Cement Industry Process Technology - Holderbank Course (2 of 3)

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000
Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 6/23/2001 - 4:33:29 PM Page 1

Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II
B05 - PT II
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems
C01 - Kiln Systems
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview
Kiln Systems - Overview
Urs Gasser
PT 99/14501/E
1. PROCESS REQUIREMENTS FOR KILN SYSTEMS
2. PROCESS TYPES
2.1 General
3. WET PROCESS
3.1 General
3.2 Long Wet Process Kilns
3.3 Wet Process Kilns with Slurry Preheaters
4. SEMI WET PROCESS
4.1 General
4.2 Semi Wet Process Long Kilns
4.3 Semi Wet Grate Preheater Kilns
4.4 Semi-Wet Suspension Pre-heater Kiln
5. SEMI DRY PROCESS
5.1 Semi-Dry Process Long Kilns
5.2 Semi-Dry Process Grate Pre-heater Kilns
6. DRY PROCESS
6.1 Long Dry Kilns
6.2 Raw Meal Suspension Preheater Kilns
6.2.1 General
6.2.2 One and two Stage Cyclone Pre-heater Kilns
6.2.3 Four Stage Cyclone Pre-heater Kilns
6.2.4 Precalciner Kilns
Query:
SUMMARY
Todays kiln systems for burning cement clinker of major importance use a rotary kiln. Exceptions are
vertical shaft kilns still used in certain geographical areas. With very rare exceptions, new plants use
the dry process. However, there are still important markets where older wet process plants are
predominant (USA, Russia).
A first classification of the process can be made based on the water content of the kiln feed:
< 1% water dry-process
10 ... 12% water semi-dry-process
17 ... 21% water semi-wet-process
25 ... 40% water wet-process
Dry-Process
Precalciner kiln with 4 to 6 cyclone stages (contemporary technology):
Separate tertiary air duct
50 - 60% fuel to the precalciner
Large capacities possible > 10000 t/d
Up to 4000 t/d in 1 string
Heat consumption < 3000 kJ/kg possible (6 stages)
Sensitive to circulation phenomena (-> kiln gas bypass!)
4-stage cyclone pre-heater kiln (standard technology 1970 to 1980):
Cyclone stages (co-current flow) for raw meal preheating
Large application world wide
Capacities of up to 4500 t/d technically possible
Heat consumption: 3150 to 3350 kJ/kg cli
2-stage cyclone pre-heater kiln:
Less sensitive to circulation phenomena than 4-stage pre-heater
Higher heat consumption than pre-heater with more stages
Shaft pre-heater kiln:
Counter current heat exchange between hot gas and raw meal
Practical efficiency inferior to cyclone pre-heater
Long-dry-kiln:
Rather simple equipment
High dust emission from kiln tube
Without heat exchange internals: high heat consumption of up to 5100 kJ/kg cli
With chains and/or crosses: 4200 kJ/kg cli achievable
Semi-dry and semi wet process
Grate pre-heater kiln (LEPOL, ACL):
Raw meal must be suitable to be nodulised with water (semi-dry)
Query:
3450 kJ/kg cli (no waste heat available for primary raw material drying)
Long rotary kiln and suspension preheater:
Filter cakes fed or slurry injection into vertical dryer; rather rare cases
Wet-process
Long wet kiln:
Fed with raw meal slurry of approx. 32 - 42% water content
Internal heat transfer improved by chains
High heat consumption of 5300 to 6300 kJ/kg cli due to evaporation of water
Heat consumption reduced by slurry thinners for a slurry with 25 - 30% H2O
Slurry preheaters can reduce kiln size and improve heat exchange
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 1. PROCESS REQUIREMENTS FOR KILN
SYSTEMS
1. PROCESS REQUIREMENTS FOR KILN SYSTEMS
The kiln system has to be designed to cope with the requirements of the chemical process during
which the kiln feed material is converted into cement clinker.
This process as a whole is endothermic and takes place at maximum material temperatures of 1450C.
Receiving its thermal energy from hot gases of up to 2000C generated by combusting fuels, it is also
referred to as pyroprocess.
Type of reaction and temperature development are compiled in sequence of reactions occurring in a
rotary kiln (table 1) and graphically as the quasi-qualitative variation of minerals with temperature
(figure 1).
The chemical process taking place in the kiln system where raw meal (input) is converted to cement
clinker (output) can be subdivided into the following five steps:
1. Drying
2. Preheating
3. Calcining
4. Sintering
5. Cooling
Process and equipment has been developed and improved with the aim at performing these steps
forever improved economy, which means
High availability
Low heat consumption
Low power consumption
Higher unit capacity
Stable kiln operation
Good, uniform clinker quality
Table 1 Sequence of Reactions occurring in a Rotary Kiln
Query:
Temperature
range (C)
Type of reaction
Heating Up
20 - 100 Evaporation of free H
2
O
100 - 300 Loss of physically absorbed water
400 - 900 Removal of structural H
2
O (H
2
O and OH groups) from clay minerals
> 500 Structural changes in silicate minerals
600 - 900 Dissociation of carbonates CO
2
driven out)
> 800 Formation of belite, intermediate products, aluminate and ferrite
> 1250 Formation of liquid phase (aluminate and ferrite melt)
approx. 1450 Completion of reaction and re-crystallisation of alite and belite
Cooling
1300 - 1240 Crystallisation of liquid phase into mainly aluminate and ferrite
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 2. PROCESS TYPES
2. PROCESS TYPES
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 2. PROCESS TYPES / 2.1 General
2.1 General
The criterion normally used to distinguish the process types is the moisture of the kiln feed material.
Four basically different process types for clinker burning can be defined:
Process Type Feed Material Cons. Feed Moisture Feed System
Dry process Raw meal Dry < 1% H
2
O Mechanic, pneumatic
Semi dry process Nodules Moist 10 ... 12% H
2
Query:
10 ... 12% H
2
O
Semi wet process Filter cake, nodules Moist 17 ... 21% H
2
Wet process Slurry Liquid 25 ... 40% H
2
O Hydraulic
Table 1 gives a general survey of the various rotary kiln systems in operation for industrial clinker
production. Shaft kilns, which are still used in China or experimental systems such as sintering grates
or fluidised beds, are not considered in the scheme.
We can distinguish two main groups of kiln systems:
a) Long kilns with or without internal heat exchanging installation
b) Short or medium kilns with external preheaters
(e.g. suspension preheaters, grates or external slurry preheaters)
The heat consumption of burning depends strongly on the water content of the kiln feed
This can be illustrated by the typical specific heat consumption: The fuel consumption of wet kilns is
nearly twice as high as for modern dry process suspension pre-heater kilns.
The comparison of the heat economy within each process group (dry or wet) shows clearly:
The more intensive the heat-exchange for drying and preheating, the lower the heat consumption.
Other than based on the feed moisture, kiln systems can be grouped in different ways:
Process Type wet
semi wet
semi dry
dry
>25% H
2
O in feed
17 - 21% H
2
O in feed
10 - 12% H
2
O in feed
< 1% H
2
O in feed
Slurry
nodules from slurry
nodules from meal
raw meal
Production Mode batch+cont.
continuous
< 200 t/d
300 t/d 10000 t/d
shaft kilns
rotary kilns
Heat Consumption 2900 kJ/kg cli
( 700 kcal/kg cli)
> 6000 kJ/kg cli
(> 1400 kcal/kg cli)
state of the art system
long wet or dry kilns,
not optimum operation
Power Consumption 20 to 65 kWh/t cli kiln feed to clinker cooler
OVERVIEW OF KILN AND PROCESS TYPES
Query:
When the concept for a new plant is developed, not only the present situation but also the possible
future developments of all relevant factors must be taken into account.
The following main parameters must be considered when selecting the kiln system:
Raw material:
moisture content
grindability
homogeneity of deposit
number of components for raw mix
chemical composition (sulphur, chlorides, alkalis, organic compounds etc)
filtration properties of slurry (for semi-wet process only)
Plant installation and operating costs
Requirements for clinker quality (e.g. low alkali clinker)
Aspects of environmental protection (emission of dust, SOx, NOx, etc)
Technical standard of the country
Long wet (and dry) rotary kilns are the oldest and most simple type of installation to produce cement
clinker. The pyroprocess takes place in a long rotating tube, which has usually internal equipment to
improve heat transfer, and, in wet kilns, to reduce dust loss. Unit capacities of up to 2000 t/d are
typically achieved, higher outputs are possible, however, they require kilns of gigantic dimensions.
Today, economy requires plants for 3000 to 10000 t/d. Therefore new plants are almost always based
on the dry process with preheater, pre-calciner and reciprocating grate cooler. The semi wet process
for a new plant could be preferred in special cases, e.g. where raw material with a high natural
moisture must be used (e.g. quarry below water level).
The three following graphs illustrate the development of the significance of the various processes
within the Holderbank group, which can be considered representative of the global situation.
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 3. WET PROCESS
3. WET PROCESS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 3. WET PROCESS / 3.1 General
3.1 General
The wet process was the most important process for clinker burning in the past and almost all plants
were wet. Heterogeneous quarries and corrective addition were no problem; stirring of the liquid slurry
in the slurry tanks provides very good batch-wise blending. Grinding was done in slurry mills, which
consume 30%, less energy than dry ball mills, but at higher lining wear rates.
Query:
The disadvantage of the wet process is the high heat consumption. Compared to e.g. a suspension
preheater kiln, the difference is more than 2000 kJ/kg clinker or 60 to 70%!
Today, with efficient dry homogenising technology available, the wet process is no longer applied for
new plants. Investments as well as operating costs of a wet system are higher than for dry systems of
the same output. Technical development allows using more efficient kiln systems even where wet
plants would have been built in earlier times.
Another reason for preferring the wet process in the past was the production of low alkali cement (alkali
content < 0,6%) and the fact that difficult circulation problems are easier to control in wet kilns. Today
secondary firing or efficient bypass installations with precalciner are possibilities to keep these
problems under control also in modern kiln systems.
Because of the lower specific gas volume and the shorter rotary part, rotary kiln dimensions as well as
gas handling, dedusting and fuel preparation can be designed accordingly smaller. Although new wet
kilns are no longer considered for new plants, they still play an important role in the US as well as in
many countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 3. WET PROCESS / 3.2 Long Wet Process Kilns
3.2 Long Wet Process Kilns
Long wet kilns have been the most commonly used burning reactors for a very long time, but because
of the high water content of the feed, their heat consumption is up to twice as high as for modern dry
systems.
The milled and homogenised raw material is a slurry with a water content of typically 32 to 42% and is
pumped to the kiln inlet.
In the first zone heat transfer for the evaporation of water is always increased by means of chain
systems (extended surface, higher relative velocities, increase of turbulence). The chain systems
should also reduce the dust losses and clean the kiln shell. These internal heat exchanger installations
require very special know-how, based to a large degree on experience (see separate paper chain
systems).
In order to decrease fuel consumption the water content should be kept as low as possible. The limit is
normally the pumpability of the slurry. It is basically possible to further reduce the slurry moisture by
using slurry thinners. This technology has been successfully applied and will provide an economical
advantage if adequate quantities are available at low cost, e.g. as industrial by-product.
Example: Beauport (Canada): 28% feed moisture

Query:
Wet kilns are relatively insensitive to circulation problems because the critical temperature ranges are
in the rotary part of the kiln (see also circulation phenomena).
