r asked M a r i a to accept her boy in m a r r i a g e . To gain time, M a r i a , w h o w a s n o t a t t r a c t e d b y t h e p r o p o s a l , p l e a d e d t h a t she h a d n o t sufficient m o n e y t o m a k e a t r o u s s e a u , b e c a u s e o f h e r o u t l a y s t o m u s i c i a n s for h e r t a r a n t i s t d a n c e t r e a t m e n t . At this point, St Paul providentially a p p e a r e d , ordering M a r i a not t o m a r r y , a n d s u m m o n i n g h e r i n mystical u n i o n with himself. Shortly a f t e r w a r d s , h o w e v e r , t h e son a n d his m o t h e r succeeded i n luring M a r i a o u t t o a d e s e r t e d f a r m a n d forced h e r t o live t h e r e i n s h a m e . After a little t i m e , a q u a r r e l o c c u r r e d w h e n h e r m o r t a l s p o u s e b r u s q u e l y o r d e r e d h e r t o i r o n his c l o t h e s . A n d a s she w e n t o u t t o r e t u r n t h e iron she h a d b o r r o w e d from a n e i g h b o u r , she m e t S t P e t e r a n d S t P a u l w h o said to her: ' L e a v e the iron a n d come with u s . ' W h e n M a r i a r e p l i e d , ' A n d m y h u s b a n d , w h a t o f h i m ? ' she w a s told n o t t o w o r r y o n t h a t a c c o u n t . T h i s i n c i d e n t o c c u r r e d o n a S u n d a y , exactly a t t h e t i m e o f d a y w h e n she h a d b e e n b i t t e n b e f o r e . After h e a r i n g t h e s a i n t ' s w o r d s , M a r i a w a s a b s e n t for t h r e e d a y s , w a n d e r i n g t h r o u g h t h e fields. W h e n she r e t u r n e d , she d a n c e d , as a result of t h e second bite, for n i n e d a y s . W i t h this c u r i o u s l o v e - b i t e t h e saint s o u g h t t o r e m i n d M a r i a o f
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h e r holy tryst. Finally, M a r i a a c h i e v e d a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n t h e rival interests o f h e r h u m a n a n d s p i r i t u a l s p o u s e s . S h e a g r e e d t o a f o r m a l m a r r i a g e with h e r h u m a n s e d u c e r while c o n t i n u i n g t o c e l e b r a t e h e r spiritual u n i o n b y a n a n n u a l r e c r u d e s c e n c e o f h e r affliction i n t i m e to participate in the ceremonies on the saint's feast-day. T h u s , c o n s t r a i n e d b y c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o m a r r y a m a n she d i d n o t want, M a r i a continued to pay periodical tribute to the t a r a n t u l a a n d to t h e s a i n t , r e v i v i n g on e a c h o c c a s i o n , in t h e s y m b o l i s m of t h e r i t e , t h e o r i g i n a l a d v e n t u r e o f t h e b i t e o f love a n d b e i n g c u r e d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h r o u g h t h e grace o f h e r celestial h u s b a n d . W h a t h a d b e g u n a s a n affliction a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e d e m o n i c s p i d e r , h a d f o u n d its a p o t h e o s i s in a peculiarly intimate c o m m u n i o n with St Paul. A n d while M a r i a was t h u s able t o c o n t r o l h e r illness t h r o u g h h e r a n n u a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e P a u l i n e rites at G a l a t i n a , this w h o l e p a t t e r n of a c t i o n w a s h i g h l y expressive o f h e r p l i g h t . T h r o u g h t h e s e r e c u r r e n t o u t b r e a k s , followed by t r e a t m e n t at the shrine, M a r i a w a s able to sustain h e r c o n d e m n a t i o n of h e r forced m a r r i a g e , m a k i n g conjugal life difficult, i m p o s i n g severe e c o n o m i c stress o n t h e family w h i c h she d i d n o t l o v e , a n d f l a g r a n t l y calling p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n t o h e r p r o b l e m s . I f she c o u l d n o t r a d i c a l l y r e m e d y h e r s i t u a t i o n , at least she c o u l d c o n t i n u e to p r o t e s t at it in a religious i d i o m w h i c h m e n c o u l d c o n d o n e as a d i v i n e l y s a n c t i o n e d therapy.
V T o u n d e r s t a n d fully t h e d y n a m i c s o f this a n d o t h e r p e r i p h e r a l h e a l i n g cults, w e h a v e t o d i s t i n g u i s h clearly b e t w e e n a ' p r i m a r y ' a n d 'secondary' phase in the onset a n d t r e a t m e n t of possession. In the p r i m a r y p h a s e , w o m e n b e c o m e ill i n c o n t e x t s o f d o m e s t i c strife a n d their c o m p l a i n t s a r e d i a g n o s e d a s p o s s e s s i o n . T h e s e c o n d a r y p h a s e is i n a u g u r a t e d w h e n possession b o u t s b e c o m e c h r o n i c , a n d t h e afflicted wife i s i n d u c t e d into w h a t m a y b e c o m e p e r m a n e n t m e m b e r s h i p o f t h e possession cult g r o u p . I n t h e c o u r s e o f t i m e , she m a y t h e n g r a d u a t e t o t h e position o f female s h a m a n , d i a g n o s i n g t h e s a m e c o n d i t i o n i n other women, and thus perpetuating what m e n tend to regard, u n c h a r i t a b l y , as a vicious circle of female e x t o r t i o n . T h u s w h a t is considered to begin with as an uncontrolled, unsolicited, involuntary possession illness readily d e v e l o p s i n t o a n i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n t r o l l e d , a n d v o l u n t a r y religious exercise. T h e c l i m a x i n this cycle o c c u r s w h e n t h e role of s h a m a n is a s s u m e d by those w o m e n w h o , in full c o n t r o l of t h e i r
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own spirits, are considered to be capable of controlling and healing spirit afflictions in o t h e r s . Like t h e T u n g u s s h a m a n , they ' m a s t e r ' their o w n spirits a n d u s e t h e m for t h e p u b l i c g o o d , o r a t least for t h e good o f t h a t p u b l i c w h i c h consists o f w o m e n . T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s h a s b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y well d e s c r i b e d a m o n g s t t h e V e n d a t r i b e o f S o u t h e r n Africa. S t a y t , w h o s t u d i e d t h e s i t u a t i o n t h e r e i n t h e late 1920s, r e c o r d s t h a t alongside t h e c e n t r a l m o r a l i t y a n c e s t o r c u l t , a n influx o f i n t r u s i v e foreign spirits from t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g S h o n a p e o p l e s o f S o u t h e r n R h o d e s i a ( Z i m b a b w e ) h a d d e v e l o p e d a b o u t 1914. T h e s e invasive p o w e r s p o s s e s s e d w o m e n a n d s p o k e t h r o u g h t h e m i n t h e S h o n a dialect. Full o f m i s c h i e f a n d c a u s i n g illness, t h e s e sprites w e r e believed t o l u r k i n t h e c r e v i c e s o f t r e e s w h e r e t h e y m a d e w e i r d u n n a t u r a l noises. T h e i r p r e s e n c e i n sick m a r r i e d w o m e n w h o m t h e y r e g u l a r l y t o r m e n t e d w a s d i a g n o s e d a n d t r e a t e d b y female s h a m a n s . I n t h e c o u r s e o f t r e a t m e n t directed by the s h a m a n a n d consisting of d r u m m i n g a n d dancing, the spirit p o s s e s s i n g t h e p a t i e n t w o u l d r e v e a l its p r e s e n c e by a d e e p , bulllike g r u n t a n d t h e n a n n o u n c e its d e m a n d s . I n response t o the s h a m a n ' s i n t e r r o g a t i o n , t h e spirit w o u l d typically d e c l a r e : I a m s o - a n d - s o , a n d I e n t e r e d y o u w h e n y o u w e r e w a l k i n g in a c e r t a i n p l a c e . Y o u d i d not t r e a t me well; I w a n t a p r e s e n t , s o m e clothes or o r n a m e n t s . ' T h e spirit m i g h t also d e m a n d s u c h s y m b o l s o f m a l e a u t h o r i t y a s a s p e a r , a n a n c e s t r a l a x e , a t a i l - w h i s k , or a kerrie-stick. S u c h gifts w e r e formally offered t o t h e spirit w h o w o u l d t h e n allow t h e p a t i e n t t o recover. A s u s u a l , h o w e v e r , relief w a s o n l y t e m p o r a r y . F o l l o w i n g h e r f i r s t possession, a m a r r i e d w o m a n regularly s u c c u m b e d at times of difficulty a n d d i s t r e s s t o f u r t h e r a t t a c k s , a n d w h e n seized b y t h e spirits d o n n e d t h e s p i r i t ' s c l o t h e s a n d d a n c e d t o its b e a t . S u c h a w o m a n h a d n o w in fact b e c o m e a n o v i t i a t e m e m b e r of a circle of r e c u r r e n t l y possessed w o m e n , holding regular dances, a n d might in time graduate to the p o s i t i o n of s h a m a n herself. I n o n e r e c o r d e d case, t h e i m p e t u s t o a s s u m e this position c a m e from a forced m a r r i a g e from w h i c h , u n l i k e t h e t a r a n t i s t M a r i a , t h e w o m a n c o n c e r n e d s u c c e e d e d i n e s c a p i n g . T h e V e n d a girl i n q u e s t i o n left h e r n e w h u s b a n d a n d r e t u r n e d t o h e r o w n family w h e r e h e r father, angered a t t h i s rejection o f h i s a u t h o r i t y , b e a t h e r . T h e r e l u c t a n t b r i d e t h e n r a n a w a y i n t o t h e b u s h a n d d i s a p p e a r e d c o m p l e t e l y for six d a y s . After t h i s a l a r m i n g a b s e n c e , she r e t u r n e d h o m e l o o k i n g v e r y ill a n d c o m p l a i n i n g b i t t e r l y . H e r f a t h e r sent for a s h a m a n d i v i n e r w h o d i a g n o s e d t h a t t h e u n h a p p y b r i d e w a s n o w possessed b y a spirit.
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T h a t n i g h t , t o h e r f a t h e r ' s a s t o n i s h m e n t , t h e girl rose u p a n d c o m m a n d e d h i m t o follow h e r . T h e father p r o t e s t e d , b u t since his d a u g h t e r spoke in a s t r a n g e voice he w a s afraid a n d o b e y e d . T h i s initial episode w a s in fact t h e b e g i n n i n g of this w o m a n ' s a s s u m p t i o n of t h e c a r e e r of m i s t r e s s of spirits. After b e c o m i n g a full-time m e m b e r of a w o m e n ' s possession c l u b , she e v e n t u a l l y b e c a m e o n e of t h e b e s t - k n o w n s h a m a n s i n V e n d a l a n d ( S t a y t , 1937). T h e t r a n s i t i o n from w h a t I h a v e called t h e p r i m a r y p h a s e o f p e r i p h e r a l possession t o t h e s e c o n d a r y p h a s e m a y t h u s b e p r o v o k e d b y a n u n a c c e p t a b l e m a r r i a g e , o r b y a n u n h a p p y love-affair a s t h e a n c i e n t p h y s i c i a n G a l e n o f P e r g a m o n saw i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e o n s e t o f hysteria in w o m e n . Clearly there are various degrees of protest here. W h a t , i n c o m p a n y with m a n y o t h e r w o m e n , M a r i a f o u n d s u p p o r t a b l e as l o n g as she also b e l o n g e d to a cult g r o u p , o t h e r s h a v e rejected completely to assume positions of greater authority a n d c o m m i t m e n t within w h a t m i g h t almost b e called t h e p r o t e s t s u b - c u l t u r e o r c o u n t e r culture. To some extent, obviously, idiosyncratic personal psychological factors, a s well a s s i t u a t i o n a l o n e s , p l a y t h e i r p a r t h e r e : s o m e w o m e n feel a g r e a t e r d e s i r e t h a n o t h e r s to p l a y t h e d o m i n a n t role of t h e s h a m a n . O t h e r s a g a i n , h a v e difficulties in t h e i r r e l a t i o n s with m e n a n d f i n d p e r m a n e n t a n d d e v o t e d a t t a c h m e n t t o the cult g r o u p easier a n d m o r e r e w a r d i n g t h a n m a t r i m o n y . S u c h cults, a n d especially t h o s e like t h e H a u s a bori cult, w h i c h a r e associated w i t h p r o s t i t u t i o n , also afford a c o n v e n i e n t refuge for divorced wives w h o are ' b e t w e e n h u s b a n d s ' . O f t e n , t h o u g h not always, t h e sort o f w o m e n w h o m a k e flighty wives a n d w h o s e m a r r i a g e s a r e unsuccessful a r e precisely those d r a w n into these m o v e m e n t s . I n o t h e r cases, d i v o r c e d wives w h o h a v e failed t h r o u g h no fault of t h e i r OWN m a y also t e m p o r a r i l y a t t a c h t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e s e g r o u p s . M o r e generally, undoubtedly the c o m m o n e s t spur to the final degree of i n v o l v e m e n t a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n is infertility in w o m e n . A h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f those w h o b e c o m e s h a m a n s a r e i n fact e i t h e r w o m e n past the m e n o p a u s e , o r their b a r r e n y o u n g e r sisters. T h u s those w o m e n t o w h o m m a r r i a g e c a n offer little, a n d those w h o h a v e a l r e a d y e n j o y e d its fruits a s wives a n d m o t h e r s f i n d i n t h e s h a m a n ' s role a n e x c i t i n g new career. T h a t this position of m a s t e r y o v e r spirits a n d of l e a d e r s h i p o f rebellious wives s h o u l d b e a s s u m e d b y t h o s e w h o m society r e g a r d s as h a l f - m e n (since t h e y a r e n o t fully w o m e n ) is of c o u r s e h i g h l y a p p r o p r i a t e . T h u s w h a t w e m i g h t call the infertility s y n d r o m e u n d e r l i e s the a n d r o g y n o u s c h a r a c t e r which is frequently a t t r i b u t e d to t h e l e a d e r s
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of t h e s e p e r i p h e r a l cults (cf. E c h a r d , 1978; C o n s t a n t i n i d e s , 1985). All this of c o u r s e c o r r e s p o n d s very well to t h e a n c i e n t G r e e k conception of h y s t e r i a as a possession affliction r e l a t i n g directly to t h e w o m b (hystera is t h e G r e e k w o r d for w o m b ) . O n e of t h e earliest r e c o r d e d w r i t e r s t o h a v e c o r r e c t l y d i a g n o s e d this t h e m e w a s i n fact P l a t o , w h o e x p r e s s e d h i s views as follows; T h e w o m b is an a n i m a l which longs to generate children. W h e n i t r e m a i n s b a r r e n t o o l o n g after p u b e r t y i t i s distressed a n d sorely d i s t u r b e d : a n d s t r a y i n g a b o u t i n t h e b o d y a n d cutt i n g off t h e p a s s a g e s of b r e a t h , it i m p e d e s r e s p i r a t i o n a n d b r i n g s t h e sufferer i n t o t h e e x t r e m e s t a n g u i s h a n d p r o v o k e s all m a n n e r o f d i s e a s e s b e s i d e s ( q u o t e d i n V e i t h , 1965, p . 7). It w o u l d be p l e a s a n t to leave t h e last w o r d for t h e m o m e n t to P l a t o . B u t , b e f o r e we c o n c l u d e this c h a p t e r t h e r e is a w i d e r aspect of t h e d y n a m i c s of t h e s e c u l t s to w h i c h we m u s t call a t t e n t i o n their historical setting. A l t h o u g h , for t h e m o s t p a r t , I h a v e w r i t t e n as t h o u g h t h e s e c u l t s w e r e s o m e h o w s u s p e n d e d in a timeless e t e r n i t y , this is of course very far from b e i n g t h e case. As with o t h e r religious p h e n o m e n a , t h e y rise, c h a n g e , a n d d e c l i n e i n r e s p o n s e t o v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e external c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h p l a y u p o n t h e m . A n d b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e cults i n t h i s w i d e r c o n t e x t w e l e a r n m o r e a b o u t t h e m . O f t e n , for e x a m p l e , these c o m t e m p o r a r y marginal m o v e m e n t s turn out to be the mainline r e l i g i o n s o f e a r l i e r a g e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n eclipsed b y n e w faiths. T h e y a r e t h e n a n a c h r o n i s m s i n w h i c h h i s t o r i a n s m a y b e t e m p t e d t o see a r a t h e r specialized i l l u s t r a t i o n o f C o l l i n g w o o d ' s w e l l - k n o w n r e m a r k a b o u t t h e p e r s i s t e n c e of t h e p a s t , ' e n c a p s u l a t e d ' as he p u t it in the present. T h u s , for i n s t a n c e , i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y B u r m e s e nat-spirit possession c u l t , w h i c h is so p o p u l a r w i t h w o m e n , we see m u c h of w h a t survives t o d a y of t h e old p r e - B u d d h i s t religion. Or so historians assure us. In the s a m e fashion, most authorities agree in regarding the West A f r i c a n bori cult of t o d a y as c o n t a i n i n g e l e m e n t s of t h e old religion o f t h e H a u s a d i s p l a c e d b y I s l a m a n d t h r u s t into a s h a d o w y , p e r i p h e r a l e x i s t e n c e in a M u s l i m society d o m i n a t e d by m e n . In its p r e - I s l a m i c s e t t i n g , bori spirits w e r e tied t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l H a u s a clan s t r u c t u r e a n d did not involve possession. A n d in those halcyon days w o m e n e n j o y e d h i g h e r s t a t u s t h a n t h e y n o w d o a s M u s l i m s . T h u s with t h e rise o f I s l a m , t h e old c l a n deities 'fell i n t o t h e p u b l i c d o m a i n ' a s
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J a c q u e l i n e Nicolas h a s p u t it; t h o u g h ' p u b l i c ' h e r e h a s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e limited sense o f r e f e r r i n g t o w o m e n r a t h e r t h a n m e n . W o m e n b e c a m e possessed by the old gods w h i c h t h e i r m e n h a d d i s c a r d e d . Bori, thus, represents a syncretic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n as m u c h as a ' s u r v i v a l ' from pre-Islamic culture (cf. G. Nicolas, 1975; B e s m e r , 1983; E c h a r d , 1978). Possession is p r o b a b l y a n e w , p o s t - I s l a m i c e l e m e n t . A parallel s e q u e n c e of e v e n t s is p o s t u l a t e d , r a t h e r m o r e h y p o t h e t i cally in t h e case of t h e zar cult in E t h i o p i a , w h i c h , on t h i s v i e w , w a s a n i n d i g e n o u s religion d i s p l a c e d this t i m e b y C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d t h u s r e l e g a t e d t o t h e m a r g i n s o f society t o b e seized u p o n b y p e r i p h e r a l l y placed people ( m a i n l y w o m e n ) . I n m u c h t h e s a m e w a y a n d m u c h m o r e recently, a m o n g s t t h e newly I s l a m i z e d a n d t r a d i t i o n a l l y m a t r i l i n e a l Z a r a m o p e o p l e o f t h e T a n z a n i a n coast, w o m e n h a v e b e e n forced i n t o a m o r e s u b o r d i n a t e position t h a n t h e y f o r m e r l y held. I n these c i r c u m stances they seem to have sought to recover s o m e t h i n g of their former position by d e v e l o p i n g a spirit possession cult c e n t r i n g r o u n d t h e old deities, a n d h a v i n g all t h e f e a t u r e s w e h a v e seen e l s e w h e r e . In m a n y of the other examples we have discussed, however, there is e v i d e n c e t h a t w o m e n a r e n o t so m u c h s t r i v i n g to r e g a i n a lost p a r a d i s e a s a s p i r i n g t o a c h i e v e e n t i r e l y n e w positions o f i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d p o w e r . F r e q u e n t l y i t s e e m s t h a t social c h a n g e s w h i c h h a v e s w e p t their m e n forward h a v e left t h e m struggling b e h i n d , desperately seeking t o c a t c h u p . U p t o a p o i n t s o m e t h i n g o f this sort a p p e a r s t o h a v e o c c u r r e d i n t h e t a r a n t i s t cult i n s o u t h e r n I t a l y w h i c h , f o r m e r l y , h a d a w i d e r social c a t c h m e n t , a n d i n c l u d e d a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of socially d i s a d v a n t a g e d m e n t h a n i t d o e s t o d a y . I n o t h e r m o r e exotic c a s e s , u n f o r t u n a t e l y o u r historical p e r s p e c t i v e i s drastically s h o r t e n e d b y t h e sheer lack of s e c u r e k n o w l e d g e of t h e p a s t in a n y d e p t h . Y e t d e s p i t e this b a r r i e r t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e r e i s c e r t a i n l y m u c h t o suggest t h a t w h e r e these p e r i p h e r a l cults a r e not (as with bori) t h e r e s i d u e s , h o w e v e r t r a n s f o r m e d , of old displaced religions, they h a v e often arisen c o m p a r a tively r e c e n t l y . In Africa, at a n y r a t e , it f r e q u e n t l y s e e m s t h a t cults of this k i n d a r e in p a r t a s i d e - p r o d u c t of t h e w i d e r c o n t a c t s a n d interaction of tribes which t h e colonial situation e n c o u r a g e d . T h e y m a y also reflect a response to E u r o p e a n c o n c e p t i o n s of t h e s t a t u s of w o m e n . C e r t a i n l y , at least, such cults a r e acutely sensitive to c h a n g i n g e c o n o m i c a n d social conditions, as i n d e e d , we should a n t i c i p a t e from t h e i r effects and symbolism. T h i s i s very clearly seen i n a n i m p r e s s i v e s t u d y b y E l i z a b e t h C o l s o n ( C o l s o n , 1969, p p . 6 9 - 1 0 3 ) w h i c h c o n t r a s t s t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e ,
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traditionalist T o n g a of t h e Z a m b e s i valley with their m o r e sophisticated g o - a h e a d c o u n t r y m e n living i n t h e a d j o i n i n g p l a t e a u - l a n d . A m o n g s t these Plateau T o n g a , increasingly involved in the m o d e r n market e c o n o m y o f Z a m b i a since t h e 1930s, a n d w i t h local o p p o r t u n i t i e s for e a r n i n g c a s h w a g e s w h i c h d i d n o t r e q u i r e t h e i r menfolk t o w o r k extensively a s m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s far from h o m e , m e n a n d w o m e n h a v e b e e n s u b j e c t to a v i r t u a l l y parallel a c c u l t u r a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n o f r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e sexes w a s o n e o f u n u s u a l e q u a l i t y for a n African society. T h u s , w h e t h e r u n m a r r i e d o r n o t , P l a t e a u T o n g a w o m e n p a r t i c i p a t e d freely i n m e n ' s social activities a n d w e r e n o t strictly h e d g e d a b o u t w i t h a b a r r a g e of mystical r e s t r a i n t s . In this s i t u a t i o n , possession by p e r i p h e r a l , n o n - a n c e s t r a l spirits called masabe is t o d a y r a r e , a n d , in so far as it o c c u r s at all, affects m e n a n d w o m e n equally. A m o n g s t t h e V a l l e y T o n g a t h e position i s q u i t e different. H e r e m e n h a v e l o n g p a r t i c i p a t e d t h r o u g h l a b o u r m i g r a t i o n i n the w i d e r European-orientated world. W o m e n in contrast have remained at h o m e f a s c i n a t e d b y t h e t o w n d e l i g h t s a n d m y s t e r i e s from w h i c h they h a v e b e e n e x c l u d e d . I t i s t h e s e s e c l u d e d a n d c o n s t r a i n e d wives w h o are regularly subject to possession by spirits that t o d a y characteristically d e m a n d gifts w h i c h t h e s e w o m e n d i r e c t l y associate w i t h t h e i r a l l u r i n g u r b a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . A s well a s for gay clothes a n d l u x u r y foods, o n e o f t h e c o m m o n e s t r e q u e s t s i s for s o a p . T h i s c h a n g e i n spirit a p p e t i t e s reflects a g r o w i n g m a l e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n a n d r e p u g n a n c e for t h e oil a n d o c h r e cosmetics with w h i c h V a l l e y w o m e n traditionally bedecked their b o d i e s , a n d a distinct p r e f e r e n c e b y m e n for freshly b a t h e d a n d f r a g r a n t l y s c e n t e d p a r t n e r s . It is in this g l a m o r o u s i d i o m of t h e b e a u t i c i a n ' s s a l o n t h a t , t h r o u g h t h e i r p o s s e s s i n g s p i r i t s , these r u r a l w o m e n t o d a y call a t t e n t i o n to t h e i r e x c l u s i o n a n d neglect a n d seek to alleviate o r o v e r c o m e it. I n t h e p a s t , a s s o often e l s e w h e r e , these s a m e spirits h a n k e r e d after m e n ' s g a r m e n t s a n d possessions. M a t t h e w Schoffeleers ( 1 9 8 5 ) r e c o r d s a s i m i l a r o u t b u r s t of w o m e n ' s spirit-possession in s o u t h e r n M a l a w i in a c o n t e x t w h e r e t h e collapse of local c o t t o n production and consequent upsurge in male labour migration made w o m e n m o r e d e p e n d e n t on a n d subservient to their h u s b a n d s . W h a t e v e r m a y h a v e b e e n t h e case i n t h e p a s t , these a m b i t i o n s a n d l o n g i n g s a r e t o d a y n o l o n g e r static. W o m e n ' s aspirations a r e constantly changing with variations in their circumstances and experience. T h e d e m a n d s w h i c h t h e cults e x p r e s s a l t e r a c c o r d i n g l y a s w o m e n , like O l i v e r T w i s t , c o n t i n u a l l y ask for m o r e . To be a fully-fledged bori
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w o m a n in N i g e r , for i n s t a n c e , is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h b e i n g a ' w i t h - i t ' e m a n c i p a t e d w o m a n (zawara), fully versed in t h e sophistications of t o w n life a n d d e e p l y involved i n u r b a n politics a n d o t h e r m e n ' s a c t i v i t i e s . M u c h the s a m e applies, I suspect, to similarly, p e r m a n e n t l y possessed, w o m e n i n o t h e r u r b a n s u r r o u n d i n g s , especially w h e r e this i n v o l v e s increased d o m e s t i c c o n f i n e m e n t a n d f r u s t r a t i o n . W e shall r e t u r n t o this t h e m e of p r o t e s t c a r r i e d to t h e p o i n t of e m a n c i p a t i o n in t h e n e x t c h a p t e r . F o r t h e m o m e n t , let u s also n o t e h o w t h e c h a n g i n g c h a r a c t e r a n d i m a g e r y o f t h e p o s s e s s i n g spirits m i r r o r s t h e w i d e r v a r y i n g l a n d scape of social experience. To the former tribal a n d a n i m a l spirits which e v e r y w h e r e figure so p r o m i n e n t l y in t h e s e t r a d i t i o n a l spirit p a n t h e o n s a r e a d d e d , while t h e y a r e still novel a n d m y s t e r i o u s , s u c h o t h e r alien p o w e r s a s those m a n i f e s t i n t e l e p h o n e s , c a r s , t r a i n s , a n d a e r o p l a n e s . M u c h t h e s a m e o c c u r s g e n e r a l l y w i t h s p i r i t u a l forces o f C h r i s t i a n a n d Islamic o r i g i n . T h e s e p o w e r s a r e a s r e a d i l y a s s i m i l a t e d i n p e r i p h e r a l cults i n t h e t h i r d w o r l d a s w a s S t P a u l i n s o u t h e r n I t a l y . W i t h t h e arrival o f these n e w spirit a c c r e t i o n s , reflecting n e w c o n t a c t s a n d n e w e x p e r i e n c e s , s o m e o f t h e old spirits b e c o m e otiose a n d d r o p o u t . T h i s e x p e r i e n t i a l a n d e x p l a n a t o r y f u n c t i o n , a s old r e l i g i o u s f o r m s stretch o u t t h e i r a r m s t o e m b r a c e a n d c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h n e w e x p e r i e n c e , i s strikingly i n d i c a t e d i n t h e S u d a n R e p u b l i c . T h e r e , w h e n t h e first n a t i o n a l football t e a m w a s f o r m e d a n d p u b l i c e n t h u s i a s m for t h e sport w a s h i g h a m o n g m e n , w o m e n b e g a n t o b e p r e y e d u p o n b y footballer zar spirits. S i m i l a r l y , d u r i n g t h e m i l i t a r y r e g i m e of G e n e r a l A b o u d , a rash of military spirits a p p e a r e d ; a n d significantly in political c i r c u m s t a n c e s which w e r e widely felt to be o p p r e s s i v e , a n e w c a t e g o r y of anarchist spirits also e n t e r e d t h e lists. T h e s e novel spirit p r e s e n t a t i o n s were a great trial to w o m e n a m o n g s t w h o m t h e y faithfully r e p r o d u c e d the m a i n play o f e v e n t s i n t h e g r e a t e r w o r l d o f m e n . T h u s , w h e r e t h e y m a y n o t succeed i n d o i n g s o m o r e d i r e c t l y , o n t h e s p i r i t u a l p l a n e a t least, w o m e n strive t o k e e p i n step w i t h m e n . A g a i n w e see clearly t h a t w h a t I h a v e called t h e s u b o r d i n a t e female s u b - c u l t u r e , if o n l y in fantasy, m a r c h e s f o r w a r d i n p a c e w i t h t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e o f m e n .
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Four
STRATEGIES OF MYSTICAL ATTACK: PROTEST AND ITS CONTAINMENT
I
I t w o u l d n o d o u b t b e satisfying t o m a l e v a n i t y t o i n t e r p r e t t h e m a r k e d p r o m i n e n c e o f w o m e n i n t h e possession o f cults w h i c h w e h a v e j u s t d i s c u s s e d a s t h e reflection o f a n i n h e r e n t , a n d biologically g r o u n d e d female disposition to h y s t e r i a . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h o w e v e r , this conclusion i s u n t e n a b l e b e c a u s e i n p r a c t i c e t h e s e m o v e m e n t s a r e not entirely restricted to w o m e n . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g my emphasis in the previous c h a p t e r , several o f t h e cults w h i c h w e h a v e a l r e a d y e x a m i n e d d o i n fact also i n c l u d e m e n , a n d n o t o n l y t h o s e w i t h o b v i o u s p e r s o n a l i t y d i s o r d e r s . I t a l i a n t a r a n t i s m , this ' r e l i g i o n o f r e m o r s e ' , a s d e M a r t i n o p u n n i n g l y labels it, w h i c h still t o d a y a t t r a c t s a few d o w n t r o d d e n m a l e peasants, had in earlier periods a wider catchment a m o n g men. S e v e n t e e n t h - a n d e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a c c o u n t s reveal a c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f m e n t o r m e n t e d b y t h e s p i d e r ' s bite t h a n i s t h e c a s e t o d a y . T h e s e statistics c o r r e s p o n d well w i t h o t h e r historical d a t a which show how, in previous centuries, tarantism had a particular a p p e a l for m e n w h o s e social c i r c u m s t a n c e s w e r e u n u s u a l l y o p p r e s s i v e or constricting. W i t h its f o r m e r l y m o r e richly e n d o w e d s y m b o l i s m i n which the d a n c e r s a c t e d a s s w a g g e r i n g c a p t a i n s , g r a n d i o s e g o v e r n o r s , muscleflexing b o x e r s , a n d h e c t o r i n g p u b l i c o r a t o r s , t h e cult g a v e such m e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y of p l a y i n g a r a n g e of roles far r e m o v e d from those they h e l d i n real life. T h e m o s t w r e t c h e d b e g g a r could t e m p o r a r i l y a s s u m e t h e a i r s a n d graces o f h i g h society, a n d c o m m a n d respectful a n d s y m p a t h e t i c a t t e n t i o n for his p o s t u r i n g . T h e cult also a t t r a c t e d priests w h o f o u n d difficulty in e n d u r i n g t h e r i g o u r s of t h e i r celibate calling as well as n u n s w h o chafed against t h e discipline a n d constriction of t h e religious
90
STRATEGIES OF M Y S T I C A L A T T A C K
v o c a t i o n . S u c h m a l a d j u s t e d i n d i v i d u a l s from m o n a s t e r y o r c o n v e n t found s o m e m e a s u r e o f relief t h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a t i n g p e r i o d i c a l l y i n t h e lusty rites o f t h e W o m e n ' s C a r n i v a l . T o d a y all this i s c h a n g e d . T h e s p i d e r ' s bite is almost entirely restricted in its incidence to p o o r p e a s a n t w o m e n in the remote a n d m o r e b a c k w a r d parts of southern Italy. A l t h o u g h w e a r e m u c h less w e l l - p r o v i d e d w i t h d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e social b a c k g r o u n d of its d e v o t e e s , t h e cult of D i o n y s u s s e e m s to h a v e exercised a s i m i l a r a p p e a l n o t o n l y for w o m e n b u t also for m e n o f low social s t a t u s . A s J e a n m a i r e h a s p h r a s e d it, D i o n y s u s w a s the 'least political' o f t h e G r e e k g o d s ( J e a n m a i r e , 1 9 5 1 , p . 8 ) . H e w a s essentially a god of the people, offering freedom a n d j o y to all, i n c l u d i n g slaves as well as f r e e m e n e x c l u d e d from t h e old l i n e a g e c u l t s . A p o l l o , i n c o n t r a s t , a s E . R . D o d d s h a s it, ' m o v e d o n l y i n t h e best s o c i e t y ' . T h u s it seems that here we have a n o t h e r of these peripheral cults i n v o l v i n g spirits o f foreign ( h e r e s u p p o s e d l y T h r a c i a n ) o r i g i n w h i c h inflicted 'illness' o n d o w n t r o d d e n m e n a n d w o m e n , a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e offered a m e a n s of e s c a p e a n d c u r e in t h e a s s o c i a t e d c a t h a r t i c rituals. All this applies e q u a l l y well to b o t h t h e zar a n d bori c u l t s in Africa which, previously, we have discussed only in relation to w o m e n . In C h r i s t i a n E t h i o p i a , zar possession is n o t in fact a m o n o p o l y of t h e fair sex. T h e disease also affects a n d t h e cult e q u a l l y e m b r a c e s m e n o f s u b o r d i n a t e social s t a t u s , p a r t i c u l a r l y p e o p l e o f s u c h m a r g i n a l social categories a s h a l f - S u d a n e s e M u s l i m s a n d e x - s l a v e s . I n d e e d i n t h e interval b e t w e e n 1932, w h e n i t w a s o b s e r v e d b y M i c h e l L e i r i s , a n d m o r e r e c e n t d e s c r i p t i o n s , it is clear t h a t t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e cult g r o u p s h a s t o s o m e e x t e n t c h a n g e d . S o m e o f t h e e a r l i e r h i g h e r class A m h a r a women adherents seem to have d r o p p e d out to be replaced by a w i d e r s p e c t r u m of m a r g i n a l i z e d m e n p a r t i c u l a r l y , b u t n o t exclusively, n o n - C h r i s t i a n s . M e m b e r s h i p of t h e local zar c l u b a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n in its d r a m a t i c r i t u a l s offer t h e s e o t h e r w i s e u n d e r privileged p e r s o n s s o m e d e g r e e of e m a n c i p a t i o n from f r u s t r a t i n g t r a d i tional c o n f i n e m e n t s . W i t h i n t h e s e c l u b s , w h i c h m a y also function a s savings societies a n d credit associations, m e m b e r s of low class m i n o r i t y g r o u p s h a v e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f s t r i k i n g u p useful a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h people w h o , t h o u g h A m h a r a , a r e h a n d i c a p p e d i n o t h e r w a y s . A n d , in k e e p i n g with w h a t is h a p p e n i n g on t h e w i d e r E t h i o p i a n s c e n e , a new a s p i r a t i o n t o w a r d s u p w a r d social m o b i l i t y i s e v i d e n t i n t h e increasingly e x a l t e d s t a t u s of t h e spirits w h i c h n o w possess p e o p l e of humble origins.
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ECSTATIC RELIGION
W h e r e a s in E t h i o p i a low class m e n (often M u s l i m s ) m a y in t h e zar clubs thus r u b shoulders with Christian A m h a r a w o m e n of higher s t a t u s , i n s o u t h e r n S o m a l i a e a c h sex h a s its o w n cult. H e r e freeborn w o m e n a r e i n v o l v e d in a possession society called mingis (from the A m h a r i c for ' g o v e r n m e n t ' , ' p o w e r ' , e t c . ) w h i c h is a local v a r i a n t of zar i n c o r p o r a t i n g s o m e O r o m o influence (for a musicological a c c o u n t see G i a n n a t t a s i o , 1983). T h i s cult rigorously excludes ex-slaves, w h o , i n t h i s fertile p a r t o f t h e S o m a l i R e p u b l i c , w e r e formerly e m p l o y e d a s a g r i c u l t u r a l serfs. T h e y h a v e t h e i r o w n possession c l u b k n o w n a s numbi, a n d m e e t r e g u l a r l y e a c h week to h o l d a d a n c e ritual in which t h e y b e c o m e possessed b y t h e spirit. Significantly, w h e n these ex-slaves d a n c e in t h e possession rites they carry as insignia whips which, though they are of course no longer u s e d t o d a y , e n a b l e t h e m t o p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s not a s slaves, b u t a s m a s t e r s of slaves. T h i s s t r i k i n g role reversal is a crucial e l e m e n t in the ritual. A g a i n , a l t h o u g h i n r u r a l districts o f n o r t h e r n N i g e r i a t h e H a u s a bori cult is essentially a w o m e n ' s protest m o v e m e n t , in t o w n s w h e r e it is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p r o s t i t u t i o n a n d also w i t h t r a d e a n d m a r k e t s i n g e n e r a l m e n a r e also i n v o l v e d , a n d n o t m e r e l y a s c u s t o m e r s . T h u s i n t h e R e p u b l i c o f N i g e r , a s M a d a m e N i c o l a s ( N i c o l a s , 1967; M o n f o u g a - N i c o l a s , 1972) h a s r e p o r t e d , t o w n s m e n b e c o m e possessed a n d j o i n t h e cult. B u t , significantly, they a r e foreigners, not local m e n , w h o as o u t s i d e r s m a y be p r e s u m e d to be in a position of insecurity a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n . In the A d e r a n d Kurfey regions of the northern N i g e r i a n Sahel, Nicole E c h a r d (1978) h a s sketched o u t historically how t h e bori cult registers e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s as they a r e experienced locally. R e a c t i n g to the privations of drought and Islamic domination, r e b e l l i o u s m e n a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y a t t r a c t e d t o t h e cult w h i c h , i n these circumstances, is correspondingly 'masculinized'. Of g r e a t e r significance, p e r h a p s , in its inclusion of m e n is t h e great e x t e n s i o n of bori ( a n d to a lesser extent also of zar) in north-west Africa. H e r e in a region d o m i n a t e d by Islamic mysticism, w h e r e the profession of t h e faith is virtually s y n o n y m o u s with b e i n g a t t a c h e d to o n e or o t h e r of t h e Sufi b r o t h e r h o o d s , t h e bori cult h a s found a n e w a n d u n e x p e c t e d h o m e . Bori b r o t h e r h o o d s , w h o s e m e m b e r s h i p consists p r i m a r i l y o f e x - s l a v e s a n d o t h e r servile classes o f m e n a n d w o m e n , exist alongside t h e m o r e o r t h o d o x o r d e r s o f freeborn a n d h i g h e r society. T h e s e former slaves a r e in fact of W e s t African o r i g i n , a n d b e l o n g ethnically to such g r o u p s a s t h e H a u s a , S o n g h a y , a n d B a m b a r a , e t c . , a n d t h u s i n effect
92
STRATEGIES O F M Y S T I C A L A T T A C K
c o n t i n u e t h e i r old p r e - I s l a m i c cults w i t h i n a M u s l i m f r a m e w o r k . B u t the significant point for us h e r e is t h a t in this n e w Islamic setting, these t r a d i t i o n a l cults a s s u m e a p e r i p h e r a l p o s i t i o n . A n d since t h e i r rites i n c o r p o r a t e m a n y I s l a m i c e l e m e n t s a n d m i n g l e t h e m freely w i t h t h e w o r s h i p o f bori a n d o t h e r n o n - M u s l i m spirits i n a n u n h o l y a l l i a n c e , to the d i s a p p r o v i n g eyes of the pious N o r t h African A r a b s a n d B e r b e r s , these r i t u a l s h a v e a l m o s t t h e c h a r a c t e r of ' B l a c k M a s s e s ' if t h e p u n will be forgiven. I n i t i a t i o n into these ' B l a c k B r o t h e r h o o d s ' , a s t h e y a r e k n o w n i n the F r e n c h l i t e r a t u r e , n o r m a l l y follows a possession illness, a n d t h e cults a r e essentially h e a l i n g i n c h a r a c t e r . ( W o m e n o f n o b l e A r a b b i r t h also seek c u r e s for t h e i r c o m p l a i n t s t h r o u g h t h e s a m e r i t u a l , w h i c h , o f c o u r s e , u s u a l l y p r o v e s a n e x p e n s i v e b u s i n e s s for t h e i r h u s b a n d s . ) M o r e to the point, although the position is not entirely clear in the existing l i t e r a t u r e , I t h i n k we m a y infer t h a t , in t h e case of slaves, the b u l k of t h e e x p e n s e s i n v o l v e d in s u c h bori t h e r a p y fell u p o n t h e i r m a s t e r s , a n d t h u s gave t h e f o r m e r a lever with w h i c h to m a n i p u l a t e t h e latter. In a m o r e g e n e r a l sense t o o , t h e s e bori b r o t h e r h o o d s p r o t e c t e d the interests o f t h e i r m e m b e r s , p r o v i d i n g food a n d l o d g i n g for t h e t e m p o r a r i l y i n d i g e n t , a n d w h i l e s l a v e r y still existed w o u l d s o m e t i m e s b u y a slave his f r e e d o m . W i t h t h e a b o l i t i o n of slavery, these o r g a n i z a tions, m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r s , c a m e t o p r o v i d e t h e p r i m a r y focus o f allegiance a n d social identification for t h e ex-slave c o m m u n i t y . T h e y c h a m p i o n e d their m e m b e r s ' r i g h t s a n d p r o t e c t e d t h e m a g a i n s t h a r a s s m e n t o r a b u s e from t h e i r A r a b a n d B e r b e r s u p e r i o r s . H e r e t h e Black B r o t h e r h o o d s acted as p r e s s u r e g r o u p s e n j o y i n g a special r i t u a l c a c h e t t h r o u g h t h e i r association w i t h t h e w i d e l y feared bori s p i r i t s . O n this basis t o o , s o m e of t h e cult d e v o t e e s also still enjoy a l u c r a t i v e p r a c t i c e a s d i v i n e r s a n d h e a l e r s , a n d p l a y a p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t role i n treating sterility a m o n g s t the p o p u l a t i o n a t large. T h u s a n A r a b w o m a n w h o h a s lost all h e r c h i l d r e n , o r o n e w h o h a s n o t b o r n e a n y , m a y s u m m o n t h e bori a d e p t s t o h e r a i d . T h e y m a k e a secret m a r k o n h e r leg a n d bless h e r ; a n d if she s u b s e q u e n t l y b e a r s a child this ' b e l o n g s ' t o t h e cult g r o u p a n d c o n t r i b u t e s h a n d s o m e l y t o its p e r i o d i c offerings a n d r i t u a l s ( T r e m e a r n e , 1914; D e r m e n g h e m , 1954; P a q u e s , 1964). A l m o s t e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h a s b e e n said a b o u t bori in n o r t h - w e s t Africa applies w i t h e q u a l force to t h e a n a l o g o u s C h r i s t i a n i z e d slave cults of t h e C a r i b b e a n a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a . I n all t h e s e a r e a s t o d a y w e find flourishing possession cults b u i l t r o u n d a c o s m o l o g i c a l s u b s t r a t u m of the old gods o f Africa, w h i c h t h e slaves b r o u g h t w i t h t h e m , a n d t o
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which they have clung tenaciously t h r o u g h o u t their long period of s u b j e c t i o n a n d o p p r e s s i o n . Africa, h e r e , h a s g r e a t force as a symbolic focus of a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d b e n e f i c e n t p o w e r (cf. L a r o s e , 1977). N o w , of c o u r s e , t h e s e cults h a v e in fact b e c o m e t h e unofficial religions of t h e local p e a s a n t r y , a n d exist i n a n u n e a s y t e n s i o n with t h e m o r e o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y o f elitist society. F r o m o u r p o i n t o f v i e w , these cults a g a i n c e n t r e o n spiritual forces which a r e p e r i p h e r a l t o t h e C h r i s tian e s t a b l i s h m e n t s of t h e countries c o n c e r n e d a n d a p p e a l most strongly to t h e s u b o r d i n a t e s e g m e n t s of society. To these t h e y offer a c o n s u m m a t e r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , lifting u p d o w n t r o d d e n m e n a n d w o m e n t o h e i g h t s o f e x a l t a t i o n w h i c h , w h a t e v e r else t h e y d o , c e r t a i n l y serve t o u n d e r s c o r e t h e lowly s e c u l a r p o s i t i o n o f t h e possessed d e v o t e e s . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , a s h a s b e e n clearly s h o w n i n T r i n i d a d (Mischel a n d M i s c h e l , 1958), a s well a s a p p e a l i n g s t r o n g l y t o w o m e n , t h e S h a n g o cult g e n e r a l l y also a t t r a c t s s u c h m a l e a d h e r e n t s a s d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s a n d u n e m p l o y e d l a b o u r e r s . S u c h lowly figures a r e r e g u l a r l y m o u n t e d b y powerful, aggressive spirits, a n d w h e n they i n c a r n a t e these gods t h e y c o m m a n d t h e a t t e n t i o n of large a u d i e n c e s in w h a t is e v i d e n d y a h i g h l y satisfying fashion. W o m e n similarly a r e often possessed by d o m i n e e r i n g m a l e d i v i n i t i e s a n d t h e s e allow t h e i r ' h o r s e s ' t o express a s p e c t s of t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s w h i c h in o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e strongly s u p p r e s s e d . I n d e e d , it is clear t h a t t h e S h a n g o cult enables a discordant m a s s o f h u m a n i t y t o a c h i e v e a h i g h l y d r a m a t i c psychic ' w o r k - o u t ' , t h e p o s s e s s e d g i v i n g v e n t i n t h e r i t u a l s t o e m o t i o n s a n d feelings which i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s a r e h e l d i n c h e c k . A n d a s e l s e w h e r e , w h a t e v e r the p o s s e s s e d p e r s o n d o e s is d o n e w i t h i m p u n i t y since he is c o n s i d e r e d t o act a s t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d i n v o l u n t r y vehicle o f t h e g o d s . All t h e s e e l e m e n t s a r e e q u a l l y well r e p r e s e n t e d i n H a i t i a n v o o d o o , which e m b r a c e s over 90 per cent of the island's population and is r e g a r d e d w i t h c o n t e m p t a n d d i s d a i n b y t h e small w e s t e r n i z e d r u l i n g elite. T h i s m i n o r i t y e s t a b l i s h m e n t , w h i c h i s m a i n l y o f m u l a t t o stock, clings d e s p e r a t e l y t o w e s t e r n v a l u e s a n d t o t h e o r t h o d o x C a t h o l i c c h u r c h . F r o m its p o i n t o f v i e w , a s M e t r a u x h a s s o well p u t it, v o o d o o i s a n i n s i d i o u s r u r a l p a g a n i s m ( M e t r a u x , 1959). F o r t h e p e a s a n t s , h o w e v e r , it is a p o p u l i s t religion from w h i c h t h e freedom-fighting e x - s l a v e h e r o e s o f t h e p a s t d r e w i n s p i r a t i o n i n t h e n a t i o n a l i s t struggle p r i o r t o i n d e p e n d e n c e i n 1804. M u c h of the voodoo ritual a n d liturgy is of Christian origin; and t h e loa ' m y s t e r i e s ' , w h i c h a r e also called ' s a i n t s ' o r e v e n ' a n g e l s ' , a l t h o u g h l a r g e l y o f W e s t African d e r i v a t i o n , a r e viewed a s p a r t o f t h e
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C h r i s t i a n c o s m o l o g y . W h e n a loa ' c o m e s o u t ' in a n e w d e v o t e e it usually h a s t o b e b a p t i z e d , a n d m a n y s p i r i t s , i n c a r n a t e d i n t h e i r m o u n t s , take holy c o m m u n i o n . F r o m t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n , m a n y C h r i s tian s a i n t s a n d e v e n t h e V i r g i n M a r y a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d a m o n g t h e dramatis personae of t h e loa. W i t h this d e g r e e of s y n c r e t i s m b e t w e e n t r a d i t i o n a l African p o w e r s a n d t h o s e of C a t h o l i c i s m , it is scarcely s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e t w o religious c a l e n d a r s s h o u l d b e closely s y n c h r o n ized (as is also t h e case w i t h zar in E t h i o p i a a n d t h e S u d a n ) . T h r o u g h o u t L e n t , t h e v o o d o o s a n c t u a r i e s a r e closed a n d n o service is celebrated. In H o l y W e e k the cult accessories a r e covered with sheets, as are the images in the Catholic churches; a n d on C h r i s t m a s night v o o d o o r i t u a l ' t a k e s w i n g i n its full p l u m a g e ' a s M e t r a u x e l o q u e n t l y p u t s it. E q u a l l y , possession by t h e loa is explicitly c o m p a r e d w i t h ' t h e e n t e r i n g o f t h e H o l y G h o s t i n t o t h e c u r e w h e n h e sings m a s s ' . W i t h this d e g r e e of c o n g r u e n c e , it is o n l y to be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e H a i t i a n peasantry who evidently experience no e m b a r r a s s m e n t or confusion in c o m b i n i n g t h e t w o faiths s h o u l d c l a i m t h a t ' t o serve t h e loa y o u h a v e to be a C a t h o l i c ' . F o r their p a r t , t h e loa e n t e r v e r y fully into t h e lives of their s e r v a n t s . I n e s s e n c e , t h e y play a p r o t e c t i v e r o l e , a n d o n l y w i t h d r a w t h e i r benevolent patronage when they are neglected. S o m e 'mysteries' even seek e m p l o y m e n t for t h e p r o t e g e s . In t h e m i d d l e of a v o o d o o service at o n e of t h e s h r i n e s , a t r a d e r or official m a y be s u d d e n l y a c c o s t e d by a loa w h i c h d e m a n d s w o r k for his m o u n t . A n d w h o c a n reject s u c h a d i v i n e a p p e a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n t h e loa m a k i n g t h e r e q u e s t v o u c h e s for t h e h o n e s t y a n d i n d u s t r y of its c a n d i d a t e ? So d e e p l y in fact do t h e spirits i m m e r s e t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e lives o f t h o s e w h o d a n c e i n t h e i r h o n o u r , that t h e r e a r e even b a n k e r a n d c r e d i t o r gods which offer credit facilities for those a t t e n d i n g t h e c e r e m o n i e s . T h e i r b u s i n e s s a c u m e n a n d taste for speculation indeed drive s o m e ' m y s t e r i e s ' to invest m o n e y with m e r c h a n t s from w h o m good d i v i d e n d s c a n b e e x p e c t e d . S u c h investments carry with t h e m the blessing of the gods a n d b r i n g good luck. But since t h e loa, like t h e i r h u m a n a g e n t s , a r e pitiless in financial m a t t e r s those w h o b o r r o w from t h e m d o s o a t t h e i r o w n risk. T h e cult g r o u p s which arise r o u n d an influential loa priest or hungan b e a r i n g such nostalgic African n a m e s a s ' G o l d C o a s t ' , ' G o d F i r s t ' , ' T h e F l o w e r of G u i n e a Society' e t c . , fulfil a s i m i l a r r a n g e of functions in t o w n s to those served by t h e bori societies in n o r t h - w e s t Africa. T h e y act also as welfare a n d b e t t e r m e n t a s s o c i a t i o n s a n d p l a y a h i g h l y significant role in defining t h e social i d e n t i t y of t h e i r m e m b e r s . A b o v e
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all, w h i l e i n t h e r e g u l a r d a n c e d r i t u a l s t h e possessed d e v o t e e s a r e e n a b l e d to give free r e i n to t h e i r s u p p r e s s e d d e s i r e s a n d a m b i t i o n s w h i c h t h e g o d s gleefully a n d freely e x p r e s s on t h e i r b e h a l f t h e cult also gives g r e a t p s y c h i c satisfaction t o ' p o o r souls g r o u n d d o w n b y life'. U s u a l l y , a s w e w o u l d e x p e c t , d o w n t r o d d e n m e n a n d w o m e n a r e possessed b y g o d s w h i c h , i n fantasy, e x p r e s s their h o p e s a n d fears a n d b e s p e a k u p w a r d social m o b i l i t y . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o b v i o u s e n j o y m e n t w h i c h , like its a n a l o g u e s e l s e w h e r e , this ' d a n c e d r e l i g i o n ' affords its d e v o t e e s , o p p o r t u n i t i e s for status e n h a n c e m e n t of a m o r e direct a n d t a n g i b l e k i n d a r e also present. W e h a v e a l r e a d y seen h o w t h e g o d s m a y solicit j o b s for t h e i r followers from t h o s e w h o a r e in a p o s i t i o n to g r a n t such f a v o u r s . At t h e s a m e time, the career of voodoo priest or priestess, which m a y be gradually a s s u m e d as a cult m e m b e r ' s c o n t r o l o v e r a n d k n o w l e d g e (connaissance) of t h e ' m y s t e r i e s ' (loa spirits) i n c r e a s e s , c a n be b o t h l u c r a t i v e a n d r e w a r d i n g . A successful hungan is at o n c e priest, h e a l e r , s o o t h s a y e r , e x o r c i z e r , a n d o r g a n i z e r of p u b l i c e n t e r t a i n m e n t s this last r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e t h e a t r i c a l a n d r e c r e a t i o n a l aspect of t h e cult w h i c h is not to be d i s m i s s e d lightly. In a d d i t i o n , such a figure is r e g a r d e d as an i n f l u e n t i a l political g u i d e , a n d f r e q u e n t l y acts a s a n electoral a g e n t for w h o s e services s e n a t o r s a n d d e p u t i e s p a y h a n d s o m e l y . T h u s t o a s s u m e this role of l e a d e r of a cult g r o u p is to c l i m b t h e social l a d d e r a n d to acquire a p r o m i n e n t place in the public gaze. Competition, h o w e v e r , i s fierce, a n d rival priests v y i n g w i t h o n e a n o t h e r for larger c o n g r e g a t i o n s o f a d h e r e n t s will d o t h e i r u t m o s t t o discredit their a d v e r s a r i e s . H e r e t h e s t a n d a r d a l l e g a t i o n , w h i c h coincides with t h a t g e n e r a l l y levelled by t h e C a t h o l i c elite at v o o d o o as a w h o l e , is t h a t o n e ' s o p p o n e n t s a r e sorcerers o r w i t c h e s , w o r k i n g , a s t h e H a i t i a n s say, 'with both h a n d s ' . Such j u d g e m e n t s here, as elsewhere, turn on w h e t h e r m y s t i c a l p o w e r i s e m p l o y e d for t h e g e n e r a l , p u b l i c good, o r for n a r r o w , p r i v a t e a d v a n t a g e (cf. L a r o s e , 1977; Lewis, 1986, p p . 51ff). U n d e r t h e r e g i m e s o f t h e n o t o r i o u s D r D u v a l i e r ( ' P a p a D o c ' ) a n d his son, v o o d o o w a s e l e v a t e d virtually to t h e s t a t u s of a state religion, with cult g r o u p s , s e r v i n g t o u n d e r p i n t h e d i c t a t o r s ' p o w e r a t t h e local level ( C o u r l a n d e r a n d B a s t i e n , 1966; L a r o s e , 1977). I m p l i c i t l y , i f not explicitly, v o o d o o h a d m o v e d t o t h e c e n t r e o f t h e s t a g e .
II S i n c e , a s well a s w o m e n m o r e g e n e r a l l y , t h e s e cults e v i d e n t l y also
