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Which Motor?

The proliferation of new ideas, materials and components creates many opportunities. It is the motor that determines the characteristic of electric drive. Motor determines the requirement of converter circuit and control techniques.

PM vs. Electromagnetic excitation No electrical energy is absorbed by the field excitation system and thus there are no excitation losses which means substantial increase in the efficiency Higher torque/current and output /volume Better dynamic performance Higher magnetic flux density in the air gap Less maintenance PM Machines eliminate gear requirement

Introduction

The BLDC motor is based on a fundamental principle of magnetism. Similar poles repel each other, while opposite poles attract each other . PM excitation is used instead of electromagnetic excitation.

Comparison : BLDC MOTOR and BRUSHED DC MOTOR


Feature Commutation Maintenance Life N/T Characteristic Efficiency Rating/size Initial Cost Speed Range Electric Noise Control BLDC Motor Electronic Less Longer Flat High High High High Low Brushed DC Motor Brushed Frequent Shorter Moderately Flat Moderate Moderate/Low Low Low More

Complex and Expensive Simple and Inexpensive

Comparison : BLDC MOTOR and INDUCTION MOTOR

Feature Rotor Inertia Rating/size Initial Cost Speed Range Starting Current Slip Control

BLDC Motor Low High High High Rated No Slip Complex and Expensive

INDUCTION Motor Nonlinear High Moderate/Low Low Low 5 to 7 times rated current Present Simple and Inexpensive

N/T Characteristic Flat

Three Classes of Permanent Magnets

Alnico Ferrite Rare earth magnets viz. samarium cobalt and neodymium iron boron

Demagnetization Characteristic

Operating Points on Demagnetization Characteristic

Introduction
Stator structure is similar to that of poly phase IM. Air gap flux is set by magnet and little affected by armature current. This means the magnetic field generated by the stator and the magnetic field generated by the rotor rotate at the same frequency. BLDC motors do not experience the slip. As the name implies, BLDC motors do not use brushes for commutation; instead, they are electronically commutated.

Advantages

The most obvious advantage of removal of brushes and commutator Brush maintenance is no longer required, and many problems associated with brushes are eliminated Spark less operation Brush friction is eliminated Motor length is reduced Stiffness of rotor is improved. Higher speed is possible Longer active length to diameter ratio High torque to inertia ratio Response is fast Power density is more Efficient Compact Less noise Long operating life

Disadvantages

Brushless configuration comes with some below mentioned disadvantages. Closed loop control is mandatory Shaft position sensing is mandatory Increased complexity in electronic controller PM excitation is viable in small rating motors only. Extremely costly

Applications Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are one of the motor types rapidly gaining popularity. BLDC motors are used in following areas of applications. Computer peripherals Automotive Aerospace Defense Medical Marine Instrumentation

Construction Stator
Stator resembles that of an IM The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with windings placed in the slots that are axially cut along the inner periphery Three stator windings are connected in star fashion Each of this windings are constructed from numerous interconnected coils One or more coils are placed in the slots and are interconnected to make winding Each of these windings are distributed over the stator periphery to form an even numbers of poles

Stator (contd.)
As their names indicate, the trapezoidal motor gives a back EMF in trapezoidal fashion and the sinusoidal motors back EMF is sinusoidal. The phase current also has trapezoidal and sinusoidal variations in the respective types of motor. This makes the torque output by a sinusoidal motor smoother than that of a trapezoidal motor. However, this comes with an extra cost, as the sinusoidal motors take extra winding interconnections because of the coils distribution on the stator periphery, thereby increasing the copper intake by stator winding. Depending upon the control power supply capability, the motor with the correct voltage rating of the stator can be chosen. Forty-eight volts, or less voltage rated motors are used in automotive, robotics, small arm movements and so on. Motors with 100 volts, or higher ratings, are used in appliances, automation and in industrial applications.

Stator (contd.)