Low alkali clinker can be produced from high alkali raw material simply by selectively wasting of dust:
The highest enriched kiln dust (e.g. from the last precipitator compartment) is removed from the
process (i.e. dumped onto a dust pile) as necessary. The rest of the dust can be reintroduced to the
kiln by dust scoops or insufflation into the burning zone.
Today, discarding dust creates increasing problems because of restrictive permitting of dust piles.
Note:
Kiln dust cannot just be blended to the slurry because it would react and thicken the slurry.
Typical technical data for long wet kilns with chains:
Heat consumption q 5000 ... 6300 kJ/kg cli (1200 ... 1500 kcal/kg cli)
Kiln exit gas temperature 150... 250C
System pressure drop
0,5 ... 1,0 kPa
Dust emission in % of clinker production 5 ... 100%
Probably the largest wet process kiln in the world is installed at Holnams Clarksville plant (Michigan
USA). This kiln has a diameter of 7,6 m and a length of 232 m with a daily capacity of about 3600 t.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 3. WET PROCESS / 3.3 Wet Process Kilns with
Slurry Preheaters
3.3 Wet Process Kilns with Slurry Preheaters
External Slurry Preheaters
In order to improve the heat exchange between gas and slurry and to reduce the kiln size, external
slurry preheaters have been developed by MIAG (Kalzinator) and Krupp (Konzentrator). Both of them
are revolving drums with special internal packing. These drums have about the same diameter as the
kiln, its length being slightly smaller than the diameter. The capacity of these machines is limited to 800
-1000 t/d and frequently operating problems arise. Very often, external preheaters were large sources
of false air.
Internal Slurry Preheaters
F.L. Smidth designed a slurry pre-heater system integrated into the kiln compartment, which should
avoid the disadvantage of external slurry preheaters. In practice, this construction turned out to be very
sensitive to clogging.
A better system developed by Fives Cail Babcock is installed in the three kilns at Obourg. Lifting
buckets and chain curtains produce a slurry curtain that keeps back a high amount of dust and
improves heat exchange.
Query:

Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 4. SEMI WET PROCESS
4. SEMI WET PROCESS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 4. SEMI WET PROCESS / 4.1 General
4.1 General
A process is considered semi-wet if the kiln feed is produced from wet slurry. A mechanical water
extraction process reduces the water content of the kiln feed to 17 to 21%. A number of filter presses
operating batch-wise are commonly used, but also continuous filter band presses or similar equipment
would be possible.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 4. SEMI WET PROCESS / 4.2 Semi Wet Process
Long Kilns
4.2 Semi Wet Process Long Kilns
Query:
Principally, long kilns with heat exchanger crosses can be fed with slurry, filter cakes or dry meal.
Feeding filter cakes is a straightforward and simple solution and is used by Italcementi in some cases.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 4. SEMI WET PROCESS / 4.3 Semi Wet Grate
Preheater Kilns
4.3 Semi Wet Grate Preheater Kilns
Most of the semi-wet systems use a grate preheater kiln fed with filter cakes.
A grate preheater system includes a short rotary kiln (similar to a four stage preheater kiln) where only
calcining and sintering take place. For drying, preheating and partial calcining, a travelling grate is
installed in front of the kiln, where heat of the kiln exhaust gases is used.
For the semi-wet grate kiln, the slurry must be prepared in a special way so it can be fed to a travelling
grate:
The pumpable slurry as starting material is fed to filter presses where the moisture content is reduced
to approx. 20% applying a filtration pressure of 15 to 20 bar. In a special type of extruder (Siebkneter),
the filter cakes are converted into cylindrical nodules (diameter 15 ... 20 mm, length 30 ... 50 mm) and
then fed to the preheater-grate. The economy of this way of preparation depends strongly on the
filtration properties of the slurry.
Operating and performance data are similar to the semi-dry grate preheater systems described under
5.2.
Characteristic data of a semi-wet grate pre-heater system:
Feed Nodules made from
Moisture Content of the Feed
Slurry Filter Cake
10 ... 12%
Heat consumption q 3770 kJ/kg cli ( 900 kcal/kg cli)
Exit gas temperature after grate 100... 120C
System pressure drop 2,6 kPa
Example of a semi-wet LEPOL kiln:
ABs kiln 10 at the Lgerdorf plant (Germany)
Maximum kiln capacity: 3600 t/d
Kiln dimensions: 6.0/5.6 m x 90 m
Grate dimensions: 5.6 x 61.7 m
Secondary firing with Fullers earth (special)
(Shut down; replaced by semi wet precalciner kiln in 1996)
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 4. SEMI WET PROCESS / 4.4 Semi-Wet
Suspension Pre-heater Kiln
4.4 Semi-Wet Suspension Pre-heater Kiln
The suspension preheater kiln is normally fed with dry meal (details see separate paper). However,
there are some rare cases where suspension preheater kilns are fed with nodules prepared from
slurry. These nodules should not be too strong because they must be cracked by thermal shock or
abrasion before being fed to the kiln system via top stage of the pre-heater.
A two-stage pre-heater kiln operated with semi-wet nodules was e.g. the Liesberg plant. There, the
nodules were cracked in a vertical dryer before being fed to the preheater.
The first modern kiln system using this principle has been built in the late 1980s by FLS in Aalborg
Cements RORDAL plant. It is a three stage two string kiln system with precalciner for a capacity of
4000 t/d. The high operating cost of the filter presses has been avoided by directly injecting the slurry
into a drier-crusher followed by a vertical drier. The semi-wet process was selected because the raw
material (chalk) is mined under water and has very high natural moisture.
From the Holderbank group:
Example of a semi-wet pre-heater/pre-calciner kiln:
ABs kiln 11 at the Lgerdorf plant (Germany)
Maximum kiln capacity: 4500 t/d at 3900 kJ/kg
Kiln dimensions: 4.8 x 65 m; 2 supports, gearless friction drive
Preheater: 3 stages, 2 strings
Utilisation of various alternative fuels in both firings
Supplied by Polysius; start-up: 1996
Filter cakes produced in already existing filter-presses
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 5. SEMI DRY PROCESS
5. SEMI DRY PROCESS
The semi-dry process is characterised by the fact that kiln feed nodules are made from dry raw meal.
Water is added in order to produce nodules with 10 - 12% moisture.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 5. SEMI DRY PROCESS / 5.1 Semi-Dry Process
Long Kilns
5.1 Semi-Dry Process Long Kilns
There are long kilns with heat exchanger crosses fed with nodules. This system was applied by
Italcementi and looks very similar to an installation for semi-wet feed material.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 5. SEMI DRY PROCESS / 5.2 Semi-Dry Process
Grate Pre-heater Kilns
5.2 Semi-Dry Process Grate Pre-heater Kilns
The grate preheater kiln is by far the most popular semi-dry system.
The principle of the grate preheater system for the semi-dry process is identical to the one used for the
semi-wet process. What is different is the feed preparation:
The dry raw material is mixed with water (10 ... 12%) and nodulised in a drum or preferably on a
rotating plate (pan noduliser). This system can be used only for raw materials containing plastic
components enabling the formation of nodules that are resistant against thermal shock and abrasion.
Query:
The main factor influencing plasticity is the mineralogical composition, especially the presence of
montmorillonite.
On the grate, heat exchange from the gas to the nodules forming a fixed bed layer of approx. 20 cm
thickness is excellent. In some grate preheaters, precalcination is done successfully, often using even
waste fuels (such as Fullers earth, acid sludge, waste lubricating oils etc.) utilising secondary firing.
The only successfully working travelling grate pre-heater was available from Polysius and became
known under the name LEPOL system (American licensee: Allis-Chalmers, ACL system).
This principle sketch shows a LEPOL kiln fed with nodules made out of dry raw meal. LEPOL kilns built
after 1945 are equipped with two-pass grates; i.e. the exhaust gas is led twice through the nodule bed
from top to bottom:
The hot kiln gas passes first through a bed of dry and preheated nodules and subsequently, after an
intermediary dedusting once again trough a layer of moist incoming nodules. It is believed that the
nodules survive throughout the process resulting in a clinker with very uniform size.
Furthermore, dust loads in the kiln atmosphere and dust emission out of the system are low. The
nodules on the grate let only pass the fine dust while the coarse particles are retained.
In cases of increased trace compound concentrations (especially alkali) in the raw material, the fine
dust separated in the electrostatic precipitator is largely enriched with them. Only a small amount of
dust has to be discarded to reduce the balance of these compounds in the kiln system. This effect
makes the LEPOL kiln quite suitable to produce a low alkali clinker with rather low heat consumption.
For this reason, it has been chosen in many cases, particularly in the USA.
The following limits and disadvantages have to be considered:
Only raw materials with good plastic properties can be used
(semi-wet: filter cake nodules -> good filtration properties are required)
The grate chain is subject to wear.
Uneven temperature distribution across the grate can cause difficulties.
Additional theoretical heat consumption due to the water content of the feed (partially
compensated by a low exit gas temperature).
Exhaust gases cannot be used in drying and grinding systems.
Characteristic data of a semi-dry grate pre-heater systems:
Feed nodules made from dry raw meal
Query:
Feed nodules made from dry raw meal
Moisture content of the feed nodules 10 ... 12%
Specific heat consumption q 3450 kJ/kg cli (= 820 kcal/kg cli)
Exit gas temperature after grate 100 ... 120C
System pressure drop 2.6 kPa
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 6. DRY PROCESS
6. DRY PROCESS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 6. DRY PROCESS / 6.1 Long Dry Kilns
6.1 Long Dry Kilns
Without internal heat exchange equipment
The simplest kind of dry process installation is the long dry kiln without any internal heat exchange
equipment (empty tube). With a heat consumption of 5100 kJ/kg cli (1200 kcal/kg cli) or about 90% of
the wet process it must be considered very uneconomical. Advantages might be its simplicity and
insensitivity to heavy circulation problems.
This kiln type is suitable to be used in combination with waste heat recovery steam boilers for power
Query:
generation. In that case, the waste heat contained in the hot kiln exhaust gases is further used to
produce valuable energy.
Characteristic kiln data:
Heat consumption q
4500 ... 6000 kJ/kg cli (1075 ... 1430 kcal/kg cli)
Kiln gas exit temperature 450... 500C
System pressure drop 0,5 ... 1,0 kPa
With internal heat exchange equipment
Long dry kilns with internal heat exchange equipment (chains or crosses from steel or ceramic
material) represent a more economical solution. Heat consumption of 4200 kJ/kg or even less can be
achieved. Other typical operating figures are contained in annex 10.
Heat consumption q 3800 ... 4500 kJ/kg cli (910 ... 1075 kcal/kg cli)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Kiln Systems - Overview / 6. DRY PROCESS / 6.2 Raw Meal Suspension
Preheater Kilns
6.2 Raw Meal Suspension Preheater Kilns
Preheater Kilns / 6.2.1 General
6.2.1 General
During the last thirty years, the suspension preheater kiln became the dominant clinker manufacturing
system. This system is fed by dry raw meal that is preferably prepared in a grinding and drying plant,
using the kiln waste gases as a drying medium. This ground and dried raw meal is homogenised and
then fed to the preheater where it is suspended in the kiln gas flow, where an extremely effective heat
transfer takes place. More information is contained in the special section Suspension Preheaters.