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a t t r a c t m e n o f servile o r i g i n a n d o f o t h e r o p p r e s s e d c a t e g o r i e s , w e should expect to find further e x a m p l e s in highly stratified, inegalitarian polities e l s e w h e r e . T h e S w a h i l i - s p e a k i n g i n h a b i t a n t s o f M a f i a i s l a n d , off t h e coast of T a n z a n i a , p r o v i d e a w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d e x a m p l e of such a case. T h e i s l a n d ' s M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n consists o f v a r i o u s t r i b a l e l e m e n t s a r r a n g e d in a definite o r d e r of p r e c e d e n c e w i t h t h e P o k o m o , t h e m o s t African a n d least A r a b i a n in e t h n i c affiliation, o c c u p i n g (in t h e 1960s) the lowest r u n g o n t h e s t a t u s l a d d e r . T h e P o k o m o a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y e x c l u d e d from full p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e official political a n d r i t u a l life of this I s l a m i c society, a n d find t h e i r fulfilment in a h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d spirit possession cult, t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p o f w h i c h t h e y e x e r t influence a n d p o w e r i n the w i d e r c o m m u n i t y . T h e s e despised i s l a n d e r s a r e subject to possession by ' l a n d s p i r i t s ' of t h e b u s h classified as ' d e v i l s ' (shaitani) w h i c h c a u s e illness e i t h e r t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n m a l e v o l e n c e o r b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e b e e n sent b y a p e r s o n w i t h p o w e r o v e r t h e m ( i . e . by a w i t c h ) . As u s u a l , these spirits a r e n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h m o r a l i t y , a n d t h e illnesses w h i c h t h e y inflict o n t h e u n w a r y a r e n o t v i e w e d a s p u n i s h m e n t s for i n f r i n g e m e n t s of t h e social c o d e . S u c h afflictions a r e d i a g n o s e d a n d t r e a t e d b y P o k o m o s h a m a n s w h o control t h e spirits c o n c e r n e d a n d i n i t i a t e t h e i r v i c t i m s i n t o t h e possession c l u b s w h i c h m e e t r e g u l a r l y to hold d a n c e r i t u a l s . T h e cult is o p e n to both m e n a n d w o m e n of the P o k o m o g r o u p , a n d ambitious recruits can i n t i m e g r a d u a t e t o t h e position o f s h a m a n a n d d i v i n e r . S i n c e s h a m a n s a r e p a i d for t h e i r services a s m e d i c a l a d v i s e r s , w h i c h a r e n o t restricted t o p a t i e n t s o f t h e i r o w n t r i b e , t h e y c a n b e c o m e w e a l t h y a n d influential i n this m i x e d society. T h u s t h r o u g h t h e s e l a n d - s p i r i t cults w h i c h , w i t h t h e i r f l a m b o y a n t rites ( i n c l u d i n g b l o o d - d r i n k i n g ) , a r e c o n d e m n e d b y p i o u s M u s l i m s o f h i g h e r social s t a n d i n g , P o k o m o m e n can a c h i e v e de facto p o s i t i o n s in t h e i s l a n d w h i c h w o u l d o t h e r w i s e be beyond their grasp. Parallel to this P o k o m o cult, a s e p a r a t e possession cult of sea-spirits exists a m o n g s t t h e h i g h e r s t a t u s g r o u p s , b u t i s r e s t r i c t e d t o w o m e n . S u c h h i g h e r class w o m e n a r e p r o n e t o possession afflictions b y t h e s e spirits w h i c h c o m e from o v e r t h e sea, i n fact from A r a b i a , a n d w h i c h c a u s e those t h e y possess t o s p e a k i n A r a b i c . T h e s e e n n o b l i n g ' A r a b ' spirits a r e flatteringly a t t r a c t e d b y t h e b e a u t y o f t h e i r female h o s t s . T h e i n c i d e n c e o f t h e afflictions t h e y c a u s e i s e x a c t l y s i m i l a r t o w h a t w e h a v e f o u n d i n s o m a n y o t h e r cases. I n stress s i t u a t i o n s i n t h e d o m e s t i c family, w o m e n s u c c u m b t o t h e m , a n d t h e y a r e especially
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c o n c e r n e d w i t h s u c h f e m i n i n e c o n d i t i o n s a s frigidity, infertility, a n d p r e g n a n c y . T r e a t m e n t r e q u i r e s costly o u t l a y s b y t h e h u s b a n d a n d his k i n , a n d e v e n t u a l l y u s u a l l y l e a d s t o i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e possession cult g r o u p . T h i s m e e t s r e g u l a r l y on F r i d a y s a n d its r i t u a l is in effect a p a r o d y o f t h e I s l a m i c religious services w h i c h m e n d o m i n a t e a n d from w h i c h w o m e n a r e e x c l u d e d . S i n c e i n M a f i a , m e n ' s w o r s h i p i s largely o r g a n i z e d t h r o u g h t h e m y s t i c a l b r o t h e r h o o d s o r tariqas, this w o m e n ' s p o s s e s s i o n society, like its bori a n a l o g u e in N o r t h Africa, follows t h e s a m e m o d e l . A t t h e i r possession m e e t i n g s w o m e n sing the s a m e h y m n s a s m e n d o i n t h e services o f t h e M u s l i m b r o t h e r h o o d s . C l e a r l y while g a i n i n g p r o t e c t i o n from t h e exactions of their menfolk w h o m t h e y i n f l u e n c e t h r o u g h possession illnesses, w o m e n also t h u s p a r t i c i p a t e v i c a r i o u s l y i n t h e m a l e - d o m i n a t e d c u l t u r e o f t h e island. A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e h e r e t w o parallel possession cults o n e for the low s t a t u s P o k o m o , a n d a n o t h e r for w o m e n of h i g h status the spirits o f t h e f o r m e r a r e c o n s i d e r e d g e n e r a l l y t o b e m o r e powerful, a n d t h e l e a d i n g P o k o m o s h a m a n i n fact c o n t r o l s b o t h cults ( C a p l a n , 1975). I n t w o o t h e r African e x a m p l e s w h i c h a r e w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g briefly, m e n i n low social p o s i t i o n s a n d w o m e n g e n e r a l l y a r e not s e p a r a t e l y s e r v e d b y distinct possession cults a s i n M a f i a o r s o u t h e r n S o m a l i a , b u t collected t o g e t h e r i n t h e s a m e cult. T h i s i s t h e s i t u a t i o n w h i c h h a s been a d m i r a b l y described amongst the M u s l i m Songhay of the Niger b e n d b y J e a n R o u c h ( R o u c h , 1960; O l i v i e r d e S a r d a n , 1984). I n this officially M u s l i m society, n o n - a n c e s t r a l spirits called holey h a v e an a n a l o g o u s role t o t h e bori a m o n g t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g H a u s a . I n this stratified society, holey s p i r i t s , w h i c h i n c l u d e b o t h n a t u r e sprites a n d foreign p o w e r s e x p r e s s i v e o f S o n g h a y ' s w i d e r geo-social e n v i r o n m e n t , p l a g u e w o m e n a n d m e n o f low caste. H e r e illness, d i a g n o s e d a s possession by these spirits, a p p e a r s to function a m o n g s t these peripheral social c a t e g o r i e s as a s t r a t e g y of o b l i q u e r e d r e s s in t h e m a n n e r we h a v e e x p l o r e d in o t h e r cases. U l t i m a t e l y , r e c u r r e n t possession is i n t e r p r e t e d a s a n u n c h a l l e n g e a b l e call b y t h e spirits a n d r e q u i r e s formal initiation into t h e cult. S u c h initiated ' c h i l d r e n of t h e spirits' as they a r e called, a r e directed in t h e i r ritual activities by m e n of low o c c u p a t i o n a l castes, a n d particularly b y t h e S o r k o f i s h i n g p e o p l e o f t h e N i g e r valley. Elderly m e n o f this g r o u p , w h i c h m a y r e p r e s e n t a n a u t o c h t h o n o u s e l e m e n t i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n , a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e ' m a r r i e d t o female spirits a n d i n c a p a b l e of b e i n g interested in o t h e r w o m e n ' . S u c h Sorko priests often a b a n d o n their traditional riverine pursuits a n d devote themselves
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entirely to t h e holey cult. In t h e w i d e r society t h e i r m a i n r i t u a l t a s k s concern r a i n - m a k i n g , the o r g a n i z a t i o n of h u n t i n g d a n c e s to secure river g a m e , a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n o f r i t u a l s d e s i g n e d t o alleviate t h e effects o f disasters c a u s e d b y t h u n d e r s t o r m s d u r i n g t h e r a i n y s e a s o n . H e r e t h e i r p r i m a r y role i s t h a t o f i n t e r m e d i a r i e s w i t h D o n g o , t h e t h u n d e r g o d . T h u s a m o n g s t t h e S o n g h a y , t h e two m o s t m a r g i n a l e l e m e n t s i n society w o m e n of all g r o u p s a n d m e n of low c a s t e a r e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r in a c o m m o n cult of affliction w h i c h is i n t e g r a t e d in t h e total r e l i g i o u s a n d officially M u s l i m life of this c o m p l e x W e s t African p e o p l e . A s i m i l a r synthesis u n d e r different c i r c u m s t a n c e s h a s t a k e n p l a c e amongst the G u r a g e , a Semitic-speaking people of central Ethiopia ( S h a c k , 1966). H e r e , with t h o s e G u r a g e w h o h a v e n o t yet c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m o r C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e r e a r e t w o m a i n religious c u l t s . T h e f i r s t , which is restricted to f r e e b o r n m e n , c o n c e r n s t h e sky god Waka w h i c h is w o r s h i p p e d as t h e g u a r d i a n of g e n e r a l m o r a l i t y . T h i s d e i t y receives a n n u a l sacrifices at his s h r i n e , w h i c h is t h e c e n t r e of G u r a g e political a n d religious life a n d w h e r e he is r e p r e s e n t e d by a f e m a l e p r i e s t e s s . T h i s position is vested in a p a r t i c u l a r c l a n , b u t t h e office is only p o t e n tial. It b e c o m e s active by t h e m a r r i a g e of a w o m a n of t h e a p p r o p r i a t e descent g r o u p t o a m a l e r i t u a l c o n s o r t w h o m u s t a g a i n b e d r a w n from a n o t h e r d e s i g n a t e d clan. H o w e v e r , i t i s this w o m a n , h u m a n ' w i f e ' t o t h e d e i t y , w h o , assisted b y w o m e n o f t h e d e s p i s e d class o f F u g a c a r p e n t e r s , leads this cult of m e n . Spirit possession is not involved h e r e . In contrast, possession is the d o m i n a n t motif in the parallel w o m e n ' s cult a d d r e s s e d to t h e female d e i t y Damwamwit. T h r o u g h possession b y this spirit, G u r a g e w o m e n i n g e n e r a l a n d d o w n t r o d d e n F u g a m e n ( w h o a r e a t t a c h e d a s clients t o f r e e b o r n G u r a g e families) a r e a l l o w e d special licence a n d a d e g r e e of s t a t u s e n h a n c e m e n t o t h e r w i s e d e n i e d to t h e m . T h u s , as can be imagined, w o m e n when in trouble with their h u s b a n d s , or F u g a d e p e n d a n t s in difficulties with their G u r a g e m a s t e r s , readily b e c o m e possessed. M o r e o v e r , a s t h o u g h t o drive t h e point h o m e further, their p r o t e c t i n g spirit is liable to a t t a c k a n y o n e w h o w a n t o n l y molests t h e m (see W o l d e t s a d i k , 1967; K n u t s s o n , 1 9 7 5 ; T o d d , 1980). I see this c o m b i n e d w o m e n ' s a n d F u g a m o v e m e n t a s a n essentially p e r i p h e r a l cult w h i c h h a s b e c o m e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e it is i n t e g r a t e d in t h e total G u r a g e religious s y s t e m a l o n g s i d e t h e m a l e cult of t h e m a s c u l i n e spirit, Waka. H e r e possession h a s n o t b e e n permitted to intrude within the m a l e - d o m i n a t e d m a i n morality cult, b u t h a s b e e n allowed t o exist a n d persist a m o n g s t w o m e n u n d e r m a l e l e a d e r s h i p a p p a r e n t l y at t h e price of g r a n t i n g female d i r e c t i o n in
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t h e f o r m e r cult. U n f o r t u n a t e l y w e k n o w n o t h i n g o f t h e historical c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d e r l y i n g this s y n t h e s i s ; a n d w h e t h e r o r not this b a l a n c i n g of roles b e t w e e n t h e sexes r e p r e s e n t s a fair c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n men- a n d w o m e n in a society w h e r e t h e r e is r e p o r t e d to be m u c h explicit sexual a n t a g o n i s m i s e q u a l l y d e b a t a b l e . W i t h respect to t h e d o w n t r o d d e n F u g a , h o w e v e r , it a p p e a r s t h a t the licence allowed to t h e m in possession c a n be v i e w e d a s , in effect, an a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t in ritual terms of their oppressed condition. I n t h u s t o u c h i n g o n t h e t h e m e o f r i t u a l i z e d rebellion w h i c h , h e r e as e l s e w h e r e , is u n d o u b t e d l y p r e s e n t in these cults of t h e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d , w e m u s t b e careful n o t t o a s s u m e t h a t such canalized e x p r e s s i o n s of i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n necessarily r e p r e s e n t a completely satisfying c a t h a r s i s w h i c h totally e x h a u s t s p e n t - u p r e s e n t m e n t a n d f r u s t r a t i o n . H e r e my last African e x a m p l e , that of the kubandwa possession cult in t h e k i n g d o m of R w a n d a , p r o v i d e s a s a l u t a r y w a r n i n g a g a i n s t t h e o v e r - r e a d y a c c e p t a n c e of this ' e s t a b l i s h m e n t ' view of t h e general situation. Traditional R w a n d a provided an extreme example of a m i x e d c o n q u e s t s t a t e , o r g a n i z e d i n t o rigid caste-like divisions. T h e system was d o m i n a t e d by the p r o u d T u t s i who, as intrusive p a s t o r a l a r i s t o c r a t s , r u l e d a society in w h i c h t h e y f o r m e d only s o m e 10 p e r cent of t h e total p o p u l a t i o n . T h e b u l k of t h e k i n g d o m ' s i n h a b i t a n t s c o n s i s t e d i n fact o f H u t u c u l t i v a t o r s w h o could n o t m a r r y T u t s i a n d w e r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e l a t t e r a s clients, p r o d u c i n g g r a i n for t h e m a n d h e l p i n g t o look after t h e i r c a t t l e . T h i s s y m b i o t i c a r r a n g e m e n t freed t h e n o b l e T u t s i from m a n y o f t h e h u m d r u m tasks o f daily life a n d p e r m i t t e d t h e m t o d e v o t e t h e i r e n e r g i e s t o g o v e r n i n g a n d c o n q u e r i n g . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , i t also allowed t h e d e s p i s e d H u t u t o p a r t i c i p a t e vicariously in the d o m i n a n t pastoral culture of their masters. Finally at t h e b o t t o m of t h e social p y r a m i d lay t h e p y g m y h u n t e r s called T w a w h o , like t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c T u t s i , f o r m e d a v e r y small p r o p o r t i o n of the population. T h e ' p r e m i s e o f i n e q u a l i t y ' , a s M a q u e t (1961) calls it, u n d e r which t h e H u t u a n d T w a l a b o u r e d w a s t o s o m e e x t e n t alleviated b y their p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e kubandwa spirit possession c u l t . T h i s cult, which w a s q u i t e s e p a r a t e from t h a t o f t h e a n c e s t o r s s u s t a i n i n g c u s t o m a r y m o r a l i t y , c e n t r e d r o u n d t h e god Ryangombe a n d his assistant spirits. Ryangombe like D i o n y s u s , w a s essentially a god of t h e p e o p l e , u n i t i n g i n h i s w o r s h i p s u b o r d i n a t e T w a a n d H u t u a s well a s t h e lordly T u t s i . T h e a n t i - e s t a b l i s h m e n t t o n e o f t h e cult w a s plainly e v i d e n t i n t h e u n f l a t t e r i n g a n d o b s c e n e n a m e s for m a n y s u b s i d i a r y spirits a n d t h e
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ironic s l o g a n : I love t h e T u t s i ' ( B e r g e r , 1976). I n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e cult followed a spirit illness a n d i n v o l v e d , as so often e l s e w h e r e , a m y s t i c a l u n i o n with t h e deity a n d his a t t e n d a n t spirits. O n c e this w a s a c h i e v e d , the i n i t i a t e w a s p r o t e c t e d from t h e p o w e r o f t h e a n c e s t o r c u l t s w h i c h , as we should expect, strove h a r d to u p h o l d caste m o r a l i t y . Significantly, Ryangombe is d e p i c t e d in m y t h as t h e victorious rival of K i n g R u g a n z u , the m o s t c e l e b r a t e d T u t s i c o n q u e r o r o f t h e c o u r t t r a d i t i o n s . A l t h o u g h t h e e x i s t i n g a c c o u n t s o f this cult d o n o t m a k e c l e a r w h e t h e r o r not T w a a n d H u t u used possession, a s w e should a n t i c i p a t e , to press their interests in their relations with their T u t s i p a t r o n s , o u r s o u r c e s on this m o v e m e n t s t r o n g l y e m p h a s i z e its role as a safety valve for t h e v e n t i l a t i o n of s u p p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e s u b o r d i n a t e g r o u p s i n t h e k i n g d o m ( d e H e u s c h 1966; B e r g e r , 1981). T h a t this w a s o n l y a p a r t i a l l y successful p a l l i a t i v e , h o w e v e r , is clearly e v i d e n t from t h e m o r e r e c e n t s e q u e n c e of e v e n t s in t h i s t r o u b l e d a r e a t o t h e east o f t h e C o n g o . I n t h e last d a y s o f B e l g i a n r u l e t h e T u t s i , i n t h e s a m e spirit a s t h e w h i t e settlers i n R h o d e s i a , p r e s s e d for e a r l y i n d e p e n d e n c e i n o r d e r t o s t a m p o u t a n y f u r t h e r e r o s i o n o f t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y . A n d s h o r t l y before i n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e s u p p r e s s e d H u t u t u r n e d from s u c h relief a s t h e y m a y h a v e f o u n d in t h e kubandwa cult to p r e c i p i t a t e a b l o o d y r e v o l u t i o n in w h i c h t h e y seized p o w e r from t h e T u t s i a n d m a s s a c r e d t h o u s a n d s o f t h e i r f o r m e r masters.
III A s w e saw i n t h e case o f w o m e n ' s cults w h e r e , h o w e v e r a m b i v a l e n t m a l e a t t i t u d e s t o such t r o u b l e s o m e spirits m a y b e , m e n a t least believe in t h e m in g e n e r a l , so h e r e t o o it is o b v i o u s l y essential t h a t b o t h s u p e r i o r a n d s u b o r d i n a t e should s h a r e a c o m m o n faith in t h e existence a n d efficacy of these m u t i n o u s p o w e r s . T h i s basic necessity for a m u t u a l trust in t h e s y m b o l i s m of such p e r i p h e r a l possession is r e q u i r e d , since o t h e r w i s e clearly t h e voice of p r o t e s t loses its a u t h o r i t y . T h i s a s p e c t of t h e s i t u a t i o n is r e a d i l y e m p h a s i z e d if we c o m p a r e for a m o m e n t E u r o p e a n 1960s manifestations of ' F l o w e r - P o w e r ' w i t h t h a t i n t e r e s t i n g n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Fijian p r e c u r s o r , usually k n o w n a s t h e W a t e r B a b y Cult. W h a t e v e r messages of peace they m a y have borne in earlier c e n t u r i e s a n d d e s p i t e t h e efforts o f I n t e r f l o r a , i n o u r s e c u l a r society flowers a r e n o l o n g e r d e e p l y e v o c a t i v e s y m b o l s c h a r g e d w i t h e s o t e r i c m e a n i n g . N o t s o i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Fiji. T h e r e , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f
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t h e first i m p a c t of m o d e r n social c h a n g e , y o u n g people a n d m i n o r chiefs e x c l u d e d from h i g h p o s i t i o n s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e rallied t o g e t h e r to form t h e W a t e r B a b y C u l t , b e i n g possessed by forest a n d w a t e r s p i r i t s , a n d t a k i n g n e w p e r s o n a l n a m e s usually those o f flowers. U n l i k e o u r o w n F l o w e r - P e o p l e , these Fijian c o u n t e r p a r t s a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h possession a n d t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e cult a m e a s u r e of a t t e n t i o n a n d respect which they h a d previously been denied ( W o r s l e y , 1957). T h e s y m b o l i s m selected w a s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e task to w h i c h it w a s a p p l i e d . All t h e e l e m e n t s w e h a v e s o far d i s c u s s e d a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y well d i s p l a y e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e H i n d u caste s y s t e m . Several recent w r i t e r s o n I n d i a n c o m m u n i t i e s c o m m e n t u p o n t h e p r e d i l e c t i o n which p e r i p h e r a l spirits (often those o f t h e u n q u i e t a n d u n t i m e l y d e a d ) show for m e n o f low c a s t e . I n s o m e cases this m a y lead t o d r a m a t i c a n d lasting revolutionary changes in status. T h u s , in a lower H i m a l a y a n village, G e r a l d B e r r e m a n ( 1 9 7 2 ) r e c o u n t s in detail t h e life history of a r e m a r k a b l e y o u n g b l a c k s m i t h w h o , following a series of c a l a m i t i e s , was possessed by a deity a n d performed m a n y miracles to become v e n e r a t e d h i m s e l f a s a l i v i n g g o d . M o r e c o m m o n l y , t h r o u g h possession, such lowly o r d e r s a r e allowed a limited franchise to protest against t h e i r m e n i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . O n e o f t h e best a n a l y s e s o f this p a t t e r n o f r i t u a l i z e d m u t i n y i s t h a t p r o v i d e d for t h e N a y a r s o f M a l a b a r b y K a t h l e e n G o u g h ( G o u g h , 1958). T h i s h i g h caste of w a r r i o r s a n d l a n d - o w n e r s is traditionally divided i n t o a n u m b e r of m a t r i l i n e a g e s , t h e functionally m o s t significant u n i t s of w h i c h a r e m a t r i - s e g m e n t s k n o w n as taravads, each with its o w n estate, a n d led b y t h e s e n i o r m a l e i n t h e g r o u p . A s w e s h o u l d e x p e c t , within t h e local p r a c t i c e of H i n d u i s m t h e a n c e s t o r s of these g r o u p s a r e largely c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e m o r a l s a n d o b e d i e n c e t o caste rules o f their d e s c e n d a n t s . T h e s e essentially family spirits a r e carefully t e n d e d b y t h e h e a d of e a c h taravad. Sickness a n d affliction a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h e i r w r a t h at s o m e act of u n f i t t i n g b e h a v i o u r within the g r o u p . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , o t h e r o p t i o n s . S o m e i n s t a n c e s o f disease a n d i n j u r y a r e referred not t o t h e a n c e s t o r s b u t t o alien ghosts. T h e s e latter a r e typically t h e spirits o f low caste m e n i a l s a n d d e p e n d a n t s o f N a y a r s w h o h a v e d i e d following a q u a r r e l w i t h t h e i r m a s t e r s , o r w h o w e r e a c t u a l l y killed b y t h e m . S u c h s p i r i t s , a s c a n b e i m a g i n e d , h a u n t a n d harass their former superiors, causing m u c h malicious misfortune and s i c k n e s s . T o c o p e w i t h t h i s , s h r i n e s a r e e r e c t e d t o these d e m a n d i n g
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spirits a n d t h e y a r e r e g u l a r l y p r o p i t i a t e d n o t b y t h e h e a d o f t h e N a y a r g r o u p himself, b u t b y a n a t t a c h e d low c a s t e s e r v a n t . T h r o u g h this priest, offerings o f t o d d y a n d c h i c k e n s a r e m a d e a n n u a l l y b y t h e N a y a r family c o n c e r n e d t o k e e p t h e spirit c o n t e n t e d . P r o p i t i a t o r y sacrifices a r e also m a d e o n o t h e r o c c a s i o n s i n r e s p o n s e t o afflictions for w h i c h these p e r i p h e r a l spirits (in o u r t e r m i n o l o g y ) a r e h e l d r e s p o n sible. H e r e d i a g n o s i s is p r o v i d e d by a low caste d i v i n e r . I n t h e p r o p i t i a t i o n rites, t h e low caste officiant u s u a l l y b e c o m e s possessed b y t h e spirit. W h i l e i n this c o n d i t i o n , h e m a y m a k e f u r t h e r d e m a n d s o n his N a y a r m a s t e r s a s well a s t a k i n g t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f v o i c i n g a n y g r i e v a n c e s h e l d a t t h e t i m e b y t h e low c a s t e d e p e n d a n t s of the N a y a r group concerned. These representations are m a d e of c o u r s e b y t h e spirit a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e n o t t o b e d i s m i s s e d lightly. Similarly, i n t h e a c t u a l a p p e a s e m e n t r i t u a l s , t h e s e low caste r i t u a l e x p e r t s ( d e s c r i b e d as professional e x o r c i s t s ) in d e f i a n c e of n o r m a l c o n v e n t i o n act v e r y aggressively t o w a r d s t h e i r N a y a r m a s t e r s . I n t h i s ritual c o n t e x t , h o w e v e r , t h e y m u s t b e t r e a t e d w i t h g r e a t r e s p e c t b y the N a y a r s a n d given gifts a n d s u c h o t h e r p r e s e n t s a s t h e y r e q u e s t . In t h e light of t h e foregoing, it is no s u r p r i s e to find t h a t t h e incidence of a c t u a l afflictions laid at t h e d o o r of t h e s e spirits t e n d s to coincide w i t h w i t h e p i s o d e s o f t e n s i o n a n d u n j u s t t r e a t m e n t i n t h e relations b e t w e e n m a s t e r a n d s e r v a n t . T h u s , a s s o often e l s e w h e r e , from a n objective v i e w - p o i n t , t h e s e spirits c a n b e s e e n t o f u n c t i o n a s a sort of ' c o n s c i e n c e of t h e r i c h ' . T h e i r m a l e v o l e n t p o w e r reflects t h e feelings o f e n v y a n d r e s e n t m e n t w h i c h , p e o p l e o f h i g h caste a s s u m e the less f o r t u n a t e l o w e r castes m u s t h a r b o u r i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r superiors. M o r e o v e r , these aggressive ghosts a r e i n this case n o l o n g e r used o n l y b y t h e w e a k a n d d o w n t r o d d e n t h r o u g h t h e o b l i q u e s t r a t e g y o f self-possession. T h e y also t a k e t h e offensive a n d d i r e c t l y a t t a c k N a y a r s , c a u s i n g possession afflictions w h i c h c a n o n l y b e c u r e d b y l o w caste exorcists. T h e N a y a r s h a v e t h u s g o o d g r o u n d s for t a k i n g t h e s e c a p r i c i o u s spirits seriously. A g a i n , t h e s e p o w e r s c a n also b e d i r e c t l y e m p l o y e d i n witchcraft a n d s o r c e r y . T h o s e w h o c o n t r o l t h e m a r e credited with t h e p o w e r o f s e n d i n g t h e m a g a i n s t a n e n e m y . A n d h e r e it is precisely t h e i r low caste d e p e n d a n t s , w h o specialize in d e a l i n g with these u n c l e a n spirits, t h a t t h e N a y a r s r e g a r d a s p o t e n t i a l w i t c h e s and sorcerers. T h i s b r i n g s us to t h e t h e m e of t h e n e x t section of this c h a p t e r the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p e r i p h e r a l possession a n d witchcraft. B u t before w e e m b a r k o n t h a t , let u s n o t e t h a t i n t h e case w e h a v e j u s t
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e x a m i n e d t h e s e low caste spirits w h i c h t h e N a y a r s treat a s aliens a r e of course ancestral to the subordinate groups concerned. For what are e x t e r n a l t o t h e N a y a r s , a r e kith a n d kin t o t h e i r s e r v a n t s . T h u s i t i s n o t h e r e a q u e s t i o n of a single e t h n i c - g r o u p b e i n g p l a g u e d by forces from hostile n e i g h b o u r i n g p e o p l e s . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e situation i s t h a t s p i r i t s w h i c h a r e c e n t r a l to o n e s u b - g r o u p in a p l u r a l society a r e m a r g i n a l t o o t h e r u n i t s w i t h i n t h e s a m e s y s t e m . T h e e n e m y i n short i s n o t a t t h e g a t e s , b u t w i t h i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c o m p o s i t e society. E x t e r n a l i t y o r p e r i p h e r a l i t y i s t h u s h i g h l y relative a n d i n t h e N a y a r case defined, as o n e w o u l d expect, by caste b a r r i e r s . T h e case is similar in o t h e r culturally a n d ethnically h e t e r o g e n e o u s systems w h e r e the gods of s u b o r d i n a t e s e g m e n t s of t h e w i d e r society a r e feared as c a p r i c i o u s m a l c o n t e n t p o w e r s by t h e i r s u p e r i o r s . T h i s is in fact t h e position with t h e bori slave cults of n o r t h - w e s t Africa. A g a i n e x t e r n a l i t y m a y b e e v e n m o r e n a r r o w l y defined. I t m a y b e considered that, where women are married exogamously by men of o t h e r l i n e a g e s , e a c h wife b r i n g s h e r o w n a n c e s t o r spirits w i t h h e r a n d t h e s e a r e alien t o h e r h u s b a n d ' s family a n d k i n . O r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , a wife m a y b e t h o u g h t t o h a v e p r i v i l e g e d access t o h e r h u s b a n d ' s a n c e s t r a l spirits w h i c h a r e foreign t o h e r . I n e i t h e r case, w o m e n a r e c o n c e r n e d with spirits which h a v e a degree of externality or marginality i n t h e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e y a r e o p e r a t i v e . I n m a n y societies, a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y a m o n g t h e S o u t h African B a n t u p e o p l e s , such affinal a n c e s t o r spirits r e g u l a r l y c a u s e possession afflictions i n t h e w o m e n c o n c e r n e d , b u t o n c e t h e s e a r e m a s t e r e d t h e i r v i c t i m s b e c o m e socially a p p r o v e d a n t i - w i t c h c r a f t d i v i n e r s (see e.g. O ' C o n n e l l , 1982). H e r e , e x a c t l y a s w i t h m o r e t h o r o u g h l y foreign p e r i p h e r a l spirits, w o m e n e m p l o y these ' e x t r a - d e s c e n t ' spirits t o a d v a n c e their a i m s a n d interests in the m a n n e r we have now come to expect. T h u s , however narrowly or broadly conceived the peripherality of t h e s p i r i t s i n v o l v e d m a y b e , t h e effect i s a l w a y s t h e s a m e . W h a t w e find o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n in a wide r a n g e of different cultures a n d places is t h e special e n d o w m e n t of m y s t i c a l p o w e r g i v e n to t h e w e a k . If they d o n o t q u i t e i n h e r i t t h e e a r t h , a t least t h e y a r e p r o v i d e d w i t h m e a n s w h i c h e n a b l e t h e m t o offset t h e i r o t h e r w i s e c r u s h i n g j u r a l disabilities. W i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y w h i c h t h e voice o f t h e gods a l o n e gives, t h e y f i n d a w a y to m a n i p u l a t e t h e i r s u p e r i o r s w i t h i m p u n i t y at least within c e r t a i n l i m i t s . A n d , a s w e s a w i n t h e last c h a p t e r , t o a n e x t e n t t h a t is h a r d to g a u g e precisely, this is b r o a d l y satisfactory to all c o n c e r n e d , s u b o r d i n a t e as well as s u p e r i o r . Y e t , as I h a v e r e p e a t e d l y e m p h a s i z e d ,
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this is n o t to say t h a t s u c h l i m i t e d e x p r e s s i o n s of p r o t e s t e x h a u s t t h e store o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y f e r v o u r . H o w e v e r s e e m i n g l y satisfying t h e p l a y o f such cults, t h e p o t e n t i a l i t y for d e e p e r a n d m o r e r a d i c a l o u t b u r s t s of p e n t - u p r e s e n t m e n t is a l w a y s t h e r e . S a r t r e , in his preface to F r a n t z F a n o n ' s The Wretched of the Earth, clearly views t h e m a t t e r differently. S p e a k i n g of t h e last d a y s of colonialism in A l g e r i a he says: In c e r t a i n districts t h e y m a k e u s e of t h a t last resort possession by spirits. F o r m e r l y this w a s a r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e in all its simplicity, a c e r t a i n c o m m u n i o n of t h e faithful w i t h s a c r e d t h i n g s ; n o w t h e y m a k e of it a w e a p o n a g a i n s t h u m i l i a t i o n a n d d e s p a i r ; M u m b o - j u m b o a n d all t h e idols o f t h e t r i b e c o m e d o w n a m o n g t h e m , rule o v e r t h e i r violence a n d w a s t e it in t r a n c e s u n t i l it is e x h a u s t e d ( S a r t r e , 1967, p p . 1 6 - 1 7 ) . Few will w a n t t o c h a l l e n g e S a r t r e ' s view t h a t bullets a r e m o r e effective w e a p o n s t h a n spirits i n t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t foreign c o l o n i z e r s . But his nostalgic p i c t u r e of t h e pristinely i n n o c e n t c h a r a c t e r of possession in its t r a d i t i o n a l , pre-colonial setting shows r e m a r k a b l e i g n o r a n c e of t h e t r u e sociological significance of t h e B l a c k B r o t h e r h o o d s . A n d certainly this i n n o c u o u s assessment is n o t s h a r e d o u t s i d e the colonial situation b y those a g a i n s t w h o m s u c h cults a r e a i m e d . A s w e shall see, the protest cults we h a v e described a r e only tolerated within defined limits, a n d a r e regularly c o n t a i n e d b y defence m e c h a n i s m s w h i c h s e e m d e s i g n e d to check excessive i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n .
IV I n t h e foregoing p a g e s , a s i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , w e h a v e t r a c e d t h e w i d e s p r e a d a s c r i p t i o n o f m i s f o r t u n e a n d illness t o a m o r a l p e r i p h e r a l spirits w h i c h p l a g u e t h e w e a k a n d d o w n t r o d d e n . T h o s e m e n a n d w o m e n w h o e x p e r i e n c e t h e s e afflictions d o s o r e g u l a r l y i n s i t u a t i o n s o f stress a n d conflict w i t h t h e i r s u p e r i o r s , a n d , i n t h e a t t e n t i o n a n d respect which t h e y t e m p o r a r i l y a t t r a c t , i n f l u e n c e t h e i r m a s t e r s . T h u s a d v e r s i t y i s t u r n e d t o a d v a n t a g e , a n d spirit possession o f this t y p e c a n b e seen t o p r o v i d e a n o b l i q u e s t r a t e g y o f a t t a c k . T h i s a s p e c t o f s u c h possession i m m e d i a t e l y r a n k s i t w i t h witchcraft a n d s o r c e r y a c c u s a tions which, as is well k n o w n , a r e similarly e m p l o y e d to explain distress a n d d i s e a s e in s i t u a t i o n s of strife a n d t e n s i o n . If we n o w p r o c e e d to
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c o m p a r e t h e s e t w o w a y s of r e a c t i n g to m i s f o r t u n e , it will be o b v i o u s t h a t t h e y r e p r e s e n t v e r y different styles o f a t t a c k . Let u s f i r s t b e clear, h o w e v e r , t h a t a l t h o u g h in witchcraft ( o r s o r c e r y ) it is always the b e w i t c h e d subject w h o t h r u s t s h i m s e l f f o r w a r d t o c a t c h o u r a t t e n t i o n a n d s y m p a t h y a s t h e i n n o c e n t ' v i c t i m ' o f evil m a c h i n a t i o n s , t h e real v i c t i m in a n y objective sense is t h e a c c u s e d ' w i t c h ' . It is of c o u r s e in this s e n s e t h a t w e s p e a k o f ' w i t c h - h u n t s ' , s u c h a s t h o s e e m p l o y e d i n America to hunt down communists, and where there is no doubt as t o t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e real v i c t i m s . T h u s w h e r e p e o p l e believe i n t h e reality of witchcraft, t h e victim of affliction w h o p i n s responsibility for h i s difficulties on an e n e m y by a c c u s i n g h i m of witchcraft is p u r s u i n g ( h o w e v e r u n c o n s c i o u s l y ) a direct strategy of mystical assault. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e victim w h o i n t e r p r e t s his p r o b l e m s i n t e r m s o f p o s s e s s i o n b y m a l e v o l e n t spirits utilizes, a s w e h a v e a m p l y seen, a d e v i o u s m a n o e u v r e in w h i c h i m m e d i a t e responsibility is p o i n t e d not a t h i s fellow m e n , b u t u p o n m y s t e r i o u s a n d m a l i g n forces o u t s i d e society. H e r e it is o n l y i n d i r e c t l y t h a t p r e s s u r e is b r o u g h t to b e a r by t h e ' v i c t i m ' o n t h e r e a l t a r g e t w h i c h h e seeks t o r e a c h . I t i s i n t h e r e a c t i o n of o t h e r m e m b e r s of his c o m m u n i t y to an affliction for which no o n e c a n be b l a m e d t h a t a m e a s u r e of r e d r e s s is a c h i e v e d . F r o m t h e s t a n d - p o i n t of t h e subject of m i s f o r t u n e t h e effect, at least in certain r e s p e c t s , m a y b e b r o a d l y s i m i l a r i n t h e t w o cases. T h i s i s t r u e t o t h e e x t e n t a t least t h a t b o t h s t r a t e g i e s i m m e d i a t e l y rally s u p p o r t a n d s u c c o u r to t h e side of t h e s u b j e c t . Y e t t h e fact t h a t t h e m e a n s of a c h i e v i n g this result differ so radically suggests t h a t each strategy might be a p p r o p r i a t e to a different set of c i r c u m s t a n c e s from the o t h e r . T h u s w e s h o u l d e x p e c t t o f i n d distinct social c o r r e l a t e s d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e f i e l d s i n w h i c h t h e s e t w o tactics a r e a p p l i e d . W e n o w h a v e a m p l e m a t e r i a l t o e s t a b l i s h w h e t h e r o r n o t this i s actually t h e case. Before w e d o this h o w e v e r , w e s h o u l d d i s p o s e o f t h e p r i o r q u e s t i o n : if ( a s I am a r g u i n g ) p e r i p h e r a l possession a n d witchcraft b o t h reflect social t e n s i o n s , a l t h o u g h i n different w a y s , a r e t h e y m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e ? T h a t t h e y a r e totally d i s s i m i l a r p h e n o m e n a w a s clearly t h e view t a k e n by a g r o u p of e m i n e n t F r e n c h a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s at a g r a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o l l o q u i u m on spirit possession. In a c u r i o u s l y oldf a s h i o n e d m a n n e r , t h e s e s c h o l a r s i n effect a r g u e d t h a t w h a t p e r t a i n s t o G o d ( p o s s e s s i o n ) a n d w h a t b e l o n g s t o t h e d a r k w o r l d o f t h e devil (witchcraft) c a n scarcely b e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r w i t h i n t h e s a m e u n i v e r s e of d i s c o u r s e . This judgement, which no doubt reflects the time-honoured
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distinction s o laboriously u r g e d b y F r a z e r a n d o t h e r s b e t w e e n religion a n d m a g i c , is also t h a t r e a c h e d from a different p o i n t of v i e w by s o m e Anglo-Saxon anthropologists. T h u s in a well-known paper on s h a m a n i s m a m o n g t h e N u b a t r i b e s o f t h e S u d a n , S . F . N a d e l says: ' T h e N y i m a (a N u b a tribe) have no witchcraft. S h a m a n i s m absorbs all t h a t i s u n p r e d i c t a b l e a n d m o r a l l y i n d e t e r m i n a t e a n d saves t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f a n o r d e r e d u n i v e r s e from s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t i o n ' ( N a d e l , 1946, p . 3 4 ) . H e r e N a d e l h a s i n m i n d t h e fact t h a t spirit possession offers a m e a n s of e x p l a i n i n g a w a y u n m e r i t e d m i s f o r t u n e in a m a n n e r which d o e s not q u e s t i o n t h e essential g o o d n e s s a n d j u s t i c e o f o t h e r celestial p o w e r s . S i m i l a r l y , a n d m o r e s u c c i n c t l y , i n h e r c o m p a r a t i v e study o f witchcraft, L u c y M a i r declares t h a t w h e r e people 'believe t h a t their sufferings c o m e from m a l e v o l e n t spirits . . . t h e y a r e n o t d r i v e n to t u r n to witchcraft as an e x p l a n a t i o n . . .' ( M a i r , 1 9 6 9 , p. 3 0 ) . As is so often t h e w a y w i t h b o l d a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , these a s s e r t i o n s a r e n o t b o r n e o u t b y t h e facts. I n m a n y c u l t u r e s , witchcraft o r s o r c e r y ( I a m n o t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n t h e s e h e r e ) a n d m a l e v o l e n t spirit possession d o o c c u r t o g e t h e r . T h i s i s t r u e i n d e e d , with v e r y few e x c e p t i o n s , of a l m o s t all t h e cases we h a v e e x a m i n e d i n this a n d t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e v e r y c o m m o n association of witchcraft with spirit familiars, often of opposite sex to t h e possessed w i t c h , is a r a t h e r o b v i o u s i n d i c a t i o n of t h e impossibility of r e g a r d i n g these mystical forces as necessarily m u t u a l l y exclusive. N o r , of c o u r s e , d o e s o n e n e e d to look v e r y far afield to find s t r i k i n g e x a m p l e s o f t h e co-existence o f t h e t w o p h e n o m e n a : o u r o w n sixteenth- a n d s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y C h r i s t i a n c u l t u r e , to look no further b a c k , offers a n a b u n d a n t r e c o r d o f w i t c h e s w h o s e m a l i g n p o w e r d e p e n d e d u p o n invasive incubi a n d succubi. H e n c e , e v i d e n t l y , i n m a n y c u l t u r e s t h e s e t w o forces co-exist a n d often blend into a c o m p o u n d p o w e r . T h i s p r o v i d e s us with an excellent o p p o r t u n i t y for t e s t i n g m y initial d e d u c t i o n t h a t , since t h e y r e p r e s e n t different strategies, t h e y s h o u l d h a v e distinct c o n t e x t s o f o p e r a t i o n . As in fact we h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , p e r i p h e r a l possession is r e g u l a r l y u s e d b y t h e m e m b e r s o f s u b o r d i n a t e social c a t e g o r i e s t o p r e s s h o m e claims on t h e i r s u p e r i o r s . W i t c h c r a f t (or s o r c e r y ) a c c u s a t i o n s ( a n d I e m p h a s i z e t h a t I am t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e i n c i d e n c e of accusations) on t h e other h a n d , r u n in different social grooves. T y p i c a l l y , they a r e l a u n c h e d b e t w e e n e q u a l s , or by a s u p e r i o r a g a i n s t a s u b o r d i n a t e . T h e r a r e e x c e p t i o n s t o this g e n e r a l i z a t i o n p r o v e t h e r u l e . F o r w h e r e witchcraft c h a r g e s a r e b r o u g h t a g a i n s t a s u p e r i o r b y a n inferior, t h e explicit
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i n t e n t i o n is to q u e s t i o n t h e l e g i t i m a c y of this s t a t u s difference a n d u l t i m a t e l y to assert equality. So it is, for e x a m p l e , a m o n g s t the L u g b a r a t r i b e of U g a n d a , w h e r e w h e n disaffection a m o n g s t his followers reaches a c l i m a x , t h e old village e l d e r finds h i m s e l f r e p e a t e d l y accused of w i t c h c r a f t b y his r e b e l l i o u s j u n i o r s . H e r e t h e a i m , clearly e v i d e n t i n its effects, is to d i s c r e d i t t h e l e a d e r ' s w a n i n g c l a i m s to legitimacy a n d f i n a l l y t o t h r u s t h i m from his p e d e s t a l . A n excellent i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e s e p a r a t e f i e l d s i n w h i c h possession a n d witchcraft a c c u s a t i o n o p e r a t e is p r o v i d e d in t h e p o l y g y n o u s family situation. W h e r e people believe in b o t h these mystical forces, witchcraft a c c u s a t i o n s a r e levelled a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r b y t h e co-wives, a n d b y t h e m u t u a l h u s b a n d a g a i n s t a n y o f h i s wives. S p i r i t - p o s s e s s i o n , a s w e h a v e so f r e q u e n t l y s e e n , is, in c o n t r a s t , t h e p r e f e r r e d m o d e of assault e m p l o y e d by e a c h co-wife in h e r d e a l i n g s with h e r h u s b a n d . A wife u s u a l l y o n l y accuses h e r h u s b a n d of witchcraft w h e n she seeks to sever t h e i r m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d t o assert h e r full i n d e p e n d e n c e . T h u s w e see t h a t p e r i p h e r a l possession e x p r e s s e s i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n , but usually not to the point where it is desired to immediately rupture t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p c o n c e r n e d or to s u b v e r t it c o m p l e t e l y . R a t h e r it v e n t i l a t e s a g g r e s s i o n a n d f r u s t r a t i o n l a r g e l y w i t h i n a n u n e a s y accepta n c e of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r of t h i n g s . W i t c h c r a f t a n d sorcery accusat i o n s i n c o n t r a s t , r e p r e s e n t i n g a s t h e y d o m o r e d r a s t i c a n d direct lines o f a t t a c k , often seek t o s u n d e r u n b e a r a b l y t e n s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h i s is an aspect of the operation of such accusations which has been e l e g a n t l y d e m o n s t r a t e d b y M a r w i c k (1952) a n d o t h e r s . T h u s i f possessed s u b o r d i n a t e s kick against the pricks at regular intervals, those w h o p r e s s witchcraft c h a r g e s kick o v e r t h e t r a c e s c o m p l e t e l y . F o r w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t a d i s t a n c i n g s t r a t e g y w h i c h seeks to d i s c r e d i t , s e v e r , a n d d e n y l i n k s ; a n d u l t i m a t e l y t o assert s e p a r a t e identity. S o far t h e n , I h a v e b e e n a r g u i n g t h a t w h e n p e r i p h e r a l possession a n d witchcraft both occur together in the same culture, they tend to flourish in different social c o n t e x t s a n d to exert c o n t r a s t i n g effects. H o w e v e r , in m a n y c u l t u r e s , the situation is in reality m o r e complicated t h a n t h i s since t h e s e t w o p o w e r s f r e q u e n t l y coalesce in a highly r e v e a l i n g w a y . H e r e t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e N a y a r , a n d t h e i r low caste d e p e n d a n t s r e p r e s e n t s o n e widely f o u n d p a t t e r n . T h o s e low castes w h o m t h e N a y a r s allow t o p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e i r a u t h o r i t y periodically t h r o u g h the m e d i u m o f possession, a n d w h o m they e m p l o y a s exorcists, a r e also s u s p e c t e d b y t h e m o f b e i n g w i t c h e s o r s o r c e r e r s . T h u s t h e r e
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is a general association b e t w e e n low caste s t a t u s , spirit p o s s e s s i o n , e x o r c i s m , a n d witchcraft s u c h , in s h o r t , t h a t spirit possession a n d witchcraft r e p r e s e n t t w o i n s e p a r a b l e facets of t h e p o s i t i o n h e l d by low caste I n d i a n s . Despite their v e r y v a r i e d cultural c i r c u m s t a n c e s , we find the s a m e t h e m e r u n n i n g t h r o u g h m o s t o f t h e o t h e r i n s t a n c e s w h i c h we h a v e discussed in this a n d the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r . W h e t h e r it is subordinate m e n or w o m e n in Africa or Asia w h o voice their protests t h r o u g h possession, it is precisely t h e y w h o a r e h e l d to be p o t e n t i a l w i t c h e s . T h i s b l a n k e t c a t e g o r i z a t i o n exists i n m o s t c a s e s . B u t , i f w e look m o r e closely at t h e d a t a , we shall see t h a t a c c u s a t i o n s of witchcraft a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y frequently d i r e c t e d at t h o s e of t h e s e social c a t e g o r i e s w h o e m p l o y possession in w h a t I h a v e called t h e ' s e c o n d a r y p h a s e ' in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of these cults. It is especially t h o s e s u b o r d i n a t e m e n or w o m e n w h o , h a v i n g g r a d u a t e d t o b e c o m e l e a d i n g s h a m a n s , a r e singled out for a t t a c k a n d d e n u n c i a t i o n a s w i t c h e s . T h u s it s e e m s t h a t t h e i r r i t a t i o n a r o u s e d by t h e effects of p o s s e s sion a m o n g s t the r a n k s of t h e m a n i p u l a t e d e s t a b l i s h m e n t fastens m o s t securely on those w h o in a s s u m i n g a p o s i t i v e , a c t i v e , a n d a b o v e all, militant role a r e i n d e e d in d a n g e r of e x c e e d i n g t h e b o u n d s of t o l e r a n c e . These leaders of m u t i n o u s w o m e n or depressed m e n w h o , in diagn o s i n g a n d t r e a t i n g possession afflictions a m o n g s t t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s , perpetuate the whole system are the most d a n g e r o u s agents of dissent and potential subversion. H e n c e it is they w h o are held in check by a c c u s a t i o n s o f witchcraft w h i c h s e e m d e s i g n e d t o d i s c r e d i t t h e m a n d t o d i m i n i s h their s t a t u s . T h u s , i f possession i s t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h the u n d e r d o g b i d s for a t t e n t i o n , witchcraft a c c u s a t i o n s p r o v i d e t h e countervailing strategy b y which such d e m a n d s a r e kept within b o u n d s . T h e r e is a poetic j u s t i c e in t h i s . F o r , in effect, b o t h s u b o r d i n a t e a n d s u p e r i o r a r e i n d u l g i n g in self-fulfilling p r o p h e c i e s t h e result of w h i c h is to e n t r e n c h t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e w e a k enjoy a special e n d o w m e n t of mystical p o w e r . It is also all a d m i r a b l y logical. If t h e spirits i n v o l v e d can c a u s e affliction t h r o u g h u n c o n t r o l l e d , i n v o l u n t a r y possession, t h e n w h e n t h e y b e c o m e subject t o c o n t r o l l e d , v o l u n t a r y possession i n t h e p e r s o n s o f s h a m a n s d r a w n from t h e lowest s t r a t a o f society t h e y c a n scarcely b e e x p e c t e d t o h a v e shed c o m p l e t e l y t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o h a r m . F a r from it i n d e e d , for these u p s t a r t c o n t r o l l e r s of spirits a r e , by t h e i r very p o w e r o v e r t h e spirits, s u s p e c t e d o f c a u s i n g w h a t t h e y c u r e . T h u s w h e r e witchcraft implies t h e u s e o f s u c h s p i r i t s , h e w h o c a n cast o u t m a l i g n spirits is ipso facto a w i t c h .
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V I n t h e p a t t e r n c o n n e c t i n g witchcraft w i t h spirit possession which w e h a v e j u s t e s t a b l i s h e d , t h r e e s e p a r a t e c o n t e x t s o f possession c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d . First, w e h a v e t h e case o f afflictions w h i c h those w h o suffer t h e m i n t e r p r e t a s i n v o l u n t a r y possession b y a n evil spirit. S e c o n d l y , t h e r e is t h e s t a t e of v o l u n t a r y , c o n t r o l l e d possession w h i c h , from b e i n g a n affliction, h a s v i r t u a l l y b e c o m e a n a d d i c t i o n , a n d i s c e l e b r a t e d c l a n d e s t i n e l y as a religious d e v o t i o n . It is this t y p e , or c o n t e x t , of possession w h i c h is m o s t forcefully realized by the s h a m a n . T h e l a t t e r , as a m a s t e r ( o r m i s t r e s s ) of spirits, is c o n s i d e r e d c a p a b l e o f t a m i n g these m a l e v o l e n t p o w e r s , a n d t h u s o f t r e a t i n g those afflicted b y t h e m . B u t , b y t h e s a m e t o k e n , h e c a n also s e n d t h e m o u t t o attack his e n e m i e s , t h u s inflicting i n v o l u n t a r y possession illnesses u p o n his a d v e r s a r i e s . T h i s gives u s o u r t h i r d c o n t e x t o f possession. H e r e , u n l i k e t h e p o s i t i o n in t h e first c o n t e x t , a possession illness is d i a g n o s e d as b e i n g d u e to possession by a spirit w h i c h is not d e e m e d to be a c t i n g on its o w n a c c o u n t , b u t to h a v e b e e n sent by an ill-disposed s h a m a n . T h i s i s r e g a r d e d a s witchcraft a n d t h e t r e a t m e n t consists i n e x o r c i s i n g , r a t h e r t h a n t a m i n g , o r d o m e s t i c a t i n g , t h e spirit involved. B y c a s t i n g i t forth, r a t h e r t h a n b y r e a c h i n g a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g with it, t h e victim is e n a b l e d to recover. T h u s , this interpretation of p r i m a r y p h a s e p o s s e s s i o n a s witchcraft d o e s n o t lead t h e affected victim t o j o i n a p o s s e s s i o n cult g r o u p t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p of w h i c h he can t h e n p r o c e e d t o t h e s e c o n d a r y p h a s e . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e spirit i s cast o u t , a n d t h e v i c t i m is n o t i n d u c t e d i n t o a cult g r o u p . T h i s distinction b e t w e e n these a l t e r n a t i v e diagnoses a n d t r e a t m e n t s of t h e s a m e external s y m p t o m s (for these r e m a i n c o n s t a n t ) , is consistent with t h e social status of t h e victims involved. S u b o r d i n a t e s see p r i m a r y p h a s e p o s s e s s i o n a s d u e e n t i r e l y t o t h e i n t r i n s i c m a l i c e o f t h e spirits. B u t t h e i r s u p e r i o r s , w h e n t h e y i n t u r n fall v i c t i m t o t h e s a m e spiritc a u s e d afflictions, see in t h e m t h e m a l i c i o u s e n v y of t h e i r inferiors. T h u s t h e m y s t i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n selected b y t h e e n t r e n c h e d establishm e n t e n a b l e s its m e m b e r s t o d e n o u n c e t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t e s a s spiritr i d d e n w i t c h e s . B y this m a n o e u v r e t h e y r e a s s e r t t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y a n d s t r e n g t h e n t h e g a p which separates t h e m from their lowly subordinates, whose despised, t h o u g h feared, esoteric possession cult there is no question of t h e i r e n t e r i n g . F i g u r e 4.1 a t t e m p t s to clarify this tangled p a t t e r n . I n this c o n f i g u r a t i o n , t h e n , possession illnesses a m o n g s u b o r d i n a t e s a r e n o t r e g a r d e d as witchcraft. T h i s e q u a t i o n only arises w h e n the same
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PRIMARY PHASE (involuntary, uncontrolled) (a) Among subordinates, due to malice of spirits
SECONDARY PHASE (voluntary, controlled)
Become shamans diving (a) and causing and exorcising (b) Possession illness
(b) Among superiors, due to malice of those subordinates who master spirits (= witchcraft)
Figure
4.1