TRAPEZOIDAL BACK EMF

SINUSOIDAL BACK EMF

Selection of No of Phases Often assumed to have three phases as it provides good utilization of copper, iron, magnet and insulation. For higher number of phase above figure may be higher at the cost of increase in number of power electronic switches and leads. Three phase motors have only three connecting leads with no loss of control flexibility, excellent starting characteristics with smooth rotation in either direction and low torque ripple. Also three phase winding can be well adapted to the development of the sensor less controllers.

Rotor
The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from two to eight pole pairs with alternate North (N) and South (S) poles. Based on the required magnetic field density in the rotor, the proper magnetic material is chosen to make the rotor. Ferrite magnets are traditionally used to make permanent magnets. As the technology advances, rare earth magnets are gaining popularity. The ferrite magnets are less expensive but they have the disadvantage of low flux density for a given volume. In contrast, the alloy material has high magnetic density per volume and enables the rotor to compress further for the same torque. Also, these alloy magnets improve the size-to-weight ratio and give higher torque for the same size motor using ferrite magnets. Neodymium (Nd), Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) and the alloy of Neodymium, Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB) are some examples of rare earth alloy magnets. Continuous research is going on to improve the flux density to compress the rotor further.

Rotor(contd.)
Different arrangements of magnets in a rotor.

Rotor (contd.)

Magnets are mounted on the rotor Large air-gap; Armature reaction is negligible

Magnets are buried inside the rotor Xd is less than Xq Small air-gap

Rotor(contd.)

Surface/Exterior Magnet Machine

Rotor(contd.)

Interior Magnet Machine

Selection of number of Poles Number of poles should be inversely proportional to maximum speed in order to limit commutation frequency and to reduce iron losses. Generally 2 or 4 pole motors are used for very high speed. Thickness of rotor back iron and stator yoke reduce with higher number of poles.

Operating Principle

Each commutation sequence has one of the windings energized to positive power (current enters into the winding), the second winding is negative (current exits the winding) and the third is in a non-energized condition. Torque is produced because of the interaction between the magnetic field generated by the stator coils and the permanent magnets. Ideally, the peak torque occurs when these two fields are at 90 to each other and falls off as the fields move together. In order to keep the motor running, the magnetic field produced by the windings should shift position, as the rotor moves to catch up with the stator field. This sequence of energizing the windings is known as SixStep Commutation .

Operating Principle(contd.)

Operating Principle(contd.)

Operating Principle (contd.)

Hall Effect Sensors


Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled electronically. To rotate the BLDC motor, the stator windings should be energized in a sequence. It is important to know the rotor position in order to understand which winding is to be energized following the energizing sequence. Rotor position is sensed using Hall effect sensors embedded in stationary part of motor. Most BLDC motors have three Hall sensors. Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low signal, indicating the N or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the combination of these three Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of commutation can be determined.

Hall Effect Sensors (contd.)

BLDC Motor Transverse Section

Hall Effect Sensors (contd.) Transverse section of a BLDC motor with a rotor that has alternate N and S permanent magnets. Hall sensors are embedded into the stationary part of the motor. Embedding the Hall sensors into the stator is a complex process because any misalignment in these Hall sensors, with respect to the rotor magnets, will generate an error in determination of the rotor position. To simplify the process of mounting the Hall sensors onto the stator, some motors may have the Hall sensor magnets on the rotor, in addition to the main rotor magnets. These are a scaled down replica version of the rotor. Therefore, whenever the rotor rotates, the Hall sensor magnets give the same effect as the main magnets. The Hall sensors are normally mounted on a PC board and fixed to the enclosure cap on the non-driving end. This enables users to adjust the complete assembly of Hall sensors, to align with the rotor magnets, in order to achieve the best performance.

Hall Effect Sensors (contd.) Hall Effect Theory If an electric current carrying conductor is kept in a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a transverse force on the moving charge carriers which tends to push them to one side of the conductor. This is most evident in a thin flat conductor. A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage between the two sides of the conductor. The presence of this measurable transverse voltage is called the Hall effect after E. H. Hall who discovered it in 1879. The Hall sensors require a power supply. The voltage may range from 4 volts to 24 volts. Required current can range from 5 to 15 mA.