Preheater Kilns / 6.2.2 One and two Stage Cyclone Pre-heater Kilns
6.2.2 One and two Stage Cyclone Pre-heater Kilns
one stage: Heat consumption q 3750 ... 4000 kJ/kg cli (900 ... 950 kcal/kg cli)
Query:
two stages: Heat consumption q 3500 ... 3750 kJ/kg cli (850 ... 900 kcal/kg cli)
Preheater Kilns / 6.2.3 Four Stage Cyclone Pre-heater Kilns
6.2.3 Four Stage Cyclone Pre-heater Kilns
Until the mid 1980s, this arrangement belong to the systems with the lowest fuel consumption. It was
offered in several configurations with capacities up to 4500 t/d, most of them being combinations of
single or twin cyclone stages.
The kiln exit gas includes still enough heat to dry raw material up to moisture content of 8% if the mill is
running during all the kiln operation time. From this point of view, the remaining relatively high exit gas
temperature cannot be considered fully as a loss, because it can substitute an auxiliary firing for raw
material drying.
The preheater system is installed in a steel or concrete tower with a height of about 60 to 120 m (6
stages) above the kiln inlet, depending on capacity and concept.
The four to six stages preheater is most susceptible to circulation problems at presence of excessive
concentration of circulation compounds causing clogging problems in the pre-heater system.
The sketch shows a conventional four stage cyclone preheater system. In the 1970s, production lines
with more than approx. 2000 t/d had to be built with two parallel preheater strings. Today, one-string
installations are possible for up to 4000 t/d.
Characteristic operating figures of 4-stage pre-heater kilns:
Heat consumption q
small units 3350 ... 3550 kJ/kg cli
(= 800 ... 850 kcal/kg cli)
Query:
(= 800 ... 850 kcal/kg cli)
large units 3150 ... 3350 kJ/kg cli
(= 750 ... 800 kcal/kg cli)
kiln exit gas temperature 320... 350C
kiln exit gas volume
approx. 1,5 Nm
3
/kg cli
System pressure drop 4 ... 6 kPa
Dust loss relative to clinker 8 ... 15%
Transition chamber
kiln gas temperature approx. 1100C
Material temperature approx. 800C
Preheater Kilns / 6.2.4 Precalciner Kilns
6.2.4 Precalciner Kilns
For larger production capacities, a larger portion of the pyroprocess had to be relocated out of the
rotary kiln in order to maintain reasonable kiln diameters without excessive thermal load of the burning
Query:
zone.
The process of dissociation of CO
2
(calcination) is suitable to take place in a static reactor outside of
the rotary kiln. Of the total heat consumption, 60 to 65% are required to achieve about 90% of
calcination. 100% calcination must be avoided because clogging problems will seriously disturb kiln
operation (beginning of clinker formation).
The development of this reactor started with a secondary firing in the kiln riser duct sufficient for 35 to
40% calcination of the meal, combustion air still pulled through the kiln tube (=air through). It was
therefore referred to as precalciner (PC) type AT. Only when hot cooler air (= tertiary air) for the PC
fuel (= secondary fuel) was taken to the calciner in a separate duct, the so called tertiary air duct, the
full benefit of this technology could be used. Today, only this type called PC-AS (=air separate) is
considered a real precalciner. The elements of a precalciner kiln system are explained in the sketch.
The strongest boost of calciner development was in the seventies in Japan, initiated by the demand for
very large units exceeding the potential of conventional kilns with suspension preheaters. Only
precalciner technology makes todays largest units of 10000 t/d possible.
Two process alternatives of precalciner are used:
in-line calciner (calciner installed in kiln gas flow)
separate-line calciner (calciner not passed by kiln gases)
More details on calciner technology are contained in a separate section.
The operating data are very close to the ones of the corresponding preheater kiln system. In-line
calciners have a tendency to higher gas exit temperature and system pressure drop; however, modern
units are equipped with 5 or 6 preheater stages to compensate for this.
Characteristic operating data of 4 to 6 stage precalciner kilns:
Heat consumption q
small units, 4 stage SP 3350 ... 3550 kJ/kg cli
(= 800 ... 850 kcal/kg cli)
large units, 5 stage SP 2900 ... 3200 kJ/kg cli
(= 700 ... 800 kcal/kg cli)
SP exit gas temp. 6 to 4 st. SP 290... 370C
SP exit gas volume
approx. 1.3 to 1.5 Nm
3
/kg cli
System pressure drop 4 ... 6 kPa
Dust loss relative to clinker 8 ... 15%
Transition chamber:
kiln gas temperature approx. 1100C
Material temperature approx. 800C
Query:
More data of precalciner kiln systems are shown in the section Precalciners.
HEAT BALANCE
WET / SEMI-DRY / 4-ST. PREHEATER / 5-ST. PREHEATER-PRECALCINER
WET PROCESS SEMI-DRY
LEPOL
4-STAGE SP 6-STAGE SP-PC
Input kJ/kg cli % kJ/kg cli % kJ/kg cli % kJ/kg cli %
Fuel kiln combustion 5560 96.7% 3343 97.6% 3150 97.7% 1180 39.2%
sensible heat 25 0.4% 15 0.4% 13 0.4% 5 0.2%
Fuel PC combustion 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1775 58.9%
sensible heat 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 8 0.3%
Kiln feed sensible heat 25 0.4% 30 0.9% 54 1.7% 45 1.5%
sensible heat of
water
73 1.3% 17 0.5% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Query:
water
Insufflated air (PA, cooler) 67 1.2% 20 0.6% 6 0.2% 0 0.0%
Total inputs 5750 100% 3425 100% 3223 100% 3013 100%
Output kJ/kg cli % kJ/kg cli % kJ/kg cli % kJ/kg cli %
Heat of formation 1750 30.4% 1750 51.1% 1750 54.3% 1750 58.1%
Water evaporation 2370 41.2% 506 14.8% 13 0.4% 8 0.3%
Exhaust gas sens. heat 754 13.1% 314 9.2% 636 19.7% 553 18.4%
Exhaust gas dust sens.
heat
25 0.4% 21 0.6% 18 0.6% 29 1.0%
Clinker 59 1.0% 50 1.5% 63 2.0% 83 2.8%
Cooler waste air 100 1.7% 276 8.1% 423 13.1% 288 9.6%
Radiation and convection :
- Preheater 0 0.0% 160 4.7% 77 2.4% 60 2.0%
- Precalciner (or bottom
stage)
0 0.0% 0 0.0% 20 0.6% 20 0.7%
- Kiln (+tertiary air duct) 530 9.2% 200 5.8% 200 6.2% 200 6.6%
- Cooler 10 0.2% 92 2.7% 10 0.3% 10 0.3%
Water cooling 0 0.0% 42 1.2% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Other outputs 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Rest 152 2.6% 14 0.4% 13 0.4% 12 0.4%
Total outputs 5750 100% 3425 100% 3223 107% 3013 100%

Query:
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Annex 1
The word cement is more than 2000 years old, but impure lime has been used much longer as a
building material. It is historically established, that the Phoenicians used a pozzolanic lime about 700
B.C. and also the Romans produced some sort of cement or hard burned lime. From the medieval
ages, it is known that in Holland a type of hydraulic cement was formed out of lime and tuff in dome
shaped kilns.
Our cement, as we know it today, is now more than 200 years old, invented by the Englishman John
Smeaton in 1756. It was burned in bottle kilns. The better known inventor of Portland cement was
Joseph Aspdin, who patented his burning process in 1824. He also used dome kilns of approx. 36 ft
height and 17 ft diameter with a production of 90 bbl (= 15 t) per charge, each of which took several
days to produce. Fuel consumption was 50% of clinker weight in coal which corresponds to 15500
kJ/kg cli (= 3700 kcal/kg cli).
In 1880 an important step forward was made with the development of the continuously working shaft
kiln, which had a much better heat economy. An example of such a kiln was the Dietzsche
Etagenofen which is shown in Annex 1.
From 1877 experiments have been conducted with rotary kilns. In 1897 Hurry and Seaman developed
the first successfully operating unit of this type in America.
These first rotary kilns were wet process kilns with a daily capacity of 50 to 100 tons. Their heat
consumption was again very high (about 30% of clinker in coal = 9500 kJ/kg cli) and they had an
incredible dust emission (usually more than one third of the whole production). In order to decrease
heat consumption, chain systems were installed in wet kilns to improve heat transfer during drying.
Behind long dry kilns, waste heat steam boilers were arranged for the same purpose.
It took almost another 30 years, before a further substantial reduction of heat consumption could be
achieved by reducing the water content of the feed and by a better heat exchange in the preheating a
calcining zone. In 1930 an officer of the army of the tsar, Dr. Lellep, took an important step in this
direction. He developed the travelling grate pre-heater, which is fed with moist nodules. This invention
was taken over by Polysius and got the name LEPOL kiln. Some years later, there was a Czech patent
of a cyclone raw meal pre-heater, and in 1953 Kloeckner-Humboldt-Deutz AG in Germany installed
the first suspension pre-heater system for raw meal. This type of kiln now became dominant
because of its heat economy and nowadays other systems are only chosen in special cases. In former
years, the main reason for the selection of the wet process was, that effective homogenisation of
Query:
ground raw material was not possible except in the form of slurry. In developing special techniques for
dry material homogenisation such as mix beds, mixing chamber silos etc., this factor could be
eliminated.
Utilising a rather old idea, since about 1966 especially Japanese cement machine manufacturers have
designed several successfully working precalcining kiln systems. Calcination is already done in a
stationary calciner system, where secondary firing is installed. By this means, it is possible to design
kiln systems with a comparatively small rotary part diameter but a very large capacity up to more than
10000 t/d.
Kiln systems built after 1990 include 6-stage preheaters with up to 4000 t/d per string, pure air
calciners, designed for a variety of fuels and emission control. Using modern low primary air burners,
low pressure drop cyclone designs and high recuperation efficiency coolers allow further reduction of
heat and power consumption.

Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Rotary Kilns
Rotary Kilns
U. Gasser
PT 98/14362/E
1. General
2. Kiln Dimensioning
3. Mechanical Aspects of Rotary Kilns
3.1 Riding Ring Fixation, Kiln Shell Ovality
3.2 Kiln Seals
3.2.1 Kiln Inlet Seal
3.2.2 Kiln Outlet Seal
3.3 Kiln Drive
Query:
SUMMARY
After over 100 years, the rotary kiln is used in all cement plants for clinker production.
The following properties made it superior to other principles:
suitable to cope with high temperatures
easy to be lined with refractory bricks due to its shape
material transport behaviour
tight to ambient
mechanically relatively simple
large units possible
The rotary kiln must be designed for process, combustion and mechanical requirements.
Characteristic figures: Length L [m] , diameter D [m] and their ratio L/D
[-]

Slope [], speed range [min
-1
] and drive [kWh]

Dimensioning criteria: Volume load [t/(d m3)]
Burning zone load [t/(d m2)]
Thermal burning zone load [MW/m2]

Important mechanical features are:
riding ring fixation
roller station / alignment
seals at inlet and outlet
drive

With modern precalciner technology, outputs exceeding 10000 t/d per kiln are possible with
diameters still below the 6.5 m of the largest wet kilns.
There is a trend towards short L/D kilns with only two piers mainly because of lower investment.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Rotary Kilns / 1. GENERAL
1. GENERAL
Today, all clinker producing installations of industrial size use a rotary kiln. The rotary kiln is still the
only feasible way to manage this high temperature process with process material of varying behaviour.