afflictions, with identical s y m p t o m s , a r e e x p e r i e n c e d b y m e m b e r s o f the s u p e r i o r s t r a t a o f society a g a i n s t w h o m t h e w h o l e a p p a r a t u s o f p e r i p h e r a l possession is d i r e c t e d . In all t h e s e c o n t e x t s of p o s s e s s i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e y a r e h e l d t o b e subject t o h u m a n c o n t r o l v a r i e s , t h e spirits i n v o l v e d a r e i d e n t i c a l . T h e y a r e w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n a m o r a l , p e r i p h e r a l spirits w i t h a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the lower classes. T h e s e d a r k p o w e r s , as I h a v e r e p e a t e d l y e m p h a s i z e d , have no direct p a r t to play in m a i n t a i n i n g or enforcing social m o r a l i t y . T h e i r v i c t i m s , w h o s u s t a i n possession i n v o l u n t a r i l y , a r e p r e s u m e d t o b e morally guiltless. T h e possessed, a n d therefore b e w i t c h e d , rich m a n is as i n n o c e n t as his possessed ( b u t n o t b e w i t c h e d ) inferior. T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s n o t t h e o n l y fashion i n w h i c h possession a n d witchcraft a r e associated. A n o t h e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n o c c u r s i n o t h e r cases, a n d in fact applies in s o m e of t h e e x a m p l e s such as the S o u t h African B a n t u w h i c h we h a v e a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d . In this s e c o n d possessionwitchcraft c o m p l e x , t h e spirits w h i c h c a u s e a n d c u r e sickness d o n o t fall i n t h e s a m e c a t e g o r y . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e y a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o o p p o s e d g r o u p s , o n e c a u s i n g illness, a n d t h e o t h e r h e a l i n g it, a n d these are e m b r a c e d within a dualistic cosmology which distinguishes s h a r p l y
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ECSTATIC RELIGION
b e t w e e n t h e p o w e r s o f d a r k n e s s a n d t h o s e o f light. Let m e illustrate. A m o n g s t such patrilineal tribes as the Zulu and Pondo of southern Africa, m a r r i e d w o m e n r e g u l a r l y s u c c u m b t o possession afflictions c a u s e d b y t h e i r o w n p a t e r n a l a n c e s t o r s . S u c h illnesses, ascribed t o the action of these ancestor spirits, m a y , as we have already noted, be e m p l o y e d to precisely t h e s a m e effect as o t h e r m o r e e x t r a n e o u s powers e l s e w h e r e . S i m i l a r l y , i n t h e l o n g t e r m , r e p e a t e d possession b y these s p i r i t s l e a d s t h e wives c o n c e r n e d t o a s s u m e t h e roles o f d i v i n e r s , d i a g n o s i n g a n d t r e a t i n g witchcraft afflictions i n o t h e r s . A s w e w o u l d n o w a n t i c i p a t e , such w o m e n w h o play this t h r u s t i n g social role a r e a r e a d y t a r g e t for witchcraft accusations. But, in distinction t o o u r first p a t t e r n , h e r e t h e s e w o m e n a r e n o l o n g e r c o n s i d e r e d t o b e i n s p i r e d b y t h e s a m e spirits a s t h o s e t h e y utilize w h e n they act a s d i v i n e r s . W h e r e a s i n t h a t b e n e v o l e n t role, t h e i r familiars a r e their o w n ( o r t h e i r h u s b a n d s ' ) a n c e s t o r s , w h e n t h e y a r e credited with acting as witches they are t h o u g h t to h a v e as their agents hideously obscene s p r i t e s , s u c h a s t h e tokoloshe. T h e s e a r e h i r s u t e , a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c dwarfs, a r m e d with such grotesquely long penises that they have to b e c a r r i e d o v e r t h e s h o u l d e r . O t h e r familiars w i t h w h o m witches also h a v e l i a i s o n s a r e spirits o f I n d i a n o r E u r o p e a n o r i g i n , a n a t t r i b u t i o n w h i c h , at least in f a n t a s y , defies t h e h a r s h l a w s of S o u t h African apartheid (cf. N g u b a n e , 1977). W i t c h e s a r e believed to s e n d o u t these d e m o n s t o e x e c u t e t h e i r fell d e s i g n s a g a i n s t t h e i r e n e m i e s . H e r e , in distinction to the first pattern which we traced, there are t w o o p p o s e d t y p e s o f spirit w h i c h possess p e o p l e . O n l y o n e o f these, t h a t c o m p r i s i n g t h e evil, n o n - a n c e s t r a l spirits, is definitely associated w i t h w i t c h c r a f t . A g a i n t h e r e a r e t h r e e c o n t e x t s o f possession. First, m a r r i e d w o m e n suffer illnesses w h i c h a r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s i n v o l u n t a r y possession by their o w n (or their h u s b a n d s ' ) ancestors. Secondly, r e p e a t e d possession b y t h e s e spirits l e a d s w o m e n t o j o i n cult g r o u p s whose leaders practise the controlled, voluntary, incarnation of the s a m e s p i r i t s a s a r e l i g i o u s e x e r c i s e . S u c h female s h a m a n s , h o w e v e r , o p e r a t i n g v i c a r i o u s l y w i t h t h e a n c e s t o r s w h o s e m a i n cult i s directed b y m e n , r u n t h e risk o f b e i n g a c c u s e d o f witchcraft. N o l o n g e r a c t i n g w i t h t h e s a m e s p i r i t s , b u t n o w i n s p i r e d b y evil d e m o n s , such w o m e n a r e c o n s i d e r e d c a p a b l e o f p l a g u i n g m e n w i t h possession afflictions w h i c h c a n only b e t r e a t e d b y e x o r c i s m . T h i s gives u s o u r t h i r d context o f p o s s e s s i o n w h e r e , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e o t h e r t w o c o n t e x t s , t h e spirits involved are the malign counterparts of those benign ancestors who inspire divination a n d c o m b a t witchcraft.
112
I i n t e r p r e t t h e different a l i g n m e n t s involved h e r e as follows. H a v i n g got o n e foot in t h e d o o r , as it w e r e , of t h e w o r l d of p o w e r a n d of m e n , w o m e n a n d o t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e s obviously c a n n o t b e discredited a n d t h u s held in check by reference to spirits which a r e essentially m o r a l in c h a r a c ter. H e n c e they c a n o n l y b e e x p o s e d a s w i t c h e s b y p r e s u m e d association with an alternative, a n d u n a m b i g u o u s l y evil, category of mystical forces. T h e r e are further aspects to be considered h e r e . Wyllie (1973) has perceptively s h o w n h o w a n o t h e r t y p e o f witchcraft ' i n t r o s p e c t i v e w i t c h craft', w h e r e t h e self-confessed witch is held to act i n v o l u n t a r i l y , a g a i n s t h e r will c o r r e s p o n d s closely to o u r c o n c e p t of p e r i p h e r a l p o s s e s s i o n . T h e self-declared witch, typically a m o t h e r filled with d e s t r u c t i v e i m p u l ses t o w a r d s h e r c h i l d r e n , is t r e a t e d as a sick p a t i e n t w h o n e e d s h e l p a n d attention for an affliction for which she c a n n o t be b l a m e d . T h e t r e a t m e n t r e m o v i n g t h e affected m o t h e r from h e r d o m e s t i c role u n t i l she h a s r e c o v e r e d is similar in n a t u r e a n d effect to t h a t a c c o r d e d p e r i p h e r a l possession illnesses. T h u s , i n its e p i d e m i o l o g y a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s , this form of self-confessed witchcraft is closer to p e r i p h e r a l possession t h a n to the m o r e familiar ' e x t r o v e r t ' witchcraft a n d sorcery discussed a b o v e (cf. L e w i s , 1986, c h a p t e r 3). W e m a y c o n c l u d e , I t h i n k , t h a t t h e g a m u t o f c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n possession a n d witchcraft i s w i d e r t h a n m i g h t b e supposed and merits further research and analysis.
PRIMARY PHASE (involuntary, uncontrolled) (a) Among women, signifies 'call' of the ancestors
SECONDARY PHASE (voluntary, controlled) Become shamans diagnosing (a) and causing and exorcising (b)
Possession illness
ANCESTOR SPIRITS NON-ANCESTRAL SPIRITS
(b) Among men, due to malice of women shamans who are mistresses of evil spirits ( = witchcraft)
Figure
4.2
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Chapter
Five
POSSESSION AND PUBLIC MORALITY I ANCESTOR CULTS
I
I n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h w e h a v e j u s t d i s c u s s e d , possession plays a significant p a r t in t h e e n h a n c e m e n t of s t a t u s . O n e result of possession b y t h o s e spirits w h i c h w e h a v e classed a s ' p e r i p h e r a l ' i s t o e n a b l e p e o p l e w h o lack o t h e r m e a n s o f p r o t e c t i o n a n d self-promotion t o a d v a n c e t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a n d i m p r o v e t h e i r lot b y e s c a p i n g , even i f only t e m p o r a r i l y , from t h e c o n f i n i n g b o n d s of t h e i r allotted stations in society. O n e r o u s d u t i e s a n d o b l i g a t i o n s a r e cast aside a s those c o n c e r n e d find refuge in c l a n d e s t i n e cults w h i c h , since they a r e r e p r e s e n t e d a s c u r e s , c a n b e r e l u c t a n t l y t o l e r a t e d b y t h e established authorities. T h e s e p r o t e s t c u l t s , w h i c h t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t a r e i n d e e d ritual r e b e l l i o n s , d o n o t , h o w e v e r , d e t a c h t h e i r followers c o m p l e t e l y from t h e societies a n d c u l t u r e s i n w h i c h t h e y o r i g i n a t e . A l t h o u g h they m a y h a v e t h i s p o t e n t i a l , in t h e cases we h a v e e x a m i n e d it is n o t realized fully; for t h e s e m o v e m e n t s a r e u l t i m a t e l y c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n the w i d e r , a n d i n reality often p l u r a l i s t i c , w o r l d s o f w h i c h t h e y a r e p a r t . H e r e c l e a r l y , e s c a p e is o n l y p a r t i a l a n d i n c o m p l e t e . A n d a crucial aspect of t h e i r c o n t a i n m e n t lies in t h e g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e t h a t t h e spirits c o n c e r n e d a r e m a l i g n p a t h o g e n i c p o w e r s w h i c h lack a n y direct a n d explicit m o r a l significance in t h e total society. Y e t , as we h a v e seen, t h e s e p o w e r s a r e i n fact a m b i v a l e n t , p r o v i d i n g i n m o s t cases b o t h t h e g r o u n d s o f illness a n d t h e m e a n s t o its c u r e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , their e v a l u a t i o n as a m o r a l evil forces is i n e v i t a b l y h i g h l y relativistic. As I h a v e s u g g e s t e d , w h i l e t h e i r m a l e v o l e n c e is e m p h a s i z e d by t h e official e s t a b l i s h m e n t , for t h o s e w h o s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y p a y cult t o t h e m t h e y a p p e a r in a v e r y different guise. T h o s e p o w e r s which t h e conservative
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ANCESTOR CULTS
e s t a b l i s h m e n t h o l d s a t a r m ' s l e n g t h , s o t o s p e a k , a n d r e g a r d s a s evil d e m o n s c a u s i n g sickness a n d m i s f o r t u n e , c a n b e t a m e d , a n d a r e t h e n venerated as gods of another hue by their actual victims. T h u s the m o r a l status o f t h e spirits i s b y n o m e a n s a b s o l u t e , b u t o n t h e c o n t r a r y d e p e n d s u p o n t h e position from w h i c h t h e y a r e v i e w e d . In fact, p e r i p h e r a l cults of t h e sort we h a v e e x a m i n e d a r e o n l y a few steps r e m o v e d from t h o s e t h o r o u g h l y m o r a l i s t i c a n d t h r u s t i n g messianic religions which so often arise in c i r c u m s t a n c e s of a c u t e social d i s r u p t i o n a n d w h i c h f r e q u e n t l y e m p l o y possession a s a s u p r e m e religious e x p e r i e n c e . W i t h t h e s e we m o v e from a p a r t i a l to a fuller escape i n t o n e w p a s t u r e s . H e r e t h e a d h e r e n t s o f s u c h i n n o v a t i n g religious m o v e m e n t s , well r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e so-called s e p a r a t i s t c h u r c h e s o f Africa a n d t h e C a r i b b e a n a n d m o s t o f t h o s e cults w h i c h L a n t e r n a r i l u m p s t o g e t h e r a s 'religions o f t h e o p p r e s s e d , ( L a n t e r n a r i , 1965), e n d e a v o u r t o d e t a c h t h e m s e l v e s m u c h m o r e radically from t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l social setting. N o w protest h a s b e c o m e m u c h m o r e s t r i d e n t in t o n e , a n d h a s p r o g r e s s e d from a m e r e l y r e p e t i t i v e k i c k i n g a g a i n s t the pricks to the f o r m u l a t i o n of separatist a s p i r a t i o n s w h i c h completely reject t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r . Initially, s u c h m o v e m e n t s m a y a p p e a r in t h e guise of c u r e s . But in their e v e n t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t t h e y t r a n s c e n d the s t a t u s of c o v e r t cults to b e c o m e fully fledged r e l i g i o n s . P o s s e s s i o n b y t h e divinity i s t h e n a n explicit a n d o p e n l y e n c o u r a g e d a i m , a n ecstatic c o m m u n i o n w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e s u m m i t o f r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , a n d is also, of c o u r s e , t h e i d i o m in w h i c h those w h o a s p i r e t o p o s i t i o n s o f religious l e a d e r s h i p c o m p e t e for p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y . T h e c o n c e p t i o n of, religion as a m e r e t h e r a p y for illness is t h e n transformed into the w o r s h i p of powers whose c o m p e t e n c e e x t e n d s into all a s p e c t s of life. T h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n such m o v e m e n t s a n d those w e h a v e e x a m ined previously a r e n o t a b s o l u t e . T h e y r e m a i n ill-defined a n d shifting, a n d it is often e x t r e m e l y difficult to assess w i t h c o n f i d e n c e t h e precise p l a c e m e n t of a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e in its t e m p o r a l a n d social s e t t i n g . An o b v i o u s case in p o i n t is H a i t i a n v o o d o o . If, in m a n y r e s p e c t s , v o o d o o s e e m s to fall s q u a r e l y w i t h i n t h e p e r i p h e r a l cult class, in o t h e r respects it m i g h t m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e l y be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a s e p a r a t i s t ecstatic religion. H e r e , a n d i n o t h e r p a r a l l e l c a s e s , t h e difficulty o f m a k i n g t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e classification i s f u r t h e r c o m p o u n d e d b y t h e a t t e m p t s o f t h e rejected e s t a b l i s h m e n t t o d i s c r e d i t s u c h w o u l d - b e s e p a r a t i s t religions a s m e r e p e r i p h e r a l c u l t s , t o l e r a b l e a s l o n g a s t h e y are presented as cures, b u t intolerable w h e n they claim to be religions
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ECSTATIC RELIGION
i n t h e i r o w n r i g h t . O u r o w n C h r i s t i a n h i s t o r y , o f c o u r s e , affords i n n u m e r a b l e e x a m p l e s of s e p a r a t i s t sects of this k i n d s t r u g g l i n g to a c h i e v e a n i n d e p e n d e n t e x i s t e n c e b u t h e l d i n check t h r o u g h their persecution as heresies.
A revealing anthropological report on the G i r i a m a tribe of K e n y a p r o v i d e s a s p l e n d i d e x a m p l e of this t r a n s i t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n , w h e r e w h a t , in its local c o n t e x t , a p p e a r s initially as a p e r i p h e r a l possession cult is in fact, for its a d h e r e n t s , t h e gate of e n t r y to a highly m o r a l i s t i c religion a n d a m e a n s of l e g i t i m a t e l y e s c a p i n g from i r k s o m e traditional r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e a s follows. F r o m t h e 1920s o n w a r d s , the G i r i a m a , w h o were traditionally subsistence cultivators t r a d i n g with t h e M u s l i m Swahili a n d A r a b s o f t h e coast, b e g a n t o grow cash c r o p s a n d with this i n c r e a s i n g e c o n o m i c specialization there arose a n e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l class o f t r a d e r s a n d p r o g r e s s i v e f a r m e r s . T h e e m e r g e n c e of this n e w local elite w a s a c c o m p a n i e d by a m a r k e d i n c r e a s e in s o r c e r y a c c u s a t i o n s d i r e c t e d by a successful m i n o r i t y at t h e i r j e a l o u s kin a n d n e i g h b o u r s , w h o f o r m e d t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , a n d c o n t i n u e d t o live a s s u b s i s t e n c e f a r m e r s . I n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e overall s t a t u s h i e r a r c h y o f t h e c o l o n y , t h e m o s t powerful a n d successful e n t r e p r e n e u r s t e n d e d t o b e c o m e C h r i s t i a n s while t h e b u l k o f t h i s n e w class a d o p t e d I s l a m . T h e i r m o d e o f I s l a m i z a t i o n w a s c i r c u i t o u s b u t v e r y r e v e a l i n g . M e m b e r s of this s t r a t u m of society were p l a g u e d b y M u s l i m spirits w h i c h c a u s e d t h e m t o s u c c u m b t o sicknesses for w h i c h t h e o n l y s e c u r e r e m e d y w a s t o a d o p t this faith. I n t h e i m m e d i a t e local c o n t e x t a n d i n r e l a t i o n t o t r a d i t i o n a l G i r i a m a beliefs, t h e s e spirits a p p e a r e d i n t h e guise o f m a l i g n p e r i p h e r a l d e m o n s with n o m o r a l r e l e v a n c e t o t h e old social o r d e r . T h o s e w h o w e r e a t t a c k e d c a p r i c i o u s l y b y t h e m w e r e ill w i t h o u t h a v i n g c o m m i t t e d a n y m o r a l misdemeanour. C o n v e r s i o n t o I s l a m i s t h u s i n t h e local c o n t e x t e v a l u a t e d a s c u r e , a n d s u c h c o n v e r t s a r e i n fact d e s c r i b e d b y t h e G i r i a m a m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e l y a s ' t h e r a p e u t i c M u s l i m s ' . C o n v e r s i o n , h o w e v e r , obliges t h e n e w M u s l i m a d h e r e n t t o o b s e r v e t h e I s l a m i c r e q u i r e m e n t s i n diet a n d t o a b s t a i n from t r a d i t i o n a l i n t o x i c a n t s , t h u s isolating h i m from his n e i g h b o u r s a n d e n a b l i n g h i m t o e s c a p e from c u s t o m a r y c o m m e n s u a l o b l i g a t i o n s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e risk o f b e i n g offered ensorcelled food at p a r t i e s by j e a l o u s n e i g h b o u r s or kin is also r e d u c e d .
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C l e a r l y , for t h e a m b i t i o u s p r o g r e s s i v e G i r i a m a w h o seeks t o c u r t a i l his t r a d i t i o n a l responsibilities, c o n v e r s i o n t o I s l a m ( w h i c h i n t h e p r e i n d e p e n d e n c e s e t t i n g , also r e p r e s e n t e d t h e a s s u m p t i o n of a h i g h e r status in t h e w i d e r society) is a m o s t r e w a r d i n g p a t h to follow. At o n e blow, h e legitimizes his anti-social a m b i t i o n s o f p e r s o n a l a g g r a n d i z e m e n t a n d protects himself from the malicious e n v y of t h e less successful. A n d all this is d o n e in t h e form of a c u r e for a possession illness for which h e c a n n o t b e h e l d a c c o u n t a b l e . S t r i c k e n b y a n a m o r a l s p i r i t , the p a t h to recovery leads h i m i n t o t h e s h e l t e r i n g a r m s of a p r e s t i g i o u s world religion a n d a n e w a n d m o r e i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c m o r a l i t y . H e r e w e see i n m i n i a t u r e o n e o f t h e m o s t r e v e a l i n g p a t t e r n s o f c o n v e r s i o n from t r a d i t i o n a l i s t t r i b a l r e l i g i o n s t o t h e u n i v e r s a l i s t i c religions o f I s l a m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y . I n t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t , h o w e v e r , the p o i n t I w a n t to e m p h a s i z e is t h a t in this i n s t a n c e we find possession b e g i n n i n g as an illness a n d e n d i n g , n o t m e r e l y as a c u r e in a c l a n d e s t i n e cult, b u t m o v i n g f o r w a r d i n t o a n o v e r t a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y accepted morally endowed religion. Islam cannot be contained by the t r a d i t i o n a l society w h i c h , in fact, is itself b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y Islamized. H e r e t h e tail i s w a g g i n g t h e d o g ; a n d w h a t w a s o n c e m e r e l y a p e r i p h e r a l cult m a y yet b e c o m e t h e c e n t r a l m o r a l i t y o f t h e G i r i a m a . In this case, of c o u r s e , it is n o t t h e lowest s t r a t u m of society w h i c h t u r n s to possession as a form of e s c a p e , b u t a class of socially m o b i l e people whose ambitions are at odds with their traditional obligations, a n d well-placed a s t h e y a r e , i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h e r e I s l a m r e p r e s e n t s high s t a t u s , t h e y a r e in effect s u c c e e d i n g in c a r r y i n g o t h e r s of t h e i r c o m m u n i t y w i t h t h e m . Y e t , a s D a v i d P a r k i n ( 1 9 7 9 , 1972) t h e anthropologist from w h o m I q u o t e d this m a t e r i a l w a r n s u s , t h e final o u t c o m e i s still i n d o u b t . F o r t h e p r e s t i g e b o t h o f A r a b s a n d o f I s l a m h a s m a r k e d l y d e c l i n e d i n K e n y a since i n d e p e n d e n c e . It is, t h e r e f o r e , p e r h a p s t o o e a r l y to c l a i m this i l l u s t r a t i o n , w i t h its evocative echoes of p r o t e s t a n t c a p i t a l i s m , as a success s t o r y in t h e history of w h a t w a s originally a p e r i p h e r a l cult. N e v e r t h e l e s s , this e x a m p l e helps us to see h o w in t h e social c i r c u m s t a n c e s of t h e i r formation, Christianity a n d Islam likewise m u s t h a v e a p p e a r e d initially a s cults o f p e r i p h e r a l spirits w h i c h t h e e n t r e n c h e d r e l i g i o u s establishments of their times were ultimately unable to destroy or control. O t h e r new cults, in which the gods similarly a n n o u n c e their m e s s i a n i c m e s s a g e t h r o u g h possession illnesses, h a v e n o t a l w a y s b e e n s o successful. M a n y o f t h e w o r l d ' s m i l l e n n a r i a n m o v e m e n t s a n d 'religions of t h e o p p r e s s e d ' h a v e e i t h e r b e e n so successfully d i s c r e d i t e d
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a n d c o n t a i n e d t h a t t h e y h a v e fizzled o u t , o r h a v e s u c c e e d e d only i n a c h i e v i n g a s h a d o w y unofficial e x i s t e n c e , as r e l u c t a n t l y tolerated p o p u l a r ' s u p e r s t i t i o n s ' . O t h e r cults, or t h e s a m e ones at different points in their history, h a v e t u r n e d their backs on the d o m i n a n t cultures u n d e r w h o s e s w a y t h e y o r i g i n a t e d , to find a lonely h a v e n as separatist m o v e m e n t s o n t h e m a r g i n s o f societies w h i c h t h e y could n o t radically c h a n g e , a n d w h e r e t h e y c o u l d n o t i m p o s e t h e i r n e w faith a s t h e m a i n source of public m o r a l i t y . In such cases, possession by the deities which a r e w o r s h i p p e d by t h e faithful, r e m a i n s a s t r i k i n g feature of religious life. I n d e e d , t h e less successful such m o v e m e n t s a r e in s e c u r i n g a d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n i n t h e c u l t u r e s i n w h i c h t h e y o r i g i n a t e , the m o r e possession is likely to occupy t h e c e n t r e of t h e stage as the central d r a m a o f r e l i g i o u s activity. W h e r e , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , such p e r i p h e r a l cults succeed in s u p p l a n t i n g t h e old established o r d e r a n d eventually b e c o m e t h e m s e l v e s n e w e s t a b l i s h m e n t r e l i g i o n s , possession t e n d s t o b e c o m e r e l e g a t e d to t h e b a c k g r o u n d a n d to be t r e a t e d as a sign of d a n g e r o u s potential subversion. So if it is in t h e n a t u r e of n e w religions to h e r a l d t h e i r a d v e n t with a flourish of ecstatic effervescence it is e q u a l l y t h e fate of those which b e c o m e successfully e n s c o n c e d at t h e c e n t r e of p u b l i c m o r a l i t y to lose their inspirational s a v o u r . I n s p i r a t i o n t h e n b e c o m e s an institutionalized p r o p e r t y of t h e religious establishment which, as the divinely a p p o i n t e d c h u r c h , incarnates god: the inspired truth is then mediated to the m a s s e s t h r o u g h r i t u a l s p e r f o r m e d b y its d u l y a c c r e d i t e d officers. I n these c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n d i v i d u a l possession e x p e r i e n c e s a r e d i s c o u r a g e d a n d w h e r e n e c e s s a r y d i s c r e d i t e d . Possession i n fact b e c o m e s a n a b e r r a t i o n , e v e n a s a t a n i c h e r e s y . T h i s c e r t a i n l y is t h e p a t t e r n which is clearly a n d d e e p l y i n s c r i b e d in t h e l o n g history of C h r i s t i a n i t y . P o s s e s s i o n , i n t e r p r e t e d as d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n , h a s t h u s a t e n d e n c y to b e c o m e less d r a m a t i c a n d significant as a n e w cult g a i n s i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a r i t y a n d firmly e s t a b l i s h e s itself i n its c u l t u r a l milieu. T h e c h a n g i n g c h a r a c t e r o f Q u a k e r religious services, w h i c h h a v e b e c o m e less p o s s e s s i o n - o r i e n t a t e d a s t h e m o v e m e n t h a s b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e successful, illustrates t h e p o i n t v e r y well. W h e r e , h o w e v e r , such cults do n o t a t t a i n a c o m p a r a b l e d e g r e e of a c c e p t a n c e , or a r e passively o p p o s e d o r e v e n actively p e r s e c u t e d , a s l o n g a s they r e t a i n t h e s u p p o r t of o p p r e s s e d sections of t h e c o m m u n i t y , possessional i n s p i r a t i o n is likely to c o n t i n u e w i t h u n a b a t e d v i g o u r . T h i s is the situation with most P e n t e c o s t a l m o v e m e n t s , a n d i n the i n d e p e n d e n t o r separatist c h u r c h e s i n Africa a n d A m e r i c a a n d e l s e w h e r e ( S u n d k l e r , 1961).
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If g e n e r a l i z e d possession, e n t h u s i a s m in t h e o r i g i n a l sense of t h e w o r d , signals t h e rise o f n e w r e l i g i o u s c u l t s , a n d s o b e r r i t u a l i s t i c d o g m a t i s m i s t h e m a r k o f religions w h i c h h a v e b e c o m e s o t h o r o u g h l y e m b e d d e d i n society t h a t a l m o s t all t r a c e o f i n s p i r a t i o n a l s p o n t a n e i t y has d e p a r t e d , t h e q u e s t i o n n a t u r a l l y arises a s t o w h a t m i d d l e g r o u n d lies b e t w e e n these two poles of religious e x p r e s s i o n . In this a n d t h e following c h a p t e r w e shall a t t e m p t t o a n s w e r this q u e s t i o n . W e shall e x a m i n e religions w h i c h still d e p e n d u p o n possession a s t h e p r i m a r y source of their a u t h o r i t y , a n d which a r e n e i t h e r m e r e p e r i p h e r a l h e a l i n g cults, n o r ossified ritualistic o r t h o d o x i e s d r a i n e d of i n s p i r a t i o n a l vitality. In these religions the spirits which m e n i n c a r n a t e s t a n d at t h e c e n t r e of t h e stage in the religious life of society a n d play a crucial, a n d direct, role i n s a n c t i o n i n g c u s t o m a r y m o r a l i t y . I n t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a s w e h a v e seen, possession m a y initially a p p e a r as a form of illness or t r a u m a . Yet u l t i m a t e l y it is r e g a r d e d as t h e m a r k of d i v i n e i n s p i r a tion, t h e c e r t a i n p r o o f of a p e r s o n ' s fitness for p u r s u i n g t h e r e l i g i o u s v o c a t i o n , a n d t h e basis for t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f l e a d i n g r i t u a l roles a n d positions. H e r e we a r e no l o n g e r d e a l i n g w i t h possession in c l a n d e s t i n e cults m a s q u e r a d i n g a s c u r e s , b u t w i t h t h e m o s t c o m p e l l i n g a n d conclusive a t t e s t a t i o n of t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e g o d s in m a i n l i n e r e l i g i o n s whose c o m p e t e n c e a n d scope e n c o m p a s s t h e w h o l e o f social life. F a r from s i m p l y e x p r e s s i n g o b l i q u e l y t h e t o l e r a t e d p r o t e s t s o f t h e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d against t h e d o m i n i o n o f t h e i r e a r t h l y m a s t e r s , possession is n o w t h e i d i o m in w h i c h t h o s e w h o c o n t e n d for l e a d e r s h i p in the central religious life of t h e c o m m u n i t y press their claims for recognition a s t h e c h o s e n a g e n t s o f t h e g o d s . S h a m a n i s m i s n o w n o l o n g e r a special form of particularistic p r o t e s t , b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , a c e n t r a l religious institution fulfilling, as we shall see, a host of functions w h i c h v a r y w i t h t h e social s t r u c t u r e in w h i c h it is e m b e d d e d . U n d e r t h e s e new conditions we should expect to find t h a t w h e r e a s previously possession has been m o n o p o l i z e d by those seeking an escape from the shackles of t r a d i t i o n a l c o n f i n e m e n t s , it n o w a c q u i r e s a w i d e r a n d m o r e e x a l t e d c a t c h m e n t . W h e r e before o u r s h a m a n s w e r e w o m e n , o r m e n d r a w n from s u b o r d i n a t e social s t r a t a , h e r e w e s h o u l d e x p e c t t h a t s u c h disabilities w e r e n o l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y for t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e s h a m a n i s t i c v o c a t i o n . As I shall t r y to s h o w , this d e d u c t i o n s e e m s e m p i r i c a l l y well f o u n d e d .
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III T h o s e m o r a l i s t i c t r i b a l religions w h i c h w e m u s t n o w c o n s i d e r a s s u m e m a n y different f o r m s . B u t o n e o f t h e c o m m o n e s t a n d m o s t o b v i o u s e x a m p l e s of this t y p e is t h a t a d d r e s s e d to the w o r s h i p of ancestor spirits. So we shall b e g i n o u r d e t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e role of possession in c e n t r a l m o r a l i t y cults w i t h i l l u s t r a t i o n s d r a w n from societies with a n c e s t o r c u l t s . By no m e a n s all a n c e s t o r cults involve possession, of c o u r s e , a n d w e shall l a t e r h a v e t o d i s c u s s w h y s o m e d o include s h a m a n i s m , w h e r e a s o t h e r s d o n o t . F o r t h e m o m e n t , h o w e v e r , let u s c o n c e n t r a t e o n positive i n s t a n c e s . T h e h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g V e d d a s of C e y l o n , studied by the S e l i g m a n s (Seligman, 1911) in the first decade of t h i s c e n t u r y , p r o v i d e as good a s t a r t i n g p o i n t as a n y . In this f r a g m e n t e d , m a t r i l i n e a l l y o r g a n i z e d society, b a s e d o n small b a n d s o f r e l a t e d families w i t h o u t a n y formal a p p a r a t u s o f political a u t h o r i t y , s h a m a n s w h o i n c a r n a t e t h e i r a n c e s t o r s (the yaku) play a n i m p o r t a n t role. T h e a n c e s t o r cult h e r e i s m e r g e d w i t h a n d i n c l u d e s t h e w o r s h i p of a l e g e n d a r y h u n t e r - h e r o whose assistance is invoked to secure success i n t h e c h a s e . T h e s e p o w e r s w a t c h o v e r t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s a n d , only w h e n t h e y a r e n e g l e c t e d , s h o w t h e i r a n n o y a n c e b y w i t h d r a w i n g their p r o t e c t i o n , o r b y b e c o m i n g actively hostile. E a c h small f a m i l y - b a s e d -band h a s a t least o n e s h a m a n with t h e p o w e r t o s u m m o n t h e s p i r i t s . O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t tasks o f t h e s h a m a n i s t o officiate a t f u n e r a l s . O n such o c c a s i o n s t h e s h a m a n calls t o t h e spirit o f t h e d e a d k i n s m a n w h o s p e a k s t h r o u g h his m o u t h i n h o a r s e g u t t u r a l a c c e n t s , d e c l a r i n g t h a t h e a p p r o v e s t h e funerary offering, t h a t he will assist his k i n s m e n in h u n t i n g , a n d often giving specific advice on t h e direction w h i c h t h e g r o u p should follow in subseq u e n t h u n t i n g e x p e d i t i o n s . H e r e , a s s o widely elsewhere, the s h a m a n ' s c o n t r o l l e d possession t r a n c e i s a c h i e v e d b y m e a n s o f d a n c i n g a n d s i n g i n g w h i c h b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y frenetic a s h e w o r k s himself u p to t h e p o i n t of ecstasy. Possession d a n c e s d i r e c t e d by the local s h a m a n ( w h o s e p o s i t i o n is u s u a l l y i n h e r i t e d m a t r i l i n e a l l y , b u t m a y pass to a s o n ) a r e also m o u n t e d a t o t h e r t i m e s t o s e c u r e success i n h u n t i n g a n d i n c o l l e c t i n g h o n e y w h i c h f o r m s a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e V e d d a diet. O n t h e s e o c c a s i o n s t h e spirit s u m m o n e d (which possesses the s h a m a n ) s h o w s c o n s i d e r a t i o n also for t h e h e a l t h of t h o s e it w a t c h e s over, i n q u i r i n g solicitously 'if a n y o n e is sick'. T h i s c e n t r a l possession cult o f t h e a n c e s t o r s w h o a r e t h e g u a r d i a n s of c u s t o m a r y m o r a l i t y is e v i d e n t l y directly c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e basic
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subsistence activities o f this h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g p e o p l e , a n d possession i s e m p l o y e d a s a m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n m a n a n d t h e gods t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m o f t h e s h a m a n . T h e office o f s h a m a n i s p e r h a p s the most clearly defined a n d specialized position in t h e society a n d i s h e l d b y m e n . If, h o w e v e r , t r a n c e e x p e r i e n c e d b y m e n i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s i n s p i r a t i o n a l possession b y t h e a n c e s t o r s , illnesses m a y also be d i a g n o s e d as possession by evil foreign spirits c o n n e c t e d w i t h women. T h u s amongst the Veddas, as the Seligmans found them, there w e r e a p p a r e n t l y t w o possession cults: o n e a d d r e s s e d t o t h e a n c e s t o r s and concerned with public morality a n d d o m i n a t e d by m e n ; a n d a s u b s i d i a r y , p e r i p h e r a l cult c e n t e r i n g on foreign spirits w h i c h afflict w o m e n w i t h illness. F r o m t h e i n f o r m a t i o n collected b y t h e S e l i g m a n s , w h i c h i s n o t v e r y d e t a i l e d o n this p o i n t , this l a t t e r cult a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n h i g h l y responsive t o n e w e x t e r n a l c o n t a c t s i n t h e m a n n e r w e h a v e f o u n d w i t h o t h e r p e r i p h e r a l m o v e m e n t s e l s e w h e r e . C o n t r a s t i n g t h e i r ecstatic religion with t h a t o f t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g , m o r e s t r o n g l y ' S a n s k r i t i z e d ' agriculturalists, B r i a n M o r r i s (1981) r e p o r t s a s o m e w h a t similar p a t t e r n o f possession a m o n g t h e h u n t i n g a n d g a t h e r i n g Hill P a n d a r a m o f t h e G h a t forests of S o u t h I n d i a . As we shall often see in the e x a m p l e s which follow, w h e r e c e n t r a l a n d m a r g i n a l possession r e l i g i o n s exist side b y side in t h e s a m e society, t h e first is p r i m a r i l y r e s e r v e d for m e n , w h i l e the second is restricted essentially to w o m e n , m e n of low status, or b o t h .
IV M a n y o f o u r illustrations o f p e r i p h e r a l cults i n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s h a v e been d r a w n from Africa, a n d s o m e a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e e v e n c l a i m e d t h a t these m a r g i n a l cults, r a t h e r t h a n t h e c e n t r a l r e l i g i o n s w h i c h a r e o u r p r e s e n t c o n c e r n , a r e a n A f r i c a n speciality. P a r t l y t o c o r r e c t this misleading impression, I n o w t u r n to e x a m i n e several w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d African c e n t r a l possession r e l i g i o n s . I b e g i n w i t h t h e S h o n a - s p e a k i n g tribes of Z i m b a b w e w h o h a v e a v e r y v i g o r o u s s h a m a n i s t i c r e l i g i o n . T h i s religion offers a fruitful field for c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y , for, since their c o l o n i z a t i o n , v a r i o u s S h o n a g r o u p s h a v e b e e n subject t o v e r y different influences. T h e s e v a r i a t i o n s in t h e w i d e r geopolitical e n v i r o n m e n t of a people w h o a r e largely h o m o g e n e o u s in c u l t u r e a r e reflected in t h e beliefs a n d p r a c t i c e s of t h e different S h o n a t r i b e s in a fashion which is highly r e l e v a n t for o u r a n a l y s i s . W i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k of a b r o a d l y c o m m o n c u l t u r e , w e shall t h u s b e a b l e t o t r a c e significant
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c h a n g e s i n t h e n a t u r e a n d s t a t u s o f t h e i r possession cults a s these h a v e a l t e r e d in r e s p o n s e to e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s . In t h e following p a g e s we shall c o n c e n t r a t e o n two c o n t r a s t i n g g r o u p s w h o s e ecstatic cults h a v e b e e n fairly fully s t u d i e d : t h e isolated a n d relatively c o n s e r v a t i v e K o r e k o r e S h o n a o f t h e Z a m b e s i V a l l e y ( G a r b e t t , 1969, p p . 1 0 4 - 2 7 ; L a n , 1985); a n d t h e h i g h l y a c c u l t u r a t e d Z e z u r u S h o n a , living r o u n d t h e E u r o p e a n c a p i t a l o f S a l i s b u r y ( F r y , 1969). T h e K o r e k o r e h a v e a n e l a b o r a t e d c e n t r a l s h a m a n i s t i c religion a d d r e s s e d t o t h e a n c e s t o r s a n d c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e control o f n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a w h i c h a r e o f direct i m p o r t a n c e i n d a y - t o - d a y l i v i n g . T h i s g r o u p o f S h o n a c u l t i v a t o r s , h e i r s t o t h e o n c e powerful M o n o m o t a p a dynasty, entered their present territory as invaders, and a r e t o d a y o r g a n i z e d i n widely scattered tiny chiefdoms, g r o u p e d r o u n d scions of t h e r o y a l l i n e a g e . T h e d e n s i t y of p o p u l a t i o n is low, c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a r e p o o r , a n d r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e different chiefdoms a r e m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e cult o f t h e a n c e s t o r s . A t t h e t i m e o f the 1896 rebellion against the white authorities, it w a s t h r o u g h this channel o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t K o r e k o r e solidarity w a s m o b i l i z e d , with s h a m a n s p l a y i n g a c r u c i a l role in p r o m o t i n g divinely i n s p i r e d u n i t y a g a i n s t t h e foreign i n t r u d e r s . M u c h t h e s a m e p a t t e r n r e c u r r e d i n the 1970s w h e n t r a d i t i o n a l s h a m a n s l e g i t i m a t e d n a t i o n a l i s t guerillas f i g h t i n g for i n d e p e n d e n c e a g a i n s t t h e w h i t e u n i l a t e r a l r e g i m e in S o u t h e r n R h o d e s i a (see L a n , 1985). S h a m a n s , w h o a r e m a i n l y m e n , i n c a r n a t e a n c e s t o r spirits o f the l o n g d e a d , a n d t h e s e spirits a r e b e l i e v e d t o c o n t r o l the rainfall a n d fertility i n p a r t i c u l a r t r a c t s o f c o u n t r y . T h e e n t i r e K o r e k o r e tribal a r e a is in fact d i v i d e d i n t o p r o v i n c e s , p r e s i d e d o v e r by p a r t i c u l a r a n c e s t o r s p i r i t s , e a c h of w h i c h is l i n k e d w i t h t h e f o u n d i n g settlers of a given r e g i o n . E v e r y s u c h p r o v i n c i a l g u a r d i a n spirit h a s a t least o n e s h a m a n i s t i c m e d i u m w h o r e g u l a r l y acts a s its h u m a n host, b u t w h o is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a lineal d e s c e n d a n t of t h e spirit. T h e functions of t h e s e essentially religious figures a r e clearly d i s t i n g u i s h e d by the K o r e k o r e from t h o s e o f t h e i r s e c u l a r chiefs. S h a m a n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d to deal with the moral order a n d with the relations of m a n to the e a r t h . N a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s s u c h a s d r o u g h t o r f a m i n e a r e believed t o b e c a u s e d b y t h e a n g e r o f t h e spirit ' o w n e r s o f t h e e a r t h ' , w h o m u s t b e a p p r o a c h e d and appeased through their s h a m a n s . These misfortunes are interpreted as the consequences of breaches of the moral order, s o t h a t t h e spirits c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h r o u g h t h e i r c h o s e n m e d i u m s act as t h e c e n s o r s of society.
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A t r i t u a l seances h e l d t o h o n o u r t h e spirits, t h e possessed s h a m a n e x h o r t s t h e p e o p l e o f h i s n e i g h b o u r h o o d t o s h u n s u c h evils a s incest, a d u l t e r y , sorcery a n d h o m i c i d e , a n d e m p h a s i z e s t h e v a l u e o f h a r m o n y in social relations. In this w a y , t h r o u g h his a t t e n d a n t spirit, t h e s h a m a n e m b o d i e s a n d gives e x p r e s s i o n t o t h e s e n t i m e n t s a n d o p i n i o n s o f t h e people in his a r e a . D i s p u t e s a r e t a k e n to h i m for s e t t l e m e n t , as well as to t h e official s e c u l a r c o u r t s , a n d he is also a s k e d to d e c i d e issues c o n c e r n i n g succession t o chieftaincy a n d q u a r r e l s b e t w e e n n e i g h b o u r i n g chiefs. I n these m a t t e r s i t i s t h e j u d g e m e n t o f t h e g u a r d i a n spirit, v e r y p r o p e r l y sensitive t o p u b l i c o p i n i o n , t h a t i s d e l i v e r e d b y the s h a m a n . T h o s e w h o live together in t h e s a m e p r o v i n c e t h u s fall directly u n d e r t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e i r local g u a r d i a n spirit, w h o s e h u m a n r e p r e s e n tative exercises a s u b s t a n t i a l d e g r e e of political a n d legal, as well as ritual p o w e r . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , e v e r y K o r e k o r e i s d i r e c t l y b o u n d b y d e s c e n t t o his o w n a n c e s t o r spirits w h i c h will also figure a s g u a r d i a n spirits i n s o m e p r o v i n c e s b u t n o t i n o t h e r s . O n l y w h e r e t h e r e s i d e n t s of a p r o v i n c e actually t r a c e d e s c e n t from t h e local g u a r d i a n spirit w h i c h is t h e n t h e i r a n c e s t o r will t h e s e t w o a t t a c h m e n t s c o i n c i d e . W h e r e this is not t h e case a n d m e n of t h e s a m e l i n e a g e live in different p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y , t h e y will h o n o u r t h e local g u a r d i a n spirits a n d , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , respect t h e i r c o m m o n lineal a n c e s t o r s e l s e w h e r e . T h o s e k i n s m e n w h o t h u s fall u n d e r this d u a l s p i r i t u a l d i s p e n s a t i o n will c o n s u l t t h e i r lineal a n c e s t o r s , t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s h a m a n s , i n issues which relate directly t o k i n s h i p . L i n e a l a n c e s t o r s , r a t h e r t h a n g u a r d i a n spirits, a r e t h u s c o n s u l t e d o v e r succession t o k i n s h i p - l i n k e d offices, in the i n h e r i t a n c e of p r o p e r t y ( i n c l u d i n g wives), a n d in sickness a n d misfortunes which h a v e b e e n d i a g n o s e d as expressions of a n c e s t r a l wrath. T h e s e t w o largely s e p a r a t e fields of spirit a u t h o r i t y t h e first c o n c e r n e d with regional i n t e r e s t s , a n d t h e s e c o n d w i t h k i n s h i p o b l i g a tions finally m e r g e at t h e n a t i o n a l level in t h e K o r e k o r e cult of t h e founder of the M o n o m o t a p a dynasty. W i t h i n this tribal cult, the s h a m a n s of c o m p o n e n t provinces are r a n k e d in a rigid hierarchy c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e n i o r i t y a n d size o f t h e r e g i o n s w h o s e spirits they i n c a r n a t e . T h i s spiritual o r g a n i z a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s virtually all t h a t survives t o d a y o f t h e c e n t r a l i z e d t r a d i t i o n o f t h e M o n o m o t a p a k i n g d o m , w h i c h a c h i e v e d its political z e n i t h i n t h e fifteenth a n d sixteenth c e n t u r i e s . I n this highly i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d possession c u l t , r e c r u i t m e n t t o t h e
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post of a u t h o r i z e d s h a m a n for a p a r t i c u l a r g u a r d i a n spirit is strictly controlled by the shamanistic hierarchy. T h e aspiring shaman who b e c o m e s possessed m a y at first be r e g a r d e d as t r o u b l e d by an evil spirit (a shave) of foreign o r i g i n . If, h o w e v e r , t h e c u r a t i v e rituals which a r e t h e n a p p l i e d t o ' b r i n g o u t ' this n o x i o u s d e m o n fail, further d i v i n a t i o n m a y suggest t h a t t h e i n v a d i n g a g e n c y is a g u a r d i a n spirit. T h e patient is t h e n sent to an a c c r e d i t e d s h a m a n for o b s e r v a t i o n . If he evinces t h e t r u e s y m p t o m s ( e x p e r i e n c i n g s t r a n g e d r e a m s , a n d w a n d e r i n g i n the forest w h e r e t h e g u a r d i a n spirits a r e b e l i e v e d t o r o a m i n t h e guise o f l i o n s ) , t h e s e s u g g e s t t h a t his call is g e n u i n e . He is t h e n referred to a s e n i o r s h a m a n of t h e h i e r a r c h y for f u r t h e r s c r u t i n y . T h e a s p i r a n t has now achieved the status of an apprentice s h a m a n , and is required to f u r n i s h final p r o o f of t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y of his i n s p i r a t i o n . T h i s is e s t a b l i s h e d w h e n his p o s s e s s i n g spirit reveals t h e correct historical details of its origin, t h e location of its shrine, a n d its precise genealogical links w i t h o t h e r spirits of t h e official spirit h i e r a r c h y . As a final proof, t h e n e w r e c r u i t h a s t o pick t h e r i t u a l staff u s e d b y t h e s p i r i t ' s p r e v i o u s h u m a n i n c a r n a t i o n from a m o n g a b u n d l e p r e s e n t e d t o h i m b y t h e senior examining shaman. A d m i s s i o n to t h e profession is t h u s strictly controlled by t h e h i e r a r c h y o f e s t a b l i s h e d m e d i u m s , a n d t h e position i s generally o n e w h i c h i s r e a c h e d b y a c h i e v e m e n t r a t h e r t h a n ascribed b y b i r t h . M a n y o f t h o s e w h o wish t o b e c o m e s h a m a n s , b u t a r e n o t considered suitable, a r e r e j e c t e d o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e y a r e possessed n o t b y g u a r d i a n s p i r i t s , b u t by shave d e m o n s . It is in fact essential for t h e a s p i r a n t to b e s p o n s o r e d b y a n a l r e a d y w e l l - k n o w n a n d powerful s h a m a n i f h e is to s u c c e e d . A f u r t h e r i m p o r t a n t q u a l i f i c a t i o n , a l t h o u g h o n e t h a t is n o t a l w a y s h o n o u r e d in p r a c t i c e , is t h a t t h e c a n d i d a t e should be a s t r a n g e r t o t h e p e o p l e a n d locality w h o s e g u a r d i a n spirit h e claims t o i n c a r n a t e . T h i s d o c t r i n e i s clearly i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e s h a m a n ' s role as an i m p a r t i a l a r b i t r a t o r , i n s p i r e d by t h e spirit of a d i s t a n t a n d longd e p a r t e d a n c e s t o r , i n t h e affairs o f a n y p a r t i c u l a r local c o m m u n i t y . A m o n g s t t h e K o r e k o r e S h o n a , t h e n , t h e r e is a clearly defined m o r a l i t y cult i n w h i c h t h e spirits t h a t w a t c h o v e r t h e c o n d u c t o f m e n a n d c o n t r o l t h e i r i n t e r e s t s m a k e k n o w n t h e i r wishes t h r o u g h a g r o u p of c h o s e n a g e n t s w h o a r e o r g a n i z e d in a clearly s t r u c t u r e d s h a m a n i s t i c h i e r a r c h y . I n s p i r a t i o n a l possession h e r e is virtually a m a l e m o n o p o l y . O t h e r f o r m s o f p o s s e s s i o n , w h i c h a r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s illnesses c a u s e d by m a l e v o l e n t , intrusive, foreign spirits, regularly afflict w o m e n a n d m a y b e u s e d b y t h e m t o a d v a n c e t h e i r interests i n t h e w a y w e
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h a v e seen e l s e w h e r e . T h i s p a t t e r n t h u s c o r r e s p o n d s closely t o t h a t a m o n g the V e d d a s of Ceylon. N o w let u s p u r s u e this c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f S h o n a religion b y t u r n i n g t o t h e less politically c e n t r a l i z e d Z e z u r u . I n this S h o n a t r i b e , positions o f religious l e a d e r s h i p a n d p o w e r a r e similarly o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h possession b y spirits o f t h e d e a d . H e r e , h o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e two m a i n classes of spirits: t h e p a t r i l i n e a l a n c e s t o r s ( t h e vadzimu), a n d t h e m o r e powerful makombwe spirits w h i c h a r e c o n s i d e r e d to be closer t o G o d a n d h a v e n o precise g e n e a l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h l i v i n g Z e z u r u . Both types of spirit solicitously g u a r d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o r a l i t y . T h e y allow m i s f o r t u n e a n d sickness t o strike t h o s e w h o flout p u b l i c opinion by withdrawing their protection, thus leaving their w a y w a r d d e p e n d a n t s at the m e r c y of witches, malevolent spirits of foreign origin, a n d o t h e r sources o f m y s t i c a l d a n g e r . T o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n a m o n g t h e K o r e k o r e , a n d w i t h o u t its conn e c t i n g links, Z e z u r u society as a w h o l e is f r a g m e n t e d i n t o a n u m b e r of p e t t y c h i e f d o m s e a c h a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s m a l l , local r u l i n g d y n a s t y a n d s u b d i v i d e d i n t o w a r d s , u n d e r s u b - c h i e f s , a n d villages led b y h e a d m e n . T h e l a t t e r offices a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y ' o w n e d ' b y p a r t i c u l a r patrilineages; a n d chiefs a n d sub-chiefs a r e a p p o i n t e d a n d p a i d b y t h e n a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e e n c a p s u l a t i o n o f this t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n t h e colonial s y s t e m , a s s o often e l s e w h e r e , h a s i m p o s e d a rigidity a n d fixity w h i c h w e r e f o r m e r l y a b s e n t . T h e vital s t r u c t u r e o f Z e z u r u society i s b a s e d u p o n p a t r i l i n e a l kin g r o u p s . E a c h local g r o u p o f c o - r e s i d e n t kin h a s a m o n g s t its m e m b e r s o n e o r m o r e s h a m a n i s t i c m e d i u m s w h o act a s t h e vehicles o f its a n c e s t o r s a n d e x p r e s s t h e i r w i s h e s . W h e n , as a result of g r o w t h in population, pressure on land, a n d internal dissension, such a comm u n i t y splits, each n e w faction is led by a rival s h a m a n . In t h e i n t e r n a l life of t h e society, t h e r e f o r e , o n e a v e n u e to political a d v a n c e m e n t is t h r o u g h possession by a powerful a n c e s t o r spirit. T h e a u t h o r i t y of a village h e a d m a n m a y t h u s d e p e n d u p o n his b e i n g t h e s e n i o r spirit m e d i u m in his village. S u c h s h a m a n s a r e t h e foci for r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the living a n d d e a d m e m b e r s o f t h e i r localized kin g r o u p s , a n d also act a s a r b i t e r s o f m i n o r d i s p u t e s . A m b i t i o u s m e n , w h o seek a w i d e r s p h e r e o f a u t h o r i t y , m a y succeed i n g a i n i n g p u b l i c a c c e p t a n c e a s t h e r e c o g n i z e d vehicles for m o r e powerful a n d r e m o t e a n c e s t o r s , o r for makombwe spirits w h i c h a r e n o t l i m i t e d in t h e i r a p p e a l to p a r t i c u l a r lineages. T h e a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t of claims of this exalted k i n d d e p e n d s , of c o u r s e , u p o n the p o p u l a r i t y of a s h a m a n ' s d i v i n a t i o n s a n d p r o p h e t i c