Magnetic Circuit Analysis

Magnetic equivalent circuit

Motor cross section and flux pattern

Magnetic Circuit Analysis (contd.) Only half of the equivalent circuit is shown. The lower half is the mirror-image of the upper half about the horizontal axis, which is an equipotential. It is of course permissible to simplify the circuit in this way only if the two halves are balanced. Steel core of the stator and the rotor shaft are assumed to be infinitely permeable. Each magnet is represented by a 'Norton' equivalent circuit consisting of a flux generator in parallel with an internal leakage permeance.

Magnetic Circuit Analysis (contd.)

Am pole area of the magnet lm magnet length in the direction of magnetization Br remanent flux-density. rec relative recoil permeability l axial length of motor r1 radius of stator bore g air-gap length

Magnetic Circuit Analysis (contd.)

Air-gap reluctance,
Equivalent air-gap length , Kc is Carters coefficient Air-gap area ,
Rotor leakage permeance is difficult to estimate because flux paths are not obvious. For accurate evaluation finite element method is used. Generally rotor leakage permeance is 5-20 % of magnet internal permeance.

Pr1 is 0.05 to 0.2

Magnetic Circuit Analysis (contd.)

The air-gap flux-density on open-circuit is shown. Because of fringing, the distribution is not perfectly rectangular, and there are circumferential as well as radial components of B at the edges of the magnets. Because of the slotting of the stator bore, there will in general be an appreciable ripple superimposed on the calculated waveform. The detailed analysis of all these effects requires a numerical method such as the finiteelement method. The analysis of multiple-pole motors is similar to that of the two-pole motor; using natural equipotentials the magnetic equivalent circuit can be reduced to the per-pole equivalent circuit.

EMF Equation

Simple concept machine is shown. Two pole magnet has pole arc of 180. Air-gap flux density waveform is ideally square. Centre of north pole magnet is aligned with X axis. ( = 0) Stator has 12 slots and three phase winding. There are two slots per pole per phase.

EMF Equation (contd.)


Each phase winding consists of two adjacent full pitched coils of N1 turn each. Axis of two coils are displayed by 30. represents movement of rotor from reference position. Flux linkage () varies linearly. Maximum positive flux linkage occurs at 0and maximum negative flux linkage at 180.

EMF induced in coil a1A1


Maximum flux linkage can be found by integrating flux density around air-gap.

EMF Equation (contd.)


EMF induced in second coil of phase A is identical but retarded by 30. Total phase voltage is sum of coil voltages if coils are connected in series. Phase voltage is stepped. Flat top of wave form is 150 ideally but due to fringing practically it is 120. Phase emf, Nph = 2 N1 is number of turns in series per phase

Torque Equation Current pulses are 120 wide. Instantaneous power, P = Te = 2 e I If winding is star connected then at a time just two phases conduct. Te = 2eI/ Te = 4 Nph Bg l r1 I N.m. Resemblance: E = k and Te = kI Where k= 4 Nph and = Bg l r1

Torque Equation (contd.)

Star Connection

Delta Connection

Torque Speed Characteristic V = E + IR V = supply voltage , E= sum of two phase emfs in series R = sum of two phase resistances in series

No load speed, Stall torque, Stall current,

Torque Speed Characteristic (contd.) Characteristic is similar to that of dc shunt motor. Speed is controlled by voltage control Speed drops as load increases Voltage is controlled by chopping or PWM Continuous limit is determined by heat transfer or by temperature rise Intermittent limit is determined by maximum rating of switch and by temperature rise Practically characteristic slightly deviates due to effects of inductance and parasitic effect

Motor with 180 Magnet Arc and 120 Square Wave Current
Rotor magnet poles are shaded to distinguish north and south. Phase belts are shaded as complete 60 sectors of stator bore. Two slots in each of phase belts. Currents in two slots are identical and conductors in them are in series. Third ring is called MMF ring between rotor ring and phase belt ring. MMF ring represents mmf distribution of stator currents at particular instant. Star connected winding and two phases conduct at a time. Two sectors of opposite polarity, each 120 electrical separated by 60 sectors with zero mmf.