One exception is the vertical shaft kiln still used in some parts of the world, e.g. China, however, for
Query:
small unit capacities only. The other exceptions are few pilot installations based on sintering in a
fluidized bed reactor.
Like many other great ideas, the rotary kiln was invented towards the end of the 19th century and has
found application in many different industries. In 1987, Hurry and Seaman in the USA developed the
first successfully working rotary kiln to produce cement clinker.
The first rotary cement kilns were using the wet process with one very long kiln tube, making it the
dominating single piece of equipment of a plant. With technological progress, the kiln sections used for
for drying, heating-up and calcining have gradually been replaced by other types of equipment, the
rotary kiln remains to be the most suitable type of machine for the clinkerization process.
The rotary kiln has to satisfy three types of requirements:
Combustion: as a combustion chamber for burning zone
fuel
Process: as a reactor for the clinker burning process ( retention time)
as a material conveyor ( slope, speed)
Mechanical: stability of shape, carrying load, thermal
flexibility, tightness
Remarks:
Even though the rotary kiln is a relatively simple piece of equipment, nobody has developed a
complete theoretical/mathematical model of its behaviour and process which would allow correct
process simulation and equipment design.
The rotary kiln is still the heart of the entire production line. Its OEE (overall equipment efficiency)
depending mainly on hourly output and availability, is decisive for the success of a plant.
The rotary kiln is designed to operate 24 hours a day, and the rest of the equipment upstream and
downstream has to follow.
Being a major cause for production cost (mechanical maintenance, refractories), a well managed
kiln is vital for a successful plant.
Figure 1: Old and new kiln
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Rotary Kilns / 2. KILN DIMENSIONING
2. KILN DIMENSIONING
The kiln dimensions are defined with diameter D (for kilns with different diameter: burning zone D) and
length L:
L [m] and D [m] resp. L/D [m]
For cement kilns, the actual L/D ratio range is:
from 40 (for long wet kilns) to 11 (for modern short kilns with precalciner)
The diameter D is the inner diameter D
i
of the kiln (steel-) shell.
Process technological dimensioning of a kiln is based on empirical figures and experience from
existing installations
One limiting factor for the diameter is the mechanical stability of the arch of the brick lining. Maximum
diameters which can be safely realised with standard size bricks are about 6,5 m. The largest kiln in
the Holderbank group is 232 m (wet process, 3750 t/d).
The following process technological dimensioning criteria are mostly used:
Specific Volume Load
Volume Kiln Net
Production Clinker [t/(d m
3
)]
Specific Zone Load
Section Cross Zone Burning Net
Production Clinker [t/(d m
2
)]
Thermal Burning Zone Load
Section Cross Zone Bruning Net
Input Heat Zone Burning [MW/m
2
)]
Specific volume load and thermal burning zone (BZ) load have no physical significance. They are
merely defined to make existing installations comparable.
The specific load is indirectly a gas velocity, because generating a certain amount of thermal energy by
fuel combustion results in a proportional gas flow which can be calculated.
The thermal BZ load per cross section is considered the limiting factor for a modern kiln system. For a
certain length/diameter ratio, which is typical for each kiln type, the thermal BZ load it is proportional to
the heat load on the inside of the lining surface which is one of the main influencing factor on brick life.
The limit usually respected is:
Query:
Max. Thermal BZ Load = 6 MW/m
2
(=5.16 x 10
6
kcal/m
2
h)
Other absolute limiting values of all the three factors are not known. Each supplier seems to have his
own rules of kiln dimensioning. Since no theoretical formulas have been derived to calculate the kiln
size on an analytical basis, it is possible, that the present limits of the dimensioning criteria may be
surpassed even for the conventional processes.
Figure 2: Long and short L/D kilns
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Rotary Kilns / 3. MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF ROTARY KILNS
3. MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF ROTARY KILNS
The following aspects of kiln mechanical design are relevant for the process:
Riding ring fixation, kiln shell ovality
Kiln seals
kiln drive
refractory lining (separate paper)
nose ring (covered in refractory lining)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Rotary Kilns / 3. MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF ROTARY KILNS / 3.1 Riding
Ring Fixation, Kiln Shell Ovality
3.1 Riding Ring Fixation, Kiln Shell Ovality
A rotary kiln should be designed as cheaply as possible, yet it must still be rigid to guarantee minimum
wear of the lining. This requirement can be met, if the deformation of the kiln shell is reduced to a
tolerable limit.
The parameter expressing shell deformation at a certain point is the kiln shell ovality
:
Query:
Definition of
:
=2 (a - b) with 2a and 2b as the main axis of an ellipse
Investigations have shown, that generally a maximum relative ovality
of
0,3% is allowed This ovality may be subdivided into two amounts:
a) Ovality of the riding ring 3 cm due to external forces allowed value:
% 2 . 0 <
dr
a) Ovality of the kiln shell due to deformations by its own weight in loose riding rings and due to
increased temperature.
The following two requirements must be met to keep the kiln ovality within the tolerable limits:
The riding rings must be rigid enough
The clearance between the ring shoes and the riding ring should be minimum during operation. The
following table shows some practical values:
Riding Ring No. 1 2 3 4
Clearance during operation [mm] 3-4 3-4 4-6 5-6
maximum [mm] 10-15
Riding rings with splined fixation provide much better support of the kiln shell. Because the kiln shell is
laterally suspended in adequately designed carrying bars, ovality is much reduced resulting in
noticeably better brick life.
Such systems are currently available from Polysius and FLS, the latter one is lso offered as retrofit.
Splined tire fixations are integral part of gearless kiln drive systems.
Figure 3: Tire fixations
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Rotary Kilns / 3. MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF ROTARY KILNS / 3.2 Kiln Seals
3.2 Kiln Seals
In order to avoid the danger of hot gases and dust leaking into the atmosphere, the entire kiln system
is operated at negative pressure. The pressure profile starts at ambient (grate cooler: above first grate,
satellite and tube cooler: fresh air inlet) and becomes increasingly negative towards the kiln induced
draft (ID) fan.
Instead of leaking out from within the process, there is now a problem with ambient air being sucked
into the system, called false air. Depending on the point of entry, false air has different undesired
effects. That is why a lot of effort is made to keep process systems tight.
/ 3.2.1 Kiln Inlet Seal
3.2.1 Kiln Inlet Seal
The kiln inlet seal (inlet: referring to material flow) is at point with negative pressure of less than 10
mmWG (modern 2-support kilns) up to 100 mmWG (long wet kilns with chains).
Modern kilns with low suction have high temperatures (up to 1300C) instead.
False air entering the system causes
Additional gas to be handled by kiln ID fan and dedusting system
Unnecessary cooling of hot process gases reducing value of heat
Kiln inlet seals:
Sealing force by pneumatic cylinders (pneumatic); sealing-rings
Sealing force by coil springs/levers or weights (mechanical); sealing-segments
Sealing force by leaf springs and rope with weight; lamella (fish scale)
Kiln inlet seals must be equipped with a dust return scoop ring to avoid spillage of kiln feed.
Note:
The inlet seal is designed to seal against cold fresh air from outside, but it can be damaged if it must
seal hot gas from inside to ambient in case of system overpressure! (this happens sometimes during
the heating-up phase)
Query:
/ 3.2.2 Kiln Outlet Seal
3.2.2 Kiln Outlet Seal
With grate and tube coolers, the kiln outlet seal is installed between kiln head and rotary kiln where
pressure should be slightly negative. Kiln outlet seals used with grate coolers must be designed to
cope with pressure pulsation with occasional positive pressure. Outlet seal and nosering (brick
retainer) with cooling air fan can be considered one system.
Here, the loss generated by false air reduces recuperation from the clinker cooler. Cold ambient air
replaces hot secondary air from the cooler which has to be vented.
Outlet seals designed specifically for this application of the following type are available:
Pneumatic
Mechanical
Lamella (fish scale)
Labyrinth (outdated)
With planetary coolers, false air reduces the amount of cooling air resulting in higher clinker
temperatures. The outlet seal is smaller, at lower temperature and negative pressure only.
Figure 4: Kiln seals
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Rotary Kilns / 3. MECHANICAL ASPECTS OF ROTARY KILNS / 3.3 Kiln Drive
3.3 Kiln Drive
Kiln drives are designed for speeds between 1.0 and 4.0 min
-1
, depending on slope, process and kiln
dimensions. Long wet kilns are typically operated at the low end of this speed range where some new
high performance kilns (short L/D with precalciners) are running at the upper end.
For over 10 years, rotary kilns have been driven by girth and pinion type drives. Decisive for their
performance are:
Correct dimensioning
Correct alignment (even load distribution on the flanks of the teeth; no peaks)
Adequate lubrication system and lubricant quality
Query:
With the new two support short kilns (L/D < 13) with long overhangs, kiln shell deformation and burning
zone much closer to the drive, it became more difficult to ascertain correct alignment. Because of the
determined load distribution on two piers, it became possible to avoid the girth drive by using the kiln
rollers to transfer the torque to the riding ring: the gearless drive (=friction drive) was introduced. It is
currently available from Polysius (POLRO) and FLS-Fuller (ROTAX).
The following elements are part of this system:
Two supports for defined load on the driven tire
Splined tire fixation for safe torque transmission to the shell
Self-aligning roller
station
for linear load pattern between roller and tire (friction)
Today, there are only few kilns with friction in operation; the first one was Lgerdorf 11 by Polysius.
Detail optimization and long term experience are yet to be awaited.
Most systems have hydraulic drives for two rollers. This provides smooth operation, but is expensive,
rather complex (hydraulic unit) and has higher power consumption. Electric direct drive of only one
roller has been installed in one case.
Figure 5: Kiln drives
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater
Suspension Preheater
U. Gasser
PT 98/14363/E
1. General
1.1 History
1.2 Trend
2. Heat Exchange in a Suspension Preheater
2.1 Counter-Current Heat Exchange (Shaft Stage)
2.2 Co-Current Heat Exchange (Cyclone Stage)
2.3 Thermodynamic Limits
3. Preheater Types
3.1 Preheaters with Shaft Stages
3.1.1 Pure shaft preheaters:
3.1.2 Hybrid preheaters:
3.2 Preheaters with Cyclone Stages
3.3 Economical Number of Stages for Cyclone Preheaters
3.4 Minimum Gas Velocity
4. Design Features of Preheater-Cyclones
4.1 General
4.2 Dust Cycles
4.3 Features
4.3.1 Splash Box
4.3.2 Dip Tube (Immersion Tube, Vortex Finder, Thimble)
4.3.3 Meal Flap
4.3.4 Cyclone Shapes
5. Preheater Operation
5.1 Operating Problems of Suspension Preheaters
5.1.1 Circulation Phenomena.
6. New Developments
6.1 Horizontal Cyclone
6.2 TRS
Query:
SUMMARY
Practically all modern kiln systems are equipped with a cyclone suspension preheater.
New installations include a precalciner with tertiary air duct, so that the preheater and precalciner have
become one unit. However, the preheater has a specific task and is not principally connected to the
precalciner.
Modern low pressure drop cyclones are the result of a development which started in 1932.