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p r o n o u n c e m e n t s , his success as a h e a l e r , a n d his r e p u t a t i o n as a rain-maker. In contrast to the position a m o n g the Korekore, here there is no fixed h i e r a r c h y of p a r t i c u l a r spirits, n o r of t h o s e w h o claim to incarn a t e t h e m . I n s t e a d , i n t e n s e c o m p e t i t i o n exists b e t w e e n c o n t e n d i n g m e d i u m s w h o seek t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n s a s t h e recognized m o u t h p i e c e s o f t h e m o s t powerful s p i r i t s , a n d rivals a r e d i s c r e d i t e d b y b e l i t t l i n g t h e s t a t u s o f t h e i r a t t e n d a n t spirits. A t t h e village level, t h e r e i s a p p a r e n t l y s o m e c o n c o r d a n c e b e t w e e n t h e colonially-based administrative system a n d that of popularly inspired s h a m a n s . For, a s w e h a v e seen, s h a m a n s m a y b e village h e a d m e n . But a t h i g h e r levels o f political g r o u p i n g , w h e r e l a r g e r u n i t s o f p o p u l a t i o n a r e involved, t h e s e t w o s p h e r e s s e e m t o b e l a r g e l y d i s t i n c t ; a n d t h e r e i s n o single, a l l - e m b r a c i n g , n a t i o n a l d y n a s t i c cult k n i t t i n g t h e Z e z u r u t o g e t h e r i n the s a m e m a n n e r as the K o r e k o r e . W h i l e t h e K o r e k o r e p a t t e r n I h a v e d e s c r i b e d s e e m s to flow in a virtually c o n t i n u o u s line from t h e p a s t , t h e situation a m o n g the Z e z u r u is v e r y different. In fact, t h e Z e z u r u s h a m a n i s t i c cults I h a v e o u t l i n e d r e p r e s e n t a recent r e s u r g e n c e of their traditional religion. To appreciate the i m p l i c a t i o n s of this we h a v e to set t h e Z e z u r u in context a n d review t h e i r r e c e n t h i s t o r y . S i t u a t e d a s t h e y a r e close t o t h e m a i n c e n t r e s o f E u r o p e a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h e Z e z u r u a r e m u c h m o r e fully involved i n t h e m o d e r n e x c h a n g e e c o n o m y o f R h o d e s i a t h a n t h e r e m o t e a n d sheltered K o r e k o r e , a n d m u c h m o r e d e e p l y affected b y c o n t e m p o r a r y social a n d political t r e n d s . A l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f Z e z u r u m e n i n d e e d s p e n d most o f t h e i r lives w o r k i n g i n n e a r b y S a l i s b u r y ( H a r a r e ) o r i n o t h e r u r b a n centres. W i t h this d e g r e e of i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e E u r o p e a n - d o m i n a t e d world, i t w a s o n l y n a t u r a l t h a t t h e Z e z u r u s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a c u t e l y sensitive to c h a n g i n g political c o n d i t i o n s . After t h e failure of t h e rebellion of 1896, i n w h i c h t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e d , t h e Z e z u r u w e r e subjected t o intense m i s s i o n a r y e n d e a v o u r a n d soon b e g a n t o a b a n d o n their t r a d i t i o n a l religion in favour of C h r i s t i a n i t y . E u r o p e a n e d u c a t i o n , a n d t h e culture w h i c h w e n t w i t h it, w e r e w a r m l y r e c e i v e d a n d a c c e p t e d with e n t h u s i a s m . Spirit m e d i u m s d w i n d l e d i n t h e i r n u m b e r s a n d following a n d lost t h e i r p o w e r a n d prestige to t h e rising n e w elite of S h o n a evangelists a n d t e a c h e r s . A n e w m o r a l i t y , v a l i d a t e d b y t h e C h r i s t i a n faith, t h u s g r a d u a l l y replaced t h e old a u t h o r i t y of the ancestor spirits which a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n r e l e g a t e d t o t h e s t a t u s o f m e r e p e r i p h e r a l spirits a n d left to plague women.
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I n t h e early 1960s, h o w e v e r , this p i c t u r e c h a n g e d r a d i c a l l y . W i t h the growing suppression by the white R h o d e s i a n g o v e r n m e n t of the African Nationalist p a r t i e s w h i c h t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d Z e z u r u s u p p o r t e d , there developed a self-conscious a n d d e l i b e r a t e rejection of C h r i s t i a n i t y and of E u r o p e a n culture. E n d o w e d with a n e w a n d increasingly politicized c o n t e n t , t r a d i t i o n a l religion b u r s t forth a g a i n , filling t h e v a c u u m left by t h e p r o h i b i t i o n of n a t i o n a l i s t politics. S p i r i t s w h i c h in t h e d o m i n a n t w o r l d o f m e n h a d b e c o m e little m o r e t h a n a m e m o r y suddenly began to claim new m e d i u m s with growing insistence. T h e i d i o m of a n c e s t r a l possession w a s q u i c k l y r e i n s t a t e d as a h i g h l y respected a n d p o p u l a r vehicle for e x p r e s s i n g local i n t e r e s t s a n d ambitions. M a n y evangelists w h o h a d sought a d v a n c e m e n t t h r o u g h E u r o p e a n culture d r o p p e d out of the church a n d b e c a m e s h a m a n s . T e a c h e r s , a n d o t h e r s w h o h a d s e c u r e d positions w i t h i n t h e E u r o p e a n d o m i n a t e d w o r l d , w e r e d r a m a t i c a l l y recalled t o t h e faith o f t h e i r fathers. A n d t h e newly r e s t o r e d t r a d i t i o n a l religion w a s n o w h i g h l y expressive of Z e z u r u ( a n d , in a w i d e r c o n t e x t , of S h o n a ) c u l t u r a l nationalism. It would be s t r a n g e of course if this volte face o c c u r r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h r o u g h o u t Z e z u r u society. T h u s t h e fact t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f m o d e r n Z e z u r u s h a m a n s , possessed b y a n c e s t o r s p i r i t s , a r e w o m e n suggests t h a t these r e p r e s e n t a r e s i d u e from t h e e a r l i e r s i t u a t i o n w h e n the C h r i s t i a n i z a t i o n o f Z e z u r u c u l t u r e c o n v e r t e d t h e a n c e s t o r s i n t o p e r i p h e r a l spirits w h i c h p l a g u e d t h e w e a k e r sex. W h a t , a t a n e a r l i e r stage, t h e m e n h a d rejected, w o m e n c l u n g t o . I f this h y p o t h e s i s i s c o r r e c t , t h e position h a s n o w s o c h a n g e d t h a t t h e p o w e r s s u c h w o m e n i n c a r n a t e a r e a g a i n e m i n e n t l y r e s p e c t a b l e , a n d t h e y a r e clearly o n t o a good t h i n g ! F o r e v e n t s h a v e c h a n g e d in s u c h a w a y t h a t w h a t w a s a b a n d o n e d t o t h e m a s cast-off c l o t h i n g from t h e c e n t r a l w o r l d o f m e n is o n c e a g a i n v e r y m u c h a la mode. I f w e n o w leave t h e S h o n a a n d r e t u r n for a m o m e n t t o t h e T o n g a of Z a m b i a w h o s e cult of p e r i p h e r a l masable spirits we c o n s i d e r e d in an e a r l i e r c h a p t e r , we c a n , I b e l i e v e , find f u r t h e r s u p p o r t for t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I n d i s c u s s i n g p e r i p h e r a l possession a m o n g t h e T o n g a it will be recalled that we found very different p a t t e r n s in t h e two g r o u p s w e d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e isolated, c o n s e r v a t i v e V a l l e y T o n g a , a n d t h e a c c u l t u r a t e d , p r o g r e s s i v e T o n g a o f t h e P l a t e a u . S i m i l a r differences occur today in the incidence of possession by a n o t h e r category of T o n g a spirit w h i c h we h a v e so far n o t m e n t i o n e d . T h e spirits involved h e r e a r e those k n o w n as basungu which formerly,
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in both T o n g a groups, played an important part in sanctioning m o r a l i t y ( C o l s o n , 1969). T h e s e c e n t r a l spirits a r e often d e r i v e d from t h e souls o f l e a d i n g ' b i g m e n ' w h o , i n t h e i r o w n lifetime, h a v e played a significant role as p o i n t s of political influence in this traditionally u n c e n t r a l i z e d c o m m u n i t y . T h e y possess m e n (again, a s with the S h o n a , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e i r o w n lineal d e s c e n d a n t s ) a n d e n a b l e t h e m t o act a s p r o p h e t i c d i v i n e r s , m e d i a t o r s , r a i n - m a k e r s , a n d c o m m u n i t y leaders i n t h e i r t u r n . T h e i r s h r i n e s b e c o m e focal p o i n t s for n e i g h b o u r h o o d r i t u a l s r e l a t i n g t o t h e r a i n s , t h e h a r v e s t s , a n d t h e p r e v e n t i o n a n d control o f n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s . T h e s h a m a n s , i n c a r n a t i n g these spirits, act as i n t e r m e d i a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e w o r l d of t h e spirits a n d t h e world of m e n . T h e y d i r e c t a cult w h i c h is essentially c o n c e r n e d with public m o r a l i t y , fertility, a n d p r o s p e r i t y , a n d w h i c h , in a s e n s e , celebrates success since it is t h e spirits of t h e successful w h o in t u r n inspire those who succeed in subsequent generations. W h e r e a s t h e cult of p e r i p h e r a l masabe spirits s e e m s , as we saw e a r l i e r , t o b e o f r e c e n t o r i g i n a n d directly c o n c e r n e d w i t h e x p r e s s i n g t h e r e a c t i o n of t h e T o n g a to n o v e l c u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e s , t h e basungu cult i s a p p a r e n t l y o f m u c h l o n g e r s t a n d i n g a n d i s t o d a y generally d e c l i n i n g . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , i m p o r t a n t differences h e r e b e t w e e n the two T o n g a g r o u p s . I n t h e case o f t h e conservative Valley T o n g a where masabe possession flourishes a m o n g wives s e p a r a t e d from their m i g r a n t w o r k e r h u s b a n d s , basungu possession is still q u i t e p o p u l a r . B u t , significantly, i t n o w involves w o m e n r a t h e r t h a n m e n . T h i s suggests t h a t this old c e n t r a l m o r a l i t y religion is n o w a s s u m i n g a m a r g i n a l position in relation to t h e d o m i n a n t , a c c u l t u r a t e d sphere of m e n . A m o n g s t t h e g o - a h e a d P l a t e a u T o n g a , w h o h a v e n o w virtually a b a n d o n e d the masabe cult, this d e g r a d a t i o n a p p e a r s to h a v e g o n e e v e n further. W h a t r e m a i n s of t h e a t t e n u a t e d c e n t r a l basungu cult in a c u l t u r e increasingly i n s p i r e d b y w e s t e r n v a l u e s h a s b e e n r e l e g a t e d t o a very p e r i p h e r a l position.
V T h i s e x c u r s i o n i n t o C e n t r a l African e t h n o g r a p h y a g a i n d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w t h e p e r i p h e r a l i t y , o r c e n t r a l i t y , o f possession cults c a n only b e a d e q u a t e l y assessed w h e n w e t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e total social a n d political c i r c u m s t a n c e s in w h i c h they occur. T h e extent to which ecstasy is i m b u e d w i t h m o r a l force is a function of t h e total situation of a given society. A n d , i n k e e p i n g w i t h o u r findings i n p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , w e
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see h e r e i n detail t h e process b y w h i c h c u l t s , w h i c h w e r e o n c e c e n t r a l , lose t h e i r m o r a l significance a n d d e g e n e r a t e i n t o a m o r a l p e r i p h e r a l movements. Such changes, however, in the status and importance of possession cults a r e b y n o m e a n s n e c e s s a r i l y f i n a l . A s t h e Z e z u r u c a s e so well shows, new c i r c u m s t a n c e s m a y give n e w life to an old cult w h i c h h a s b e e n t h r u s t i n t o a m a r g i n a l p o s i t i o n , b r i n g i n g it b a c k a g a i n i n t o the c e n t r e o f the stage. T h i s suggests t h a t m a i n a n d p e r i p h e r a l possession cults should be seen as o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e s on a single c o n t i n u u m , r a t h e r t h a n as c o m p l e t e l y different t y p e s of r e l i g i o n . T h i s is a p o i n t t o w h i c h w e shall r e t u r n l a t e r . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , w e m a y n o t e h o w c h a n g e s in t h e s t a t u s of a p a r t i c u l a r possession cult a r e a c c o m p a n i e d by c h a n g e s in its p e r s o n n e l . In c o n f o r m i t y w i t h o u r findings in e a r l i e r chapters, m a r g i n a l cults a p p e a l to s u b o r d i n a t e s , a n d especially w o m e n ; while those cults w h i c h s t a n d at t h e c e n t r e of society a n d c e l e b r a t e public morality generally d r a w their inspired leaders from m o r e exalted strata. T h e s e n t i m e n t s o f p r o t e s t w h i c h p e r i p h e r a l cults e n s h r i n e h a v e i n these c e n t r a l possession religions a different significance w h i c h I shall discuss m o r e fully in t h e following c h a p t e r . F o r t h e m o m e n t , I wish to conclude this e x a m i n a t i o n of the role of possession in central m o r a l i t y religions, b a s e d o n a n c e s t o r cults, b y c o n s i d e r i n g o n e o f t h e m o s t e l a b o r a t e a n d i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t h a s s o far b e e n r e p o r t e d from Africa. T h i s c o n c e r n s t h e politically c e n t r a l i z e d Kaffa p e o p l e of s o u t h - w e s t e r n E t h i o p i a ( O r e n t , 1969). T h i s society, r u l e d i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y by a d i v i n e k i n g , is d i v i d e d i n t o a l a r g e n u m b e r of p a t r i l i n e a l c l a n s a n d lineages w h i c h , to a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t , form local g r o u p s . L i n e a g e s e g m e n t s a r e u s u a l l y led by a m a l e s h a m a n (alamo) w h o acts as a m e d i u m for the spirits of his p a t r i l i n e a l a n c e s t o r s . In this c a p a c i t y he functions as a diviner, d i a g n o s i n g t h e causes of sickness a n d misfort u n e w i t h i n his g r o u p i n t e r m s o f a n c e s t r a l w r a t h i n c u r r e d b y its m e m b e r s w h e n t h e y sin. T h e a n c e s t o r s , w h i c h a r e t h u s a p p r o a c h e d and appeased through the lineage elder a n d s h a m a n , are concerned p r i m a r i l y with t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f l i n e a g e m o r a l i t y a n d w i t h t h e solidarity a n d cohesion of t h e i r g r o u p s . A m a n i n h e r i t s h i s f a t h e r ' s spirit (his eqo), b e i n g selected from a g r o u p of b r o t h e r s by t h e spirit. O n c e c h o s e n , h e m u s t b u i l d a s h r i n e for t h e spirit a n d h e b e c o m e s subject to a series of s t r i n g e n t t a b o o s w h i c h e m p h a s i z e his p o s i t i o n as a s h a m a n a n d set h i m a p a r t from o t h e r m e n . As in t h e o t h e r cases we h a v e c o n s i d e r e d , d i v i n e c a l l i n g is h i g h l y responsive t o t h e n e e d s o f society. W h e n a n a g n a t i c g r o u p led b y o n e
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s h a m a n g r o w s large a n d presses so heavily u p o n its l a n d resources that a split b e c o m e s i n e v i t a b l e , t h e p a r t y w h i c h hives off is g r o u p e d r o u n d a n e w e l d e r w h o soon b e c o m e s possessed by a spirit in t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m a n n e r . H e r e , clearly, i n s p i r a t i o n legitimizes secular a u t h o r i t y . A l t h o u g h t h e Kaffa a r e m o s t l y n o m i n a l C h r i s t i a n s , p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e rites of t h e E t h i o p i a n C h u r c h , t h e y still also h o l d steadfast to t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l beliefs in t h e efficacy of t h e i r a n c e s t r a l spirits. E a c h F r i d a y , t h e m e m b e r s of a small local l i n e a g e c o n g r e g a t e at t h e s h r i n e t o c o n s u l t t h e spirit t h r o u g h its h u m a n m o u n t . P e t i t i o n s a r e a n s w e r e d w i t h i n s p i r e d j u d g e m e n t s a n d a d v i c e o n t h e following m o r n i n g , while o n S u n d a y , little a b a s h e d , t h e y a t t e n d m a s s a t t h e n e a r e s t o r t h o d o x E t h i o p i a n C h u r c h . T h e spirits a r e c o n s u l t e d for advice o n m a t t e r s o f d o m e s t i c policy, a n d for t h e d i a g n o s i s a n d t r e a t m e n t o f t h e c a u s e s o f sickness a n d misfortune. Supplicants are questioned by the s h a m a n to discover whether their complaints can be attributed to moral m i s d e m e a n o u r s or n e g l i g e n c e . If so, t h e guilty p a r t y will be asked to offer sacrifices to the offended a n c e s t o r spirit. F r e q u e n t l y these offerings a r e m a d e i n p r o m i s s o r y f o r m , a n d neglect o f s u c h p r o m i s e s , o n c e t h e d e s i r e d e n d is a c h i e v e d , is b e l i e v e d to b r i n g d o w n t h e w r a t h of t h e ancestors on their ungrateful dependants. T h i s eqo cult clearly c a t e r s for t h e interests b o t h of c o r p o r a t e g r o u p s a n d o f i n d i v i d u a l s w h o seek p o s i t i o n s o f l e a d e r s h i p b a s e d u p o n their e c s t a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e a n c e s t o r s . As we m i g h t a n t i c i p a t e , it is built i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e of Kaffa society in a highly formalized fashion. Prior to their conquest by the armies of E m p e r o r Menelik, the creator of m o d e r n E t h i o p i a , Kaffa w a s r u l e d by a d i v i n e k i n g ( t h e tato) w h o , w i t h t h e a i d o f h i s c o u n c i l , p r e s i d e d o v e r n u m e r o u s s u b s i d i a r y chiefs a n d c l a n - h e a d s . I n c l u d e d w i t h i n t h e k i n g ' s council w a s t h e l e a d i n g s h a m a n of a p a r t i c u l a r c l a n w h i c h h a d a p r i v i l e g e d r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h e c h i e f spirit of t h e eqo cult ( t h e spirits a r e a r r a n g e d in a h i e r a r c h y ) . T h i s s h a m a n w a s in fact t h e h e a d of t h e cult for the k i n g d o m as a whole, a n d i n c a r n a t e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d t h e l e a d i n g spirit, k n o w n a s Dochay. M e n e l i k ' s c o n q u e s t firmly i n c o r p o r a t e d Kaffa i n t o t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e E t h i o p i a n s t a t e . T h e k i n g s h i p w a s abolished a n d a s y s t e m o f d i r e c t r u l e i n s t i t u t e d s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n m a n y British colonial territories. A d m i n i s t r a t i v e officials, m a i n l y of the ruling A m h a r a ethnic g r o u p , w e r e a p p o i n t e d b y t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d sent t o a d m i n i s t e r Kaffa. S o m e t r a d i t i o n a l Kaffa l e a d e r s , h o w e v e r , received m i n o r administrative posts. D e s p i t e t h e s e r a d i c a l c h a n g e s w h i c h d e s t r o y e d t h e old political
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superstructure of the Kaffa state, the position of t h e Dochay cult s h a m a n , w h o w a s r e g a r d e d a s a n essentially r e l i g i o u s figure, w a s left i n t a c t . T o d a y u n d e r A m h a r a r u l e , a s i n t h e p a s t , t h e i n c u m b e n t o f this office c o n s e c r a t e s all officially r e c o g n i z e d s u b s i d i a r y c l a n a n d l i n e a g e s h a m a n s . I n d e e d , a s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , t h e effect o f t h e s e u p h e a v a l s , which r e m o v e d the old t e m p o r a l a u t h o r i t y s t r u c t u r e of Kaffa, h a s b e e n t o c o n s o l i d a t e a n d i n c r e a s e t h e p o w e r o f this religious office. W i t h t h e aid of his a t t e n d a n t Dochay spirit, it is this p a r a m o u n t s h a m a n w h o decides b e t w e e n rival c l a i m a n t s for t h e p o s i t i o n o f a p p o i n t e d s h a m a n i s t i c l e a d e r s o f local l i n e a g e s . A n d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f A m h a r a d o m i n a t i o n , this n a t i o n a l s h a m a n h a s b e c o m e t h e focus o f Kaffa t r i b a l i d e n t i t y . Gifts a n d t r i b u t e a r e r e g u l a r l y b r o u g h t t o h i m a s t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s o f t h e spirit w h i c h h e i n c a r n a t e s a r e a n x i o u s l y a w a i t e d . V i r g i n s a r e given h i m a s offerings t o his spirit. T h e s e t h e g o d ' s h u m a n vessel deflowers a n d g e n e r o u s l y b e s t o w s a m o n g s t t h o s e Kaffa w h o a r e too p o o r t o afford wives o f t h e i r o w n . D e s p i t e t h e s e t a x i n g d e m a n d s o n his virility, this t r i b a l s h a m a n i s r e p o r t e d t o b e as c o r p u l e n t as a b i s h o p . W i t h o u t q u e s t i o n he is t h e richest i n d i v i d u a l in Kaffa. H e r e , e v i d e n t l y , i n a n officially C h r i s t i a n e n v i r o n m e n t , w e h a v e a c e n t r a l m o r a l i t y possession religion w h i c h is led by m a l e s h a m a n s w h o a r e elected b y t h e spirits a n d exercise r i t u a l a n d politico-legal a u t h o r i t y a t e v e r y level o f social g r o u p i n g . U n l i k e t h e s i t u a t i o n w h e n the Z e z u r u w a r m l y e m b r a c e d C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d E u r o p e a n v a l u e s , t h e introduction and partial acceptance of A m h a r a Christianity has not r e d u c e d the status of the traditional Kaffa religion to t h a t of a m a r g i n a l cult. R a t h e r a s u b t l e , p r a c t i c a l s y m b i o s i s h a s o c c u r r e d w h i c h e n a b l e s t h e old religious system to c o n t i n u e a l o n g s i d e , a n d to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t w i t h i n t h e n e w . A n d with t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Kaffa political o r g a n i z a t i o n by t h e alien a u t h o r i t i e s , t h e old religion a n d its h i e r a r c h i c a l l y o r d e r e d officiants h a v e a c q u i r e d n e w p o l i t i c a l significance. T o d a y , c e r t a i n l y m u c h m o r e t h a n p r i o r t o t h e A m h a r a c o n q u e s t , the eqo cult serves as a vehicle for Kaffa c u l t u r a l n a t i o n a l i s m , although not, I think, in the same m e a s u r e n o r in the same deliberate a n d self-conscious m a n n e r a s a m o n g s t t h e Z e z u r u i n R h o d e s i a i n t h e 1960s. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t s e e m s h i g h l y p r o b a b l e t h a t A m h a r a c o l o n i z a tion a n d rule play a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n k e e p i n g Kaffa possession o n the boil.
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VI T h e s e e x a m p l e s will, I h o p e , s h o w sufficiently h o w , w h e r e it o c c u r s in t h e c o n t e x t of m o r a l i s t i c a n c e s t o r cults a n d is initially i n t e r p r e t e d as an affliction, possession is u l t i m a t e l y c o n s t r u e d as ancestral inspirat i o n , a n d t h e n b e c o m e s t h e b a s i s for t h e exercise o f t h e s h a m a n i s t i c v o c a t i o n . H e r e e x a c t l y a s i n t h e case o f p e r i p h e r a l cults, o n c e possession h a s b e e n s h o w n t o i n v o l v e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e spirits, a n d n o t s o m e o t h e r a g e n c y , t h e o b j e c t i v e i s n o t t o cast o u t t h e i n v a d e r b u t t o r e a c h a v i a b l e a c c o m m o d a t i o n w i t h it. T h e p a r t i c u l a r d i a g n o s i s m a d e h e r e d e p e n d s less o n t h e s y m p t o m s t h a n u p o n t h e s t a n d i n g a n d r e p u t a t i o n o f t h e p a t i e n t . T h u s elected, t h e s h a m a n acts a s t h e a p p o i n t e d m o u t h p i e c e o f t h e spirits w h i c h sit i n j u d g e m e n t u p o n t h e c o n d u c t o f their descendants and dependants. I n this c o n t e x t i n s p i r a t i o n a l possession h a s a n o b v i o u s conservative b i a s , e x p r e s s i n g in fact t h e c o n s e n s u s of p u b l i c feeling on m o r a l issues. B u t p u b l i c o p i n i o n c a n c h a n g e , a n d p u b l i c s differ. T h u s , a s w e h a v e s e e n , i n social u n i t s w h i c h h a v e g r o w n too l a r g e a n d faction-ridden for c o m f o r t , t h e a s p i r i n g l e a d e r s o f e m b r y o n i c n e w g r o u p s f i n d i n p o s s e s s i o n a n i m p r e s s i v e v a l i d a t i o n for t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e i r a i m s . A n d , a s w i t h p e r i p h e r a l possession c u l t s , w h e r e significant c h a n g e s o c c u r i n t h e w i d e r geopolitical e n v i r o n m e n t t h e s e a r e m i r r o r e d i n a l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e c o n t e n t a n d m e a n i n g o f c e n t r a l possession cults a s well as in t h e status of their i n s p i r e d priests. W h a t e v e r its psychological a n d t h e o l o g i c a l m e a n i n g , t h e r e f o r e , this m o r a l l y i n s p i r e d e n t h u s i a s m is as m u c h a social as an i n d i v i d u a l p h e n o m e n o n a n d is j u s t as easily a p p l i e d t o m a n i p u l a t e o t h e r s a s i s p e r i p h e r a l possession. O f c o u r s e , i n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e s e a s c e n t r a l m o r a l i t y cults, I d o n o t w i s h to i m p l y t h a t all a s p e c t s of p u b l i c m o r a l i t y a r e c a t e r e d for solely by t h e s e s p i r i t s . In all t h e e x a m p l e s we h a v e c o n s i d e r e d in this c h a p t e r o t h e r s a n c t i o n s a n d o t h e r a g e n c i e s o f social c o n t r o l also exist. W e m i g h t e x p e c t t h a t t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h such spirits exercise a m o r e o r less m o n o p o l i s t i c c o n t r o l o f m o r a l i t y will d e p e n d o n t h e p r e s e n c e , o r a b s e n c e , o f a l t e r n a t i v e legal a n d political m e c h a n i s m s , a n d u p o n t h e size of t h e u n i t s i n v o l v e d . T h i s is a topic w h i c h we shall e x a m i n e m o r e closely i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r . Y e t , h o w e v e r partial or c o m p l e t e their m o r a l significance, it is nevertheless v i r t u a l l y a n article o f faith t h a t t h e spirits c o n c e r n e d h e r e a r e e s s e n t i a l l y m o r a l i s t i c , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y p r e d i c t a b l e i n their a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f affliction. U n l i k e p e r i p h e r a l spirits, t h e y d o n o t
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strike capriciously o r h a p h a z a r d l y . A c t i n g e i t h e r d i r e c t l y a s c a u s e s o f suffering, o r indirectly b y w i t h d r a w i n g t h e i r n o r m a l b e n e v o l e n t p r o t e c t i o n , they e n s u r e t h a t evil d e e d s d o n o t g o u n p u n i s h e d . T h e i r i n t e r v e n t i o n a s a g e n t s o f j u s t i c e i n h u m a n affairs i s t h u s p o i n t e d , b u t a n t i c i p a t e d , a n d e n t i r e l y justified. T h e m o r a l c h a r a c t e r w h i c h t h o s e w h o believe i n t h e m a s c r i b e t o t h e s e spirits is, c o n s e q u e n t l y , j u s t a s consistent with their a c t u a l social role as is t h e case w i t h a m o r a l spirits i n p e r i p h e r a l cults. Since I a m well a w a r e t h a t t h e s e r e m a r k s d o n o t a p p l y u n i f o r m l y to all a n c e s t o r spirits, I w o u l d e m p h a s i z e t h a t I am s p e a k i n g h e r e only o f m o r a l i s t i c a n c e s t o r c u l t s , a n d , w i t h i n this t y p e of religion, only of t h o s e w h i c h also i n v o l v e p o s s e s s i o n .
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Six
POSSESSION AND PUBLIC MORALITY - II OTHER COSMOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
I
O u r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r refer o n l y t o o n e t y p e o f c e n t r a l possession religion t h a t a d d r e s s e d to t h e w o r s h i p of a n c e s t o r s p i r i t s . C l e a r l y i f o u r findings a r e t o h o l d t r u e o f m o r a l l y e n d o w e d possession religions generally, irrespective of t h e n a t u r e of t h e mystical p o w e r s c o n c e r n e d , i t h a s t o b e s h o w n t h a t t h e y a p p l y e q u a l l y well t o o t h e r t y p e s o f s h a m a n i s t i c r e l i g i o n . T h i s c h a p t e r will a c c o r d i n g l y a t t e m p t to extend the range of these conclusions a n d try to reach a m o r e definitive a s s e s s m e n t of t h e significance of ecstasy by e x a m i n i n g its p l a c e i n c e n t r a l m o r a l i t y cults w h i c h a r e d i r e c t e d t o p o w e r s o t h e r t h a n ancestor spirits. W e shall start w i t h religions w h e r e , a s i n t h e a n c e s t o r cults w e h a v e a l r e a d y c o n s i d e r e d , t h e spirits which inspire m e n a n d also sanctify a n d p r o t e c t social m o r a l i t y do so in a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n d direct fashion. W e shall t h e n d i s c u s s o t h e r cases w h e r e t h e m y s t i c a l forces involved a r e n o t , a t f i r s t sight, p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d t o u p h o l d m o r a l i t y , o r t o s a n c t i o n t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n m a n a n d m a n , a n d yet u l t i m a t e l y this result is a c h i e v e d in a c i r c u i t o u s m a n n e r . S u c h religions w h e r e t h e p o w e r s o f t h e c o s m o s t h u s o b l i q u e l y reflect b r e a c h e s a n d d i s h a r m o n i e s i n h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h a v e i m p o r t a n t a n a l o g i e s w i t h those cults which we h a v e classified as p e r i p h e r a l . C o n s e q u e n t l y an e x a m i n a t i o n of their c h a r a c t e r will b r i n g u s b a c k t o t h e p r o b l e m , w h i c h w e h a v e a l r e a d y n o t i c e d i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s , o f t h e relation b e t w e e n these t w o , seemingly radically o p p o s e d , types of religion. T h i s will force us to consider m o r e carefully t h e significance of t h e s e t w o c a t e g o r i e s in t h e analysis of ecstatic religion. In w h a t follows, I shall d e l i b e r a t e l y select illustrative m a t e r i a l
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from societies a n d c u l t u r e s w h i c h a r e widely s e p a r a t e d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y , which differ substantially in their w a y s of life a n d e c o n o m y , a n d w h i c h exhibit s i m i l a r c o n t r a s t s i n t h e i r political o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d i n t h e i r religious s y s t e m s a n d c o s m o l o g i e s . I shall b e g i n w i t h cases w h e r e s h a m a n s a r e b y n o m e a n s t h e sole h o l d e r s o f political a n d legal p o w e r , a n d e n d w i t h e x a m p l e s w h e r e t h e y a r e a l m o s t a l o n e i n t h e field. I n the p r o c e s s , we shall m o v e from t h e less f a m i l i a r t e r r i t o r y of A f r i c a n s h a m a n i s m t o t h e classical s h a m a n i s t i c r e g i o n s o f t h e Arctic a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a . If, o v e r s u c h a w i d e a r e a , a n d in r e l a t i o n to societies w h i c h differ in so m a n y o t h e r r e s p e c t s , c e n t r a l possession cults c a n be s h o w n t o e x h i b i t f u n d a m e n t a l l y t h e s a m e significance, t h e n w e c a n h o p e t o reach conclusions which will be i n d e p e n d e n t of c u l t u r a l p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , from such c o m p a r a t i v e e v i d e n c e , w e s h o u l d b e a b l e to u n c o v e r s o m e at least of t h e basic c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h f a v o u r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f a n ecstatic e m p h a s i s i n r e l i g i o n . W i t h these a i m s before u s , let u s b e g i n w i t h a n o t h e r e x a m p l e from E t h i o p i a . In this c a s e , such is t h e u n u s u a l w e a l t h of historical e v i d e n c e a v a i l a b l e t h a t it is possible n o t o n l y to a n a l y s e this religion as it exists t o d a y , b u t also to see h o w , over several c e n t u r i e s , it h a s c o m e to a s s u m e its p r e s e n t s h a p e . I n this i n s t a n c e w e a r e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a m a i n m o r a l i t y religion w h i c h , i n its e a r l i e r p h a s e s , d i d n o t i n c l u d e ecstasy b u t n o w h a s this c h a r a c t e r . I a m r e f e r r i n g t o t h e religion o f t h e M a c h a O r o m o , w h o live t o d a y a s c u l t i v a t o r s i n a n a r e a n o r t h o f t h e Kaffa a n d west of A d d i s A b a b a . T h i s people is o n e of t h e m a n y sub-divisions of t h e great O r o m o n a t i o n w h i c h , w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n e s t i m a t e d at s o m e twelve millions, c o n s t i t u t e s t h e largest single e t h n i c g r o u p i n E t h i o p i a . A s w i t h t h e Kaffa a n d all t h e o t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e E t h i o p i a n p e o p l e s , the M a c h a n o w form p a r t o f t h e E t h i o p i a n e m p i r e a n d a r e r u l e d b y the C h r i s t i a n A m h a r a elite. I n c o n t e m p o r a r y M a c h a society ( K n u t s s o n , 1967, 1 9 7 5 ; H . S . L e w i s , 1984), m e n r e g u l a r l y i n c a r n a t e G o d (Waka) a n d his v a r i o u s ' r e f r a c t i o n s ' , or s u b s i d i a r y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , w h i c h a r e k n o w n as ayanas. T o t h e M a c h a , G o d i s t h e final g u a r d i a n o f m o r a l i t y a n d p u n i s h e s w r o n g s a n d m i s d e m e a n o u r s , w h i c h a r e c o n s i d e r e d sins, b y w i t h d r a w i n g his p r o t e c t i o n a n d t h u s r e n d e r i n g e v i l - d o e r s liable t o suffer m i s f o r t u n e a n d sickness. Sacrifices, a n d p r a y e r s for forgiveness a n d blessing, a r e r e g u l a r l y m a d e t o G o d a n d t o his s u b s i d i a r y m a n i f e s t a tions t h r o u g h s h a m a n s (called kallus) w h o h o l d p r i e s t l y offices at all levels of social g r o u p i n g from t h a t of t h e e x t e n d e d p a t r i l i n e a l family t o t h e clan. T h e spirits s u m m o n e d o n t h e s e o c c a s i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d
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to be r e f r a c t i o n s of t h e c e n t r a l d e i t y Waka, w h i c h is a p p r e h e n d e d as a u n i t y at t h e level of t h e M a c h a p e o p l e as a w h o l e . S h a m a n s who i n t h e r e c u r r i n g rites i n h o n o u r o f t h e i r spirits, a r e often possessed, h o l d p o s i t i o n s w h i c h a r e g e n e r a l l y v e s t e d in t h e s e n i o r s e g m e n t s of lineages. T h e s e offices a r e in principle h e r e d i t a r y . Yet an e l e m e n t of achievem e n t is also p r e s e n t , since s h a m a n s vie with o n e a n o t h e r for t h e leaders h i p of local c o n g r e g a t i o n s built r o u n d co-resident clusters of kin. A n d s o m e s h a m a n s a t t a i n p o s i t i o n s o f religious l e a d e r s h i p w h i c h e x t e n d far b e y o n d t h e i r o w n i m m e d i a t e circle o f p a t r i l i n e a l relatives. I n this f a s h i o n , c o m p e t i t i o n for p o w e r w i t h i n M a c h a society is c o u c h e d in t h e i d i o m of p o s s e s s i o n . If, for e x a m p l e , a family h e a d b e c o m e s r e g u l a r l y subject t o strikingly h i s t r i o n i c t r a n c e s , w h i c h a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as s i g n s of d i v i n e possession, a n d b u i l d s up a r e p u t a t i o n for great d i v i n a t o r y p o w e r s a n d success i n m e d i a t i o n a n d d i s p u t e s e t t l e m e n t , t h e n he is likely to a c q u i r e r e n o w n at a w i d e r local a n d lineage level. T h i s gives h i m a s t a n d i n g w h i c h will e n a b l e h i m to b i d for recognition as the acknowledged s h a m a n of a m u c h larger group. Typically, t h o s e m e n w h o a r e t h u s s t r i v i n g for w i d e r p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y e x p e r i e n c e m u c h m o r e i m p r e s s i v e a n d violent possession t r a n c e s t h a n t h o s e w h o a l r e a d y h o l d s u c h p o s i t i o n s b y right o f b i r t h . B u t success h e r e i s often e p h e m e r a l . A s h a m a n ' s p o s i t i o n d e p e n d s u p o n public r e c o g n i t i o n , a n d r e p u t a t i o n s c a n b e d e s t r o y e d a s easily a s they can be built u p . H e r e , as with the Z e z u r u S h o n a , but unlike the Korekore a n d Kaffa, t h e r e i s n o firmly e s t a b l i s h e d h i e r a r c h y o f s h a m a n s , a n d n o s h a m a n i s t i c b i s h o p r i c t o a d j u d i c a t e b e t w e e n t h e c l a i m s o f rival competitors. E a c h s h a m a n h a s a t least o n e s h r i n e for t h e spirit o r spirits which he i n c a r n a t e s a n d it is to these t h a t p e o p l e of a n e i g h b o u r h o o d c o m e i n s e a r c h o f h e l p . I n s p i r e d b y t h e s e p o w e r s , t h e s h a m a n s h e a r confessions o f guilt a t w r o n g s c o m m i t t e d , a n d receive sacrifices a n d votive offerings for t h e s p i r i t s . As I h a v e a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , a l o n g s i d e t h e official legal a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s y s t e m o f t h e E t h i o p i a n g o v e r n m e n t t h e y also exercise a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of i n f o r m a l political a n d legal p o w e r . A n d t h e j u d g e m e n t s w h i c h t h e y give i n d i s p u t e s b r o u g h t t o t h e m a r e b a c k e d b y t h e s a n c t i o n o f t h e i r spirits. P e o p l e w h o defiantly reject a s h a m a n ' s d e c i s i o n fear his c u r s e . S i d e b y side w i t h this religion c e n t r i n g o n t h e m o r a l l y j u s t G o d , Waka, t h e r e exist o t h e r p e r i p h e r a l cults of spirits ( k n o w n locally as muata, atete ( o r Mariam) w h i c h often possess w o m e n . But since these
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involve features w i t h w h i c h w e a r e n o w t h o r o u g h l y f a m i l i a r n o m o r e n e e d b e said a b o u t t h e m for t h e m o m e n t . I n s t e a d I w a n t t o e x p l o r e the historical e v e n t s w h i c h lie b e h i n d t h e p r e s e n t c h a r a c t e r o f t h e cult of Waka. W h e r e a s p r e s e n t e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c e n t r a l Kaffa p o s s e s sion religion r e p r e s e n t s s i m p l y a n intensification o f t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c tices, this i s n o t t h e case w i t h t h e M a c h a . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i n t h i s case w e a r e f o r t u n a t e i n h a v i n g s e c u r e e v i d e n c e w h i c h s h o w s t h a t , i n its p r e s e n t s h a m a n i s t i c f o r m , this m a i n m o r a l i t y cult is a c u l t u r a l i n n o v a t i o n of o n l y a few g e n e r a t i o n s ' s t a n d i n g . Before t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e M a c h a ( w h o , i t will b e r e c a l l e d , form o n e d i v i s i o n o f t h e great O r o m o n a t i o n ) p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e p a n - O r o m o cult o f Waka w h o was represented on earth, not by an a r r a y of inspired s h a m a n s , b u t by a h a n d f u l of divinely i n s t i t u t e d p r i e s t l y d y n a s t i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e s e lines of priestly m e d i a t o r s were believed to h a v e b e e n e n d o w e d by G o d , a n d t h u s t o b e divinely a p p o i n t e d , t h e a c t u a l i n c u m b e n t s ( w h o w e r e also called kallus) d i d n o t e m p l o y t r a n c e a n d w e r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d to b e possessed b y t h e p o w e r w h o s e a u t h o r i t y t h e y e x e r c i s e d . T h i s ' t r a d i t i o n a l ' p a t t e r n o f a n o n - s h a m a n i s t i c p r i e s t h o o d persists today amongst the southern b r a n c h e s of the O r o m o nation which r e m a i n those m o s t a t t a c h e d t o p a s t o r a l n o m a d i s m a n d least i n v o l v e d in cultivation. O u t s i d e M a c h a , a m o n g s t these m o r e conservative O r o m o , this office of t r i b a l p r i e s t , w h i c h is h e r e d i t a r y , is closely associated with t h e t r a d i t i o n a l political s t r u c t u r e . T h i s i s b a s e d primarily upon the generation-set organization which, in the south, is still t h e m a i n i n t e g r a t i n g a n d g o v e r n m e n t a l principle (see K n u t s s o n , 1975). W i t h o u t going into u n n e c e s s a r y details, this institution p r o v i d e s a mechanism whereby the male population of any a u t o n o m o u s O r o m o t r i b e is d i v i d e d i n t o sets, e a c h o n e d r a w n from m e n of a different g e n e r a t i o n , which p r o g r e s s t h r o u g h a n u m b e r of g r a d e s at eight-yearly intervals. E a c h g r a d e o c c u p i e d by a set, as its m e m b e r s m o v e t h r o u g h the s y s t e m , h a s different roles a n d o b l i g a t i o n s a s s i g n e d t o it. As with a g e - g r a d e o r g a n i z a t i o n s e l s e w h e r e , t h e effect, in this t r a d i tionally u n c e n t r a l i z e d political s y s t e m , i s t h a t e v e r y m a n i s g i v e n t h e opportunity of being a warrior a n d , later, an elder a n d j u d g e . At any point i n t i m e o n e set, c o m p o s e d o f m e n o f t h e s a m e g e n e r a t i o n , occupies t h a t g r a d e which supplies t h e p e a c e - k e e p i n g , d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a n d r i t u a l d i r e c t i o n for t h e t r i b e as a w h o l e . I d e a l l y a n d in p r a c t i c e , the s y s t e m i s h i g h l y d e m o c r a t i c a n d e g a l i t a r i a n . T h o s e w h o exercise political a n d legal a u t h o r i t y d o s o o n l y for t h e e i g h t y e a r s t h a t t h e y
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a r e in office; p o w e r t h e n p a s s e s o u t of t h e i r h a n d s i n t o those of the next s e n i o r set. A n d t h e leaders of each set, w h o will in their t u r n briefly r u l e t h e t r i b e as a w h o l e , a r e elected by all its m e m b e r s . T h i s institut i o n , l i n k e d closely to t h e d y n a s t i c kallu p r i e s t h o o d w h i c h hallows it a n d e n d o w s it w i t h mystical efficacy, is well suited to p r o v i d e the loose d e g r e e o f i n t e g r a t i o n a n d t r i b a l solidarity r e q u i r e d b y sparsely distributed pastoral nomads. S o m u c h for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l O r o m o social o r g a n i z a t i o n w h i c h , a s I h a v e s a i d , s u r v i v e s m o s t s t r o n g l y t o d a y a m o n g s t those O r o m o o f s o u t h e r n E t h i o p i a a n d n o r t h e r n K e n y a w h o still live a s m a r g i n a l p a s t o r a l n o m a d s . N o w t h e M a c h a , with w h o m w e a r e c o n c e r n e d h e r e , r e p r e s e n t o n e o f t h e several O r o m o g r o u p s w h o m o v e d u p into central Ethiopia in the course of the great northern expansion of the O r o m o in t h e sixteenth c e n t u r y . In their n e w e n v i r o n m e n t they did not succeed in e s t a b l i s h i n g a local kallu d y n a s t y of t h e i r o w n . I n s t e a d t h e y h a d to d e p e n d u p o n t h e great priests o f t h e s o u t h e r n O r o m o t o whose shrines, before t h e f i n a l i m p o s i t i o n o f A m h a r a r u l e i n t h e late n i n e t e e n t h century, they used regularly to go on pilgramage. In their new highland h o m e , however, they gradually adopted c u l t i v a t i o n a n d b e c a m e subject t o p r e s s u r e s o f social c h a n g e s w e e p i n g t h r o u g h all n o r t h e r n O r o m o society i n t h e late e i g h t e e n t h a n d early n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . I n t h e case o f t h e M a c h a , these led t o t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n d h i g h l y d e m o c r a t i c political system based on the generation-set organization which was sanctioned and h a l l o w e d b y t h e kallu p r i e s t s . P r e s s u r e o n t h e l a n d i n c r e a s e d , a n d a l t h o u g h l i n e a g e s w e r e initially l a n d - h o l d i n g u n i t s , t h e g r o w t h o f m a r k e t s a n d of t r a d e in this p e r i o d e n c o u r a g e d t h e rise of a n e w class o f m e r c h a n t a d v e n t u r e r s a n d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s w h o c a m e t o control the l a n d . I n s o m e n o r t h e r n a r e a s , t h e e m e r g e n c e o f these ' b i g m e n ' led to a g e n e r a l d e v e l o p m e n t of social stratification with p o w e r b a s e d primarily on achievement, a n d ultimately to the formation of m o n a r c h i e s w h o s e r u l e r s t e n d e d to a d o p t I s l a m as a c o n v e n i e n t j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h e n e w social p o s i t i o n s w h i c h t h e y h a d c r e a t e d . But a m o n g s t those M a c h a O r o m o discussed h e r e , this process o f increasing political c e n t r a l i z a t i o n h a d n o t p r o c e e d e d t o this p o i n t before the A m h a r a c o n q u e s t s u p e r v e n e d a n d ' f r o z e ' t h e e x i s t i n g situation (cf. H . S L e w i s , 1984). T h i s t r a i n o f d e v e l o p m e n t s , w i t h t h e rise o f ' b i g m e n ' c o m p e t i n g for s e c u l a r p o w e r , w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y parallel c h a n g e s i n religious o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d c o s m o l o g i c a l beliefs l e a d i n g u l t i m a t e l y t o t h e
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p a t t e r n described earlier. As in o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s of c h a n g e a n d dislocation in which possession p h e n o m e n a flourish, so h e r e , as we h a v e seen, achieved s h a m a n i s t i c positions, legitimized by possession, r e p l a c e d t h e former attachment of the M a c h a to the God-given high-priesthoods o f t h e s o u t h . W h e r e f o r m e r l y i n s p i r a t i o n h a d b e e n fully b o u n d e d a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d in t h e s h a p e of d i v i n e l y installed d y n a s t i e s of p r i e s t s , with p o w e r i n c a r n a t e i n t h e office r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e p e r s o n , G o d w a s n o w in effect b r e a k i n g o u t all o v e r . T h e p o s s e s s i o n - i n s p i r e d kallu s h a m a n t h u s s u c c e e d e d t h e kallu p r i e s t . A n d , a s t h e g e n e r a t i o n - s e t o r g a n i z a t i o n declined in significance, c l a n s h i p b e c a m e o n e of t h e m a i n foci of social i d e n t i t y . T h u s , at v a r i o u s levels of clan g r o u p i n g t h e r e d e v e l o p e d s h a m a n i s t i c p o s i t i o n s p a r a l l e l i n g t h e refraction i n t o c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s of a god w h o h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n c o n c e i v e d of as single a n d indivisible. U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s u l t i n g n e w kallu i n s t i t u t i o n h a s c o m e t o i n c l u d e a s c r i b e d a s well a s a c h i e v e d a s p e c t s , t h u s b r i n g i n g t h e wheel of religious c h a n g e full circle or n e a r l y so. C e r t a i n l y , at least, it is possible to d i s c e r n t h e b e g i n n i n g s of w h a t m a y eventually b e c o m e a n e w kallu religious e s t a b l i s h m e n t , a l t h o u g h t r a n c e a n d possession still r e m a i n a t t h e m o m e n t i m p o r t a n t factors i n t h e exercise of t h e religious v o c a t i o n . T o c o m p l e t e this p i c t u r e , w e m u s t n o t e t h a t , a s i n Kaffa, a considerable proportion of the M a c h a are practising Christians. C h r i s t i a n i t y , h o w e v e r , h a s n o t d i s p l a c e d t h e i r i n d i g e n o u s faith, n o r reduced it to a subsidiary position. On the contrary, b o t h religions co-exist i n a loose s y n c r e t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p . T o m a n y M a c h a , i n d e e d , they m u s t a p p e a r as p a r t s of a single c o n t i n u u m , r a t h e r t h a n as discrete a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y faiths. I n this t o l e r a n t e c u m e n i c a l spirit, t h e V i r g i n M a r y a n d a n u m b e r o f l e a d i n g s a i n t s from t h e C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n , a s well a s c e r t a i n figures from I s l a m , i n c l u d i n g e v e n t h e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d , h a v e in fact b e e n a s s i m i l a t e d to r e f r a c t i o n s of Waka. Similarly, the Christian calendar has exerted a considerable influence u p o n t h e rotation o f t h e m a i n p u b l i c rites a d d r e s s e d t o t h e M a c h a g o d . H e n c e , if this ecstatic religion voices t h e local c u l t u r a l n a t i o n a l i s m of the M a c h a , it d o e s so to a d e g r e e a n d in a m a n n e r w h i c h at t h e s a m e time admits of a gradual m o v e m e n t towards the assimilative culture a n d religion o f t h e d o m i n a n t A m h a r a . T h o u g h a k i n t o t h e s i t u a t i o n i n Kaffa, these c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e r a t h e r different from t h o s e a m o n g s t the Z e z u r u .
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II T h e c e n t r a l possession religion o f t h e M a c h a c u l t i v a t o r s r e p r e s e n t s , as we h a v e s e e n , a c o n s i d e r a b l y m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n of their t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n . Its s h a m a n i s t i c c h a r a c t e r is t h e p r o d u c t of e c o n o m i c a n d political c h a n g e s o v e r a p e r i o d of s o m e t h r e e c e n t u r i e s . D e s p i t e very c o n s i d e r a b l e differences i n c o s m o l o g y , a n d a l t h o u g h w e k n o w little a b o u t its earlier history, the classical s h a m a n i s m of the T u n g u s reindeer h e r d e r s o f S i b e r i a a n d t h e A r c t i c reveals s t r i k i n g parallels with this M a c h a c u l t . I n o r d e r t o clarify t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r o f T u n g u s s h a m a n i s m a n d to show h o w , as in M a c h a , it is closely associated with t h e c l a n s y s t e m , I n o w refer to a detailed a c c o u n t of t h e E v e n k T u n g u s h e r d e r s b y t h e Soviet e t h n o g r a p h e r , A n i s i m o v ( A n i s i m o v , 1963, cf. Basilov, 1984; H a m a y o n , 1984). I n this c a s e , t h e clans involved a r e smaller, m o r e tightly i n t e g r a t e d , a n d exhibit a h i g h e r degree of m u t u a l hostility t h a n i n M a c h a . I n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l E v e n k s e t t i n g , sickness a n d m i s f o r t u n e were b e l i e v e d to be d u e , e i t h e r to neglect of t h e clan spirits, or to the malice o f o t h e r c l a n s w h o s e p r o t e c t i v e spirits h a d b e e n u n l e a s h e d o n their e n e m i e s . I n t h e l a t t e r e v e n t , t h e s h a m a n t r e a t e d his afflicted c l a n s m e n b y e x o r c i z i n g t h e d e m o n r e s p o n s i b l e , a n d d r i v i n g i t i n t o t h e lower w o r l d . I n r e t a l i a t i o n for this hostile spirit i n t r u s i o n , h e w o u l d t h e n let loose a host of his o w n c l a n ' s g u a r d i a n spirits, in the form of zoomorp h i c m o n s t e r s , s e n d i n g these o u t t o d o b a t t l e w i t h t h e clan which h a d i n i t i a t e d this s p i r i t u a l c o m b a t . T o defend itself a g a i n s t such h a r a s s m e n t , e a c h c l a n s h a m a n w a s r e q u i r e d t o fence i n t h e clan l a n d s , p r o t e c t i n g t h e m a g a i n s t i n c u r s i o n by a mystical iron c u r t a i n consisting o f t h e s h a m a n ' s spirit w a t c h m e n . Alien e n e m y spirits h a d f i r s t t o p e n e t r a t e t h i s b u l w a r k before t h e y could r e a c h those i t sheltered a n d p l a g u e t h e m w i t h illness a n d d e a t h . A i d e d b y his spirit h e l p e r s , i t w a s the p r i m a r y d u t y of t h e clan s h a m a n to struggle with trespassing spirits a n d , h a v i n g repelled t h e m , t o r e p a i r t h e d a m a g e d o n e t o t h e clan defences. T h i s defence w o r k w a s t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l . I n t h e a i r , s h a m a n i s t i c bird spirits w e r e ever o n t h e w a t c h ; o n l a n d , the s h a m a n ' s a n i m a l spirits s t a u n c h l y stood g u a r d ; a n d i n t h e w a t e r , f i s h spirits w e r e posted a s s e n t r i e s . E a c h c l a n w a s t h u s t h o u g h t to possess a s p h e r e of interest w h i c h , like t h a t o f m o d e r n n a t i o n s , s t r a d d l e d t h e t h r e e w o r l d s : t h e u p p e r world o f t h e air a n d h e a v e n s , t h e e a r t h which m a n inhabited, a n d the w o r l d below into which the rivers flowed. T h r o u g h the centre of this