Motor with 180 Magnet Arc and 120 Square Wave Current (contd.)

Phase A is conducting positive current and phase C is conducting negative current. au and cl are closed. Positive torque is produced where mmf distribution and rotor flux density distribution have like polarity. Negative torque is produced where mmf distribution and rotor flux density distribution have unlike polarity. Where either one is zero no torque is produced.

Motor with 180 Magnet Arc and 120 Square Wave Current (contd.)

Motor with 180 Magnet Arc and 120 Square Wave Current (contd.)

Production of smooth, ripple-free torque depends on fact that the magnet pole arc exceeds the m.m.f. arc by 60. The magnet is therefore able to rotate 60 with no change in the flux-density under either of the conducting phasebelts. An inevitable result of this is that only 2/3 of the magnet and 2/3 of the stator conductors are active at any instant. In a practical motor the magnet flux-density distribution cannot be perfectly rectangular. Even with highly coercive magnets and full 180 magnet arcs, there is a transition section of the order of 10-20 in width. Likewise on the stator side, the m.m.f. distribution is not rectangular but has a stepped waveform. To some extent these two effects cancel each other, so that satisfactory results are achieved with a magnet arc as short as 150 and two slots per pole per phase (i.e., two slots per phasebelt). But there is always a dip in the torque in the neighborhood of the commutation angles. This torque dip occurs every 60 electrical degrees, giving rise to a torque ripple component with a fundamental frequency equal to 6p times the rotation frequency, where p is the number of polepairs. The magnitude and width of the torque dip may be exaggerated further by the time it takes to commutate the phase current from one phaseleg to another; this transition depends on the phase inductance and the available

Motor with 120 Magnet Arc and 180 Square Wave Current (contd.)
Stator mmf distribution is square wave having 180 of +ve mmf and 180 of ve mmf.

MMF distribution must be switched forward. Stator winding must be connected in delta. Each phase current is 180 square wave.

Motor with 120 Magnet Arc and 180 Square Wave Current (contd.)

Comparison between 120 Magnet Arc and 180 Magnet Arc Motor

In 120 magnet arc all stator conductors are excited at any instant, but that only 2/3 of them are producing torque those that are 'covered' by a rotor pole. If the ampere-conductors per slot and the peak flux-density are kept the same, 120 magnet arc motor has 1.5 times the copper losses, but produces the same torque with only 2/3 the magnet material. Therefore 120 magnet arc motor is likely to be less efficient than that of 180 magnet arc motor. Offsetting this disadvantage is the fact that for the same magnet flux density, flux in 120 magnet arc motor is only 2/3 that in 180 magnet arc motor so that only 2/3 of the stator yoke thickness is required in case of 120 magnet arc motor . If the stator outside diameter is kept the same, the slots can be made deeper so that the loss of ampere-conductors can be at least partially recovered.

Control of Motor

Control of Motor (contd.)

Control of Motor (contd.)


The speed can be controlled in a closed loop by measuring the actual speed of the motor. The error in the set speed and actual speed is calculated. Error speed is processed through process controller and the PWM control is adjusted. Average voltage applied across stator depends on modulation index of PWM cycle. Speed can be adjusted by adjusting PWM duty cycle. For low-cost, low-resolution speed requirements, the Hall signals can be used to measure the speed feedback. A timer from the PIC18FXX31 can be used to count between two Hall transitions. With this count, the actual speed of the motor can be calculated. For high-resolution speed measurements, an optical encoder can be fitted on the Optical encoders are available with different choices of Pulse Per Revolution (PPR), ranging from hundreds to thousands.

Sensor less Control

BLDC motors can be commutated by monitoring back EMF. Hall sensor signals change state when back EMF polarity changes from +ve to -ve or from -ve to +ve.

Sensor less Control (contd.)

Torque Profile

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