Shaft Preheaters:
Counter-current heat exchange
Limited production (around 1000 t/d)
Disappointing heat exchange mainly due to poor meal distribution
Hybrid preheaters:
Combination of shaft and cyclone stages
Bhler-Miag, Polysius, Prerov, Humboldt
Shaft stages often replaced by cyclone stages
Cyclone preheaters:
Co-current heat exchange
Successful concept, predominantly used
Industrial installations of cyclone preheaters:
Precalciner kiln with 4 to 6 cyclone stages (contemporary technology):
Large capacities possible > 10000 t/d
Up to 4000 t/d in 1 string
Heat consumption < 3000 kJ/kg possible (6 stages)
4-stage cyclone pre-heater kiln (standard technology 1970 to 1980):
Cyclone for raw meal preheating
Large application world wide
Capacities of up to 4500 t/d technically possible
Heat consumption: 3150 to 3350 kJ/kg cli
2-stage cyclone pre-heater kiln:
Less sensitive to circulating elements than 4-stage pre-heater
Higher heat consumption than pre-heater with more stages
Most recent innovations:
Horizontal cyclone for low profile preheaters (Polysius)
Dip tube add-on RTS for 30% lower cyclone pressure drop
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 1. GENERAL
1. GENERAL
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 1. GENERAL / 1.1 History
Query:
1.1 History
With dry process, the heat exchange for heating up and calcination takes place between hot kiln gas
and dry powder. Since the high dust losses from long dry kilns made it almost impossible to achieve
acceptable heat consumption: other heat exchange principles had to be applied.
Since the temperature range to be covered is below 1000C, where the meal behaves normally like dry
powder, stationary reactors where the meal is in suspension with the hot gas can be used.
The first patent for a suspension preheater using four co-current cyclone stages was applied for in
1932 and issued in 1934 by the patent office in Prague to a Danish engineer employed by FLS. Even
though the concept was entirely described in the patent, it took another 20 years for industrial
application in 1951 by the company Humboldt, now KHD.
Other developments using shaft stages have been abandoned and today, a suspension preheater is
actually a cyclone preheater.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 1. GENERAL / 1.2 Trend
1.2 Trend
All new kiln systems and the majority of the ones with start-up date after 1970 are equipped with
cyclone pre-heaters. Gradually, older plants with wet kilns or long dry kilns are shut down for good due
to their age as well as their high specific production cost
The portion of worlds cement produced with kilns using suspension pre-heaters is still growing, as can
be seen by the development of the Holderbank plants. It looks as if it will exceed 95% one day
because no feasible alternative solution changing this development is in sight.
In combination with pre-calciners, units of 10000 t/d have been built using up to four strings, five
stages. Typically, 3500 t/d can be handled in one string, in a recent project even 4000 t/d have been
proposed.
Figure 1:
Figure 2:
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 2. HEAT EXCHANGE IN A SUSPENSION PREHEATER
2. HEAT EXCHANGE IN A SUSPENSION PREHEATER
/ 2.1 Counter-Current Heat Exchange (Shaft Stage)
2.1 Counter-Current Heat Exchange (Shaft Stage)
The most efficient type of heat exchange is the counter-current principle. The flows of the heat
releasing media and the heat absorbing media are in opposite directions. This provides optimum the
temperature difference (=temperature gradient, in theory allowing almost complete heat exchange.
In case of a suspension preheater, where powder is suspended in a gas, the heat exchange takes
place in a reactor vessel where the hot gas enters from below and leaves at the top. The meal to be
preheated is fed at the top. The meal retention time depends on distribution across the gas flow and
the retention time, which is determined by the gas velocity.
In industrial installations, the heat exchange proved to be far below expected, because even
distribution of the meal was not achieved, particularly not with large units.
/ 2.2 Co-Current Heat Exchange (Cyclone Stage)
2.2 Co-Current Heat Exchange (Cyclone Stage)
Co-current heat exchange takes place if both heat exchanging media flow in the same direction.
Because of the rapidly decreasing temperature difference, the meal can never reach gas inlet
temperature.
Good and reproducible results in industrial installations with this type lead to the predominance of this
principle in the cement industry. The heat exchanger is a gas duct with velocities from 10 to 20 m/s,
equipped with good meal dispersion devices. The purpose of the cyclone is primarily to separate meal
from gas, and not to exchange heat!
/ 2.3 Thermodynamic Limits
2.3 Thermodynamic Limits
Regardless of the type of heat exchange, there is always a thermodynamic imbalance between hot
Query:
gases from kiln and calciner and cold raw meal. The heat contained available in the hot gas leaving the
rotary kiln exceeds the heat required for heating the meal to the temperature levels required for
calcination.
Another limit must be observed: Because the temperature gradient between gas and meal (T gas > T
meal) must always be maintained, a higher calcination degree than 30% cannot be achieved without
additional heat input.
The following heat balance estimate shall illustrate this:
Heat contained in the gas: 2300 kJ/kg cli
(1100C; 1.3 Nm3/kg cli)
Heat to preheat meal to 850C: 1300 kJ/kg cli
(1.6 kg meal /kg cli)
Heat required for 30% calcination: 650 kJ/kg cli
Rest (ideal heat exchange): 350 kJ/kg (corresponding to 200 C)
This shows that even if the heat of the gas above 850C is used for partial calcination (about 30%),
there is still excessive heat in the gas which would correspond to 200C gas temperature.
It is obvious that even with a very large number of stages (with accordingly small temperature
gradients), there will always be excess heat! This waste heat is lost only for the kiln system, but not for
the plant, since it can be used for raw material drying in the mill.
Figure 3:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 3. PREHEATER TYPES
3. PREHEATER TYPES
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 3. PREHEATER TYPES / 3.1 Preheaters with Shaft
Stages
3.1 Preheaters with Shaft Stages
Query:
The rather disappointing performance of the shaft stage made it virtually disappear from the market.
Many hybrid preheaters were equipped with one or two cyclone stages replacing the shaft stage.
Shaft stages at the kiln inlet have the advantage to be less sensitive to build-ups. This could be an
advantage in cases where elevated sulfur input in the kiln system must be expected.
Several Suppliers built preheaters using shaft stages. Two groups can be distinguished:
Stages / 3.1.1 Pure shaft preheaters:
3.1.1 Pure shaft preheaters:
Polysius: GEPOL
Self-supporting structure (no tower required)
Vertical tube with restrictions
For small capacities (up to ca. 1000 t/d)
ZAB Dessau: Some applications in Eastern Europe
Similar to GEPOL, but not self-supporting
The Deuna plant had originally 4 ZAB shaft preheaters
Stages / 3.1.2 Hybrid preheaters:
3.1.2 Hybrid preheaters:
Several suppliers used a combination of shaft and cyclone stages:
Polysius: DOPOL preheater (first generation)
The central swirl-pot (second lowest stage) was shaft stage
Replaced by DOPOL 90 from 1990
Gradually developed into a cyclone preheater
Up to ca. 3000 t/d
Bhler-Miag: Lowest stage was shaft stage
Later often replaced by cyclone stage
Prerov: One large shaft stage with dedusting cyclone
Shaft stage selfsupporting
Additional cyclone stage possible
Query:
Additional cyclone stage possible
Separate meal duct to kiln
As sensitive to circulation phenomena as a cyclone type
MBM: Bottom shaft stage with 4 cyclone stages
Only hybrid design still on the market
Figure 4:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 3. PREHEATER TYPES / 3.2 Preheaters with Cyclone
Stages
3.2 Preheaters with Cyclone Stages
A quasi counter-current heat exchange can be achieved by serial installation of several co-current
stages. The result is the multi-stage cyclone preheater as it is generally applied in modern cement
plants.
In the early years, one and two stage systems have been installed with long kilns, often to avoid
problems caused by circulating phenomena. A large number of plants are equipped with four stages;
the majority of them were built before 1990.
Today, five stage preheaters represent the economical optimum. High raw material moisture leads
occasionally to fewer stages, in combination with low temperature dedusting systems, or in areas with
high fuel cost, six stages can be more economical. Number of stages depends thus on:
Raw material moisture (i.e. drying heat requirement)
Cost of thermal energy
Cost of electrical energy
Gas handling system (temperature limit, dew point)
Soil conditions (foundations, earthquake zone -> height of structure)
If raw material moisture shows significant seasonal variations, it can be economical to equip preheaters
with variable stages. This is achieved by feeding all or part of the meal to the second highest stage or
by skipping a stage.
Query:
Note: Numbering of stages is always from top to bottom: top stage = stage 1.
Exception: Polysius: bottom stage = stage 1
Figure 5:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 3. PREHEATER TYPES / 3.3 Economical Number of
Stages for Cyclone Preheaters
3.3 Economical Number of Stages for Cyclone Preheaters
For many years, the pressure drop across one preheater stage was up to 1,5 kPa (15 mbar). The
reason for the 4-stage pre-heater being so widely used is, that it represented an optimum between
investment cost (structure height, foundation), pressure drop and heat consumption. . The
performance of comparable systems built in about the same period are within a relatively narrow range.
About two third of the pressure drop of a stage occurs in the cyclone and depends on its shape/design
and the size, the latter being the determining cost factor.
New cyclone designs are now on the market with only 0,5 to 1,0 kPa (5-10 mbar) pressure drop per
stage. Considering increasing energy cost, it is justified to install 5 or 6 pre-heater stages for new or
modified kiln systems.
The following table indicated the estimated effect of a 5th and a 6th cyclone stage:
4 to 5st 5 to 6st
Heat consumption kJ/kg cli - 80 - 50
Exhaust gas temperature C - 40 to -50 - 20 to -30
Exhaust gas quantity
Nm
3
/kg cli
- 0,03 - 0,015
Drying capacity in RM % H
2
O from 8 - 6,5 From 6,5 -
5,5
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 3. PREHEATER TYPES / 3.4 Minimum Gas Velocity
Query:
3.4 Minimum Gas Velocity
Dimensioning of a cyclone preheater is a careful consideration of the importance of separation
efficiency, pressure drop, part load operation capability, size of the preheater and cost of the project.
It must be mentioned that there is a lowest gas velocity in a cyclone preheater. If operation results in
lower figures, the meal will not be lifted by the gas anymore, resulting in poor heat exchange and
consequently high heat consumption, but also excessive temperatures .
Large dimensions give lower velocities with low pressure drop, but also limit the lowest possible
economical production.
Figure 6: Polysius
Figure 7: FLS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 4. DESIGN FEATURES OF PREHEATER-CYCLONES
4. DESIGN FEATURES OF PREHEATER-CYCLONES
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 4. DESIGN FEATURES OF PREHEATER-CYCLONES /
4.1 General
4.1 General
Modern preheaters are designed for low pressure drop using the new cyclone design which must still
provide good separation efficiency, particularly in the top and the bottom stage. Cyclone inlet velocities
Query:
are designed in the range of 10 to 15 m/s.
It has been found that the total pressure drop of one cyclone stage is caused by about 1/3 by the gas
duct (i.e. lifting of the meal) and 2/3 by the cyclone. Since not much can be done regarding lifting of the
meal, efforts have been made to improve the cyclone design in order to reduce total pressure drop: the
low pressure (drop) cyclone was designed.
Cyclone design means to optimize between high separation efficiency, low pressure drop and low cost
(i.e. small size).
Other than having the correct design parameters, all stages should be equipped with
Dip Tubes (also called immersion tubes, thimbles or vortex finders)
Meal flaps
Splash boxes (or splash plates).
4.2 Dust Cycles
4.2 Dust Cycles
The entire kiln system is subject to dust cycles. Precondition is gas flow in opposite direction of
pulverized process materials. This causes wear, unnecessary material transport and heat losses due to
heat exchange in the wrong direction.