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jealously g u a r d e d clan t e r r i t o r y f l o w e d t h e c l a n ' s ' w a t e r y r i v e r r o a d ' , a spiritual s t r e a m w h o s e s o u r c e s lay i n t h e u p p e r w o r l d p o p u l a t e d b y the s u p r e m e n a t u r e d e i t i e s , w h o s e m i d d l e c o u r s e lay i n t h e w o r l d o f m e n , a n d t h e m o u t h i n t h e l o w e r w o r l d . I n this p o e t i c i m a g e r y , c l a n life w a s viewed as r u n n i n g a l o n g this r i v e r in a c i r c u l a r p r o c e s s of r e i n c a r n a t i o n . N e i g h b o u r i n g c l a n s h a d a d j o i n i n g r i v e r s o f life, a n d the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e i r m o r t a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w e r e reflected i n those o n t h e s p i r i t u a l p l a n e w h i c h t h e s h a m a n ' s spirits r e g u l a t e d . A l t h o u g h e a c h E v e n k clan h a d also a formally installed political l e a d e r (called kulak), t h e s h a m a n ' s position as t h e i n t e r p r e t e r of c l a n m o r a l i t y a n d , i n d e e d , a s t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f clan w e l l - b e i n g , w a s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t . W h i l e i n p r i n c i p l e h e r e d i t a r y , this office c o u l d also b e o b t a i n e d , a s w e h a v e s e e n , b y a c h i e v e m e n t . T h e c l a n spirits were t h e final a r b i t e r s in t h e selection of t h e successful c a n d i d a t e w h o was c o n s e c r a t e d in a collective clan r i t u a l w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e t h e m e s o f r e b i r t h , p r o s p e r i t y i n a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y , a n d success i n hunting. S h a m a n s were treated with deference, allocated the most p r o d u c t i v e a r e a s o f clan t e r r i t o r y , a n d h e l p e d w i t h t h e i r r e i n d e e r h e r d i n g by o t h e r c l a n s m e n . P a i d for t h e i r services in gifts, s u c h as a few h e a d of r e i n d e e r , t h e y often b e c a m e as p r o s p e r o u s as t h e y w e r e mystically powerful. D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f R u s s i a n rule before t h e r e v o l u t i o n , a n d p a r t l y as a result of C h r i s t i a n influence, s h a m a n i s m d e c l i n e d . B u t u n d e r t h e new Soviet authorities it a c q u i r e d a n e w lease of life. In m u c h t h e s a m e m a n n e r a s a m o n g t h e Z e z u r u o f R h o d e s i a , possession b e c a m e t h e vehicle for T u n g u s cultural n a t i o n a l i s m a n d protest against t h e policies o f t h e i r n e w m a s t e r s . I n this s e t t i n g , s h a m a n s j o i n e d forces w i t h t h e kulak c l a n l e a d e r s as a g e n t s of local r e s i s t a n c e a n d disaffection. A m o n g s t the T u n g u s generally (Shirokogoroff, 1935), t h e well-being of c l a n s m e n d e p e n d e d u p o n t h e z e a l o u s d i r e c t i o n of t h e cult of t h e i r g u a r d i a n spirits b y t h e clan s h a m a n . I f t h e s e spirits w e r e n e g l e c t e d , they c o u l d t h e m s e l v e s w r e a k h a v o c ; o r , a s a m o n g t h e M a c h a O r o m o a n d i n o t h e r e x a m p l e s w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d , a c h i e v e t h e s a m e effect b y w i t h d r a w i n g t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n , a n d t h u s l e a v i n g t h e i r clan o p e n t o attack b y hostile e n e m y p o w e r s . T h e s e alien spirits w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y d a n g e r o u s t o w o m e n , a n d w o m e n ' s illnesses w e r e r e g u l a r l y e x p l a i n e d in t e r m s of possession by such foreign spirits. A l t h o u g h t h e l i t e r a t u r e is n o t e n t i r e l y clear on this p o i n t , it s e e m s t h a t a l o n g s i d e t h e c e n t r a l cult o f clan g u a r d i a n spirits, w h i c h w a s d i r e c t e d b y m e n , t h e r e also existed a p e r i p h e r a l cult w h i c h w a s m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h female
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a i l m e n t s . It w a s also, a p p a r e n t l y , t h r o u g h alleged association with such a m o r a l evil s p i r i t s , t h a t a n u n p o p u l a r s h a m a n m i g h t b e discredited as a ' w i t c h ' . T h e s e are features which we have already encountered in a n u m b e r of o u r p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e s , a n d to t h e significance of which I shall r e t u r n p r e s e n t l y . F i n a l l y , it is of i n t e r e s t to n o t e h e r e t h a t , d u r i n g t h e old R u s s i a n r e g i m e w h e n C h r i s t i a n i t y e x e r t e d a powerful i m p a c t , i n s o m e areas c l a n s h a m a n i s m s e e m s to h a v e d e g e n e r a t e d to t h e status of a m a r g i n a l cult i n v o l v i n g female a s well a s m a l e s h a m a n s . T h e diffusion o f B u d d h i s m , t h r o u g h M a n c h u r i a , m a y e a r l i e r h a v e e x e r t e d a similar effect.
III
S o far, w e h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d u p o n cases w h e r e m a l e - d o m i n a t e d cults s u s t a i n p u b l i c m o r a l i t y in a d i r e c t fashion, t h e s h a m a n voicing the d e c i s i o n s of m o r a l i s t i c g o d s w h i c h , if t h e y do n o t s i m p l y e c h o it, a r e a t least h i g h l y r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e j u d g e m e n t o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n . But i n o u r p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e s , t h e s h a m a n ' s i n s p i r e d j u d g e m e n t s a r e only o n e o f s e v e r a l , a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s o f l a w , since o t h e r a u t h o r i t i e s a n d o t h e r m e c h a n i s m s of social c o n t r o l also exist. I w a n t n o w to e x a m i n e the role of s h a m a n i s m in societies which completely lack formal political offices, o r c o u r t s o f l a w , a n d w h e r e t h e s h a m a n h a s virtually n o rivals i n h i s i n s p i r e d m i n i s t r a t i o n s . I n s u c h c o n d i t i o n s , a s w e shall see, t h e s h a m a n ' s portfolio o f f u n c t i o n s b e c o m e s e x t r e m e l y w i d e i n scope. I t a k e a s m y e x a m p l e h e r e t h e A k a w a i o I n d i a n s o f British G u i a n a , a p e o p l e l i v i n g i n s m a l l a u t o n o m o u s s e t t l e m e n t s , s t r u n g o u t a l o n g the b a n k s o f r i v e r s , a n d p r a c t i s i n g a m i x e d e c o n o m y w h i c h includes c u l t i v a t i o n , h u n t i n g , fishing, a n d collecting wild fruits. H e r e , a s A u d r e y B u t t breezily says, t h e s h a m a n ' h a s m a n y roles, r a n g i n g from d o c t o r , m i l i t a r y t a c t i c i a n , a n d priest t o l a w y e r a n d j u d g e : a t o n e a n d the s a m e time he is the primitive e m b o d i m e n t of the National Space A g e n c y a n d t h e C i t i z e n ' s A d v i c e B u r e a u ' ( B u t t , 1967). T o a p p r e c i a t e this p r o l i f e r a t i o n of t a s k s , t h e b a c k g r o u n d of A k a w a i o beliefs m u s t be o u t l i n e d briefly. A s w i t h s o m a n y o t h e r t r i b a l p e o p l e s , a n d t o s o m e e x t e n t i n line w i t h m o d e r n p s y c h i a t r y , t h e A k a w a i o believe that a n i m o s i t i e s b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l s , families, a n d local c o m m u n i t i e s a r e a s o u r c e of sickness, m i s f o r t u n e , a n d e v e n d e a t h . Physical a n d social disorder a n d malfunctioning are linked together by the assumption t h a t n a t u r e spirits w h i c h c a u s e suffering h a v e , a s t h e i r p r i m a r y focus
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o f c o n c e r n , c o n d i t i o n s o f social d i s h a r m o n y . H o s t i l i t i e s a n d d i s p u t e s i n p e r s o n a l a n d social r e l a t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o a t t r a c t t h e a t t e n t i o n of these spirits w h i c h t h e n signify t h e i r d i s a p p r o v a l by afflicting t h o s e involved with disease o r d e a t h . S u c h a n u n d e s i r a b l e s t a t e o f affairs r e q u i r e s t h e h e l p o f t h e s h a m a n w h o , a s d i a g n o s t i c i a n a n d a r b i t e r o f spirit a c t i v i t y , i s s u m m o n e d t o investigate t h e t r o u b l e . H i s task i s b o t h m e d i c a l a n d politico-legal. H e seeks t o c u r e t h e physical s y m p t o m s a s well a s t h e m o r e d e e p - s e a t e d social ill w h i c h lies b e h i n d t h e m . H i s j o b i s t o r e m o v e t h e o s t e n s i b l e c a u s e of suffering a n d also, w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e s p i r i t s , to r e s t o r e h a r m o n i o u s relations by m a n i p u l a t i n g the tension-ridden situation which h a s given rise t o t h e sickness. A m o n g t h e A k a w a i o , n a t u r e spirits t h u s u p h o l d m o r a l i t y b y afflict i n g t r a n s g r e s s o r s w i t h illnesses w h i c h m a y b e i n t e r p r e t e d e i t h e r a s m a l i g n possessions b y p a t h o g e n i c o r g a n i s m s , o r a s c a u s e d b y t h e r e m o v a l of a vital p a r t of t h e c u l p r i t ' s b o d y by a spirit. E v e n theft m a y b e p u n i s h e d i n this fashion b y t h e s p i r i t s . I n fact i n f r i n g e m e n t s of ritual prescriptions a n d taboos are similarly sanctioned, so that the c o m p l e t e g a m u t of p u n i t i v e spirit action includes t r a n s g r e s s i o n s , o m i s sions, a n d m a l p r a c t i c e s i n c u s t o m a r y b e h a v i o u r i n b o t h t h e s e c u l a r a n d religious s p h e r e s . A c c o r d i n g t o A k a w a i o belief, a n illness disappears and the patient recovers w h e n the w r o n g involved has been r i g h t e d , w h e n h a r m o n y i n society a n d i n n a t u r e h a s b e e n r e s t o r e d . T h e s h a m a n c o n d u c t s his i n q u i r y i n t o t h e c a u s e s o f affliction t h r o u g h a public seance in t h e c o u r s e of w h i c h all t h e relevant e v i d e n c e i s u n c o v e r e d a n d a n a l y s e d . T h e spirits w h o s p e a k t h r o u g h t h e m o u t h o f t h e possessed s h a m a n act a s b a r r i s t e r s o r p r o s e c u t i n g c o u n c i l l o r s , e x t r a c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a n d p u t t i n g t h e case a g a i n s t t h e guilty p a t i e n t . T h e i r u t t e r a n c e s a r e delivered w i t h a g r e a t d e a l of s a g a c i o u s wit w h i c h is s a v o u r e d appreciatively by t h e a u d i e n c e . T h o s e p r e s e n t at t h e seance act b o t h a s witnesses t o a n d j u d g e s o f t h e s p e c t a c l e , t h e s h a m a n i n t e r preting public opinion with the authority which only the words of the gods c a n give h i m . T h e s e a n c e t h u s b o t h e n s h r i n e s a n d e x p r e s s e s t h e m o r a l c o n s c i e n c e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d , for t h e p a t i e n t , i s also t h e confessional i n w h i c h t h e a d m i s s i o n o f guilt a n d t h e a g r e e m e n t t o p e r f o r m such f u r t h e r p e n a n c e s a s m a y b e p r e s c r i b e d b r i n g relief a n d recovery. W h e n such a seance is held to deal with a sick p a t i e n t , t h e s h a m a n ' s first task is to s u m m o n his r e g u l a r h e l p e r s t h e spirit of his l a t e t e a c h e r , t h e t o b a c c o spirit, t h e l a d d e r spirit, t r e e - b a r k spirits,
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m o u n t a i n b i r d spirits, a n d t h e ghost spirits o f d e a d relatives w h o a r e a l w a y s a n x i o u s t o l e n d a h a n d . H a v i n g a l r e a d y t a k e n t h e powerful t o b a c c o j u i c e w h i c h h e l p s h i m t o a c h i e v e t r a n c e , t h e s h a m a n begins b y c o n v e r s i n g w i t h t h e spirits m e n t i o n e d a s well a s with t h e a u d i e n c e a n d p a t i e n t . After a n u m b e r o f o t h e r spirits h a v e d e s c e n d e d a n d m o r e t o b a c c o j u i c e h a s b e e n t a k e n , t h e s h a m a n goes into full, cataleptic t r a n c e . A i d e d b y t h e l a d d e r spirit, his o w n spirit h a s b e g u n t o soar aloft o n its j o u r n e y t o t h e sky, t o travel a m o n g t h e m o u n t a i n s , i n the forests, a n d u n d e r t h e e a r t h s e e k i n g t h e h e l p o f o t h e r spirits. A l r e a d y k n o w i n g m u c h o f t h e b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e p a t i e n t ' s t r o u b l e s , with the aid o f t h e s e spirits t h e s h a m a n p r o b e s f u r t h e r i n t h e s e a n c e . S p e a k i n g t h r o u g h t h e i r h u m a n vessel, t h e s e spirits i n t e r r o g a t e t h e p a t i e n t a n d his r e l a t i v e s as well as o t h e r i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s . T h e m o s t s e a r c h i n g a n d p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n s a r e t h u s publicly p u t to t h e p a t i e n t w h o is u n d e r s t r o n g c o m p u l s i o n to reveal all his misdeeds, l e a v i n g t h e s h a m a n ' s spirits t o j u d g e t h e i r r e l e v a n c e . I f h e a t t e m p t s to c o v e r up his m o r a l failings, he is in d a n g e r of b e i n g e x p o s e d by t h e a u d i e n c e a n d is liable to i n c u r a p u n i t i v e intensification of his illness. A s D r B u t t r e c o r d s , ' I n t o x i c a t e d b y t o b a c c o , t h e r h y t h m o f t h e s w i s h i n g leaves ( u s e d t o i n d u c e t r a n c e ) , a n d his o w n physical a n d m e n t a l exertions, the s h a m a n m u s t perceive d u r i n g his state of dissociation a p i c t u r e of t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h m a y h a v e c r e a t e d the c o n d i t i o n of t h e p a t i e n t . A n u m b e r of possible causes e m e r g e as r e l e v a n t d u r i n g his i n q u i r i e s so t h a t his p r o b l e m is to recognize the t r u e c a u s e , t h e g e n e r a t o r of sickness. H e r e t h e inspiration of the trance m u s t assist his k n o w l e d g e . L a t e r , if t h e p a t i e n t starts to r e c o v e r it is o b v i o u s t h a t t h e s h a m a n a n d his spirit aids h a v e i n d e e d d i a g n o s e d c o r r e c t l y a n d f o u n d t h e m e a n s o f o v e r c o m i n g t h e e n e m y : i f t h e patient c o n t i n u e s to be ill t h e n a n o t h e r seance m u s t be held a n d an even deeper investigation into ultimate causation must be conducted.' T h u s i n this u n c e n t r a l i z e d society o f small local g r o u p s which h a v e no o t h e r c o u r t s , t h e s e a n c e is a m o s t i m p o r t a n t m e c h a n i s m for ventil a t i n g a n d b r i n g i n g t o a conclusion s m o u l d e r i n g q u a r r e l s a n d enmities. W h e n t h e s h a m a n i s called i n , s o u r c e s o f strife a r e a l r e a d y p r e s e n t a n d i t o n l y r e q u i r e s t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s o f t h e spirits w h i c h speak t h r o u g h h i m to bring matters to a climax. H e r e the ready participation of t h e a u d i e n c e , r e p r e s e n t i n g p u b l i c o p i n i o n , is a crucial e l e m e n t . F o r all t h o s e p r e s e n t c a n listen a n d p a r t i c i p a t e . T h u s , gossip a n d scandal m a y be confirmed or denied; actions can be explained and j u s t i f i e d ; confessions c a n b e forced o r r e t r a c t e d . N o r , i n this
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compelling social d r a m a , do the spirits m i n c e their w o r d s . T h e y eagerly deliver pious homilies o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f correct c o n d u c t , d e n o u n c ing m o r a l failings, c o n d e m n i n g t r a n s g r e s s i o n s , a n d generally r e d u c i n g their v i c t i m s to a c q u i e s c e n t c o n t r i t i o n by a skilful c o m b i n a t i o n of suggestive p r o b e s , s a t i r e , a n d s a r c a s m w h i c h m i g h t d o c r e d i t t o t h e techniques of corrective interrogation employed by the R e d G u a r d s in the Chinese Peoples' Republic. In this c r o s s - q u e s t i o n i n g , in w h i c h no h o l d s a r e b a r r e d , a g o o d seance p r o v i d e s a n occasion for b r i n g i n g i n t o t h e o p e n all t h e h i d d e n t r o u b l e s a n d p r o b l e m s o f t h e local c o m m u n i t y . P e t t y d i s p u t e s a n d offences a r e b r o u g h t t o light a n d p o n d e r e d , a s well a s m a j o r d i s r u p tive issues. T h u s t h e p a t h t o w a r d s s e t t l e m e n t i s o p e n e d , a n d a m e a n s found t o restore h a r m o n i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d t o r e a s s e r t g e n e r a l a m i t y . Finally, j u d g e m e n t is delivered by t h e spirits t h r o u g h t h e m o u t h o f t h e s h a m a n , w h o voices t h e c o n s e n s u s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . Notwithstanding the heavy emphasis which is placed u p o n i m m o r a l i t y a s t h e c a u s e o f sickness, t h e r e a r e , o f c o u r s e n e c e s s a r i l y o t h e r escape clauses w h i c h a c c o u n t for diseases w h e r e t h e p a t i e n t is generally c o n s i d e r e d t o b e guiltless. I n m u c h t h e s a m e fashion a s a m o n g s t the T u n g u s , w h e n misfortunes a r e n o t satisfactorily e x p l a i n e d in terms of moral m i s d e m e a n o u r s , their causes are sought outside the c o m m u n i t y . T h e A k a w a i o of each river a r e a believe that s o m e , at least, of their ills a r e to be t r a c e d to t h e m a l e v o l e n c e of o t h e r g r o u p s . S u c h e x t e r n a l e n e m i e s , for r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n different s e t t l e m e n t s a r e often hostile, a r e t h o u g h t t o act a s w i t c h e s s e n d i n g b a d spirits a n d sickness against t h e i r a d v e r s a r i e s . I n this c o n t e x t , t h e s h a m a n o f e a c h g r o u p i s seen a s t h e p r i m a r y a g e n t . A s i n t h e T u n g u s c l a n , h e d e f e n d s his o w n people a g a i n s t a t t a c k b y rival s h a m a n s from o t h e r r e g i o n s , a n d , w h e n t h e y strike, retaliates i n k i n d . C o m p e t i t i o n i s e n d e m i c b e t w e e n s h a m a n s w h o symbolize t h e particularistic loyalties o f t h e i r c o m m u n i ties. A favourite a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y u n p l e a s a n t trick e m p l o y e d is for o n e s h a m a n to cause his o p p o n e n t ' s spirit l a d d e r to collapse while its o w n e r is h o l d i n g a s e a n c e . T h e h a p l e s s s h a m a n ' s spirit is t h e n t r a p p e d aloft a n d d e p r i v e d of t h e m e a n s of r e t u r n i n g to his b o d y . S u c h soul a b s e n c e , i f p r o l o n g e d , p r o d u c e s illness a n d m a y e v e n t u a l l y lead t o t h e d e a t h of t h e u n f o r t u n a t e v i c t i m .
IV I n t h e e x a m p l e s w h i c h w e h a v e s o far c o n s i d e r e d t h e r e i s s o m e
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v a r i a t i o n i n t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e m y s t i c a l p o w e r s involved are explicitly e n d o w e d w i t h m o r a l a t t r i b u t e s . B u t t h e r e is little difference in t h e w a y in w h i c h , in practice, the spirits c o n c e r n e d intervene in h u m a n affairs so as to d i r e c t l y s a n c t i o n p u b l i c m o r a l i t y . U n i f o r m l y , they act in s u c h a w a y a s t o m a i n t a i n a n d s a f e g u a r d social h a r m o n y . O n t h e one h a n d , t h e y c h a s t i s e t h o s e w h o infringe t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s ' rights; a n d o n t h e o t h e r , t h e y inspire s h a m a n s t o act a s trouble-shooters a n d law-givers i n c o m m u n i t y r e l a t i o n s . H e r e t h e m o r a l c o d e o v e r w h i c h these spirits so resolutely stand g u a r d concerns the relations between m a n and m a n . W e c o m e n o w t o o u r f i n a l t y p e o f c e n t r a l possession religion w h e r e , a l t h o u g h the spirits involved a r e ostensibly dedicated to other aims, m u c h t h e s a m e effect is u l t i m a t e l y a c h i e v e d in a m o r e r o u n d a b o u t w a y . H e r e we shall take t h e E s k i m o s as o u r e x a m p l e . Like t h e A k a w a i o , the Eskimos live i n s m a l l , loosely s t r u c t u r e d c o m m u n i t i e s w h e r e , a l t h o u g h informal p o s i t i o n s of l e a d e r s h i p exist, t h e r e a r e no clearly defined political offices. I n t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e s h a m a n o n c e m o r e a s s u m e s t h e centre o f the stage as t h e p u b l i c d i a g n o s t i c i a n a n d c u r e r of afflictions w h i c h a r e attrib u t e d t o t h e spirits a n d w h i c h h a v e t o b e confessed before t h e y c a n b e e x p i a t e d . A g a i n , all this takes place w i t h i n a cosmological system w h e r e lofty n a t u r e spirits p l a y a far m o r e significant role t h a n t h e a n c e s t o r s . W h e r e a s , h o w e v e r , a m o n g t h e A k a w a i o , illness a n d m i s f o r t u n e a r e seen a s d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t e n s i o n s a n d d i s h a r m o n i e s i n h u m a n society, h e r e t h e y a r e viewed as t h e result of contraventions of the code of relations b e t w e e n m e n a n d n a t u r e . A m o n g s t t h e E s k i m o , i t i s offences against n a t u r a l forces, r a t h e r t h a n a g a i n s t o n e ' s fellow m e n , w h i c h lead t o distress a n d r e q u i r e s h a m a n i s t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n if t h e y a r e to be alleviated. T h e following q u o t a t i o n from a n E s k i m o r e c o r d e d b y R a s m u s s e n ( R a s m u s s e n , 1929, p. 56), could well serve as t h e m o t t o for their traditional religion a n d ethos: W e fear t h e W e a t h e r S p i r i t o f e a r t h , t h a t w e m u s t f i g h t against t o w r e s t o u r food from l a n d a n d sea. W e fear Sila (the W e a t h e r S p i r i t ) . W e fear d e a t h a n d h u n g e r i n t h e cold snow h u t s . W e fear T a k a n a k a p s a l u k , t h e G r e a t W o m a n d o w n a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e sea t h a t r u l e s o v e r all t h e b e a s t s o f t h e sea. W e fear t h e sickness t h a t w e m e e t w i t h d a i l y a r o u n d u s ; n o t d e a t h , b u t t h e suffering. We fear t h e evil spirits of life; those of t h e a i r , o f t h e sea, a n d o f t h e e a r t h t h a t c a n h e l p wicked s h a m a n s t o h a r m t h e i r fellow m e n . W e fear t h e souls o f d e a d h u m a n b e i n g s a n d o f t h e a n i m a l s w e h a v e killed.
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T h e final p h r a s e of this baleful catalogue t o u c h e s on the most crucial t h e m e of all for an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of E s k i m o c o n c e p t i o n s of sin a n d taboo. For, as R a s m u s s e n ' s informant continues: t h e greatest peril of life lies in t h e fact t h a t h u m a n food consists e n t i r e l y of souls. All t h e c r e a t u r e s w h i c h we h a v e to kill a n d e a t , all those t h a t w e h a v e t o strike d o w n a n d d e s t r o y t o m a k e clothes for o u r s e l v e s , h a v e s o u l s , a s w e h a v e , souls t h a t d o n o t perish with the body a n d which therefore m u s t be propitiated lest t h e y r e v e n g e t h e m s e l v e s o n u s for t a k i n g a w a y t h e i r b o d i e s . T h i s i s t h e basic a s s u m p t i o n , s t r o n g l y affecting t h e w a y i n w h i c h the E s k i m o s seek t o control a n d utilize t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t , u p o n w h i c h their e x t r e m e l y e l a b o r a t e c o d e o f p r a c t i c e r e g u l a t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s between m a n a n d n a t u r e is built. As long as these rules a r e meticulously followed, g a m e a n i m a l s allow t h e m s e l v e s t o b e killed w i t h o u t e n d a n g e r i n g m a n . T h e intricate t a b o o system w h i c h this code e m b o d i e s turns on the principle that those animals a n d pursuits with which the Eskimos are concerned in the winter m o n t h s m u s t not be b r o u g h t into direct c o n t a c t o r m i x e d w i t h t h o s e o f t h e s u m m e r s e a s o n . T h u s t h e p r o d u c e o f t h e sea, a n d o f t h e l a n d , m u s t b e k e p t s e p a r a t e a n d n o t b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r u n l e s s special p r e c a u t i o n s a r e t a k e n . Seals ( w i n t e r g a m e ) a n d e v e r y t h i n g p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e m m u s t b e i n s u l a t e d from all c o n t a c t o r association w i t h c a r i b o u ( s u m m e r g a m e ) . I t i s r o u n d this seasonal axis of different p a t t e r n s of h u n t i n g a n d fishing t h a t t h e w h o l e structure of the taboo system revolves. Infringements which are c o n s t r u e d a s sins r e s u l t i n g i n illness a n d affliction a n d e n d a n g e r i n g the success of t h e food q u e s t o c c u r w h e n e v e r a n y of t h e s e r u l e s a r e b r o k e n . Significantly, t h e m o s t h e i n o u s offence t h a t m e n c a n c o m m i t is the m a c a b r e one of engaging in sexual intercourse with a n i m a l s , especially c a r i b o u o r seals w h i c h t h e y h a v e j u s t killed, o r w i t h t h e i r dogs. B u t it is a b o v e all w o m e n whose lives a r e especially t a b o o - r i d d e n , w h o a r e t h e c o m m o n e s t offenders a n d s o u r c e s o f d a n g e r . T h e s e mystical g a m e laws a r e all t h e m o r e significant a n d b i n d i n g i n t h a t their t r a n s g r e s s i o n n o r m a l l y affects n o t m e r e l y t h e i n d i v i d u a l culprit b u t also his n e i g h b o u r s a n d kin i n t h e c a m p . S i n s , i n d e e d , a r e c o m m o n l y t h o u g h t t o e n v e l o p t h e guilty p e r s o n i n a n e v i l - s m e l l i n g m i a s m a w h i c h a t t r a c t s f u r t h e r ills a n d m i s f o r t u n e a n d j u s t a s surely repels g a m e . Sinfulness h a s t h u s a n a l m o s t t a n g i b l e q u a l i t y , a n d t h e s i n n e r is a direct d a n g e r to his fellows. T h i s b a n e f u l s t a t e is r e m e d i e d
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b y t h e confession o f t a b o o v i o l a t i o n s a n d t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a p p r o p r i a t e r e d e m p t i v e offerings a n d p e n a n c e s . C o n c e a l m e n t o f m i s d e e d s o n l y c o m p o u n d s t h e injury a n d i n c r e a s e s t h e risk o f further suffering. A s a m o n g t h e A k a w a i o a n d i n s o m a n y o t h e r cases w e h a v e e x a m i n e d , s u c h offences a r e e x p l o r e d a n d dealt w i t h b y m e a n s o f t h e seance conducted by the s h a m a n . W i t h o u t their s h a m a n s , who thus t r e a t t h e sick, s e c u r e f a v o u r a b l e w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , a n d forecast w e a t h e r c h a n g e s a n d success i n t h e c h a s e , t h e E s k i m o s w o u l d , a s t h e y t h e m s e l v e s a d m i t , b e i m p o t e n t before t h e m u l t i t u d e o f d a n g e r s a n d hostile forces w h i c h c o n f r o n t t h e m a t e v e r y side. W h e t h e r m i s f o r t u n e is caused by the Sea Spirit, the weather powers, or the dead, ordinary h u m a n b e i n g s a r e powerless. O n l y s h a m a n s c a n successfully intervene. W h a t e v e r t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e s e a n c e , t h e p r o c e d u r e followed b y t h e s h a m a n c o n f o r m s t o a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n . I n t r a n c e , a n d possessed b y his h e l p i n g spirits w h o s p e a k t h r o u g h h i s m o u t h , often while his o w n soul-spirit is voyaging to the u p p e r world or to the u n d e r world, the s h a m a n relentlessly p r o b e s i n t o t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e guilty p a r t y i n his s e a r c h for b r e a c h e s of t a b o o w h i c h will a c c o u n t for t h e c a l a m i t y which he is called u p o n to r e m e d y . Following his mystical ' t r i p s ' , the s h a m a n a n n o u n c e s to the receptive audience that he has 'something to say', a n d r e c e i v e s t h e e a g e r r e s p o n s e : ' L e t u s h e a r , let u s h e a r ! ' All those p r e s e n t a r e n o w u n d e r s t r o n g p r e s s u r e t o confess a n y t a b o o violations w h i c h t h e y m a y h a v e c o m m i t t e d . S o m e offences a r e readily acknowledged; others are only reluctantly divulged as the s h a m a n i n s i s t e n t l y p r e s s e s his a u d i e n c e t o r e v e a l t h e i r m i s d e e d s . T h e s e a n c e g r o u p , a n d especially w o m e n w h o s e t a b o o infractions h a v e g e n e r a l l y m o r e s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s , d e s p e r a t e l y search their c o n s c i e n c e s a n d d e n o u n c e t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s i n t h e c o n c e r t e d q u e s t for t h e u n c o v e r i n g of sins w h i c h will a c c o u n t for t h e i r p r e s e n t distress. W o m e n n a m e d b y o t h e r s a r e led guiltily f o r w a r d , s h a m e f a c e d a n d w e e p i n g , a n d u r g e d t o r e p e n t a n c e b y t h e s h a m a n ' s o w n cries o f selfr e p r o a c h : I seek a n d I strike w h e r e n o t h i n g is to be found! I seek a n d I s t r i k e w h e r e n o t h i n g is to be f o u n d ! If t h e r e is a n y t h i n g , you m u s t say s o ! ' U n d e r this b a r r a g e of e x h o r t a t i o n s , a w o m a n will confess s o m e m i s d e e d . F o r e x a m p l e , she h a d a m i s c a r r i a g e b u t , living in a h o u s e c o n t a i n i n g m a n y o t h e r p e o p l e , c o n c e a l e d t h e fact b e c a u s e she w a s afraid o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s . H e r d i s s e m b l i n g , t h o u g h c o n d e m n e d , i s r e a d i l y u n d e r s t o o d , for h a d she r e v e a l e d h e r c o n d i t i o n c u s t o m w o u l d h a v e o b l i g e d h e r t o h a v e t h r o w n a w a y all t h e soft skins i n h e r igloo, i n c l u d i n g t h e h u t ' s c o m p l e t e i n t e r n a l skin l i n i n g . S u c h i s t h e
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inconvenience of the ritual purification required that the t e m p t a t i o n to c o n c e a l a m i s c a r r i a g e is e v i d e n t l y v e r y s t r o n g . H o w e v e r , in t h e s e a n c e , forgotten o m i s s i o n s o f this sort a r e forced i n t o t h e o p e n a s t h e confessional rite p r o c e e d s o n its c a t h a r t i c c o u r s e , c l e a n s i n g t h e c o m m u n i t y o f guilt u n d e r t h e e n t h u s i a s t i c d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s h a m a n . O n c e a sufficient n u m b e r of sins, no m a t t e r h o w a p p a r e n t l y esoteric or venial, h a v e b e e n confessed, a n d t h e s h a m a n h a s p r e s c r i b e d t h e n e c e s s a r y p e n a n c e s , h e c a n a s s u r e his a u d i e n c e t h a t t h e spirits h a v e b e e n a p p e a s e d a n d t h a t t h e r e will b e n o lack o f g a m e o n t h e m o r r o w . In t h e t r e a t m e n t of t h e sick at p u b l i c s h a m a n i s t i c s e a n c e s of this kind it is generally t h e p a t i e n t w h o is t h u s ceaselessly h a r a n g u e d . T h e following e x t r a c t s from a case r e c o r d e d by R a s m u s s e n ( R a s m u s s e n , 1929, p p . 133ff) c o n c e r n i n g a sick w o m a n , i n d i c a t e t h e g e n e r a l t e n o r o f t h e p r o c e e d i n g s . T h e s h a m a n b e g i n s his d i a g n o s i s : I ask y o u m y h e l p i n g spirit w h e n c e c o m e s this illness from w h i c h this p e r s o n is suffering? Is it d u e to s o m e t h i n g I h a v e e a t e n in defiance of t a b o o , lately o r l o n g since? O r i s i t d u e t o m y wife? O r i s i t b r o u g h t a b o u t by t h e sick w o m a n herself? Is she herself t h e c a u s e of t h e d i s e a s e ? ' T h e p a t i e n t r e s p o n d s : ' T h e sickness i s d u e t o m y o w n fault. I h a v e ill fulfilled m y duties. M y t h o u g h t s h a v e b e e n b a d a n d m y actions evil.' S h a m a n : ' I t looks like peat a n d yet it is n o t really p e a t . It is t h a t w h i c h is b e h i n d t h e e a r , s o m e t h i n g w h i c h looks like t h e c a r t i l a g e of t h e e a r . T h e r e is s o m e t h i n g t h a t g l e a m s w h i t e . It is t h e e d g e of a p i p e , or w h a t can it b e ? ' T h e a u d i e n c e , i m p a t i e n t t o get t o t h e root o f t h e m a t t e r , n o w j o i n in: ' S h e h a s s m o k e d a p i p e t h a t she o u g h t n o t t o h a v e s m o k e d . B u t n e v e r m i n d . W e will n o t t a k e a n y n o t i c e o f t h a t . L e t h e r b e f o r g i v e n . ' S h a m a n : ' T h a t i s not all. T h e r e a r e o t h e r offences which h a v e b r o u g h t about this disease. Is it d u e to m e , or to the sick p e r s o n herself?' P a t i e n t : 'It i s d u e t o myself a l o n e . T h e r e w a s s o m e t h i n g t h e m a t t e r w i t h m y a b d o m e n , with m y i n s i d e . ' S h a m a n : ' S h e h a s split a m e a t b o n e w h i c h she o u g h t n o t t o h a v e t o u c h e d . ' A u d i e n c e , m a g n a n i m o u s l y : ' L e t h e r b e released from h e r offence.' S h a m a n , w h o i s far from c o n c l u d i n g his forensic analysis: ' S h e is not released from h e r evil. It is d a n g e r o u s . It is a m a t t e r for a n x i e t y . H e l p i n g spirit say w h a t it is t h a t p l a g u e s h e r . ' A n d so the seance c o n t i n u e s , often for h o u r s at a stretch, as t r a n s gression after t r a n s g r e s s i o n is r e v e a l e d by t h e afflicted p a t i e n t . S u c h t r e a t m e n t is also f r e q u e n t l y r e p e a t e d in f u r t h e r s e a n c e s h e l d at m o r n i n g , n o o n a n d n i g h t , u n t i l , after r e p e a t e d a d m i s s i o n s o f guilt, the s h a m a n i s satisfied t h a t t h e p a t i e n t i s t h o r o u g h l y p u r g e d a n d
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j u d g e s t h a t r e c o v e r y will follow n o w t h a t s o m u c h h a s b e e n confessed to 'take the sting out of the illness'. W i t h so e l a b o r a t e a constellation of m i n u t e l y detailed proscriptions, w h i c h affects all a s p e c t s of d a i l y living a n d w h i c h , if neglected, causes the p o w e r s of n a t u r e to visit m a n with affliction or w i t h d r a w his supply o f g a m e , i t m i g h t b e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e r e c o u l d scarcely b e a n y E s k i m o g r o u p a t a n y t i m e w i t h o u t s o m e o n e a m o n g s t its m e m b e r s w h o w o u l d h a v e c o m m i t t e d a n offence. Yet t h e r e a r e e v i d e n t l y those whose c o n d u c t is in all r e s p e c t s i m p e c c a b l e . F o r in a d d i t i o n to this alle m b r a c i n g t h e o r y o f m e r i t e d m i s f o r t u n e , t h e E s k i m o s h e d g e their bets b y r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t t h e r e also exist mystical forces w h i c h c a n p r o d u c e u n d e s e r v e d disaster. D e a t h , a n d o t h e r less irreversible calamities, m a y b e d u e t o t h e m a l e v o l e n c e o f o t h e r living p e o p l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e w i t c h c r a f t o f evil s h a m a n s . T h e y m a y also b e c a u s e d b y c a p r i c i o u s m a l i g n spirits w h i c h act w i t h o u t reference t o c o n t r a v e n t i o n s o f w h a t R a s m u s s e n calls ' t h e r u l e s o f life'. S u c h t e r r o r s a r e a g a i n dealt with b y s h a m a n s w h o , a t e v e r y m i s f o r t u n e , a r e called u p o n t o i n t e r v e n e t o s a v e m a n from t h e s p i r i t u a l t y r a n n y w h i c h h e h a s fashioned for h i m s e l f a n d s u p e r i m p o s e d u p o n t h e c r u e l a n d h a z a r d o u s physical e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h h e lives. W i t h t h e aid o f h i s h e l p i n g spirits, t h e s h a m a n e n t r e a t s , cajoles, threatens, a n d even does battle, in the most dramatically charged s e a n c e s , w i t h t h e s e c o n s t a n t l y m e n a c i n g p o w e r s w h i c h h e alone h a s t h e skill t o i n f l u e n c e a n d c o n t r o l . H i s u n i q u e i n t i m a c y with these p o w e r s i s s u c h t h a t o n s o m e o c c a s i o n s h e s e n d s his o w n spirit s o a r i n g aloft t o visit t h e ' P e o p l e o f D a y ' for s h e e r j o y . S u c h s e a n c e s , which a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h e l d t o r e m e d y a n y specific affliction, a r e thrilling d r a m a t i c p e r f o r m a n c e s w h e n t h e s h a m a n indulges i n those well-known, H o u d i n i - s t y l e ' t r i c k s ' w h i c h h a v e led superficial observers to d e n o u n c e t h e s e skilled E s k i m o r e l i g i o u s e x p e r t s a s m e r e c h a r l a t a n s . T h e s e performances are certainly partly aimed at demonstrating t h e efficacy of a p a r t i c u l a r s h a m a n ' s p o w e r s a n d at e n h a n c i n g his r e p u t a t i o n , a n d a r e t h u s e x a m p l e s o f w h a t V o l t a i r e , i n his ironical w a y , liked to call ' p r i e s t - c r a f t ' . Yet t h e y a r e also p o i g n a n t religious o c c a s i o n s . T h e y r e p r e s e n t j o y o u s rites o f c o m m u n i o n b e t w e e n t h e w o r l d o f m o r t a l m e n a n d those w h o h a v e d e p a r t e d t o the h a p p y h u n t i n g g r o u n d s i n t h e u p p e r w o r l d . H e r e , a g a i n , t h e s h a m a n ' s vital role a s t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n m a n a n d t h e w o r l d o f spiritual p o w e r which s u r r o u n d s a n d t h r e a t e n s t o e n g u l f h i m , i s d r a m a t i c a l l y affirmed. A l s o , as w i t h t h e A k a w a i o , it is e v i d e n t t h a t t h r o u g h his direction
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of the seance confessional, t h e s h a m a n exercises political a n d legal functions i n his m a n i p u l a t i o n o f h u m a n crises. A l t h o u g h e a c h i n d i v i d u a l is h e l d p e r s o n a l l y a c c o u n t a b l e for o b s e r v i n g t h e strict c o d e w h i c h regulates t h e relations b e t w e e n n a t u r e a n d m a n , b r e a c h e s o f these rules e n d a n g e r o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y a s well a s t h e m i s c r e a n t himself. It is in this i n d i r e c t fashion t h a t t h e s h a m a n i s t i c religion a c q u i r e s m o r a l significance i n t h e life o f E s k i m o c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e seance fulfils t h e functions of a p u b l i c c o u r t , i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e c a u s e s o f affliction a p p o r t i o n i n g b l a m e , a n d p u r g i n g t h e affected g r o u p t h r o u g h fervid confessions of guilt. It is, after all, t h e s e a n c e a u d i e n c e which d e n o u n c e s those i t c o n s i d e r s c u l p a b l e , a n d j u d g e s t h e e x t e n t a n d severity of t h e i r s h o r t c o m i n g s . It is m o r e o v e r in t e r m s of h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e m o o d o f this p u b l i c confessional t h a t t h e s h a m a n decides, t h r o u g h t h e vehicle of his spirits, t h a t sufficient guilt h a s b e e n d i s c h a r g e d t o alleviate t h e m i s f o r t u n e w h i c h h e i s c h a r g e d t o r e m e d y . H e t o o h a s t h e responsibility o f d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r specific afflictions a r e to be e x p l a i n e d in t e r m s of sins c o m m i t t e d by a m e m b e r of the g r o u p , o r t h r o u g h o t h e r m a l e v o l e n t p o w e r s w h i c h a r e totally indifferent to t h e ' r u l e s of life'. T h u s although the older ethnographic sources on which we d e p e n d for o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of E s k i m o society do n o t clearly show t h a t social disturbances lie at the root of spiritual i n t e r v e n t i o n , as t h e y do a m o n g s t the A k a w a i o , we c a n at least see t h a t , to a significant e x t e n t , t h e seance h e r e w a s also a m e c h a n i s m of social c o n t r o l (cf. Balikci, 1 9 6 3 , p p . 3 8 0 - 9 6 ) . Its i m p o r t a n c e i n this respect w a s , m o r e o v e r , all t h e g r e a t e r , because of the paucity a m o n g the Eskimos of other institutions with parallel functions n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e h e r e of t h e f a m o u s song-duels. We should note, however, that in as m u c h as the mystical p o w e r s i n v o l v e d a r e n o t directly e n d o w e d w i t h m o r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a n d a r e e m p l o y e d t o m a n i p u l a t e h u m a n crises, E s k i m o s h a m a n i s m is, from c e r t a i n p o i n t s o f v i e w , a n a l o g o u s t o t h e p e r i p h e r a l c u l t s w e h a v e discussed e l s e w h e r e . T h e difference lies less i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e spirits t h a n in t h e fact t h a t h e r e a w h o l e society is i n v o l v e d , a n d n o t s i m p l y o n e , p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s a d v a n t a g e d , s u b o r d i n a t e sector. If t h e n , as it s e e m s we s h o u l d , we t r e a t this religion as a special form of c e n t r a l m o r a l i t y (cf. S o n n e , 1982), we h a v e still to c o n s i d e r the s e x u a l i d e n t i t y o f E s k i m o s h a m a n s . H e r e w e h a v e t o a c k n o w l e d g e that t h e classical a c c o u n t s for t h e E s k i m o s (as well as for t h e C h u k c h e e a n d o t h e r S i b e r i a n peoples) clearly i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s h a m a n ' s v o c a tion w a s n o t r e s t r i c t e d solely t o t h e d o m i n a n t sex. C z a p l i c k a
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( C z a p l i c k a , 1914; see also H a m a y o n , 1984), w h o s e synthesis of this S i b e r i a n m a t e r i a l r e p r e s e n t s t h e classic w o r k o n the subject, concludes t h a t , t r a d i t i o n a l l y , female s h a m a n s w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d with evil s p i r i t s of foreign o r i g i n . If this w a s in fact t h e case, it suggests t h a t w e a g a i n e n c o u n t e r h e r e t h e s a m e sexual division o f l a b o u r b e t w e e n m a i n a n d p e r i p h e r a l cults w h i c h w e h a v e f o u n d e l s e w h e r e . M o r e o v e r , a s C z a p l i c k a e m p h a s i z e s , m o s t o f t h e p r i m a r y sources o n Siberian s h a m a n i s m agree that the period at the t u r n of the century w a s m a r k e d b y a n u p s u r g e o f female s h a m a n s . S i n c e this w a s also a t i m e o f g r e a t social u p h e a v a l , w h e n t h e i m p a c t o f e x t e r n a l influences a n d o f C h r i s t i a n i t y w a s a t its h e i g h t , ( B o g o r a s , 1907, p . 4 1 4 r e c o r d s t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f ' g r o u p ' b y ' i n d i v i d u a l ' s h a m a n i s m a t this t i m e ) , we c a n p e r h a p s infer a t e n d e n c y for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l cult to be relegated to a s e c o n d a r y p o s i t i o n w h e r e it c o u l d be t a k e n up a p p r o p r i a t e l y by w o m e n . T h i s a t least s e e m s a p l a u s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d o n e that is consistent with the pattern elsewhere.
V T h i s c o n c l u d e s o u r d e t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f possession i n c e n t r a l m o r a l i t y religions. O u r e x a m p l e s c a n n o t p r e t e n d t o b e exhaustive. But t h e y a r e , I t h i n k , sufficiently r e p r e s e n t a t i v e for us to be able to g e n e r a l i z e from t h e m w i t h s o m e c o n f i d e n c e . L e t u s b e g i n b y n o t i n g p o i n t s o f difference a n d o f r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n these c e n t r a l religions a n d p e r i p h e r a l cults. First, differences. I n p e r i p h e r a l c u l t s , o r i n s e p a r a t i s t religious m o v e m e n t s (whose a m b i g u o u s character as an intermediary category we have already n o t e d ) , p o s s e s s i o n , i n t e r p r e t e d as a religious e x p e r i e n c e , i n d e e d as a b e n e d i c t i o n , is o p e n to all the p a r t i c i p a n t s . In central morality religions, h o w e v e r , i n s p i r a t i o n a l possession h a s a m u c h m o r e limited c u r r e n c y . It is in fact t h e h a l l m a r k of a religious elite, those c h o s e n by t h e gods a n d p e r s o n a l l y c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e m t o exercise d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y a m o n g m e n . S i n c e , m o r e o v e r , this i s t h e i d i o m i n w h i c h m e n c o m p e t e for p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y , t h e r e a r e always m o r e a s p i r a n t s t h a n positions to fill. In this c o m p e t i t i v e s i t u a t i o n w h e r e a u t h e n t i c e n t h u s i a s m is a scarce c o m m o d i t y , a n d w h e r e m a n y feel t h e m s e l v e s called b u t few a r e a c t u a l l y c h o s e n , it is o b v i o u s l y essential to be a b l e to d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n g e n u i n e a n d s p u r i o u s i n s p i r a t i o n . I t i s also n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e a foolproof m e a n s of d i s c r e d i t i n g those e s t a b l i s h e d s h a m a n s w h o a r e considered to abuse their power, or w h o show u n d u e reluctance in
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m a k i n g w a y for y o u n g e r , u p - a n d - c o m i n g a s p i r a n t s w h o enjoy a w i d e r m e a s u r e of p u b l i c s u p p o r t . Both these r e q u i r e m e n t s will b e satisfied w h e r e t w o a l t e r n a t i v e a n d m u t u a l l y i n c o m p a t i b l e t h e o r i e s o f possession exist. T h u s , i f t h e s a m e ostensible s y m p t o m s , o r b e h a v i o u r , c a n b e s e e n , e i t h e r a s a n i n t i m a tion of d i v i n e election, or as a d a n g e r o u s i n t r u s i o n of d e m o n i c p o w e r , this will p r o v i d e an a d e q u a t e basis for a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e claims of s o m e a s p i r a n t s while rejecting t h o s e of o t h e r s . S u c h d i s t i n c t i o n s will afford a reliable m e a n s for c o n t r o l l i n g access to l e g i t i m a t e s h a m a n i s t i c p o w e r . N o w , let us look a g a i n at o u r e m p i r i c a l findings in t h e light of these considerations. In earlier c h a p t e r s , we h a v e seen t h a t p e r i p h e r a l possession cults very often exist in societies w h e r e i n s p i r a t i o n a l possession plays n o p a r t i n t h e c e n t r a l r e l i g i o n . T h e c o n v e r s e , h o w e v e r , i s n o t necessarily t r u e . C e n t r a l possession religions m a y o c c u r a l o n e , o r t h e y m a y b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y p e r i p h e r a l possession c u l t s . L e t u s d e a l f i r s t with t h e f o r m e r possibility, w h e r e no s u b s i d i a r y possession cult is found. A s w e h a v e seen a m o n g s t t h e A k a w a i o ( a n d t o s o m e e x t e n t also, a p p a r e n t l y , i n t h e p r e - c o l o n i a l s i t u a t i o n o f t h e E s k i m o a n d T u n g u s ) , in such c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e p o w e r s of the cosmos a r e n o t neatly a r r a y e d i n two o p p o s i n g r a n k s , t h e o n e beneficent a n d c o m p a s s i o n a t e , the o t h e r malevolent a n d t h r e a t e n i n g . O n the c o n t r a r y , all t h e mystical forces w h i c h m a n a c k n o w l e d g e s a r e felt t o b e e q u a l l y a m b i v a l e n t i n c h a r a c t e r . T h e y c a n d o g o o d , b u t t h e y c a n also d o g r e a t h a r m . H e r e t h e crucial distinction b e t w e e n w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a u t h e n t i c s h a m a n i s t i c ecstasy, a n d w h a t i s m e r e l y a n u n d e s i r a b l e spirit i n t r u s i o n , u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n d s u p o n t h e ability of t h e v i c t i m to ' m a s t e r ' his affliction in a culturally a p p r o p r i a t e fashion. At t h e s a m e t i m e , those cases of possession w h i c h a r e n o t seen a s signs o f g e n u i n e i l l u m i n a t i o n a r e d i s m i s s e d a s illnesses c a u s e d b y t h e m y s t i c a l m a l e v o l e n c e o f s h a m a n s b e l o n g i n g to other groups. H e r e those spirits w h i c h p r o t e c t o n e ' s o w n c o m m u n i t y a r e t h e source o f sickness e l s e w h e r e , a n d j u s t a s t h e y a r e c o n t r o l l e d i n t e r n a l l y by the s h a m a n , so they are controlled externally in the same way. According to the moral condition of the victim, such externally caused spirit afflictions c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d e i t h e r as justified p u n i s h m e n t s for ills c o m m i t t e d , o r a s u n m e r i t e d m i s f o r t u n e s . T h u s , i n t h e s e relatively m o n o l i t h i c religions, t h e e x i s t i n g e n m i t i e s b e t w e e n rival local communities, when projected on to the spiritual plane, provide the m e a n s b y which t r u e i n s p i r a t i o n c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h o s e o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h a r e s o r e a d i l y c o n f o u n d e d w i t h it.
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N o w let u s e x a m i n e t h e s e c o n d possibility, w h e r e , a s s o often h a p p e n s , c e n t r a l a n d p e r i p h e r a l possession cults exist alongside each o t h e r . I n s u c h d u a l i s t i c c o s m o l o g i e s possession afflictions a r e always o p e n t o t w o , similarly conflicting i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . W h e r e t h e subject b e l o n g s t o t h e s t r a t u m o f society from w h i c h e s t a b l i s h m e n t s h a m a n s a r e d r a w n , his initial possession e x p e r i e n c e (the ' p r i m a r y p h a s e ' ) m a y be s e e n , e i t h e r as a valid i n d i c a t i o n of d i v i n e a p p r o v a l , or as a hostile i n t r u s i o n by a m a l e v o l e n t p e r i p h e r a l spirit. T h e r e is no difference at all in t h e s y m p t o m s , at least initially. W h a t differs is t h e diagnosis; a n d t h i s , o f c o u r s e , u l t i m a t e l y reflects p u b l i c o p i n i o n . I f t h e a s p i r i n g s h a m a n enjoys a w i d e m e a s u r e of local s u p p o r t , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d i a g n o s i s is m a d e , a n d , b a r r i n g a c c i d e n t s , his c a r e e r is a s s u r e d . If, h o w e v e r , t h i s is n o t t h e c a s e , t h e n t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y of his e x p e r i e n c e is d e n i e d by a t t r i b u t i n g it to an evil spirit, a n d e x o r c i s m is p r e s c r i b e d as the appropriate treatment. H e r e , o b v i o u s l y , t h e first i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e n d o r s e s t h e subject's e x p e r i e n c e as a u t h e n t i c p o s s e s s i o n , while t h e s e c o n d s t i g m a t i z e s it as i n a u t h e n t i c . T h e s e t w o d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d a s s e s s m e n t s d o not p e r t a i n to different religious s y s t e m s (as t h e folk-view m i g h t s e e m to i m p l y ) , b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , a r e m u t u a l l y e n t a i l e d aspects of a single r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m i n w h i c h p e r i p h e r a l spirits r e p r e s e n t t h e sinister c o u n t e r p a r t s of those benign powers which sustain public morality. W h e r e precisely t h e s a m e s y m p t o m s o c c u r i n subjects d r a w n from lower social strata, t h e n , of c o u r s e , t h e second interpretation, involving p e r i p h e r a l spirits, is a g a i n selected. B u t , in this case, the e n s u i n g treatm e n t i s n o t s o m u c h d e s i g n e d t o expel t h e possessing a g e n c y a s t o d o m e s t i c a t e it, t h e r e b y e s t a b l i s h i n g a viable liaison b e t w e e n it a n d its h u m a n host. T h e s e t w o parallel c h a n n e l s o f spirit activity a r e linked t o g e t h e r i n a n a d d i t i o n a l a n d h i g h l y r e v e a l i n g m a n n e r . W h e n p e r i p h e r a l possession is d i a g n o s e d in m e n of s u b s t a n c e this is n o t t h e e n d of t h e m a t t e r . A l t h o u g h this d i a g n o s i s effectively disposes of t h e subject's pretensions t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a n a s p i r i n g s h a m a n , t h e m o r a l significance o f his p o s s e s s i o n affliction still r e m a i n s to be d e t e r m i n e d . If t h e subject is c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e s i n n e d , t h e n his c o m p l a i n t c a n b e seen a s a j u d g e m e n t , e x e c u t e d by a p e r i p h e r a l spirit, b u t d e t e r m i n e d by t h e gods of t h e c e n t r a l m o r a l i t y w h i c h h a v e w i t h d r a w n t h e i r p r o t e c t i v e influence. W h e n , h o w e v e r , t h e c o n s e n s u s o f o p i n i o n i s t h a t t h e victim i s m o r a l l y b l a m e l e s s , t h e n his c o n d i t i o n c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d as a m a l i c i o u s act of s p i r i t - i n s p i r e d witchcraft p e r p e t r a t e d by a low class s h a m a n .
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T h e s e i n t r i c a t e p a t t e r n s i n t h e a n a t o m y o f possession t h r o w i n t o relief t h e s h a r p division o f l a b o u r a n d o f m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e t w o types of ecstatic c u l t . B u t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m is n o t a b s o l u t e , as I h a v e r e p e a t e d l y e m p h a s i z e d , a n d t h e r e is n o t h i n g i m m u t a b l e in t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r cult as o n e r a t h e r than the other. S o m e central s h a m a n i s t i c religions a r e indeed very close to p e r i p h e r a l cults. If, for i n s t a n c e , E s k i m o religion s e e m s , in t h e w a y it w o r k s , to e n s h r i n e an implicit m o r a l i t y , it could also be a r g u e d t h a t , in effect, peripheral cults do the s a m e . F o r if t h e m a n i p u l a t e d establishm e n t r e s p o n d s t o t h e spirit-voiced a p p e a l s o f its s u b o r d i n a t e s , i n t h e final a n a l y s i s , it m a y do so b e c a u s e it r e c o g n i z e s , a l t h o u g h this is n o t m a d e explicit, t h a t these reflect n a t u r a l j u s t i c e . T h e r e m u s t b e s o m e d e e p - r o o t e d sense o f c o m m o n h u m a n i t y a n d m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n the sentiments which superiors feel t o w a r d s their subjects. If t h e r e w e r e not this u n d e r l y i n g sense of communitas, as V i c t o r T u r n e r calls it ( T u r n e r , 1969), t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t c o u l d t r e a t w i t h i m p u n i t y t h e s e oblique, b u t often very i m p o r t u n a t e d e m a n d s for respect a n d consideration. N o r , surely, i f t h e i r c o n s c i e n c e s w e r e c o m p l e t e l y c l e a r , w o u l d i t b e n e c e s s a r y for m e m b e r s o f t h e d o m i n a n t s t r a t a t o i n d u l g e i n t h e whole complicated business of k e e p i n g their inferiors at b a y by a c c u s i n g t h e m of witchcraft. H e n c e , e v e n if p e r i p h e r a l cults i n v o l v e frankly a m o r a l mystical forces, i n p r a c t i c e t h e y c a n n o t b e e n t i r e l y d i v o r c e d from m o r a l j u d g e m e n t . A g a i n , a s w e h a v e r e p e a t e d l y s e e n , historically t h e lines w h i c h s e p e r a t e the two types o f cult a r e n o t a b s o l u t e o r i n v i o l a b l e . C u l t s c a n c h a n g e t h e i r significance a n d s t a t u s o v e r t i m e . J u s t a s s o m a n y p e r i p h e r a l cults a r e d i s c a r d e d e s t a b l i s h e d religions w h i c h h a v e fallen from respectability a n d g r a c e , s o e q u a l l y t h o s e w h i c h b e g i n a s c l a n d e s t i n e c u r i n g rites o n t h e fringes o f society m a y evolve i n t o n e w m o r a l i t y religions. F r o m this perspective, a n d in a very simplified w a y , the h i s t o r y of religions c a n be seen to involve a cyclical p a t t e r n of changes in the status a n d inspirational quality of cults, with m o v e m e n t s from a n d to the centre of public m o r a l i t y a c c o r d i n g to t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d social settings a t different p o i n t s i n t i m e . S u d d e n o u t b u r s t s o f ecstatic effervescence m a y t h u s signal e i t h e r a d e c l i n e , or rise, in religious f o r t u n e s . Possession m a y e q u a l l y well r e p r e s e n t t h e kiss of life or of d e a t h in t h e historical d e v e l o p m e n t of r e l i g i o n s . A n d e v e n if t h e y w e r e e v e n t u a l l y c o - o p t e d by a c e n t r a l m a l e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , it s e e m s t h a t p e r i p h e r a l female ecstatics m a y often h a v e p i o n e e r e d n e w religions. W o m e n s e e m to h a v e p l a y e d a m a j o r if m u c h i g n o r e d , role