In the preheater, internal dust cycles due to poor separation efficiency of the cyclones result in less
than optimum preheating of meal. Unfortunately, it is almost impossible to measure dust loss from
lower cyclones in normal operation. The only indicator is the temperature profiles of gas and meal, but
even the meal temperature is not always easy tp measure.
4.3 Features
4.3 Features
4.3 Features / 4.3.1 Splash Box
4.3.1 Splash Box
Early cyclone preheater designs had no splash boxes. Instead, the meal was fed into the gas at a
higher point against the gas flow, creating some turbulence with a certain distribution effect.
Modern cyclone preheaters must be equipped with correctly designed splash boxes for optimum meal
distribution across the gas duct cross section. The principle is based on impact on a plate. In some
installations, the bottom plate of the splash box can be adjusted.
Note: No splash box must be installed at the kiln inlet! The hot meal from the bottom cyclone must
enter the rotary kiln as smoothly as possible. Meal is easily picked up by the kiln gas and will create a
dusty transition chamber.
Figure 8:
Query:
4.3 Features / 4.3.2 Dip Tube (Immersion Tube, Vortex Finder, Thimble)
4.3.2 Dip Tube (Immersion Tube, Vortex Finder, Thimble)
This integral element of the cyclone has a decisive influence on separation and pressure drop. It
makes the gas to follow a 180 to 360rotation thus creating the desired centrifugal force for the
separation effect.
In the colder upper stages (stage 1 to 3) it can be designed as simple extension of the outlet gas duct,
made from steel plate. These upper stage dip tubes create usually no problems except when the
preheater gets overheated, e.g. during start-up. Then, the dip tube can collapse, causing excessive
pressure drop.
In the hotter lower stages, mild steel ducts from one piece are not suitable. Several segmented designs
made from heat resistant steel or ceramic material (Hasle) are available on the market. It is standard
today that all stages are equipped with dip tubes.
Note: It appears that some designs of segmented dip tubes have a tendency to unhook enabling
individual elements to drop and to block the cyclone outlet!
For older plants, installing a segmented dip tube in the lower stages is a optimization possibility which
is often applied.
4.3 Features / 4.3.3 Meal Flap
4.3.3 Meal Flap
In order to understand the purpose of the meal flap, the following two aspects must be mentioned:
There is a pressure difference across a cyclone stage, i.e. between two subsequent cyclone gas
outlets (maintained by the ID fan).
Without meal, there are two ways the gas can flow from one stage to the next: through gas duct
and through meal duct
If there was an ideal kiln system, i.e. a system with 100% constant meal flow and never changing
operation parameters, the meal duct diameter could be designed for just the meal. The meal would
then fill the entire cross section, leaving no opening for the gas. In reality, there are fluctuations of meal
and dropping build-ups, requiring oversized meal ducts.
It is the purpose of the meal flap to close the free cross section not used by the meal, to avoid gas
Query:
bypass. There are designs that open only when a certain weight pushes them open, thus creating meal
fluctuations. Other designs (see figure) are adjustable so that they move only in case of meal peaks or
lumps.
Not operational meal flaps cause heat loss and allow build-up formation in meal ducts
(circulating elements)!
4.3 Features / 4.3.4 Cyclone Shapes
4.3.4 Cyclone Shapes
The separation efficiency of a cyclone gets better with longer dip tube and increasing distance between
swirl (cylinder) and dust collecting cone, i.e. with high and slim shapes.
The top stage of preheaters is designed for high separation efficiency. In order to save height, most
suppliers install twin cyclones with the drawback that meal and gas have to be split. There are a few
plants from FLS with only one top cyclone, avoiding this drawback.
Figure 9:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 5. PREHEATER OPERATION
5. PREHEATER OPERATION
The performance of a preheater is assessed based on the criteria:
Temperature profile (first indicator: exit gas temperature)
Pressure profile
Oxygen profile
Table Typical Gas Temperature Profiles
4 stages 5 stages 6 stages
SP PC SP PC SP PC
Stage 1 C 350 360 300 310 270 280
Stage 2 C 540 570 490 500 440 460
Stage 3 C 710 740 630 650 580 600
Stage 4 C 840 870 750 770 690 710
Query:
Stage 4 C 840 870 750 770 690 710
Stage 5 C - - 840 870 770 800
Stage 6 C - - - - 840 870
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 5. PREHEATER OPERATION / 5.1 Operating
Problems of Suspension Preheaters
5.1 Operating Problems of Suspension Preheaters
Some reasons for poor preheater performance frequently experienced:
Worn out or non existing immersion tubes (often in bottom stage)
Open inspection doors, leaky gaskets or holes in the pre-heater (cold false air leaks in, can be
detected by hissing sound)
Blocked or non existing meal flaps
No splash boxes (specially older preheaters), combined with not optimum position of meal feed
point (e.g. old DOPOL)
Excessive dust circulation due to poor separation efficiency of cyclones
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 5. PREHEATER OPERATION / 5.1 Operating
Problems of Suspension Preheaters / 5.1.1 Circulation Phenomena.
5.1.1 Circulation Phenomena.
Cyclone preheaters are sensitive to circulation phenomena. Cyclone blockages cause kiln stops
resulting in production loss and dangerous cleaning actions. Possible causes are:
Excessive input via feed or fuel (Cl, S, 1 Na, K)
Chemical unbalance (sulphur, alkali ratio)
Unfavourable kiln/burner operation
Unfavourable design geometry of bottom stage and kiln gas riser duct area
Countermeasures known today allow to solve the problems are:
Change feed composition or fuel quality
Improve burning conditions
Install automatic cleaning (air cannon, big blasters) at critical locations
Change temperature profile by installing a small secondary burner
Install a kiln gas bypass* system
*A bypass system is not desirable since it is expensive and causes loss of heat and material. It is
therefore the last solution left and should be only considered if all other measures are not sufficient.
The paper circulating phenomena contains more details on this rather complex subject.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 6. NEW DEVELOPMENTS
6. NEW DEVELOPMENTS
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 6. NEW DEVELOPMENTS / 6.1 Horizontal Cyclone
6.1 Horizontal Cyclone
Polysius have developed a horizontal cyclone. (not to be mixed up with earlier designs of Kawasaki!)
This cyclone is a modified version of the conventional cyclone with the major difference that the gas
outlet is also at the bottom, encircling the meal outlet.
The heat exchanger duct is still from bottom to top, but the stages can be arranged next to each other
instead on top of each other. This allows a significantly lower height of the preheater structure.
It is expected that savings in civil cost can be achieved. Additional benefit is possible in cases where
the maximum height is restricted (earthquake zones, scenery protection).
Only top cyclones on conventional preheaters are in industrial operation, however. Any other
experience is yet to be made.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Suspension Preheater / 6. NEW DEVELOPMENTS / 6.2 TRS
6.2 TRS
The Austrian company Zyklontechnik have introduced a dip tube add-on device which will reduce
pressure drop across the cyclone (not the entire stage!) by 30% at otherwise unchanged performance.
The principle is to avoid the flow around the edge of the dip tube. Instead, the horizontal swirl from the
gas inlet is maintained and can continue into the dip tube through an accurately shaped slot in the
TRS.
Prerequisite is aerodynamically correct cyclone design and very accurate manufacturing of the TRS,
which cannot be made locally.
The device can be mounted to the bottom of a shortened dip tube. If the inspection opening is large
enough, the whole unit can be installed in one piece, otherwise it comes in pieces.
Several TRS are in operation (not in preheaters, however) with performance equal to or exceeding the
predicted figures.
Figure 10:
Figure 11:
Query:
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems
Precalcining Systems
U. Gasser
VA 93/4055/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF PRECALCINING
2.1 2.1 Calcining of Raw Meal
2.2 Combustion in Precalciner
2.3 Specific Heat Consumption
2.4 True and Apparent Calcination Degree
3. BASIC ARRANGEMENTS OF PRECALCINING SYSTEMS
3.1 AS and AT Systems
3.2 In-Line, Off-Line and Separate Line Calciners
4. FEATURES OF PRECALCINERS
4.1 Main Benefits of Precalciner Technology
4.2 Limitations and Restrictions
4.3 Tertiary Air Damper and Kiln Riser Orifice
4.4 Circulation Problems and Bypass with PC Kilns
5. PRESENT STATE OF PRECALCINER DEVELOPMENT
5.1 Calciners from FCB
5.2 Calciners from FLS - FULLER
5.3 PYROCLON Calciners (KHD)
5.4 PREPOL Calciners (Polysius)
5.5 Prerov-Calciner
5.6 Conclusion
6. SYNOPSIS OF PRECALCINERS
7. TEST QUESTIONS
Query:
SUMMARY
When burning cement clinker in a suspension preheater kiln, about 2/3 of the total heat consumed or
about 2000 kJ/kg are required for the dissociation of CaCO
3
also known as calcination.
The idea of precalcination is, to let this process take place before the meal enters the rotary kiln by
introducing that part of the fuel, i.e. up to 65%, into a stationary reactor.
Because the combustion air (tertiary air) is drawn through a separate duct parallel to the kiln directly
from the cooler, the rotary kiln operates at significantly lower specific thermal load and gas flow.
The main advantages of precalcination are:
More stable kiln operation due to better kiln control via two separate fuel feed/control points
More stable kiln operation due to controlled meal conditions at kiln inlet
Reduced thermal load of burning zone
Higher kiln availability
Longer life of burning zone refractories
Larger capacity with given kiln dimensions, resp. smaller kiln for given capacity
Possibility of increasing capacity of existing kilns
More favorable conditions regarding circulating element problems
Allows shorter kilns (L/D <12, 2 supports)
Lower NOx emissions
The drawbacks of higher gas exit temperature after the bottom cyclone and the preheater higher
pressure drop can be compensated by five preheater stages and modern low pressure drop cyclones.
There are three basic precalciner arrangements available from several suppliers: in-line, off-line and
separate line, all with separate tertiary air duct.
Being the key for complete combustion, the main design criteria is gas retention time: 2 to 3.5 sec
minimum, depending on fuel reactivity, 0.5 to 1 sec more for in-line calciners.
Systems where 10 to 20% of the fuel is introduced to the riser duct are considered secondary firings
(SF) and not precalciners.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems / 1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
The idea of separating the calcining process from the burning process was already described in a
patent as early as 1912.
However, the first industrial precalciner was built by Humboldt-Wedag (KHD) only in 1966 (Fig. 1). It
was the Polysius kiln in Dotternhausen (Germany) which was equipped with a special 5-stage
suspension preheater with extended riser duct. This riser duct had a larger diameter and the shape of
a gooseneck to provide more length thus more gas retention time enabling combustion of oilshale, a
locally available fuel containing raw material. The combustion air (tertiary air) was still drawn through
the rotary kiln. Additional burners were installed later at the bottom of the precalciner chamber.
Tube type calciners using the gooseneck design are still being used by KHD (Pyroclon) and Polysius
Query:
(Prepol).
So it is obvious that the precalciner (PC) kiln was developed from a straight suspension preheater (SP)
kiln. The process characteristics (heat balance etc.) of both SP and PC kiln systems are quite similar,
the main difference being the fact that in case of the PC kiln, 50 to 60% of the fuel (heat) is introduced
via a chamber between kiln inlet and bottom cyclone. This allows to match the process heat
requirements more evenly leading to significant improvements.
Since true precalciners with 50 to 60% PC fuel ratio require a separate tertiary air duct, almost all PC
kilns feature a grate cooler.
The demand for larger and larger capacities which started back in the 1970ies led to a rapid
development of the new precalciner technology. The fastest growing market asking for the largest units
was in Japan where most of the clinker is produced in PC kilns.
During that period, 12 competing suppliers developed their own precalciners, 8 of them were Japanese
(see para synopsis of precalciners).
After the home market for cement plants started to stagnate, the Japanese suppliers exported their
know-how via licenses as well as entire plants. During the late 1980ies, where only few new plants
have been constructed world-wide, the Japanese activities came to a stop.
The latest development of precalciner technology was aimed at
Complete combustion, also for low reactivity fuels
Suitability for a wide range of fuels
Low emissions of NOx
Since the Japanese competitors have virtually disappeared on the international market, the variety of
precalciner systems is reduced. Five European suppliers (FCB, FLS-Fuller, KHD, Polysius and Prerov)
offer precalciners, some even a choice of alternative solutions.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems / 2. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF PRECALCINING
2. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF PRECALCINING
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems / 2. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF PRECALCINING / 2.1
2.1 Calcining of Raw Meal
2.1 2.1 Calcining of Raw Meal
Among all reactions taking place when burning clinker, the calcining - also called decarbonisation -
requires the highest amount of energy: the dissociation of carbonates, primarily calciumcarbonate
according to the reaction
CaCO
3
+ heat CaO + CO
2
in the raw meal requires approx. 1.3 MJ/kg raw meal corresponding to 2.0 MJ/kg cli. The DTA-curves
(Fig. 2) illustrate very well the importance of calcining within the clinker burning process.
Fig. 2 Differential Thermo-Analysis (DTA)-curves of a typical cement raw meal
Query:
During the process of heating up a raw meal, the calcining does not happen suddenly at a well defined
temperature, but starts at about 600 - 700C and ends between 900 and 1000C, following a so-called
S curve (Fig. 3). Exact shape and position of this curve vary from raw meal to raw meal.
Fig. 3 General aspect of the calcining curve of a cement raw meal
Not only the temperature, but also the retention time of the raw meal is an important parameter of
calcining. While the heat transfer from gas to suspended raw meal in a preheater stage is achieved a
fraction of a second, the complete calcination at a temperature of about 900C in suspension requires
a reaction time in the range of 2 to 12 seconds. However, as only 90 to 95% of the calcining should
take place in the precalciner in order to avoid clogging problems, a residence time of about 1 to 3
seconds has proven to be sufficient.
To perform both above mentioned tasks, i.e. to keep raw meal in suspension for a few seconds at 850
to 900C in a stationary vessel without clogging, is the common process target of all PC systems.
Combustion in Precalciner
2.2 Combustion in Precalciner
The combustion in the precalciner takes place under quite different conditions compared to the main
firing because:
The temperature of the combustion environment is in the order of 850 to 900C (flame temperature
of the main firing: around 2000C).
Some PC systems (in-line systems) use an air-gas mixture for combustion (main firing: pure
Query:
primary and secondary air) while others use pure air (off-line and separate line systems).
In all PC systems preheated raw meal is suspended in the combustion air or air-gas mixture
respectively in order to absorb the heat released thereby maintaining the temperature at a
comparatively low level. By all means must Sintering of material avoided, as this would lead to
clogging in the precalciner stage.
On the account of the less favorable combustion conditions complete combustion is not always readily
obtained, it requires a certain experience to achieve optimum performance. Of the various parameters
influencing the combustion performance, the following are perhaps the more important ones:
Good mixing of the fuel with the available oxygen. (This is particularly difficult to achieve with in-line
calciners.) Optimum fuel dispersion into the gas flow (liquid fuel: atomization) is essential.
Retention time for combustion has to be sufficient. The combustion must be completed in the PC
stage. Otherwise, it will continue in the next stage (post-combustion) where the temperature level is
lower and therefore less favorable for the calcination (see S-curve). This results in not optimum
utilization of the heat which leads eventually to higher fuel consumption.
The flow pattern of the air/gas mixture (resp. tertiary air) has to be favorable for the combustion.
The meal distribution in the combustion zone has to be optimum, i.e. causing minimum distortion of
the combustion. (CaCO
3
as well as CO
2
can also react with C - carbon from the fuel - to produce
CO!).
It is known from experience that too high concentrations of raw meal can seriously impede the
complete combustion.
With the introduction of the separate air duct for the combustion air for the calciner, the new term of
tertiary air had to be introduced:
Primary air: Air introduced via kiln burner
Secondary air: Air from cooler to kiln burning zone
Tertiary air: Air from cooler to PC for combustion
Introduction of fuel between kiln inlet and bottom cyclone - as secondary firing or via precalciner -
necessarily increases the temperature level. The gas exit temperatures from the lowest stage of a
straight preheater kiln is only 790 to 820C as compared to precalciner kilns where this temperature
increases by some ten degrees to 840 to 870C. Therefore, the preheater exit temperature is also
somewhat higher entailing an increased heat loss, which is more pronounced with 4-stage preheaters.
The performance of PC systems can primarily be judged on two characteristic values:
The temperature difference between gas and material ex precalcining stage should be as low as
possible, so as to minimize the heat losses of the exit gas. The reaction temperature in the
precalciner depends of course on the raw meal and the required precalcining degree as well as
tolerated NOx level.
Complete combustion must be achieved as this directly influences the overall heat consumption of
the system. It must be mentioned that this is strongly influenced by the excess of air.
Note: Stating the amount of unburned matter in the gas is therefore only meaningful to assess
a calciner system, if the amount of oxygen in the gas is indicated as well.
Query:
Solid, liquid and gaseous fuels are successfully fired in PC kiln systems. However, the location and
position of the burners in the precalciners have to be adapted to the fuel particularities. This is specially
important for gaseous fuels, which seem to be more difficult to burn in the PC chamber than other
fuels.
Specific Heat Consumption
2.3 Specific Heat Consumption
From the above mentioned it can be concluded that PC systems have a tendency to slightly increased
heat consumption, unless countermeasures are taken such as:
Although equipping existing preheater kilns with precalcination usually results in a slight increase of
the heat consumption, the average (annual) heat consumption may be equal or even lower on
account of a more regular kiln performance.
Also for new installations the heat consumption is about 50 - 100 kJ/kg cli higher than for
conventional preheater kilns with 4 stages.
Where the somewhat higher exit gas temperature cannot be fully used, say for raw material drying -
then it has become standard to install one or two additional preheater stages to reduce the heat
consumption to a figure slightly, for 6 stages noticeably, below that of a conventional 4st SP kiln. The
first PC kiln in Dotternhausen was in fact equipped with a 5-stage preheater.
True and Apparent Calcination Degree
2.4 True and Apparent Calcination Degree
An important parameter for controlling the precalciner operation is the calcination degree. It is
important to know the meaning of the true and the apparent calcination degree.
True calcination degree:
Degree to which the calcination is completed, i.e. extent to which the CO
2
is dissociated from the
CaCO
3
.
Extremes: Raw meal 0% (LOI = 35%)
Clinker 100% (LOI = 0%)
In reality, the calcination degree is determined using a hot meal sample taken from the meal duct of
the bottom cyclone. Because of always present dust cycles between kiln / kiln inlet / kiln riser / bottom
cyclone, this sample contains a certain amount of dust which was already in the kiln calcining zone and
is higher or even fully calcined. This sample is therefore a mixture consisting of fresh meal and dust
circulated back and has a higher calcination degree than the pure fresh hot meal.
This means: The higher the dust concentration near the kiln inlet resp. the dust cycle, the higher the
apparent calcination degree.
Apparent calcination degree:
The calcination degree determined from a hot meal sample taken from the meal duct of the bottom
cyclone.
Fig. 5 True and Apparent Calcination Degree, PC Fuel, Dust
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems / 3. BASIC ARRANGEMENTS OF PRECALCINING
SYSTEMS
3. BASIC ARRANGEMENTS OF PRECALCINING SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS / 3.1 AS and AT Systems
3.1 AS and AT Systems
The first precalciner in Dotternhausen used combustion air which was drawn through the kiln as excess
air. This technology was maintained for several years and is known as AT System. However, in reality
only up to 35% fuel could be introduced to the precalciner thus limiting its benefits. The AT type is thus
no longer considered a precalciner; it is rather used for secondary firings where a high calcination
degree at the kiln inlet is not the main target.
Fig. 7 AS and AT Systems
Today, all precalciners are AS Systems using tertiary air which is extracted from the kiln hood or from
the cooler roof and drawn via a separate tertiary air duct parallel to the kiln to the precalciner. This
means that planetary coolers are not compatible with precalcination technology (i.e. AS systems).
Table 1 Comparison of AS and AT System
Item AS AT
Portion of fuel to the
precalciner
up to 65% max. 35%
Query:
precalciner
Largest kiln in operation 8500 t/d, 6.2 x 105 m 4700 t/d, 5.2 x 80 m
Kiln for given capacity (st SP
= 100%)
approx. 75-80% approx. 85-90%
Suitable type of cooler only grate or rotary all types
Suitable for extension of
existing SP kiln
poor (cooler, tertiary air
duct)
very good for low PC rates
Burning conditions in rotary
kiln
normal flame temperature
(normal excess air)
lower flame temperature and
stable operation due to high
excess air
Thermal load in burning zone
(4st SP = 100%)
approx. 60-70% at 60%
PC
approx. 85-90% at 30% PC
Behavior regarding circulating
elements
like 4st SP kiln due to the high O2-content of
the kiln atmosphere, reduced
volatility of sulfur and
therefore decrease of
encrustation in transition zone
and riser pipe
Heat loss at 10% bypass (4st
SP = 100%)
approx. 40% (bypass will
be smaller than in 4st SP
kiln)
approx. 90% (bypass will have
same size as in 4st SP kiln)
Exhaust gas temperature (4st
preheater)
higher than 4st SP higher than 4st SP
Heat consumption slightly higher than 4st SP slightly higher than 4st SP
Pressure loss over preheater higher than 4st SP slightly higher than 4st SP
SYSTEMS / 3.2 In-Line, Off-Line and Separate Line Calciners
3.2 In-Line, Off-Line and Separate Line Calciners
This criteria refers to the position of the precalciner in the kiln system installation and is illustrated with
Fig. 8 below.
In-Line Calciners are installed in the kiln exhaust gas flow which means that the combustion takes
place in an air/kiln gas mix. This precalciner can be considered an enlarged kiln riser duct.
Off-Line Calciners are installed off the kiln exhaust gas flow. The combustion takes place in pure
(tertiary) air which is also responsible for lifting up the meal.
Separate Line Calciners are off-line calciners with a separate preheater string.
Fig. 8 Precalciner Arrangements
Query:
Table 2 Comparison of Calciner Arrangements
In-Line Off-Line Separate Line
PC arrangement Extended riser duct Parallel to riser duct Parallel to riser
duct
Combustion
atmosphere
Kiln gas and air mix Pure air Pure air
Preheater string 1 to 4 of same size 1 to 4 of same size 2 to 4, 2 different
sizes
Advantages Low NOx version
(reducing kiln NOx)
Suitable for
modification
Two independent
combustions
Easy combustion
control
Excess air used for
combustion
Good combustion Good combustion
Suitable for lump
fuel
Suitable for
modifications
Suitable for
modifications
Weak points Mixing of air with
gas
Higher peak
temperature (NOx!)