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in religious change a n d innovation. If, h o w e v e r , r e l i g i o n s w h i c h a r e in t h e process of d e g e n e r a t i n g into m a r g i n a l cults t e n d to a t t r a c t followers from t h e lower s t r a t a of society by p o s s e s s i o n , t h e r e is an e q u a l l y well-defined t e n d e n c y for successful i n s p i r a t i o n a l religions t o lose t h e i r ecstatic fervour a n d h a r d e n into ecclesiastical e s t a b l i s h m e n t s which claim a secure m o n o p o l y of doctrinal knowledge. As R o n a l d K n o x wryly r e m i n d s us: 'Always the first f e r v o u r s e v a p o r a t e ; p r o p h e c y dies o u t , a n d t h e c h a r i s m a t i c i s m e r g e d i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l ' ( K n o x , 1950, p . 1). W h e r e this h a r d e n i n g o f the s p i r i t u a l a r t e r i e s e n s u e s , religious a u t h o r i t y i s u l t i m a t e l y n o longer d e p e n d e n t for its v a l i d a t i o n u p o n possessional i n s p i r a t i o n , b u t u p o n r i t u a l a n d d o g m a . W h e r e , b e f o r e , m e n w e r e elected b y t h e gods t o h o l d p e r s o n a l c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m i s s i o n s , n o w these functions are exercised by a s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g p r i e s t h o o d , r e c r u i t e d by o t h e r m e a n s , a n d c l a i m i n g a d i v i n e e n t i t l e m e n t t o religious a u t h o r i t y . S u c h a s t r u c t u r e i m p l i e s t h e n o t i o n of a stable c a p i t a l of religious legitimacy which h a s b e e n m a d e o v e r b y t h e gods t o m a n t o administer. S u c h l e g i t i m a c y is a ' l i m i t e d g o o d ' , access to w h i c h o n e p e r s o n gains at a n o t h e r ' s e x p e n s e . If i n s p i r a t i o n figures at all, it r e p r e s e n t s little m o r e t h a n a n o d d i n g g e s t u r e b y t h e g o d s t h a t they c o n t i n u e t o end o r s e t h e priestly h i e r a r c h y ' s m a n a g e m e n t o f its spiritual e n d o w m e n t . T h i s f o r m o f r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n , officially i n c a r n a t i n g t h e deity, a n d typically s h r o u d e d in a rich p a n o p l y of ritual, is clearly m o r e stable, m o r e p r e d i c t a b l e , a n d m o r e s e c u r e i n its religious d i r e c t i o n t h a n a s h a m a n i s t i c p a t t e r n o f i n s p i r a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y . I n t h e o r y , a t least, the l a t t e r i s a l w a y s o p e n t o d r a m a t i c n e w r e v e l a t i o n s , t o novel m e s s a g e s from t h e g o d s , a n d n o t m e r e l y t o r e - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f established d o c t r i n e . U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , all t h a t a s h a m a n c a n b e q u e a t h t o his h e i r s is a b o d y of t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e w h i c h m a y h e l p a successor t o g a i n privileged i n t e r c o u r s e with t h e g o d s , b u t c a n n o t g u a r a n t e e that this will h a p p e n . It is t h u s no accident t h a t t h r o u g h o u t history, a n d in m a n y different religions, established churches have sought to control and contain p e r s o n a l i n s p i r a t i o n . So if social stability s e e m s to favour an e m p h a s i s o n r i t u a l r a t h e r t h a n o n ecstatic e x p r e s s i o n , this a g a i n suggests that e n t h u s i a s m thrives on instability. I n t h e s a m e v e i n , t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e rise o f n e w i n s p i r a t i o n a l r e l i g i o n s , from m e s s i a n i c e r u p t i o n s i n m e d i e v a l E u r o p e t o C a r g o C u l t s i n O c e a n i a , p o i n t t o t h e c r u c i a l significance o f factors o f a c u t e social d i s r u p t i o n a n d d i s l o c a t i o n . T h i s e v i d e n c e c o r r o b o r a t e s
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o u r findings on t h e n e c e s s a r y (if n o t sufficient) c o n d i t i o n s for t h e rise o f those a n a l o g o u s m o v e m e n t s w h i c h w e h a v e called p e r i p h e r a l cults p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n these a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c h a n g e s w h i c h a r e felt t o i m p o s e l i m i t a t i o n s o n t r a d i t i o n a l f r e e d o m s a n d r i g h t s , o r t o benefit one social g r o u p o r c a t e g o r y ( e . g . m e n ) a t t h e e x p e n s e o f a n o t h e r ( e . g . w o m e n ) . I n p r o m p t i n g t h e ecstatic r e s p o n s e , t h e i n s e c u r i t y b r e d b y d i s o r d e r m a y t h u s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , b e a s p o t e n t a factor a s t h e frustration p r o d u c e d b y excessive o r d e r a n d c o n t r o l . W e a r e left, t h e n , w i t h the p r o b l e m of d e t e r m i n i n g to w h a t extent t h e s a m e or similar p r e s s u r e s are involved i n t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f c e n t r a l possession r e l i g i o n s . W h y d o s u c h ecstatic religions n o t a l w a y s d e v e l o p e s t a b l i s h e d p r i e s t h o o d s which w o u l d r e n d e r e n t h u s i a s m r e d u n d a n t a n d d a n g e r o u s ? I f t h e e x t i n c t i o n of e n t h u s i a s m is a b u i l t - i n political t e n d e n c y , w h a t o t h e r c o u n t e r v a i l i n g forces m a y k e e p possession o n t h e boil? P a r t of t h e a n s w e r a g a i n s e e m s to lie in t h e e x i s t e n c e of p o w e r f u l ecological a n d social p r e s s u r e s , w h e r e social g r o u p s a r e small a n d fluct u a t i n g , a n d g e n e r a l instability p r e v a i l s . T h e s e a r e g e n e r a l l y t h e conditions amongst the scattered, h u n t i n g and gathering Eskimos, amongst the T u n g u s a n d other Arctic a n d Siberian peoples, a n d the same holds true of the V e d d a s and Akawaio. M o r e generally, in Latin A m e r i c a , t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f v i g o r o u s s h a m a n i c r e l i g i o n s (cf. S a n t o s , 1986) a m o n g t h e politically m a r g i n a l i z e d I n d i a n c o m m u n i t i e s i s p e r h a p s not s u r p r i s i n g , a l t h o u g h w e s h o u l d clearly n o t d i s c o u n t t h e r e a d y availability for ritual use of powerful local h a l l u c i n o g e n s . In t h e case o f o u r African e x a m p l e s , t h e significant p r e s s u r e s s e e m t o a r i s e less from t h e physical e n v i r o n m e n t t h a n from t h e e x t e r n a l social ( a n d political) c i r c u m s t a n c e s . In b o t h cases, w h e r e larger stable g r o u p s form, s h a m a n i s m a c q u i r e s a m o r e firmly i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d c h a r a c t e r , a n d t h e r e is less e m p h a s i s on e c s t a s y . T h i s is t r u e n o t o n l y of t h e M a c h a in Ethiopia, or of the Korekore S h o n a (who in contrast to the Z e z u r u , h a v e a m o r e rigid s h a m a n i s t i c h i e r a r c h y ) , b u t also of different g r o u p s a m o n g t h e T u n g u s . S h i r o k o g o r o f f ' s rich e h t n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l i n d i cates t h a t while t h e s m a l l e r , m o r e u n s t a b l e p a s t o r a l b a n d s a r e led b y s h a m a n s w h o a c h i e v e t h e i r p o s i t i o n s b y ecstatic s e i z u r e s , t h e l a r g e r T u n g u s clans h a v e d e v e l o p e d stable s h a m a n i s t i c offices w h e r e enthusiasm is m u t e d or extinguished. H e n c e if religious r o u t i n i z a t i o n d i s c o u r a g e s ecstasy, at t h e societal level, t h e ecstatic t e n d e n c y is likely to be p r o m o t e d by intrusive e x t e r n a l pressures. W h e r e such conditions prevail, each s h a m a n builds up a fund of p e r s o n a l a u t h o r i t y w h i c h is d i s s i p a t e d w i t h his d e a t h , or at
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ECSTATIC RELIGION
least c a n o n l y be c a p t u r e d a n e w by a successor, t h r o u g h a n e w series o f ecstatic i n s p i r a t i o n s . T h e s h a m a n i n m a i n m o r a l i t y religions i s t h u s t h e r e l i g i o u s a n a l o g u e o f t h e politically influential e n t r e p r e n e u r , o r ' b i g m a n ' ; a n d , a s w e h a v e seen a m o n g s t t h e G i r i a m a , t h e T o n g a , a n d t o s o m e e x t e n t i n o u r E t h i o p i a n e x a m p l e s , a s well a s a m o n g the E s k i m o s , t h e t w o roles m a y i n fact b e h e l d b y t h e s a m e p e r s o n . T h i s s e e m s t o suggest t h a t far from b e i n g u n t y p i c a l o r e v e n b i z a r r e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t e n s i o n a n d f r u s t r a t i o n , p e r i p h e r a l cults e m b o d y i n a s p e c i a l i z e d w a y m a n y of t h e f e a t u r e s of c e n t r a l possession religions. B o t h a r e f o r m s o f r e l i g i o u s e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h i m p l y t h e existence o f a c u t e p r e s s u r e s . I n p e r i p h r a l cults t h e s e p r e s s u r e s arise from t h e oppression to which subordinate m e m b e r s of the c o m m u n i t y are s u b j e c t . T h e self-assertion w h i c h possession r e p r e s e n t s h e r e i s directed against the entrenched establishment, and is ultimately contained in t h e w a y w e h a v e e x a m i n e d . I n central ecstatic religions, the constraints a r e e x t e r n a l to t h e society as a w h o l e , t h e y a r e felt by e v e r y o n e , a n d p o s s e s s i o n , w h i c h a s s e r t s t h e c l a i m s o f t h e possessed t o b e c o n s i d e r e d the a p p o i n t e d a g e n t s of m o r a l l y e n d o w e d gods, h a s a significance which i s m u c h w i d e r . I n p e r i p h e r a l c u l t s , t h o s e s u b o r d i n a t e s w h o practise a s s h a m a n s m a s t e r spirits w h i c h , officially a t least, h a v e n o general moral significance. But in central religions, establishment s h a m a n s i n c a r n a t e a n d treat as equals the powers which control the cosmos. H e r e t h e p r o t e s t w h i c h possession e m b o d i e s i s d i r e c t e d t o t h e g o d s , a s s h a m a n i s m asserts t h a t u l t i m a t e l y m a n i s m a s t e r o f his fate. S i n c e w e shall p u r s u e t h e s e t h e m e s f u r t h e r i n t h e following c h a p t e r , w e c a n leave t h e m for t h e p r e s e n t , a n d t u r n t o s u m m a r i z e o u r f i n d i n g s o n t h e s e x u a l i d e n t i t y o f s h a m a n s . H e r e w e m a y , I t h i n k , distinguish t h r e e distinct, a l t h o u g h not always completely exclusive p a t t e r n s . First, in c e n t r a l r e l i g i o n s , w h e r e possession is a p r e c o n d i t i o n for t h e full e x e r c i s e of t h e religious v o c a t i o n , t h o s e selected by t h e deities a r e typically m e n . S e c o n d l y , w h e r e a n established m a l e p r i e s t h o o d , which d o e s n o t d e p e n d u p o n ecstatic i l l u m i n a t i o n for its a u t h o r i t y , controls t h e c e n t r a l m o r a l i t y c u l t , w o m e n a n d m e n o f s u b o r d i n a t e social c a t e g o r i e s m a y be a l l o w e d a l i m i t e d franchise as i n s p i r e d auxiliaries. T h i r d l y , t h e s e d i s a d v a n t a g e d social c a t e g o r i e s a r e also those which s u p p l y t h e m e m b e r s h i p o f p e r i p h e r a l possession cults, irrespective o f w h e t h e r e c s t a s y also o c c u r s i n t h e c e n t r a l religion. T h u s i n g e n e r a l , it s e e m s t h a t t h e m o r a l e v a l u a t i o n of possession t e n d s to reflect social a n d s e x u a l d i s t i n c t i o n s . A m o r a l p o w e r s select t h e i r m o u n t s from w o m e n o r socially r e s t r i c t e d c a t e g o r i e s o f m e n : t h o s e divinities which
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u p h o l d public m o r a l i t y a r e less n a r r o w l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d i n t h e i r choice of h u m a n hosts. B u t if t h e spirits of so m a n y different religions a p p e a r to s h o w a nice c o n c e r n for s t a t u s , we m u s t n o t forget t h a t in all societies t h e r e are psychological ' d e v i a n t s ' such as effeminate, or h o m o s e x u a l m e n , for e x a m p l e w h o s e p r o b l e m s u r g e t h e m to defy t h e officially a u t h o r i z e d sex-linked roles. T h e i r e x i s t e n c e i n e v i t a b l y d i s t u r b s this tidy a p p o r t i o n m e n t o f s p i r i t u a l i l l u m i n a t i o n . T h u s w h i l e d r a w i n g t h e bulk of their m e m b e r s from w o m e n a n d m e n of t h e socially a p p r o p r i a t e c a t e g o r i e s , p e r i p h e r a l cults i n v a r i a b l y also a t t r a c t a n u m b e r of i n d i v i d u a l m e n w h o s e p a r t i c i p a t i o n is less a function of t h e i r social placement t h a n of idiosyncratic features in their personality. T h i s raises the complicated problem of the psychological status of possession. So far w e h a v e largely e v a d e d this issue: n o w w e m u s t t r y t o c o n f r o n t it s q u a r e l y .
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Seven
POSSESSION AND PSYCHIATRY
I
If t h e r e is o n e t h i n g w h i c h t r a d i t i o n a l l y u n i t e s m o s t British social a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s it is t h e i r fierce a n t a g o n i s m t o w a r d s psychology a n d p s y c h i a t r y a n d their d i s r e g a r d for t h e psychological aspects of t h e social p h e n o m e n a w h i c h t h e y s t u d y . I n c o m m o n w i t h t h e i r intellectual a n c e s t o r D u r k h e i m , t h e y s e e m to feel a positive o b l i g a t i o n to relegate the scope of psychology to individual a b n o r m a l i t i e s , a n d t h u s misrepresent it as a field of s t u d y w h i c h is g e n e r a l l y i r r e l e v a n t to their p r e o c c u p a t i o n s . In fact, of c o u r s e , m o s t a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t h e o r i z i n g is shot t h r o u g h w i t h i l l - c o n s i d e r e d , a n d u s u a l l y u n a c k n o w l e d g e d psychological a s s u m p t i o n s (cf. L e w i s , 1977, p p . 1-24; J o h o d a , 1982). S o m e l e a d i n g a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e even d e v e l o p e d q u i t e sophisticated defence m e c h a n i s m s which are designed to protect their O l y m p i a n ' n a i v e t e ' ( a s t h e n e g l e c t of p s y c h o l o g y is d i s a r m i n g l y called), a n d to p r e s e r v e t h e i r d o m a i n from psychological i n c u r s i o n . T h e u n p r e j u d i c e d r e a d e r m a y well ask w h y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w h i c h m u s t s e e m o f s u c h f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e s t u d y o f possession h a v e b e e n left t o this l a t e s t a g e , before b e i n g raised explicitly a n d e x a m i n e d . I h a s t e n to say, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a l t h o u g h this h a s b e e n d o n e d e l i b e r a t e l y , it is n o t b e c a u s e I wish to follow so m a n y of my colleagues i n s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y s w e e p i n g p s y c h o l o g y u n d e r t h e c a r p e t . I t i s simply that p h e n o m e n a we so readily assimilate to the bizarre and abnormal m u s t be a p p r o a c h e d c a u t i o u s l y if t h e issues involved in their assessm e n t a r e n o t t o b e p r e j u d g e d . N o t h i n g after all i s easier t h a n l e a p i n g t o c o n c l u s i o n s a n d p r o j e c t i n g o u r o w n e t h n o c e n t r i c psychological (or p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ) a s s u m p t i o n s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o n t o exotic evidence which m a y c o r r e s p o n d only in superficial detail with a p p a r e n t l y similar
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POSSESSION A N D P S Y C H I A T R Y
d a t a from o u r o w n c u l t u r e . It h a s seemed essential, therefore, to explore the significance of ecstasy a n d possession in alien c u l t u r e s in t h e i r o w n s e t t i n g before a t t e m p t i n g t o assess h o w t h e y r e l a t e t o t h e often o s t e n sibly similar m a t e r i a l d e s c r i b e d a n d a n a l y s e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s t s a n d psychiatrists i n o u r society. W i t h t h e f i n d i n g s o f p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s b e h i n d u s , h o w e v e r , w e a r e n o w fairly well e q u i p p e d t o v e n t u r e i n t o this difficult field. At t h e e n d of t h e last c h a p t e r , I referred to t h e p r e s e n c e in t h e c u l t s of a certain n u m b e r of psychologically d e v i a n t i n d i v i d u a l s . T h i s w o u l d h a r d l y s u r p r i s e t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h o s e w h o a p p r o a c h possession a n d s h a m a n i s m from a E u r o - c e n t r i c m e d i c a l s t a n c e w h i c h , explicitly or implicitly, t e n d s to i n c o r p o r a t e a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c b i a s . I n d e e d o n e of the best e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n s i n t h e s t u d y o f s h a m a n i s m a n d possession treats these p h e n o m e n a as a b n o r m a l i t i e s , a n d sees t h e m as peculiar c u l t u r a l e l a b o r a t i o n s d e s i g n e d b y a n d for t h e benefit o f t h e m e n t a l l y deranged. J u s t as the French psychiatrist, Levy-Valensi, has claimed that in w e s t e r n society t h e spiritualist s e a n c e is often t h e a n t e - c h a m b e r of the asylum, so s h a m a n i s m is regularly seen as an institutionalized m a d h o u s e for p r i m i t i v e s . O n this v i e w , possession i s n o t for psychologically n o r m a l p e o p l e , b u t o n l y for t h e d i s t u r b e d : t h e spiritpossessed s h a m a n is presented as a conflict-torn personality w h o should b e classified e i t h e r a s seriously n e u r o t i c o r e v e n p s y c h o t i c . A s s e s s m e n t s of this sort a b o u n d in t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l as well as psychiatric literature. M a n y of our authorities on Arctic s h a m a n i s m , for i n s t a n c e , assert t h a t t h e s h a m a n s t h e y e n c o u n t e r e d w e r e u s u a l l y psychologically a b n o r m a l . T h u s B o g o r a s r e p o r t s t h a t t h e C h u k c h e e s h a m a n s with w h o m he conversed w e r e ' a s a whole e x t r e m e l y excitable, a l m o s t h y s t e r i c a l , a n d n o t a few w e r e h a l f - c r a z y . T h e i r c u n n i n g in the use of deceit in t h e i r a r t closely r e s e m b l e d t h e c u n n i n g of t h e l u n a t i c ' ( B o g o r a s , 1907, p . 4 1 5 ) . A n d i n a n o t h e r p a s s a g e t h e s a m e a u t h o r i t y speaks of these s h a m a n s as ' a l m o s t on t h e v e r g e of i n s a n i t y ' . Shirokogoroff w h o , as a doctor, is a better qualified witness, also j u d g e d that s o m e o f t h e T u n g u s s h a m a n s h e m e t w e r e p r o b a b l y i n s a n e . M o r e recently, K r a d e r ( a n e t h n o g r a p h e r ) h a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e B u r y a t s h a m a n a s a ' h i g h l y n e r v o u s p e r s o n , o n e subject t o n e r v o u s d i s o r d e r s ' ( K r a d e r , 1954, p p . 3 2 2 - 5 1 ) . I n this style, O h l m a r k s h a s e v e n sought t o distinguish b e t w e e n w h a t h e calls ' A r c t i c a n d S u b a r c t i c s h a m a n i s m ' i n t e r m s o f t h e d e g r e e o f p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y allegedly e x h i b i t e d b y s h a m a n s i n t h e t w o r e g i o n s . T h e s a m e o p i n i o n s a r e voiced for o t h e r a r e a s b y a host o f a u t h o r i t i e s .
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ECSTATIC RELIGION
At t h e e n d of the last c e n t u r y , W i l k e n proposed that the origins of Indon e s i a n s h a m a n i s m w e r e t o b e t r a c e d t o m e n t a l d i s e a s e . L o e b similarly c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e s h a m a n s o f N i u e a s e p i l e p t i c s , o r p e r s o n s suffering from n e r v o u s d i s e a s e s , a n d h e l d t h a t t h e y w e r e d r a w n from families w i t h a h i s t o r y of h e r e d i t a r y n e r v o u s instability. M o r e generally, that m u c h r e s p e c t e d a u t h o r i t y o n p r i m i t i v e religion, P a u l R a d i n ( R a d i n , 1937), u r g e d t h e s a m e e q u i v a l e n c e b e t w e e n epileptics a n d hysterics a n d m e d i c i n e - m e n a n d s h a m a n s . I t w o u l d b e pointless t o cite further e v i d e n c e of this widely h e l d view t h a t , by a n d l a r g e , s h a m a n s are m a d . O n t h e basis o f this w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d j u d g e m e n t , a n d o f t h e almost u n i v e r s a l fact t h a t i n d u c t i o n i n t o t h e s h a m a n i s t i c c a r e e r follows a t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e n c e , t h e psychoanalytically-orientated anthropologist, G e o r g e D e v e r e u x , h a s powerfully a r g u e d t h a t t h e s h a m a n ' s ' m a d n e s s ' c o n s t i t u t e s a test case in t h e c r o s s - c u l t u r a l definition of n o r m a l i t y a n d a b n o r m a l i t y . ' H o w ' , D e v e r e u x , r h e t o r i c a l l y asks, ' c o u l d a n y o n e ' s s y m p t o m s b e m o r e florid t h a n those o f t h e b u d d i n g Siberian s h a m a n ? ' T h u s h e c o n s i d e r s t h a t ' t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n a n d n o e x c u s e for not c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s h a m a n as a severe n e u r o t i c a n d e v e n as a p s y c h o t i c ' . R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t s h a m a n i s m is, to s o m e e x t e n t at least, a culturally a c c e p t e d p h e n o m e n o n w h e r e it o c c u r s , D e v e r e u x is t h u s led to c h a r a c t e r i z e societies w h e r e s h a m a n i s m i s p r e v a l e n t a s b e i n g i n s o m e sense a n o m i c . F o r , in a 'sick s o c i e t y ' he a r g u e s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a n n o t i n t r o j e c t t h e m o r e s of h i s c o m m u n i t y effectively, u n l e s s he is himself a n e u r o t i c . T h e r e f o r e in t h e society of t h e m a d , t h e t r u l y m e n t a l l y h e a l t h y p e r s o n (in o u r t e r m s ) will b e c o n d e m n e d a s a l u n a t i c . H e n c e s h a m a n i s m is 'culture dystonic', just as the s h a m a n is 'ego-dystonic' ( D e v e r e u x , 1956, p p . 2 3 - 4 8 ) . I n his m a g n i f i c e n t s t u d y o f m e d i e v a l E u r o p e a n m i l l e n n a r i a n m o v e m e n t s , N o r m a n C o h n c o m m i t s himself to a s i m i l a r view. He w r i t e s : All p h a n t a s i e s w h i c h s u s t a i n s u c h m o v e m e n t s a r e those c o m m o n l y f o u n d in i n d i v i d u a l cases of p a r a n o i a . But a p a r a n o i c d e l u s i o n d o e s n o t cease to be so b e c a u s e it is s h a r e d b y m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s , n o r yet b e c a u s e t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e r e a l a n d a m p l e g r o u n d s for r e g a r d i n g t h e m s e l v e s a s victims o f o p p r e s s i o n . ( C o h n , 1957, p . 3 0 9 ) . T h i s a s s e s s m e n t c o r r e s p o n d s closely with Bateson a n d M e a d ' s wellk n o w n c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of t h e B a l i n e s e as possessing a c u l t u r e w h e r e o r d i n a r y psychological a d j u s t m e n t a p p r o x i m a t e s t o t h a t d e g r e e o f
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m a l a d j u s t m e n t w h i c h , in a w e s t e r n s e t t i n g , we call schizoid ( B a t e s o n a n d M e a d , 1942, p . x v i ) . I n this v e i n , S i l v e r m a n ( S i l v e r m a n , 1 9 6 7 , p p . 2 1 - 3 1 ) h a s recently p r o d u c e d a v i g o r o u s l y a s s e r t e d a s s i m i l a t i o n of t h e s h a m a n ' s p u t a t i v e personality to t h a t of t h e a c u t e s c h i z o p h r e n i c . I n his j u d g e m e n t , w h i c h i s b a s e d o n s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s , t h e s h a m a n ' s behaviour includes 'gross non-reality ideation, a b n o r m a l perceptual experiences, profound emotional upheavals, a n d bizarre m a n n e r i s m s ' all features w h i c h b r a n d t h e s h a m a n as a s c h i z o p h r e n i c , u s u a l l y of the ' n o n - p a r a n o i d ' type. W i t h D e v e r e u x , Silverman acknowledges that t h e essential difference b e t w e e n t h e schizoid p e r s o n a l i t y i n o u r society, a n d t h a t o f t h e s h a m a n i n s h a m a n i s t i c societies, i s t h e d e g r e e to which in the latter ' a b n o r m a l ' behavioural characteristics are tolerated, even encouraged, and find an appropriate a n d approved cultural outlet. As he notes, in western culture the absence of acceptable a n d realistically valid labels for t h e feelings w h i c h t h e s h a m a n and schizophrenic are p r e s u m e d to share leads in the case of the latter to a h e i g h t e n e d sense of guilt a n d to f u r t h e r m e n t a l a l i e n a t i o n . I shall r e t u r n to t h e significance of this p o i n t l a t e r . A g a i n , in a series of p u b l i c a t i o n s on cases of possession in N e w G u i n e a , Langness vehemently claims that these represent 'hysterical p s y c h o s e s ' ( L a n g n e s s , 1965, p p . 2 5 8 - 7 7 ) . A n d i n a n i m p o r t a n t s y m p o s i u m assessing c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h o n m e n t a l h e a l t h i n A s i a a n d t h e Pacific, the psychiatrist P . M . Y a p delivers t h e j u d g e m e n t t h a t , i n t e r m s o f m o d e r n p s y c h i a t r y , ' m o s t i n s t a n c e s o f possession m u s t b e defined as a b n o r m a l ' . In a r e v i e w of w h a t he calls t h e ' c u l t u r e - b o u n d r e a c t i v e s y n d r o m e s ' , Y a p classifies possession as a p s y c h o g e n i c p s y c h o s i s by w h i c h he m e a n s a c o n d i t i o n i n v o l v i n g a severe d e g r e e of a b n o r m a l psychic activity w h i c h h a s its o r i g i n i n a n e x t e r n a l shock o r t r a u m a , r a t h e r t h a n i n o r g a n i c p a t h o l o g y ( Y a p , 1969, p p . 3 3 - 5 3 ; see also K i e v , 1972; M u r p h y , 1982; L i t t l e w o o d a n d L i p s e d g e , 1982, 1985). If, h o w e v e r , t h e r e is m u c h in t h e r e c e n t as well as o l d e r l i t e r a t u r e which seems t o s u p p o r t these i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , t h e r e i s a n e q u a l v o l u m e of testimony, and one that is usually better informed a n d m o r e professionally qualified, which a r g u e s the precise opposite. Shirokogoroff, for e x a m p l e , w h o m I q u o t e d p a r t i a l l y e a r l i e r , w a s careful t o point o u t t h a t while h e j u d g e d s o m e T u n g u s s h a m a n s t o b e i n s a n e , m a n y w e r e i n perfect psychological h e a l t h . S o m e w e r e e g o centric while others were highly socialized; a n d s o m e exhibited a fervent faith in their calling, w h e r e a s o t h e r s s h o w e d m e r e l y a c o n v e n t i o n a l a c c e p t a n c e . S i m i l a r l y a n d m o r e r e c e n t l y , t h e Soviet e t h n o g r a p h e r
163
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A n i s i m o v r e p o r t s o f E v e n k s h a m a n s t h a t a l t h o u g h s o m e revealed h y s t e r i c a l n e u r o t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e r e w e r e also m a n y w h o w e r e extremely sober individuals. Likewise, J a n e M u r p h y reports of the A l a s k a n E s k i m o s h a m a n s , w h o s e p e r s o n a l i t i e s she e x a m i n e d , t h a t p s y c h i a t r i c d i s o r d e r w a s definitely n o t a p r e r e q u i s i t e for t h e a s s u m p tion of t h e s h a m a n ' s role. W e l l - k n o w n s h a m a n s were indeed 'unusually m e n t a l l y h e a l t h y ' ( M u r p h y , 1964, p . 76). S i m i l a r l y , pace B a t e s o n a n d M e a d , D r P . M . v a n Wulfften P a l t h c , f o r m e r h e a d o f t h e D u t c h p s y c h i a t r i c service i n J a v a , d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n s c h i z o p h r e n i c a n d ' n o r m a l ' h y s t e r i c p o s s e s s i o n , classifying all t h e Balinese m a t e r i a l in t h e l a t t e r c a t e g o r y ( q u o t e d i n Belo, 1960, p . 6 ) . A n d N a d e l , i n his classic s t u d y o f N u b a s h a m a n i s m t o w h i c h w e shall r e t u r n a g a i n later, c a t e g o r i c a l l y insisted t h a t : N e i t h e r e p i l e p s y , n o r i n s a n i t y , n o r yet o t h e r m e n t a l d e r a n g e m e n t s , a r e i n t h e m s e l v e s r e g a r d e d a s s y m p t o m s o f spirit possession. T h e y are diseases, a b n o r m a l disorders, not supern a t u r a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . . . . No s h a m a n is in e v e r y d a y life an ' a b n o r m a l ' i n d i v i d u a l , a n e u r o t i c , or a p a r a n o i c ; if he w e r e he w o u l d be classed as a l u n a t i c , n o t r e s p e c t e d as a priest. . . . I r e c o r d e d no case of a s h a m a n w h o s e professional h y s t e r i a d e t e r i o r a t e d i n t o s e r i o u s m e n t a l d i s o r d e r s ( N a d e l , 1946, p p . 2 5 - 3 7 ) . Similarly in the context of Haitian voodoo, both Herskovits and M e t r a u x w h o do n o t a l w a y s a g r e e insist t h a t these p h e n o m e n a c a n n o t b e a s s i m i l a t e d t o p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y . A u d r e y B u t t , likewise, e m p h a t i c a l l y asserts t h e psychological n o r m a l i t y o f A k a w a i o s h a m a n s , s t r e s s i n g t h a t p s y c h o p a t h i c s y m p t o m s in c a n d i d a t e s for t h e profession, far from b e i n g f a v o u r e d , a r e c o n s i d e r e d seriously d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s . O f t h e I n d i a n s she k n e w w h o w e r e subject t o 'fits' n o t o n e w a s a s h a m a n : a n d epilepsy w a s n o t r e g a r d e d a s h a v i n g a n y c o n n e c t i o n with s h a m a n i s m ( B u t t , 1967, p. 40). Careful research by psychiatrists, based on d i r e c t s t u d y of t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s of t h o s e i n v o l v e d , t e n d s to confirm t h e s e f i n d i n g s . T h u s i n t h e B a h i a cult i n B r a z i l , S t a n b r o o k h a s s h o w n h o w w h i l e t h e h y s t e r i c w h o c a n m a n a g e his s y m p t o m s i n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a y s m a y j o i n t h e condomble r i t e , t h e frank p s y c h o t i c o r s c h i z o p h r e n i c is s c r e e n e d o u t d u r i n g t h e p r o b a t i o n a r y period. T h e latter is considered t o o i d i o s y n c r a t i c a n d u n r e l i a b l e i n his b e h a v i o u r a n d s y m p t o m s t o b e successfully a b s o r b e d i n t h e cult g r o u p ( S t a n b r o o k , 1952, p p . 3 3 0 - 3 5 ) . A g a i n , o f t h e cases w h i c h Y a p s t u d i e d i n H o n g K o n g , t h e m a j o r i t y o f
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those p a t i e n t s p r e s e n t i n g w h a t h e calls t h e 'possession s y n d r o m e ' w e r e hysterics, a n d a m u c h s m a l l e r p r o p o r t i o n s c h i z o p h r e n i c s . T h i s f i n d i n g is all t h e m o r e significant in t h a t t h e s a m p l e of p a t i e n t s s t u d i e d , b e i n g those w h o s o u g h t h o s p i t a l t r e a t m e n t , p r e s u m a b l y c o n t a i n e d a m u c h higher incidence of serious mental disturbance t h a n that found in the general p o p u l a t i o n w h o seek relief in t r a d i t i o n a l possession cults r a t h e r t h a n i n w e s t e r n p s y c h i a t r y ( Y a p , 1960, p p . 1 1 4 - 3 7 ) . Finally, we s h o u l d also n o t e t h a t w h e r e spirit possession is a r e g u l a r e x p l a n a t i o n o f d i s e a s e , t h e fact t h a t c e r t a i n f o r m s o f i n s a n i t y a n d epilepsy may also be r e g a r d e d as m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of possession d o e s n o t necessarily m e a n t h a t t h e people c o n c e r n e d a r e u n a b l e t o differentiate between them and other forms of possession. T h e r a n g e of conditions which a r e interpreted in t e r m s of possession is usually, as we h a v e seen, a very wide o n e ; a n d within this insanity (or epilepsy) is usually clearly d i s t i n g u i s h e d from o t h e r possession s t a t e s .
II T h e d i s a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o conflicting lines o f i n t e r p r e t a tion is ostensibly resolved, at least in p a r t , by t h o s e w h o c o n s i d e r t h a t the s h a m a n , i f h e w a s originally psychologically d i s t u r b e d , h a s i n a s s u m i n g his v o c a t i o n successfully l e a r n t t o m a s t e r his p r o b l e m s . T h i s view w a s I t h i n k first p r o p o s e d b y A c k e r k n e c h t a n d h a s b e e n authoritatively endorsed by Eliade and other writers on s h a m a n i s m . A s Shirokogoroff p u t s it: ' T h e s h a m a n m a y b e g i n h i s life c a r e e r w i t h a psychosis, b u t he c a n n o t c a r r y on h i s f u n c t i o n s if he c a n n o t m a s t e r himself.' E v e n D e v e r e u x also g r u d g i n g l y a d m i t s t h i s , t h o u g h h e considers that t h e s h a m a n , o r 'half-healed m a d m a n ' , h a s only achieved r e m i s s i o n o f s y m p t o m s a n d i s n o t fully c u r e d . I n this m o r e c h a r i t a b l e interpretation, the shamanistic healer is thus represented as an 'autonormal', compensated neurotic, or even psychotic, who has acquired the insight to deal effectively with neurotic or quasi-psychotic s y m p t o m s in o t h e r s . T h i s a s s e s s m e n t , w h i c h in effect e c h o e s S o c r a t e s ' j u d g e m e n t t h a t ' O u r greatest blessings c o m e t o u s b y w a y o f m a d n e s s ' , recalls T . S . E l i o t ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e ' w o u n d e d s u r g e o n ' . I t also c o r r e s p o n d s closely t o t h e e m p h a s i s w h i c h , a s w e h a v e s o a b u n d a n t l y s e e n , s h a m a n i s t i c c u l t u r e s place o n t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e n c e s a s n e c e s s a r y p r e - c o n d i t i o n s for t h e a s s u m p t i o n of this v o c a t i o n . H o w e v e r , even this modified view of t h e s h a m a n ' s m e n t a l state does not c o n s t i t u t e a fully satisfactory a p p r o a c h to t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
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possession a n d s h a m a n i s m . F o r w h a t e v e r t h e a c t u a l m e n t a l h e a l t h o f individual s h a m a n s , this view of t h e p r o b l e m is as one-sided as it is e t h n o c e n t r i c , a n d e v e n s m a c k s s o m e w h a t o f professional j e a l o u s y . I t i s like d i s c u s s i n g , a n d d i s m i s s i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y (or a n y o t h e r religion) i n t e r m s o f p s y c h o t i c s y m p t o m s i n p r i e s t s . O r p e r h a p s m o r e a p t l y , i t i s directly c o m p a r a b l e to evaluating the whole of psychoanalysis in terms of the p s y c h o t i c e x p e r i e n c e s of s o m e a n a l y s t s . M o r e o v e r it is surely b i z a r r e i n t h e e x t r e m e t o assess m e n t a l h e a l t h i n t e r m s o f t h e i n c i d e n c e o f synd r o m e s in t h e healer r a t h e r t h a n in their patients. We do not generally j u d g e t h e success o f a d v a n c e s i n m e d i c a l science i n t e r m s o f d o c t o r s ' h e a l t h ! A s N a d e l a p p o s i t e l y r e m a r k s ( N a d e l , 1946, p p . 2 5 - 3 7 ) , this o n e sided a p p r o a c h i m p l i e s t h a t t h e significance o f s h a m a n i s m d e p e n d s u p o n p r i v a t e e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h s e p a r a t e t h e v i s i o n a r y from t h e rest of h i s c o m m u n i t y , w h e r e a s in r e a l i t y this is far from b e i n g t h e case. T h u s t o r e a c h a m o r e realistic u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t r u e p o s i t i o n , w e m u s t recall t h a t i n t h e societies w i t h w h i c h w e a r e d e a l i n g belief i n spirits a n d i n p o s s e s s i o n b y t h e m i s n o r m a l a n d a c c e p t e d . T h e reality of possession by s p i r i t s , or for t h a t m a t t e r of witchcraft, c o n s t i t u t e s an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e total s y s t e m of religious ideas a n d a s s u m p t i o n s . W h e r e p e o p l e t h u s b e l i e v e g e n e r a l l y t h a t affliction c a n b e c a u s e d b y p o s s e s s i o n by a m a l e v o l e n t spirit (or by w i t c h c r a f t ) , disbelief in t h e p o w e r of spirits ( o r of w i t c h e s ) w o u l d be a s t r i k i n g a b n o r m a l i t y , a bizarre a n d eccentric rejection of n o r m a l values. T h e cultural and m e n t a l alienation of such dissenters w o u l d in fact be roughly equivalent t o t h a t o f t h o s e w h o i n o u r w e s t e r n s e c u l a r society t o d a y believe t h e m s e l v e s t o b e possessed o r b e w i t c h e d . U n l i k e m o s t o f their western c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e societies w h i c h w e h a v e e x a m i n e d , those i n w h o m possession is diagnosed as a presenting s y m p t o m are behaving in an a c c e p t e d a n d i n d e e d e x p e c t e d fashion. S i m p l y b e c a u s e w e d o not share t h e i r ' f a n t a s i e s ' a n d find t h e m e c h o e d o n l y i n t h o s e w h o m i n o u r o w n society w e label p s y c h o t i c o r m e n t a l l y d e r a n g e d gives u s n o w a r r a n t to write off as m a d those c u l t u r e s whose beliefs in spirits a n d s h a m a n i s m we have examined in previous chapters. C o n s i s t e n t l y w i t h t h i s , a s m o r e r i g o r o u s r e c e n t studies b y psychiatrists a n d psychologists with anthropological training are b e g i n n i n g to s h o w , t h e m a j o r i t y of those actively involved in peripheral possession cults a r e o n l y m i l d l y o r often t e m p o r a r i l y n e u r o t i c i n a n y valid sense. A n d t h e s a m e applies especially in t h e case of m a i n morality possession r e l i g i o n s w h e r e we n a t u r a l l y find a fuller s p e c t r u m of the m e n t a l h e a l t h p i c t u r e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . I n b o t h t y p e s o f cult, a s w e
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h a v e seen, w e d o o f c o u r s e m e e t s o m e g e n u i n e s c h i z o p h r e n i c s a n d psychotics. B u t t h e i r n u m b e r i s s m a l l c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e m a s s o f o r d i n a r y ' n o r m a l l y ' n e u r o t i c p e o p l e w h o f i n d s o m e relief from a n x i e t y a n d s o m e r e s o l u t i o n o f e v e r y d a y conflicts a n d p r o b l e m s i n s u c h religious activity. H e r e t h e very m a r k e d lack of r e s p o n s e to t h e c a t h a r t i c therapies e m p l o y e d in possession cults in t h e case of seriously d i s t u r b e d i n d i v i d u a l s , w h i c h we shall c o n s i d e r m o r e fully l a t e r , is itself a testimony to the robust mental health of the majority of participants. A s w e h a v e seen r e p e a t e d l y , t h e l a t t e r h a v e n o difficulty a t all i n communicating their problems. T h e y operate within a culturally standardized m e d i u m of communication. Nor, in contrast to the true self-insulated p s y c h o t i c , d o t h e y m i s s t h e i r ' c u e s ' . T h e y r e s p o n d i n the expected way, a n d others react equally predictably. T h e manipulated h u s b a n d ' s response is just as stereotyped a n d anticipated a s t h e p r o t e s t i n g wife's s t r a t e g y o f p o s s e s s i o n . A b o v e all, t h e total symbolism involved is n o t p r i v a t e or i d i o s y n c r a t i c , b u t on t h e c o n t r a r y p u b l i c a n d socially s a n c t i o n e d . I n p e r i p h e r a l c u l t s , a s I h a v e e m p h a s i z e d , t h e g a m e o f possession o n l y w o r k s a s l o n g a s all t h e p l a y e r s k n o w a n d o b s e r v e t h e r u l e s . Consequently, the person w h o b e c o m e s possessed in response to difficulties is at o n c e p r o v i d e d w i t h a m e a n s of c o p i n g w i t h h i s s i t u a tion w h i c h d o e s n o t a l i e n a t e h i m d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s l y from o t h e r m e m b e r s o f his c o m m u n i t y . F a r from d i s m i s s i n g t h e force o f t h e p a t i e n t ' s p o w e r t o influence o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , b u t b e s t o w i n g the sea of d i v i n e a p p r o v a l possession e n h a n c e s h i s influence immeasurably. As Y a p points out, this is achieved by 'internalizing a possessing a g e n c y w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e conflict'. B u t t o d u b this a n ' u n r e a l i s t i c ' s t r a t e g y , a s h e d o e s , seems t o m e e t h n o c e n t r i c , o r b i o m e d i c a l l y b i a s e d . T h e w h o l e p o i n t is t h a t t h e a t t r i b u t e s of t h e p o s s e s s i n g spirit a r e c o m p l e t e l y s u i t e d to t h e v i c t i m ' s m i l i e u a n d p o s i t i o n , a n d i n t h e s e t e r m s far from 'unrealistic'. W h i l e i t c a n n o t b e e x c l u d e d t h a t severely n e u r o t i c i n d i v i d u a l s m a y , occasionally, achieve p r o p h e t i c cult status (cf. L i t t l e w o o d , 1984), m o r e generally i t w o u l d b e w r o n g t o r e d u c e s h a m a n i s m a n d spirit p o s s e s sion a s total c u l t u r a l p h e n o m e n a t o e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e p r i v a t e fantasies o f psychotic i n d i v i d u a l s . A n d d e s p i t e t h e p e r s u a s i v e , a n d for s o m e n o doubt attractive, analogy between the professional t r a u m a which is a p r o l o g u e t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e s h a m a n ' s role a n d t h a t s o m e t i m e s followed in i n d u c t i o n i n t o t h e p s y c h i a t r i c , a n d a fortiori p s y c h o a n a l y t i c
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profession, we c a n n o t t r e a t all s h a m a n s as simply self-healed neurotics o r p s y c h o t i c s . A s i n p s y c h i a t r y , this m a y b e t h e case with s o m e p r a c t i t i o n e r s , b u t it is n o t t r u e for all. H o w t h e n a r e we to i n t e r p r e t t h e hysterically c o l o u r e d afflictions, or seering experiences, which typically herald the onset of the shamanistic vocation? I n all t h e cases w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d i n p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , these a r e c e r t a i n l y v i e w e d a s d a n g e r o u s , e v e n terrifying, e x p e r i e n c e s o r a s illnesses. E x p e r i e n c e of d i s o r d e r in s o m e form is t h u s an essential feature i n t h e r e c r u i t m e n t o f s h a m a n s . I n p e r i p h e r a l possession cults this i n i t i a t o r y illness l o o m s so l a r g e t h a t at first sight it a l m o s t completely o b s c u r e s their positive religious c o n t e n t . In central possession cults, this p r e p a r a t o r y e x p e r i e n c e is m o s t stressed in t h e case of those a s p i r a n t s w h o lack satisfactory ascriptive qualifications for t h e position of s h a m a n , o r w i t h t h o s e w h o , t h o u g h fully qualified, a t f i r s t resist t h e s u m m o n s o f t h e g o d s . H e r e G u y M o r e c h a n d ' s f i n d i n g s o n t h e selection o f H m o n g s h a m a n s in V i e t n a m a n d T h a i l a n d epitomize the general situation: T h e m o r e h e o s t e n s i b l y refuses this d e s t i n y , t h e m o r e h e resists, t h e m o r e s t r i k i n g will b e t h e s i g n s , t h e m o r e g r i p p i n g a n d d r a m a t i c his v o c a t i o n . . . . N o t o n l y h a v e t h e p e r s o n a l tastes of t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h e o r e t i c a l l y n o p a r t i n this decision t o m a k e h i m self a s h a m a n , b u t t h e y a r e also s t r o n g l y d e n i e d . T h e accent is on the contrary on the (acolyte's) repugnance: the poor persecuted m a n w h o c o u l d n o t d o o t h e r w i s e ( M o r e c h a n d , 1968, p . 208). I n t h i s v e i n P e t e r F r y ' s s t u d y o f spirit possession a m o n g t h e Z e z u r u S h o n a , to which we h a v e a l r e a d y referred, includes a brilliantly detailed a c c o u n t of t h e onset a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of the professional hysteria which o v e r t o o k h i s S h o n a r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t a n d led e v e n t u a l l y t o his formal i n s t a l l a t i o n a s a n a c k n o w l e d g e d s h a m a n . B e g i n n i n g with p e c u l i a r allergies t o t o b a c c o s m o k e a n d b e e r , w h i c h F r y w a s able t o establish w e r e o n l y o p e r a t i v e i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r S h o n a w h o saw these a s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f spirit activity a n d w h o m t h e future m e d i u m sought to i m p r e s s , t h e n e w r e c r u i t d e v e l o p e d a series of a r r e s t i n g d i e t a r y a b s t e n t i o n s w h i c h set h i m a p a r t from o t h e r p e o p l e . C o n t i n u a l l y r e s i s t i n g a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s a i l m e n t s i n t e r m s o f possession, the s u b j e c t m a i n t a i n e d h i s s y m p t o m s , c o n s u l t i n g a series of different d i v i n e r s until he h a d s u c c e e d e d in g a i n i n g a w i d e m e a s u r e of a t t e n t i o n a n d e x p e c t a n c y for t h e u l t i m a t e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f his calling, which h e a c c e p t e d from a p a r t i c u l a r l y powerful a n d p r e s t i g i o u s s h a m a n .
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T h u s the s h a m a n ' s initiatory experience is represented as an involuntary surrender to disorder, as he is thrust protesting into the c h a o s w h i c h t h e o r d e r e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d life of society strives so h a r d to d e n y , or at least to keep at b a y . No m a t t e r h o w valiantly he struggles, disorder eventually claims him a n d m a r k s him with the b r a n d of a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l e n c o u n t e r . At its w o r s t , in p e r i p h e r a l cults, this is seen as a baneful i n t r u s i o n of m a l i g n p o w e r . At its b e s t , in c e n t r a l possession religions it r e p r e s e n t s a d a n g e r - l a d e n e x p o s u r e to t h e p o w e r of the c o s m o s . I n b o t h cases t h e initial e x p e r i e n c e w i t h d r a w s t h e v i c t i m from t h e secure w o r l d of society a n d of o r d e r e d e x i s t e n c e , a n d e x p o s e s h i m d i r e c t l y t o those forces w h i c h , t h o u g h t h e y m a y b e h e l d t o u p h o l d the social o r d e r , also u l t i m a t e l y t h r e a t e n it. B u t this s y m b o l i c w o u n d w h i c h a s s e r t s t h e s u p r e m a c y o f t h e g o d s a s t h e a r b i t e r s o f b o t h d i s o r d e r a n d o f o r d e r (since b o t h a r e i n t h e i r gift), is a n e c e s s a r y b u t n o t a sufficient c o n d i t i o n for t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e s h a m a n i s t i c calling. T h e s h a m a n i s n o t t h e slave, b u t t h e m a s t e r o f a n o m a l y a n d c h a o s . T h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l m y s t e r y w h i c h lies a t t h e h e a r t o f his v o c a t i o n i s t h e h e a l e r ' s p a s s i o n ; his u l t i m a t e t r i u m p h o v e r the chaotic experience of raw power which threatened to d r a g h i m u n d e r . O u t o f t h e a g o n y o f affliction a n d t h e d a r k n i g h t o f t h e soul c o m e s literally t h e ecstasy of spiritual victory. In rising to t h e challenge o f t h e p o w e r s w h i c h r u l e his life a n d b y v a l i a n t l y o v e r c o m i n g t h e m in t h i s crucial i n i t i a t o r y rite (cf. La F o n t a i n e , 1985) w h i c h r e i m p o s e s o r d e r o n c h a o s a n d d e s p a i r , m a n r e a s s e r t s his m a s t e r y o f t h e u n i v e r s e a n d affirms his c o n t r o l of d e s t i n y a n d fate. T h e s h a m a n is thus the symbol not of subjection a n d despondency but of independence a n d hope. T h r o u g h h i m the otherwise unfettered p o w e r o f t h e w o r l d b e y o n d h u m a n society i s h a r n e s s e d p u r p o s e f u l l y and applied to minister to the needs of the c o m m u n i t y . If by incarn a t i n g spirits h e e m b o d i e s t h e m o s t p r o f o u n d i n t r u s i o n o f t h e g o d s into t h e r e a l m o f h u m a n society, his m a s t e r i n g o f t h e s e p o w e r s d r a m a t i c a l l y asserts m a n ' s c l a i m t o c o n t r o l his s p i r i t u a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d t o t r e a t w i t h t h e gods o n t e r m s o f e q u a l i t y . I n t h e p e r s o n o f t h e s h a m a n , m a n t r i u m p h a n t l y p r o c l a i m s his s u p r e m a c y o v e r e l e m e n t a l p o w e r w h i c h h e h a s m a s t e r e d a n d t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a socially beneficent force. A n d this h a r d - w o n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e g r o u n d s o f affliction is re-enacted in every shamanistic seance. T h i s , rather t h a n the r e p e t i t i o n o f a n y p e r s o n a l crisis, i s t h e m e s s a g e o f t h e s e a n c e . F o r a t t h e s e a n c e t h e gods e n t e r t h e s h a m a n a t his b i d d i n g , a n d a r e t h u s b r o u g h t into direct c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h society a n d its p r o b l e m s . I t i s
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b y d r a g g i n g t h e g o d s d o w n t o his o w n level, a s m u c h b y s o a r i n g aloft t o m e e t t h e m , t h a t t h e s h a m a n e n a b l e s m a n t o deal with his deities o n a n e q u a l o r a l m o s t e q u a l footing. T h e e s s e n t i a l p r o c e s s in t h e m a k i n g of a s h a m a n is t h u s as follows. S u f f e r i n g i n t e r p r e t e d a s possession i n v o l v e s a n i n v a s i o n o f t h e h u m a n b o d y w h i c h is u s u r p e d as a vehicle for t h e spirit. In t r a n c e t h e h o s t ' s p e r s o n a l i t y fades a w a y a n d i s r e p l a c e d b y t h e p o w e r o f t h e possessing a g e n t . B u t w h i l e this is a g e n e r a l e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h m a y befall a n y socially a p p r o p r i a t e m e m b e r of society, for t h e s h a m a n it is m e r e l y t h e first i n d i c a t i o n of his future v o c a t i o n . By o v e r c o m i n g this spiritual a s s a u l t a n e w r e l a t i o n s h i p is forged w i t h t h e spirit w h i c h m a k e s t h e v i c t i m of t h i s e x p e r i e n c e a s h a m a n w i t h a c o n s e q u e n t c h a n g e in his s t a t u s . A s E l i a d e r i g h t l y insists a n d a s w e c a n n o w clearly see, this is not to be u n d e r s t o o d in t e r m s of individual psychopathology, but on t h e c o n t r a r y as a c u l t u r a l l y defined i n i t i a t i o n r i t u a l . In b o t h p e r i p h e r a l a n d m a i n m o r a l i t y possession c u l t s , t h e effect i s the s a m e . An e n h a n c e m e n t of status accrues to the shamanistic candidate who s u c c e e d s i n m a s t e r i n g t h e g r o u n d s o f affliction a n d t h u s p r o v e s t o the w o r l d h i s claim to be c o n s i d e r e d a h e a l e r . T h e t e m p o r a r y rise in status o f t h e possessed w o m a n o r d o w n t r o d d e n m a n i n p e r i p h e r a l possession c u l t s is itself an i n t i m a t i o n of t h e fuller a n d m o r e p e r m a n e n t r e w a r d s w h i c h lie in store if t h e a c o l y t e p e r s e v e r e s to later b e c o m e a fully-fledged s h a m a n . V i e w e d i n this light, w e c a n n o w a p p r e c i a t e h o w singularly a p p r o p r i a t e t h e i d i o m of m a r r i a g e is as a m e a n s of e x p r e s s i n g t h e s h a m a n i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p . F o r t h e t r a n s i t i o n rite o f m a r r i a g e signifies e x a c t l y w h a t h a s o c c u r r e d . F r o m b e i n g subject, a t t h e w h i m o f t h e gods, to involuntary, uncontrollable experiences of disorder, the s h a m a n h a s p r o g r e s s e d to a p o i n t w h e r e he h a s a c h i e v e d a stable a n d d o m i n a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e g r o u n d s o f affliction. I f t h e s h a m a n is c o n t r a c t u a l l y b o u n d as m o r t a l p a r t n e r to a d i v i n i t y , t h a t deity is e q u a l l y tied t o its h u m a n s p o u s e . Both a r e i n s e p a r a b l y conjoined: each possesses t h e o t h e r . E l e m e n t s of o t h e r t r a n s i t i o n rites in t h e h u m a n life cycle a r e also o f c o u r s e p r e s e n t . T h u s t h e s h a m a n , w h e n possessed a n d i n full t r a n c e , h a s ' d i e d ' a n d i s ' b o r n ' a n e w w i t h t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e spirit h e incarnates. But it seems to me that we can go further in interpreting t h e significance of t h e selection of t h e rite of m a r r i a g e as the most widely f a v o u r e d i m a g e for t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s h a m a n a n d his celestial p a r t n e r . F o r w h i l e b i r t h a n d d e a t h a r e b o t h i n e s c a p a b l e
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e v e n t s , o v e r which t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a s n o c o n t r o l , a n d t o w h i c h his lot is s i m p l y to s u b m i t , m a r r i a g e at o n c e signals n o t m e r e l y a c h a n g e of s t a t u s , b u t also a n alliance, a n d p e r m i t s a t least s o m e d e g r e e o f c h o i c e . H e n c e a l t h o u g h t h e official s h a m a n i s t i c ideology e m p h a s i z e s t h a t it i s t h e g o d s w h o m a k e t h e o p e n i n g m o v e s , a n d w h o relentlessly p u r s u e their v i c t i m s until t h e l a t t e r s u b m i t , t h e r e still r e m a i n s a n e l e m e n t o f h u m a n choice. N o t all t h o s e u p o n w h o m t h e spirits p r e s s t h e i r a t t e n tions progress to that point of i n t i m a c y w h e r e they a r e j o i n e d in celestial union. A n d even when they d o , the decision to accept their divine calling is at s o m e level m a d e by t h e subjects t h e m s e l v e s . If, t h e r e f o r e , i n this case G o d p r o p o s e s , u l t i m a t e l y m a n disposes. A t t h e s a m e t i m e , a s J e a n L a F o n t a i n e ( 1 9 8 5 , p . 67) n o t e s , t h e i m a g e r y o f conjugal u n i o n m a y also b e t a k e n a s i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e possessed s h a m a n i c r e c r u i t i s a p r o d u c t of a n d a t e s t a m e n t to t h e s e x u a l p o t e n c y of t h e g o d s . In p e r i p h e r a l cults t h e c a t c h m e n t a r e a of possession is so c i r c u m scribed t h a t those w h o o c c u p y m a r g i n a l social p o s i t i o n s a r e s t r o n g l y a t risk. Illness a n d m i s f o r t u n e a r e a l w a y s liable t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s spirit possession, a n d this r e a d i l y l e a d s t o i n d u c t i o n i n t o t h e h e a l i n g cult i n this c l a n d e s t i n e form o f d i v i n e e l e c t i o n . O f c o u r s e , t h e e x t e n t to which different individuals of s u b o r d i n a t e status a r e actively involved will d e p e n d u p o n t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r life c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a n d especially u p o n t h e m a g n i t u d e a n d severity o f t h e stresses t o w h i c h t h e y a r e subject. T h e h a p p i l y m a r r i e d wife w h o i s c o n t e n t w i t h h e r lot i s m u c h less likely to resort to possession t h a n h e r h a r a s s e d sister w h o s e m a r r i e d life is fraught with difficulty. Successful wives a n d m o t h e r s m a y occasionally s u c c u m b t o possession, b u t t h e y a r e unlikely t o b e d r a w n into p e r m a n e n t i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e possession cult g r o u p s . T h e keenest r e c r u i t s a n d t h e m o s t c o m m i t t e d e n t h u s i a s t s a r e w o m e n w h o , for o n e r e a s o n or a n o t h e r , do n o t m a k e a success of t h e i r m a r i t a l roles, r e a c t against n e w d o m e s t i c c o n f i n e m e n t o r w h o , h a v i n g fulfilled these roles, seek a n e w c a r e e r in w h i c h t h e y c a n give free rein to t h e d e s i r e to m a n a g e a n d d o m i n a t e o t h e r s (cf. C o n s t a n t i n i d e s , 1985). I n m a i n m o r a l i t y r e l i g i o n s , a n initial e x p e r i e n c e o f d i s o r d e r a n d its m a s t e r i n g t h r o u g h controlled possession a r e particularly e m p h a s i z e d i n t h e case o f those c a n d i d a t e s w h o lack h e r e d i t a r y q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . F o r such outsiders in the q u e s t for s h a m a n i s t i c office, p e r s o n a l peculiarities a n d a n o m a l o u s e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h society r e c o g n i z e s a s e x p r e s s i o n s of spiritual attention m a y indeed be exploited with a d v a n t a g e . But they a r e o f n o v a l u e a t all u n l e s s t h e y c a n b e c o n s p i c u o u s l y m a s t e r e d . T h e ability t o c o n t a i n a n d c o n t r o l t h e g r o u n d s o f d i s o r d e r r e m a i n s
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t h e essential r e q u i r e m e n t ; a n d o b v i o u s l y t h e g r e a t e r t h e a p p a r e n t t r a u m a which is so mastered, the greater the authority and power of the new shaman. S o m e s u c h c a n d i d a t e s a r e u n d o u b t e d l y p e o p l e w h o h a v e found c u l t u r a l l y a c c e p t a b l e t e c h n i q u e s for c o n t r o l l i n g p r i v a t e n e u r o t i c proclivities. F o r t h e s e , t h e s h a m a n i s t i c role m a y well r e p r e s e n t a precarious h a v e n within which their eccentricities are tolerated and t u r n e d to a d v a n t a g e (cf. L i t t l e w o o d , 1984). I n d i v i d u a l s of this k i n d , h o w e v e r , s e e m , o n t h e p r e s e n t e v i d e n c e t o c o n s t i t u t e only a small fraction o f t h o s e w h o b e c o m e successful s h a m a n s ; a n d t h e p a r t m u s t not be confused with t h e w h o l e . H e n c e , if t h e i d i o m which is e m p l o y e d u n i v e r s a l l y t o e x p r e s s t h e role o f t h e s h a m a n i s t h a t o f t h e w o u n d e d h e a l e r , this is a b o v e all a s t e r e o t y p e , a professional qualification, which e s t a b l i s h e s t h e h e a l e r ' s w a r r a n t t o m i n i s t e r t o his p e o p l e ' s n e e d s a s o n e w h o k n o w s h o w t o c o n t r o l d i s o r d e r . I t d o e s n o t necessarily tell u s a n y t h i n g a b o u t his p s y c h i a t r i c c o n d i t i o n . W h a t i t d o e s p u r p o r t t o g u a r a n t e e is t h a t such a p e r s o n h a s e n d u r e d t h e experience of elemental power and emerged, not merely unscathed, but strengthened and e m p o w e r e d t o h e l p o t h e r s w h o suffer affliction.
III
A s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n s u g g e s t e d , a n d a s J u n g h i m s e l f r e m i n d s u s i n his m e m o i r s , i n E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e t h e profession t o w h i c h t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e w o u n d e d s u r g e o n m o s t p o i g n a n t l y a n d aptly applies i s p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . W i t h t h i s a n d o t h e r c o m m o n f e a t u r e s i n m i n d , spirit p o s s e s s i o n a n d s h a m a n i s m h a v e also b e e n v i e w e d as a pre-scientific p s y c h o t h e r a p y . T h u s , r e m e m b e r i n g t h a t , w h a t e v e r else they a r e , spirits are certainly hypotheses used to explain what we would regard as psychological states, such s t u d e n t s of h y s t e r i a as Ilza V e i t h h a v e traced t h e g r a d u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s e m y s t i c a l t h e o r i e s i n t o those o f m o d e r n psychiatry (Veith, 1965; K e n n y , 981). H e r e the s h a m a n is seen in a h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e as a p r i m i t i v e psychiatrist a n d his explanations of hysterical a n d other behaviour are treated as the p r i m i t i v e p r e c u r s o r s o f t h e t h e o r i e s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y psychological m e d i c i n e . T h e s a m e e q u i v a l e n c e h a s also b e e n p r o p o s e d o n t h e basis of studies of c o n t e m p o r a r y s h a m a n i s m in exotic c u l t u r e s . T h u s in 1946 b o t h M a r s ( M a r s , 1946) a n d N a d e l ( N a d e l , 1946) i n d e p e n d e n t l y a d v a n c e d this view, the first in relation to H a i t i a n voodoo, and the second with respect t o possession a m o n g t h e N u b a tribes o f t h e S u d a n .
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S h a m a n i s m , they c o n s i d e r e d , should be seen as a c a t h a r t i c m e c h a n i s m with a crucial role to p l a y in p r e v e n t i v e p s y c h i a t r y . T h u s , r e j e c t i n g t h e old p i c t u r e o f t h e c r a z y s h a m a n , N a d e l u r g e d t h a t t h e i n s t i t u tionalized c a t h a r s i s o f t h e s h a m a n i s t i c s e a n c e m i g h t n e v e r t h e l e s s h a v e ' t h e t h e r a p e u t i c effect o f s t a b i l i z i n g h y s t e r i a a n d r e l a t e d psychoneuroses, thus reducing a psychopathic incidence which would otherwise be m u c h larger'. T h i s a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o b l e m w a s i n fact also s u g g e s t e d b y Shirokogoroff in the context of T u n g u s s h a m a n i s m o v e r fifty years a g o . A s this R u s s i a n p i o n e e r i n t h e f i e l d o f w h a t i s n o w s o m e t i m e s k n o w n a s ' t r a n s - c u l t u r a l p s y c h i a t r y ' n o t e s , s h a m a n s i n reality t r e a t o n l y t h e psychological a s p e c t s o f d i s e a s e . ' T h e y m a y s t r e n g t h e n t h e p a t i e n t ' s psychic resolve a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n to r e c o v e r , a n d also alleviate distress a m o n g s t friends a n d relatives c a u s e d b y really s e r i o u s d i s e a s e . ' T h e y succeed in e x e r c i s i n g a positive effect if t h e c o m m u n i t y believes t h a t t h e p a t h o g e n i c spirits i n v o l v e d a r e n e u t r a l i z e d b y b e i n g m a s t e r e d o r expelled. A n d , a s h e p u t s i t m o r e g e n e r a l l y , i n t e r m s w h i c h t h o s e anthropologists (such a s R o b i n H o r t o n ) w h o a d v o c a t e a n intellectualist i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f religion w o u l d s t r o n g l y a p p r o v e : Spirits a r e h y p o t h e s e s , s o m e o f w h i c h a r e a d m i t t e d b y t h e E u r o p e a n c o m p l e x a s well, h y p o t h e s e s w h i c h f o r m u l a t e o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e psychic life of t h e p e o p l e a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t o f t h e s h a m a n , a n d w h i c h a r e q u i t e helpful i n t h e r e g u l a tion o f t h e p s y c h o m e n t a l c o m p l e x t o w h i c h t h e T u n g u s h a v e c o m e after a l o n g p e r i o d of a d a p t a t i o n . . . . T h e p h e n o m e n o n of psychic life is n o t u n d e r s t o o d in t h e s a m e form as m o d e r n science w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d it, b u t i t i s r e g u l a t e d , a n d its c o m p o n e n t s a r e p e r h a p s b e t t e r a n a l y s e d (in spirit s y m b o l s ) t h a n i s d o n e b y psychologists o p e r a t i n g w i t h s u c h c o n c e p t i o n s a s ' i n s t i n c t s ' a n d ' c o m p l e x e s ' . I n r e a l i t y h y s t e r i a c a n b e easily r e g u l a t e d (Shirokogoroff, 1 9 3 5 , p . 3 7 0 ) . T h i s a s s i m i l a t i o n o f t h e s h a m a n ' s role t o t h a t o f t h e p s y c h i a t r i s t h a s also m o r e r e c e n t l y b e e n e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y e n d o r s e d b y t h a t m o d e r n H e r a c l i t u s o f e t h n o l o g y , L e v i - S t r a u s s , w h o s e s e d u l o u s s e a r c h for h i d d e n o p p o s i t i o n s a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i s well k n o w n . C l a i m i n g t h a t i n t h e s e a n c e t h e s h a m a n a l w a y s relives h i s o r i g i n a l t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e n c e , i n this style L e v i - S t r a u s s c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e s h a m a n i s t i c cure is the exact counterpart of the psychoanalytic, b u t with 'the
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i n v e r s i o n of all t h e e l e m e n t s ' ( L e v i - S t r a u s s , 1968, p. 199). Both a i m at i n d u c i n g a n e x p e r i e n c e a n d b o t h succeed b y r e - e n a c t i n g a m y t h which t h e p a t i e n t h a s to live or re-live. In p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , a c c o r d i n g to LeviS t r a u s s , t h e p a t i e n t constructs a n individual m y t h with elements d r a w n from h i s p a s t ; in t h e s h a m a n i s t i c seance t h e p a t i e n t receives from the outside a social m y t h w h i c h d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d to a f o r m e r p e r s o n a l state. T h e p s y c h o a n a l y s t listens: t h e s h a m a n s p e a k s . W h e n a t r a n s f e r e n c e i s e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e p a t i e n t p u t s w o r d s i n t o t h e m o u t h o f the psychoanalyst by a t t r i b u t i n g to h i m alleged feelings a n d i n t e n t i o n s . In the shamanistic i n c a n t a t i o n , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e s h a m a n s p e a k s for his p a t i e n t . T h i s c o n t r a s t w h i c h sees t h e p s y c h o a n a l y s t as a passive a g e n t , a m e r e s o u n d i n g b o a r d for his p a t i e n t ' s p s y c h e , a n d t h e s h a m a n a s a n a c t i v e a g e n t d i r e c t i n g his p a t i e n t ' s p s y c h i c e x p e r i e n c e , seems t o m e so c o n t r i v e d a n d so at v a r i a n c e w i t h t h e facts t h a t it c a n h a v e little significance o r v a l u e . C e r t a i n l y i t d o e s n o t d o j u s t i c e t o t h a t cons i d e r a b l e a r e a of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p r a c t i c e w h e r e t h e a n a l y s t ' s role is far f r o m b e i n g as p a s s i v e as L e v i - S t r a u s s s u p p o s e s . N o r d o e s it take a c c o u n t , as is n o w well e s t a b l i s h e d , of t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h the psychoanalyst's mythology both evokes a n d moulds the putative e x p e r i e n c e s o f his p a t i e n t . A n d while i t m a y c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r S o u t h A m e r i c a n e t h n o g r a p h y from w h i c h L e v i - S t r a u s s i s g e n e r a l i z i n g , it is c e r t a i n l y n o t by a n y m e a n s u n i v e r s a l l y t h e case that in t h e s h a m a n i s t i c seance t h e patient always a n d inevitably plays merely a p a s s i v e foil to t h e a c t i v e role a s s u m e d by t h e s h a m a n . In b o t h i n s t a n c e s p a t i e n t a n d h e a l e r i n t e r a c t m o r e fully a n d m o r e subtly i n w a y s w h i c h d e p r i v e this facile a n t i t h e s i s o f e x p l a n a t o r y p o w e r . T o w h a t e x t e n t t h e n c a n w e l e g i t i m a t e l y assimilate s h a m a n i s m t o p s y c h o t h e r a p y o r p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ? T h e o b v i o u s w a y t o b e g i n seeking an a n s w e r to t h i s q u e s t i o n is to look m o r e closely at t h e s h a m a n i s t i c s e a n c e . A s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e s e a n c e i s i n v a r i a b l y , for p a r t o f t h e t i m e at least, an emotionally highly charged and dramatic performance. I n p e r i p h e r a l cults w h i c h o s t e n s i b l y t r e a t illness a n d w h e r e n o m o r a l b l a m e a t t a c h e s to t h e p a t i e n t , t h e s e a n c e p r o v i d e s a s e t t i n g in which free r e i n is g i v e n to t h e e x p r e s s i o n of p r o b l e m s a n d a m b i t i o n s which refer d i r e c t l y t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' n o r m a l l y f r u s t r a t i n g social c i r c u m stances. T h e possessing familiar which the patient incarnates, or i m p e r s o n a t e s , e x p r e s s e s v e r y clearly t h e f r u s t r a t e d d e m a n d s o f t h e d e p e n d e n t w o m a n o r d o w n t r o d d e n low class m a n . W o m e n w h o seek p o w e r a n d a s p i r e t o roles o t h e r w i s e m o n o p o l i z e d b y m e n act o u t t h r u s t i n g m a l e p a r t s w i t h i m p u n i t y a n d w i t h t h e full a p p r o v a l o f the
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a u d i e n c e . T h e possessed p e r s o n w h o i n t h e s e a n c e i s t h e c e n t r e o f attention says in effect, ' L o o k at m e , I am d a n c i n g ' . T h u s t h o s e forced b y society i n t o s u b s e r v i e n c e p l a y e x a c t l y t h e o p p o s i t e role w i t h t h e active e n c o u r a g e m e n t of t h e s e a n c e a u d i e n c e . L i k e t h o s e of zar a n d bori, H a i t i a n v o o d o o c e r e m o n i e s a r e q u i t e clearly t h e a t r e s , i n w h i c h p r o b l e m s a n d conflicts r e l a t i n g to t h e life s i t u a t i o n s of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e d r a m a t i c a l l y e n a c t e d w i t h g r e a t s y m b o l i c force. T h e atmosphere, though controlled a n d not as anarchic as it m a y s e e m , i s essentially p e r m i s s i v e a n d c o m f o r t i n g . E v e r y t h i n g t a k e s o n the t o n e a n d c h a r a c t e r o f m o d e r n p s y c h o d r a m a o r g r o u p t h e r a p y . Abreaction is the order of the day. Repressed urges a n d desires, the i d i o s y n c r a t i c as well as t h e socially c o n d i t i o n e d , a r e g i v e n free p u b l i c rein. No holds are barred. No interests or d e m a n d s are too unseemly in this setting not to receive s y m p a t h e t i c a t t e n t i o n . E a c h d a n c e r ideally e v e n t u a l l y a c h i e v e s a state of e c s t a s y , a n d in s t e r e o t y p e d fashion collapses i n a t r a n c e from w h i c h h e e m e r g e s p u r g e d a n d r e f r e s h e d . W h e r e such e x p e r i e n c e s a r e g e n u i n e p s y c h i c a d v e n t u r e s ( a n d n o t , a s is often t h e case for m a n y of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s on s o m e o c c a s i o n s , m e r e l y r o u t i n e or feigned), clearly a g r e a t d e a l of p s y c h o l o g i c a l satisfaction may result. T h i s is the point at which the psychoanalyst's emphasis o n ' p r i m a r y (psychic) g a i n s ' b e c o m e s significant, a l t h o u g h a s w e h a v e seen t h e ' s e c o n d a r y g a i n s ' i n t e r m s o f social a d v a n t a g e , a n d w h i c h m a y b e a c h i e v e d w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o g e n u i n e t r a n c e , a r e also u s u a l l y important. In these t e r m s the r e g u l a r seances of p e r i p h e r a l possession cults m a y b e seen a s d a n c e d p s y c h o d r a m a s ; ' w o r k - o u t s ' i n w h i c h s o m e m e a s u r e of psychic c o m p e n s a t i o n for t h e injuries a n d v i c i s s i t u d e s of d a i l y life is o b t a i n e d . Possession in this c o n t e x t is i n d e e d a r e l e a s e , an e s c a p e from h a r s h reality i n t o a w o r l d of s y m b o l i s m w h i c h , precisely b e c a u s e it is n o t i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y d e t a c h e d from m u n d a n e life, is full of c o m p e n s a t o r y p o t e n t i a l i t i e s a n d h a s g r e a t e m o t i v e a p p e a l (cf. S i i k a l a , 1978; P e t e r s a n d P r i c e - W i l l i a m s , 1980). It is n o t an u n r e a l i s t i c flight from fate, for s u c h psychic benefit as t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s m a y in different m e a s u r e g a i n is s u p p l e m e n t e d in t h e m o r e t a n g i b l e , if from a psychological p o i n t o f view m e r e l y ' s e c o n d a r y ' , r e w a r d s w h i c h a c c r u e from this r e d r e s s i v e s t r a t e g y . T h e s h a m a n s w h o l e a d t h e p r o c e e d i n g s e n t e r literally into t h e spirit of t h e occasion, b e i n g t h e m s e l v e s possessed b y t h e i r familiars. T h e y p l a y a d u a l r o l e . T h e y s t i m u l a t e a n d d i r e c t t h e e n t h u s i a s m of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s u n t i l t h e l a t t e r a c h i e v e a s t a t e of full possession ( t r a n c e , in o u r t e r m i n o l o g y ) , a n d they elicit t h e d e m a n d s
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w h i c h t h e p o s s e s s i n g spirits t h e n m a k e o n b e h a l f o f their h u m a n v e h i c l e s . T h e y m a y a l s o , a s i n s o m e o f t h e cases w e h a v e e x a m i n e d , p r e s c r i b e a r e s t r u c t u r i n g of t h e p a t i e n t ' s relationships in t h e best traditions of m o d e r n psychotherapy. In an earlier c h a p t e r I referred to possession of this kind as a ' g a m e ' . B u t in so d o i n g I d i d n o t wish to i m p l y t h a t it w a s n o t a serious g a m e , n o r o n e i n w h i c h t h e stakes w e r e i n v a r i a b l y o f little a c c o u n t . T h e t r u t h of c o u r s e is t h a t different p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e psychologically e n g a g e d in t h e possession rituals to different extents. F o r s o m e individuals it m e a n s a g r e a t d e a l , for o t h e r s v e r y little. S o m e p a r t i c i p a n t s , while e n j o y i n g t h e religious aspects of t h e cult in a c o n v e n t i o n a l w a y , h a v e their sights firmly a n d e v e n c o n s c i o u s l y a n d c a l c u l a t i n g l y set o n t h e ancillary e x t e r n a l benefits t h e i n f l u e n c i n g of their s u p e r i o r s a n d the exaction o f p r o p i t i a t o r y gifts from t h e m . F o r o t h e r s t h e direct psychic r e w a r d s , t h e ' p r i m a r y g a i n s ' o f p s y c h i a t r y , a r e o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e . Yet o t h e r s a r e so psychologically ill t h a t , try as they will a n d n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g all t h e s h a m a n ' s efforts to i n d u c e t r a n c e , t h e y do not succeed in a c h i e v i n g this blissful oblivion. As recent studies by psychiatrists show, it is p r e c i s e l y t h e s e u n f o r t u n a t e p e o p l e w h o c a n n o t fully e x p r e s s their p r o b l e m s i n this c o n v e n t i o n a l i d i o m w h o a r e seriously psychologically d i s t u r b e d . T h e s e refractory psychotics a n d schizophrenics, w h o d o not r e s p o n d a n d w h o c a n n o t satisfactorily e n t e r i n t o t h e g a m e , a r e the e x c e p t i o n s p r o v i n g t h e r u l e t h a t spirit possession a n d s h a m a n i s m deal essentially n o t w i t h t h e hopelessly i m p a i r e d , b u t w i t h o r d i n a r y ' n o r m a l l y ' n e u r o t i c p e o p l e . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , a s w e h a v e seen, those p r o b l e m s w i t h w h i c h p e r i p h e r a l possession i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d a r e i n h e r e n t in t h e s t r u c t u r e of society. It is t h u s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t a n u m b e r of p s y c h i a t r i c a s s e s s m e n t s of t h e efficacy of these c a t h a r t i c t r e a t m e n t s s u c h , for e x a m p l e , as t h a t by K e n n e d y of S u d a n e s e zar ( K e n n e d y , 1967, p. 185) s h o u l d assert t h e i r great t h e r a p e u t i c p o t e n t i a l (cf. Leff, 1981). F o r after all if, as we k n o w from their social c o n t e x t , t h e y involve basically n o r m a l p e o p l e w h o m e r e l y seek m o r e a t t e n t i o n a n d r e s p e c t , o n c e these a r e a c c o r d e d w e s h o u l d expect a good o u t c o m e . M u c h of w h a t h a s b e e n said of p e r i p h e r a l possession seances applies e q u a l l y t o t h o s e i n m a i n m o r a l i t y religions. F o r h e r e a l t h o u g h t h e p a t i e n t is in this case r e g a r d e d as r e s p o n s i b l e for his plight a n d is held t o b e m o r a l l y c u l p a b l e , t h e s e a n c e offers a b r e a c t i v e a t o n e m e n t . T h a t i n s i s t e n t refrain of t h e E s k i m o s e a n c e ' L e t h i m be forgiven' e p i t o m i z e s t h e confessional a t m o s p h e r e o f c o n s o l i n g s u p p o r t a n d
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u n d e r s t a n d i n g in w h i c h t h e afflicted victim is u r g e d to r e p e n t a n c e a n d e n c o u r a g e d t o d i s c h a r g e his guilt i n t h e s e c u r e k n o w l e d g e t h a t forgiveness a n d release a r e a t h a n d . T h i s , i f w e like, w e c a n view a s a type of 'control' therapy w h e r e , contrary to w h a t Levi-Strauss s u p p o s e s , t h e accent i s o n r e - o r g a n i z i n g a n d r e - o r i e n t a t i n g t h e p a t i e n t in t e r m s of an e t h o s w h i c h is as c o m p a s s i o n a t e as it is c o m p r e h e n s i v e b u t d o e s n o t absolve h i m o f responsibility for his c o n d i t i o n . T h e stress on confession t h u s a p p e a r s as a direct c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n in c e n t r a l possession c u l t s , w h e r e illness is a sin n o t m e r e l y an u n k i n d s t r o k e of f o r t u n e . H e r e t h e possession illness does n o t c o n s t i t u t e a l e g i t i m a t e e s c a p e or e v a s i o n of d u t y or of a u t h o r i t y . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i t a m o u n t s t o a n a d m i s s i o n o f guilt, a recognition that a u t h o r i t y a n d obligation h a v e b e e n w a n t o n l y i g n o r e d . Nevertheless a s soon a s t r e a t m e n t c o m m e n c e s , a n d o n c e guilt h a s b e e n a d m i t t e d , it p r o c e e d s as a c a t h a r t i c a b r e a c t i o n . In o p p o s i t i o n to t h i s , the s h a m a n ' s c o n t r o l l e d possession, w h i c h i s n o t a n illness, r e p r e s e n t s an a s s e r t i o n of a u t h o r i t y , a d e m o n s t r a t i o n of his m o r a l fitness to act b o t h as a l e a d e r of m e n a n d as a s p o k e s m a n of t h e g o d s . T h e foregoing suggests t h a t a p e r s u a s i v e a r g u m e n t d o e s in fact exist for e q u a t i n g s h a m a n i s m w i t h p s y c h o t h e r a p y ( o r p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ) . B u t there a r e other factors which m u s t also be t a k e n into a c c o u n t . A l t h o u g h with this a s s i m i l a t i o n in m i n d , a n u m b e r of w r i t e r s h a v e c l a i m e d ( L o u d o n , 1959; Y a p , 1960 a n d 1969) t h a t i n t h e illnesses i n w h i c h possession is diagnosed a n d for which t h e s h a m a n i s t i c c u r e is prescribed only p s y c h o g e n i c c o m p l a i n t s a r e i n v o l v e d , this is far from b e i n g t h e general case. W h i l e shamanistic t h e r a p y m a y in reality only accomplish w h a t it claims in t h e case of psychiatric d i s o r d e r s , t h e r a n g e of illnesses w h i c h a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o possession i s far w i d e r t h a n t h i s . I n m a n y , i f not m o s t o f t h e exotic c u l t u r e s w i t h w h i c h w e a r e c o n c e r n e d , m e d i c a l specialization has obviously h a r d l y p r o c e e d e d to t h e point it h a s r e a c h e d in o u r culture. Consequently, unlike the western psychiatrist, the s h a m a n ' s practice frequently includes patients w i t h real o r g a n i c lesions, as well as those w h o a r e n o t so m u c h physically ill as t h e v i c t i m s of misfortune. T h e s h a m a n is moreover asked to placate a n d control elemental n a t u r e , a n d to divine a n d prophesy in a m a n n e r a n d to a degree which would d a u n t even the most optimistically omniscient p s y c h i a t r i s t . H e n c e a s Shirokogoroff c o r r e c t l y s a w , b u t a s s o m a n y o t h e r s t u d e n t s o f s h a m a n i s m h a v e failed t o a p p r e c i a t e , t h e parallel a p p l i e s o n l y in respect of s u c h a s p e c t s of t h e s h a m a n ' s p r a c t i c e as c o n c e r n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t e n s i o n s , fears a n d conflicts w h i c h a r e , i n
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r e a l i t y , r e a d i l y s u s c e p t i b l e to p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c c o n t r o l . In a w o r d , t h e s h a m a n is n o t less t h a n a p s y c h i a t r i s t , he is m o r e . I n t h i s a r g u m e n t i n w h i c h I h a v e followed o t h e r s o v e r t h e s a m e g r o u n d to r e a c h g e n e r a l l y different c o n c l u s i o n s , I h a v e a s s u m e d , as t h e y h a v e , t h a t p s y c h i a t r y is a l a t e n t function of s h a m a n i s m . It is o n e of t h e t h i n g s it d o e s , a l t h o u g h it is n o t fully a w a r e of d o i n g it. F r o m a different p o i n t of v i e w , I gladly c o n c e d e t h a t spirit possession a n d s h a m a n i s m (as is also t h e case w i t h witchcraft beliefs) m a y be said to r e p r e s e n t o v e r - d e t e r m i n e d theories of psychiatric causation. T h e y seem t o a s s u m e t h a t p s y c h o g e n i c a n d o t h e r m e n t a l d i s t u r b a n c e s h a v e their r o o t s in i n t e r - p e r s o n a l a n d social conflict as m u c h of functional p s y c h i a t r y d o e s t o d a y to a significant e x t e n t (see e.g. Leff, 1 9 8 1 ; M u r p h y , 1982). B u t t h e y also h o l d t h a t t h e c a u s e s o f p u r e l y o r g a n i c d i s o r d e r s , a s well a s o f m i s f o r t u n e s g e n e r a l l y , c a n a g a i n b e t r a c e d t o t h e s a m e n e x u s a n d t o t h a t e x t e n t t h e y c o n s t i t u t e a n overd e t e r m i n e d psychiatry. A g a i n , h o w e v e r , this b r i n g s us back to the same conclusion: shamanism is more than psychiatry. T h u s the m o r e meaningful equivalence is that psychiatry, and especially p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , a s J u n g w o u l d p e r h a p s h a v e a d m i t t e d m u c h m o r e freely t h a n m o s t F r e u d i a n s w o u l d c a r e t o , r e p r e s e n t limited a n d i m p e r f e c t f o r m s of s h a m a n i s m . T h e t h e m e is d e v e l o p e d in a very i n t e r e s t i n g w a y to highlight t h e cultural relativity of western psychiatry b y L i t t l e w o o d a n d L i p s e d g e ( 1 9 8 6 ) , m a i n s t r e a m British psychiatrists w h o i n c l u d e a n t h r o p o l o g y i n t h e i r e x p e r t i s e . T h e i r basic a i m s a r e t h e s a m e : t o m a i n t a i n h a r m o n y b e t w e e n m a n a n d m a n , a n d between m a n and n a t u r e . H e n c e we can, if we wish, group shamanism and p s y c h o a n a l y s i s (if not the whole of psychiatry) together u n d e r the genus r e l i g i o n . B u t , i f w e c h o o s e t o look a t p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d s h a m a n i s m i n t h i s light, w e m u s t r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e a b r e a c t i o n o f t h e confessional is also e m p l o y e d by o t h e r faiths a n d ideologies.
IV W e a r e n o w left w i t h t h e m o s t f o r m i d a b l e p r o b l e m o f all: w h y possession? I n p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s w e h a v e c o m e s o m e w a y t o w a r d s a n s w e r i n g this q u e s t i o n i n sociological t e r m s . W e h a v e n o w t o see w h a t d e p t h p s y c h o l o g y h a s t o say o n t h e m a t t e r a n d w h e t h e r its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a g r e e o r clash w i t h o u r s . T h e clue h e r e lies i n t h e ' p r o f e s s i o n a l ' h y s t e r o i d c h a r a c t e r o f p o s s e s s i o n , a n d t h e key t o t h e psychiatric i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h y s t e r i a i s o f c o u r s e F r e u d a n d B r e u e r ' s classic
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s t u d y ( F r e u d , 1912). A s i s well k n o w n , t h e s e f o u n d e r s o f m o d e r n p s y c h i a t r y e x p l a i n e d h y s t e r i a as t h e result of a conflict b e t w e e n t h e ego a n d s o m e f o r b i d d e n d e s i r e w h i c h i s t h e r e f o r e s u p p r e s s e d . S i n c e t h e r e p r e s s i o n is o n l y p a r t i a l , t h e d e s i r e d a i m is e x p r e s s e d i n d i r e c t l y and covertly, t h r o u g h 'conversion reactions' the oblique strategy which w e h a v e seen i n o p e r a t i o n i n s o m a n y c u l t u r e s . T h i s view h a s been skilfully d e p l o y e d by Y a p in his s t u d y of w h a t he calls t h e 'possession s y n d r o m e ' i n H o n g K o n g . P o s s e s s i o n , Y a p a r g u e s , i s a c o n d i t i o n w h e r e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g p r o c e s s e s result i n a n u n u s u a l d r a m a t i z a t i o n of a certain part of t h e ' m e ' aspect of t h e self, t h a t p a r t b e i n g constituted b y forced a n d u r g e n t identification w i t h a n o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y c r e d i t e d with t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p o w e r . T h e n a t u r e o f t h e p o s s e s s i n g p e r s o n a l i t y , or a g e n c y , can be u n d e r s t o o d psychologically a n d we h a v e reviewed a b u n d a n t e x a m p l e s of this in t h e light of t h e s u b j e c t ' s o w n p e r s o n a l i t y n e e d s , his life s i t u a t i o n , a n d c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d w h i c h determine the normality or otherwise of the condition. F r o m this e m i n e n t l y r e a s o n a b l e s t a n d p o i n t , Y a p sees t h e d r a m a t i c e l e m e n t s o f possession a s a n a d a p t i v e , p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g b e h a v i o u r r a n g i n g from t h e a c t i n g o u t o f a wish-fulfilment t h r o u g h a n e x p e r i mental probing type of conduct, with various degrees of abreactive satisfaction, t o t h e direct m a n i p u l a t i o n o f o t h e r p e r s o n s i n v o l v e d i n the subject's p r o b l e m s . A g a i n in a c c o r d a n c e with m u c h of o u r findings, Y a p also r e c o g n i z e s t h a t possession m a y a p p e a r i n t h e s y m p t o m s a t a superficial level, w i t h t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of s e c o n d a r y g a i n s w i t h o u t a n y t r u e p s y c h o p a t h o l o g i c a l significance. F o r possession t o o c c u r , Y a p h o l d s , t h e following c o n d i t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y . T h e subject m u s t b e d e p e n d e n t a n d c o n f o r m i n g i n c h a r a c t e r , p r o b a b l y o c c u p y i n g a position in society t h a t d o e s n o t allow for r e a s o n a b l e self-assertion. H e m u s t b e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a p r o b l e m w h i c h he sees no h o p e of solving. S i m i l a r l y from a m o r e t h o r o u g h going p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o s i t i o n , C h a r l e s R y c r o f t h a s a r g u e d t h a t w h a t he calls t h e h y s t e r i c a l defence is a t y p e of s u b m i s s i o n in w h i c h n o r m a l self-assertive t e n d e n c i e s a r e s u p p r e s s e d a n d satisfaction is o b t a i n e d a n d o t h e r s influenced b y i n g r a t i a t i o n a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n . T h e basis for this r e s p o n s e , he s u g g e s t s , lies in a d e e p c o n v i c t i o n of defeat a n d insignificance a c q u i r e d i n early c h i l d h o o d ( R y c r o f t , 1968). B o t h these i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s f i t closely t h e facts w e h a v e e x a m i n e d in earlier c h a p t e r s in relation to p e r i p h e r a l possession. T h e y a r e i n d e e d only slightly different, a n d less positive w a y s of e x p r e s s i n g t h e n o t i o n that p e r i p h e r a l possession r e p r e s e n t s a n o b l i q u e a g g r e s s i v e s t r a t e g y .
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T h e y c a n also be seen to c o r r e s p o n d fairly closely to t h e fact t h a t in m a i n m o r a l i t y r e l i g i o n s t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e f u t u r e s h a m a n ' s professional h y s t e r i a is in d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n to his lack of t h e requisite h e r e d i t a r y q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a n d his ostensible r e s i s t a n c e t o a c c e p t i n g his v o c a t i o n . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , t h e sociological d i s t i n c t i o n w h i c h w e h a v e b e e n forced t o d r a w b e t w e e n p e r i p h e r a l possession a n d witchcraft i s e c h o e d i n t h e c o n t r a s t w h i c h p s y c h i a t r i s t s d r a w b e t w e e n their u n d e r l y i n g ideologies t h e i n t r o j e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r of possession, a n d t h e projective n a t u r e of witchcraft scapegoating. T h e s e two ideologies m a y , h o w e v e r , a s w e h a v e s e e n , b e c o m b i n e d t o g e t h e r a s different facets o f t h e s a m e role. F o r t h e p a r a d o x o f t h e s h a m a n ' s position i s t h a t h e is credited with being capable of causing what he has learnt through suffering t o c u r e . T h i s a m b i v a l e n c e in the s h a m a n ' s role D e v e r e u x p u r p o r t s to explain from a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c s t a n c e in t e r m s of an inferred d e g r a d a t i o n in t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e ' h a l f - h e a l e d ' s h a m a n . I n i t i a t i o n into t h e r a n k s of t h e possession g r o u p a n d t h e a s s u m p t i o n of a l e a d i n g position in i t h a v e o n l y p r o v i d e d r e m i s s i o n o f s y m p t o m s a n d t h e p r i m a r y defence o f s u c h f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i s t o r t e d personalities soon b r e a k s d o w n . T h u s h e a l i n g s h a m a n s d e g e n e r a t e i n t o a g g r e s s i v e w i t c h e s . T h i s seems a n u n c o n v i n c i n g e x p l a n a t i o n of w h a t as we h a v e seen e a r l i e r is a general sociological p r o c e s s . F o r w h a t e v e r t h e t r u e p e r s o n a l i t y a n d i n n e r feelings of t h e s h a m a n it is society w h i c h r e g a r d s h i m a m b i v a l e n t l y as at o n c e a h e a l e r a n d , p o t e n t i a l l y at least, a w i t c h . T h e p e r i p h e r a l p o s s e s s i o n s h a m a n w h o is b r a n d e d as a w i t c h is t h e l e a d e r of a protest cult, a n d t h e a c c u s a t i o n of witchcraft is d e s i g n e d to c o n t a i n this oblique aggression which has become too openly overbearing and threatening t o b e safely t o l e r a t e d . I n psychological t e r m s , c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e explanation is not that of D e v e r e u x , but rather that the resentment a n d a g g r e s s i o n w h i c h p e r i p h e r a l possession i n v a r i a b l y a r o u s e s a m o n g t h e m a n i p u l a t e d e s t a b l i s h m e n t fastens o n t h o s e t h r u s t i n g s h a m a n s w h o , in d a r i n g to c o n t r o l s p i r i t s , m a k e a b i d for t h e t e n u r e of roles a n d s t a t u s from w h i c h t h e y a r e n o r m a l l y e x c l u d e d b e c a u s e o f t h e low social c a t e g o r i e s t o w h i c h t h e y b e l o n g . I n t e r m s o f M a r y D o u g l a s ' c o n v e n i e n t e x p l a n a t o r y slogan ( D o u g l a s 1966), they r e p r e s e n t ' m a t t e r out of p l a c e ' , a n d have therefore to be put back in it by the accusation of w i t c h c r a f t . All t h i s , of c o u r s e , is n o t to say t h a t t h e r e a r e n o t cases w h e r e t h r o u g h p s y c h i a t r i c p r o b l e m s relapses o c c u r , o c c a s i o n i n g e c c e n t r i c b e h a v i o u r w h i c h m a y fit i n t o c u l t u r a l s t e r e o t y p e s of witchcraft.
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T h e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s b e t w e e n p e r i p h e r a l possession a n d witchcraft a r e p e r h a p s r e l e v a n t i n a different w a y t o o u r o w n psychological t h e o r i e s , w h i c h , of c o u r s e , as I h a v e b e e n r e p e a t e d l y e m p h a s i z i n g , a r e themselves m e r e l y hypotheses r a t h e r t h a n final t r u t h s . A l t h o u g h frankly hysterical r e a c t i o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e out of fashion at the m o m e n t in western society, it does s e e m t h a t m a n y t e m p o r a r y o r mildly n e u r o t i c r e s p o n s e s t o conflict a n d t e n s i o n i n o u r society lead t o a t t e n t i o n - s e e k i n g b e h a v i o u r ( e v e n i f this s i m p l y m e a n s g o i n g to visit o n e ' s family d o c t o r ) . T h i s m a y a c h i e v e t h e effect of a satisfactory rallying r o u n d o f friends a n d r e l a t i o n s a n d e v e n p e r h a p s , a s s o m e p s y c h i a t r i s t s a d v o c a t e , lead t o a n a c t u a l m o d i f i c a t i o n o r restructuring of relations towards the subject. L a i n g a n d others, h o w e v e r , h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t s o m e t i m e s i n t h e case o f t h o s e p a t i e n t s w h o a r e r e n d e r e d m o r e seriously ill a n d a r e c o m m i t t e d t o a m e n t a l h o s p i t a l , t h e y a r e t o s o m e e x t e n t b e i n g offered u p a s s c a p e g o a t s i n a stressful s i t u a t i o n ( L a i n g a n d E s t e r s o n , 1964). A s L i p s e d g e a n d L i t t l e w o o d (1982) h a v e c o n v i n c i n g l y s h o w n , this r e g u l a r l y a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y to t h e h i g h levels of w h a t is d i a g n o s e d as florid ' s c h i z o p h r e n i a ' o r ' a c u t e p s y c h o s i s ' i n p a t i e n t s from t h e i m m i g r a n t black c o m m u n i t y i n t h e British Isles. W h e r e this i s so, t h e p a t i e n t ' s condition is no longer analogous to that of the peripherally possessed subordinate, but rather to that of the aggressive 'witch' who protests too o p e n l y a n d t o o m u c h . I m a k e these tentative suggestions to stress a g a i n h o w it is frequently both m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e a n d m o r e i l l u m i n a t i n g t o assimilate p s y c h i a t r y to s h a m a n i s m a n d witchcraft a l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r deal p r i m a r i l y w i t h culturally normative forms of ' p a r a n o i a ' t h a n to read the equation in the opposite direction. It is reassuring that such authoritative psychiatrists as Littlewood a n d Lipsedge (198?) should consider it w o r t h w h i l e t o p u r s u e this t h e m e .
V Psychiatric or psychoanalytic theories of hysteria which attempt to e x p l a i n possession n e g a t i v e l y a s a g g r e s s i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e socially r e p r e s s e d , o r o f t h e ascriptively u n q u a l i f i e d s h a m a n i s t i c r e c r u i t w h o p r o t e s t s his unfitness a n d r e l u c t a n c e t o a s s u m e his h i g h c a l l i n g , o n l y solve p a r t o f o u r p r o b l e m . T h e y leave o u t o f a c c o u n t t h o s e possession religions which e n s h r i n e m o r a l i t y a n d w h e r e to a l a r g e e x t e n t t h e office o f s h a m a n i s f i l l e d ascriptively b y c a n d i d a t e s w h o , far from b e i n g
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d r a w n o n l y from t h e m a r g i n s o f society, a r e o f perfectly respectable b a c k g r o u n d . In t e r m s of w h a t w a s said e a r l i e r of t h e significance of t h e s h a m a n ' s professional t r a u m a , t o a c c o u n t for possession i n b o t h t h e s e v e r y different social c o n t e x t s we h a v e to realize, I t h i n k , that p o s s e s s i o n m o s t g e n e r a l l y e x p r e s s e s aggressive self-assertion. T h a t i n b o t h t h e s e c o n t e x t s possession s h o u l d a s s u m e t h e psychological c o l o u r i n g w h i c h w e s t e r n science identifies a s h y s t e r i a i s n o longer s u r p r i s i n g . F o r , as W e b e r clearly s a w , it is n o t only in exotic m a r g i n a l cults, or i n d e e d in ' p r i m i t i v e ' society generally, that leadership is tinged with h y s t e r i a . M a n y o f those w h o t o d a y study politics u n d e r the b a n n e r o f ' g a m e s t h e o r y ' , o r o f ' t r a n s a c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s ' , a s s u m e t h a t political m a n is little m o r e t h a n a m a n i p u l a t i v e , p o w e r - h u n g r y ' h y s t e r i c ' a v i e w w h i c h differs v e r y little from t h a t h e l d by H o b b e s o r , m o r e r e c e n t l y , A d l e r . O n l y o u r received view o f hysteria inhibits o u r perception o f t h e m a n y f o r m s w h i c h hysterical m a n i p u l a t i o n m a y a s s u m e . If we a r e r i g h t , t h u s , in s e e i n g possession as p r i m a r i l y a r e s p o n s e t o o p p r e s s i v e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e n a s o u r evidence suggests, w e m a y expect to find c e n t r a l s h a m a n i c cults in societies w h o s e m e m b e r s a r e , in their total eco-political s e t t i n g , u n d e r a c u t e p r e s s u r e . S u c h p r e s s u r e m a y result f r o m e x t e r n a l e n c a p s u l a t i n g forces w h e n a whole society is m a r g i n a l o r m a r g i n a l i z e d , a n d b e c o m e s itself p e r i p h e r a l i n relation t o a w i d e r , o v e r - a r c h i n g political s y s t e m . ( T h e t e r m s ' c e n t r a l ' a n d ' m a r g i n a l ' a r e , a s w e n e e d t o r e m e m b e r , t h e m s e l v e s relative.) T h e s t i m u l u s h e r e , as in m o s t p e r i p h e r a l cults, is an excess of oppressive s t r u c t u r e . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , a s o t h e r s h a v e a r g u e d ( e . g . D o u g l a s , 1970), lack o f s t r u c t u r e a n d socio-political i n d e t e r m i n a c y m a y very well h a v e m u c h t h e s a m e effect: after all, over- a n d u n d e r s t i m u l a t i o n a r e equally effective t r i g g e r s for states of a l t e r e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s (cf. L e w i s , 1977). T h u s it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t radical social c h a n g e should so often h a v e f e a t u r e d p r o m i n e n t l y i n t h e s e t t i n g s i n w h i c h w e h a v e f o u n d possession a n d s h a m a n i s m f l o u r i s h i n g . H e r e , I believe w e s h o u l d r e t u r n t o N a d e l ' s view o f s h a m a n i s m a s a n a t t e m p t t o e n r i c h t h e s p i r i t u a l a r m o u r y o f a c o m m u n i t y beset b y c h r o n i c e n v i r o n m e n t a l u n c e r t a i n t y , o r r a p i d a n d inexplicable social c h a n g e . A s h e c o r r e c t l y s a w , g e n e r a l l y instability p r o v i d e s t h e fertile soil i n w h i c h s h a m a n i s m flourishes. T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s n o t necessarily t o t h r u s t s h a m a n i s m i n t o t h e g a p i n g m a w s o f t h a t low g r a d e e x p l a n a t o r y catch-all ' a n o m i e ' , for n o n e of t h e societies which we h a v e considered can plausibly be characterized as truly normless. Such a s t a t e w o u l d in fact be t h e a n t i t h e s i s of c e n t r a l s h a m a n i s m w i t h its
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s t r o n g m o r a l e m p h a s i s . T h e p r o b l e m i s t h e r e f o r e t o identify t h e m i n i m u m d e g r e e o f i n s e c u r i t y ( o r excessive s e c u r i t y ) a n d p r e s s u r e w h i c h is r e q u i r e d to elicit t h e possession r e a c t i o n . I do n o t p r e t e n d to h a v e a c h i e v e d t h i s . B u t it d o e s s e e m t h a t t h e pressure of adverse circumstance must be considerably higher than that which is a d e q u a t e l y m e t by o t h e r theologies a n d cosmologies w h e r e possession is not enlisted as a basic feature in religious expression. Belief i n spirits i s m u c h m o r e w i d e s p r e a d t h a n belief i n p o s s e s s i o n : a n d c e r t a i n l y religions w h i c h e m p l o y ecstasy s e e m m u c h m o r e sensitive to the impact of changing circumstances t h a n those which do not. In line w i t h this c o n t r a s t , possession, as we h a v e seen, r e p r e s e n t s an assertion, i n t h e m o s t d i r e c t , d r a m a t i c , a n d conclusive form t h a t t h e spirits are mastered by m a n . W h a t is proclaimed is not merely that G o d is with u s , b u t t h a t He is in u s . S h a m a n i s m is t h u s t h e religion par excellence o f t h e spirit m a d e flesh, a n d this r e a s s u r i n g d o c t r i n e i s d e m o n s t r a b l y substantiated in each incarnatory seance, which as Zempleni (1977), de H e u s c h ( 1 9 8 5 ) , a n d o t h e r s h a v e o b s e r v e d , is, of c o u r s e , also a sacrifice o f t h e h u m a n self t o t h e s p i r i t u a l o t h e r . ( S k u l t a n s , 1987, describes a n i n t r i g u i n g I n d i a n case w h e r e s u c h sacrificial p o s s e s s i o n is offered on b e h a l f of a relative of t h e possessed p e r s o n r a t h e r t h a n for t h e benefit of t h e possessed p e r s o n herself.) Y e t it is difficult to avoid t h e suspicion t h a t for all its c o n f i d e n t o p t i m i s m , s h a m a n i s m protests a little too m u c h . F o r it, as I am a r g u i n g , possession is essentially a p h i l o s o p h y of p o w e r , it also s e e m s t i n g e d w i t h a k i n d of N i e t z s c h i a n d e s p e r a t i o n . If this is a valid i n f e r e n c e , it s e e m s a g a i n to c o n f i r m t h e high t h r e s h o l d o f a d v e r s i t y t o w h i c h s h a m a n i s m a p p e a r s t o r e s p o n d . I n t h e sense o f m e d i a t i n g r e c u r r e n t a n d n o v e l stress ( w h e t h e r o f e n d o g e n o u s o r e x o g e n o u s o r i g i n ) i n t h e c o n s o l i n g i d i o m o f possession, s h a m a n i s m m a y well c o n t r i b u t e t o m e n t a l h e a l t h b y s t a b i l i z i n g t h e i n c i d e n c e of n e r v o u s d i s o r d e r s , since it affords a m e a n s of o s t e n s i b l y controlling the powers which are believed to activate these destructive forces. By identifying ecstatically with d i s t u r b i n g n e w e x p e r i e n c e s , o r with r e c u r r e n t h a z a r d s w h i c h a r e impossible t o w i t h s t a n d o t h e r w i s e , those w h o hold this spiritualistic p h i l o s o p h y yield pliantly to t h e s a v a g e o n s l a u g h t s o f i n n o v a t i o n a n d c h a n g e a n d t o t h e r e c u r r e n t buffets o f fate. I n t h u s b o w i n g t o t h e i n e v i t a b l e , a n d a c c e p t i n g it, a s i t w e r e , with o p e n a r m s , t h e y soften its i m p a c t , m a k i n g i t s e e m t h a t t h e y p a s s i o n a t e l y d e s i r e w h a t t h e y c a n n o t a v o i d . A n d , i f for t h o s e w h o d o not believe in spirits, all this c a n be no m o r e t h a n a k i n d of h e r o i c s h a d o w - b o x i n g , it n e v e r t h e l e s s h a s significant p s y c h o l o g i c a l effects
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w h i c h p e r m i t t h e e n d u r a n c e o f p r e s s u r e s t h a t could n o t o t h e r w i s e b e t o l e r a t e d . U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e f o r e , we h a v e to a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t to a certain extent in c o m m o n with the unconscious and so m a n y of our o t h e r psychological c o n c e p t s , spirits a r e at least h y p o t h e s e s w h i c h , for t h o s e w h o b e l i e v e in t h e m , afford a p h i l o s o p h y of final causes a n d a t h e o r y o f social t e n s i o n s a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . O u r c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h i s b o o k on t h e politics of possession d o e s n o t , of c o u r s e , m e a n t h a t w e w i s h t o d e v a l u e o r d e n y t h e i m p o r t a n t intellectual, aesthetic, d r a m a t i c , a n d m o r a l a s p e c t s w h i c h w e h a v e also t o u c h e d o n . T o c o n c l u d e , let m e refer a g a i n t o o u r o w n religion. T r a d i t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n i t y p o r t r a y s G o d a s all-powerful a n d o m n i p o t e n t , m a k i n g m a n s e e m p u n y a n d w e a k . T h i s h a s led t h e C h r i s t i a n faith ( a n d I exclude C h r i s t i a n enthusiasm here) to be peculiarly vulnerable to advances i n science a n d technology. F o r , a s m a n h a s a c q u i r e d increasing mastery over his e n v i r o n m e n t , so those things which were thought to be controlled only by G o d have passed out of His keeping. G o d ' s stature h a s t h u s inevitably d i m i n i s h e d . S h a m a n i s t i c religions d o not m a k e this m i s t a k e . T h e y a s s u m e from t h e s t a r t t h a t , a t least o n c e r t a i n occas i o n s , m a n c a n rise t o t h e level o f t h e g o d s . A n d since m a n i s t h u s , from t h e b e g i n n i n g , h e l d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e gods, t h e r e i s scarcely a n y m o r e i m p r e s s i v e p o w e r t h a t h e can a c q u i r e . W h a t the shamanistic seance thus protests is the dual omnipotence of G o d a n d m a n . I t c e l e b r a t e s a c o n f i d e n t a n d e g a l i t a r i a n view o f m a n ' s r e l a t i o n s with t h e d i v i n e , a n d p e r p e t u a t e s t h a t original accord between G o d a n d m a n w h i c h t h o s e w h o h a v e lost t h e ecstatic m y s t e r y c a n only nostalgically recall in m y t h s of creation, or desperately seek in doctrines of p e r s o n a l s a l v a t i o n .
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ECSTATIC R E L I G I O N THIRD EDITION

'Pour soulever les hommes il faut avoir le diable au corps' BAKUNIN

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

TOWARDS A SOCIOLOGY OF ECSTASY

TRANCE AND POSSESSION

T h e altered state of consciousness (which m a y vary very considerably

A voodoo marriage certificate recording the mystical union of a woman with

AFFLICTION AND ITS APOTHEOSIS

STRATEGIES OF MYSTICAL ATTACK: PROTEST AND ITS CONTAINMENT

II S i n c e , a s well a s w o m e n m o r e g e n e r a l l y , t h e s e cults e v i d e n t l y also

SECONDARY PHASE (voluntary, controlled)

ANCESTOR SPIRITS NON-ANCESTRAL SPIRITS

POSSESSION AND PUBLIC MORALITY I ANCESTOR CULTS

POSSESSION AND PUBLIC MORALITY - II OTHER COSMOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

OTHER COSMOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

OTHER COSMOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

OTHER COSMOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

OTHER COSMOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

POSSESSION AND PSYCHIATRY

Ackerknecht, E., 'Psychopathology, primitive medicine, and primitive

Tervuren, Musee Royale de l'Afrique Centrale, 1981.

Massachussets, Bergin and Garvey, 1983.

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New York, 1912.

the Zezuru of Southern Rhodesia, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1976.

Mass, Harvard University, 1982.

of California Press, 1980.

'Social process, healing, and self-defeat among Puerto Rican spiritists',

La Barre, W., The Ghost Dance, New York, Doubleday, 1970.

University Press, 1981.

a Central Africa Kingdom, Oxford University Press, 1961.

Topografico-editrice Tourinese, 1984.

Murphy, J., 'Psychiatric aspects of shamanism on St Lawrence Island, Alaska',

Paris, Institut d'Ethnologie, 1975.

tion of the 1921 original in German).

unpublished PhD thesis, Boston University, 1969.

in Africa, London, Zed Press, 1982.

Stirrat, R.L., 'Demonic possession in Roman Catholic Sri Lanka', Journal

1969. 'The possession syndrome a comparison of Hong Kong and French

Zempleni, A., 'From symptom to sacrifice: the story of Khady Fall', in V.

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