Higher peak
temperature
(NOx!)
Larger volume
required
PC drop-out can fill
TAD
PC drop-out can
fill TAD
Incomplete
combustion
Asymmetry
regarding
circulating
elements
Height requirement
(depending on
type/design)
Requires 2 strings
(not feasible for
<3000 t/d)
Strings of different
sizes (problem
>7000 t/d)
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems / 4. FEATURES OF PRECALCINERS
4. FEATURES OF PRECALCINERS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems / 4. FEATURES OF PRECALCINERS / 4.1 Main Benefits
of Precalciner Technology
4.1 Main Benefits of Precalciner Technology
There are many advantages of precalciner technology which made it state of the art today. Some of
them are listed here:
1) More stable kiln operation due to better kiln control via two separate fuel feed/control points.
2) More stable kiln operation due to controlled meal conditions at kiln inlet.
3) Reduced thermal load of burning zone.
4) Lower brick consumption as a result of 1. and 3.
5) More than double capacities possible with given kiln (10000 t/d with 6 m x 95 m kiln).
6) Possibility of increasing capacity of existing kilns.
7) Reduced volatilization of circulating elements.
8) Reduction of cycles (S, Cl, Na20, K2O) with smaller bypass rate, i.e. lower losses.
9) Makes short kilns possible with 2 stations, L/D < 12
10) Possibilities of NOx reduction.
11) Lump fuel utilization in some cases.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems / 4. FEATURES OF PRECALCINERS / 4.2 Limitations
and Restrictions
4.2 Limitations and Restrictions
Even though the advantages of precalciner systems are doubtlessly convincing, not all types can be
used in all cases. Limitations are:
Additional installation (fuel dosing, calciner, tertiary air duct) as well as the relatively smaller rotary
kiln sets a lower economical limit to PC systems for new plants at around 1200 t/d.
Alternative fuels containing hazardous components can only be used in the main firing due to the
high temperature level there. The potential to use such fuels is then lower for PC kilns.
Higher exhaust gas temperature and higher pressure drop can be a drawback in specific cases.
Separate line calciners for new installations are only feasible if a 2-string arrangement is required
for the capacity, i.e. above 3500 t/d.
Fig. 9 Comparison of wet, SP and PC Kilns (average curves)
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems / 4. FEATURES OF PRECALCINERS / 4.3 Tertiary Air
Damper and Kiln Riser Orifice
4.3 Tertiary Air Damper and Kiln Riser Orifice
Off-line calciners as well as in-line calciners are usually equipped with one kiln ID fan. In order to allow
control of the tertiary air/secondary air ratio, there must be a control device in at least one of the two
gas paths (kiln resp. tertiary air duct).
For efficient warming up of the preheater, a damper is usually installed in the tertiary air duct to avoid
fresh air to bypass the main flame. Very often, this damper is used also, for controlling the tertiary air
flow (Fig. 10a). However, experience shows that high temperature and clinker dust require a quite
refined design of this tertiary air damper. In many cases, this damper operates only for a short period
without problems.
Another approach is to install the control device in the other path. Some suppliers (e.g. FLS and
Kawasaki) have developed a kiln riser orifice which is successfully operating in several plants. This
solution (Fig. 10b) is generally more expensive than the TA damper above, but performs well.
Fig. 10 TA Damper and Kiln Orifice
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems / 4. FEATURES OF PRECALCINERS / 4.4 Circulation
Problems and Bypass with PC Kilns
4.4 Circulation Problems and Bypass with PC Kilns
Precalciner kiln systems have two major advantages regarding circulation problems.
Query:
Reduced volatilization in the rotary kiln because less than 50% of the heat is introduced in the
burning zone.
Less than 50% thermal and dust losses in case of a bypass compared to a straight SP kiln.
The volatilization of circulating elements occurs primarily in the rotary kiln. The percentage of the
volatilized elements which can be extracted with a bypass depends on
volatilization rate in the kiln, and
amount of kiln gas extracted via bypass (= bypass rate) which is expressed by the ratio:
bypass gas
gas at kiln inlet
The highest possible reduction of circulating elements at a given volatilization rate would be if 100% of
the gases at the kiln inlet could be extracted. this is only possible in the case of a precalciner but not
with a straight preheater kiln. Accordingly are the heat losses approx. 50 to 60% lower at a given
reduction because the concentration of volatilized circulating elements in the gas at the kiln inlet is
much higher than for a SP kiln.
Fig. 11 Bypass for PC Kilns
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems / 5. PRESENT STATE OF PRECALCINER
DEVELOPMENT
5. PRESENT STATE OF PRECALCINER DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT / 5.1 Calciners from FCB
5.1 Calciners from FCB
FCB have been IHI licensees since the mid seventies for in-line calciners resulting in 8 operating
installations and 6 under construction. The highest capacity is 3300 t/d (Tourah, Egypt).
Together with Ciments Franais FCB have designed a new type of calciner with low emissions suitable
for low grade fuels called the FCB low NOx PC (Fig. 12).
In combination with a low NOx kiln burner, FCB expect to achieve 150 - 350 ppm NOx at the stack with
their new calciner. The first industrial prototype is scheduled for 1992.
The FCB calciner looks like a vertical reactor with one three channel burner on the top. Tertiary air is
introduced from the top as well as with the meal on two sides. Flow is vertical from top to bottom. Meal
Query:
can be proportioned via three points on two levels. FCB claim to achieve:
Hot spot
Reducing atmosphere zone NOx reduction
Controlled flame
No separation of coal and meal
DEVELOPMENT / 5.2 Calciners from FLS - FULLER
5.2 Calciners from FLS - FULLER
The FLS range of calciners will be marketed by both FLS and FULLER.
Three basic air separate calciner systems are available: ILC, SLC-S and SLC (Fig. 13).
All these use a vessel type calciner which provides retention time by means of volume. Experiences
with this system made no conceptual changes necessary.
The only modification to be mentioned is the new tangential tertiary air inlet for the ILC system which
allows larger calciner volume without requiring more height.
Main features of the FLS calciner systems presently available are:
Variable kiln orifice (Fig. 14) for the SLC-S calciner to control the ratio of secondary to tertiary air in
place of the often troublesome damper in the tertiary air duct.
Low NOx version by splitting the tertiary air creating a controlled area of reducing atmosphere in
the lower part of the PC which is horizontally divided in two zones by an orifice.
Variation of the calciner outlet temperature with the SLC-S system without changing the preheater
temperature profile providing a temperature window for NH
3
injection.
DEVELOPMENT / 5.3 PYROCLON Calciners (KHD)
5.3 PYROCLON Calciners (KHD)
The calciner systems by KHD (and Polysius) are based on the 1965 Dottenhausen goose neck
design, a tube type calciner. As PYROCLON-R, a whole range of versions has been developed (Fig.
15).
A low NOx version of the RP version is not available. KHD tackle the problem of CO from incomplete
combustion with coal firing by focusing on improved coal dosification.
Incomplete mixture of waste gases from kiln and calciner is often found with tube type calciners. In
order to achieve a good mixture, an essential prerequisite for low NOx systems using excess fuel
zones in the precalciner, the 180C elbow is substituted by a new reaction chamber, called PYROTOP
(Fig. 16).A PYROCLON-R Low NOx with PYROTOP allows:
Complete combustion of the calciner fuel
Temperature controlled zones (NH
3
injection)
Improved mixing of gases
Reduction of NOx
Query:
DEVELOPMENT / 5.4 PREPOL Calciners (Polysius)
5.4 PREPOL Calciners (Polysius)
Polysius calciners are all of the air separate (AS) h-line-type. It is generally accepted today that the
calcination process takes place within a few seconds making the fuel reactivity the decisive design
criteria for the calciner size.
The goose neck-tube type calciner PREPOL by Polysius is presently available in three basic
configurations (Fig. 17).
Several Polysius calciners have been modified by the company CLE who added an RSP type
pre-combustion chamber. The same principle is now incorporated in the PREPOL AS-CC calciner by
Polysius.
Polysius started in 1985 to develop their NOx reducing technology called MSC based on experience
available from power stations with staged combustion. They have adapted this method to the
requirements of the clinker burning process. Trial operation on cement plants have shown 35 - 45%
reduction of NOx.
The idea is to create a limited zone of reducing atmosphere near the transition chamber by adding a
small amount of fuel to the rotary kiln exhaust gas via a small burner in the riser duct. For the NOx
from the calciner fuel, the same principle is applied resulting in a second reducing zone. Such a system
would have the following fuel inputs:
< 50% main burner
< 10% via primary DeNOx burner
> 30% via precalciner
< 10% via secondary DeNOx burner
Experience on an industrial scale only will prove the capability of this system. One of the difficulties is
how to control the kiln atmosphere without the gas analysis sampled near the kiln inlet.
DEVELOPMENT / 5.5 Prerov-Calciner
5.5 Prerov-Calciner
The Czek company Prerov have developed a new precalciner (Fig. 18). It consists of a precombustion
chamber (KKS) and a reaction chamber (KKN) with a vortex chamber and is comparable to Polysius
PREPOL-AS CC. During 1992, the first installation will be commissioned in Southern Italy.
DEVELOPMENT / 5.6 Conclusion
5.6 Conclusion
The development of tube type calciners and vessel type calciners has moved them closer to each
other. The tube type calciners have received a swirl pot or a pre-combustion chamber for improved
mixing and fuel burning and the vessel type calciners have become longer.
The calciner without separate air duct also known as air through actually operating only with 10 - 20%
of the total fuel never fulfilled the expectations and has virtually disappeared, together with the
planetary cooler.
Query:
Low NOx calciners have been developed based on the principle of locally reducing atmosphere by
means of fuel excess zones. It can be expected that NOx from precalciner combustion can be reduced
to around 700 - 800 ppm. Calciners can be designed to reduce NOx generated in the burning zone, or
to keep NOx generated in the calciner low, or both.
Since further NOx reduction to lower levels require methods such as NH
3
injection, temperature control
is very important.
A modern calciner can be described as follows:
Type: in-line with pre-combustion chamber
Fuel ratio: 50 - 60% (include. low NOx fuel in case of staged combustion
Fuel dosing: low fluctuation
Fuel types: various, including alternative fuels
Combustion environment: pure air or air/kiln gas mix
Calciner size criteria: fuel reactivity
gas retention time (up to 4 - 5 sec.)
Feature: enhanced turbulence
Tertiary air: staged for reducing zone
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems / 6. SYNOPSIS OF PRECALCINERS
6. SYNOPSIS OF PRECALCINERS
The different PC systems as well as their developers and suppliers are summarized in Table 3. During
the 1970ies the cement manufacturers greatly contributed to the development of the Japanese PC
systems:
Until 1985, ot 304 kilns with PC, 83 were located in Japan, totaling 35% of the capacity. This shows the
explosive expansion of PC systems in Japan back than. Today, all new kilns have precalciner with
tertiary air duct.
Table 3 Synopsis of PC Systems
Trade Name Signification Developer & Licenser Plant Supplier & Licensee
PASEC Voert Alpine / SKET ACT
SLC Separate Line Calciner F.L. Smidth F.L. Smidth
SLC-S Separate Line Calciner Special
ILC In-Line Calciner
ILC-D In-Line Calciner Downdraft
ILC-E* In-Line Calciner, Excess Air
Prepol AS Air Separate Krupp-Polysius Krupp-Polysius
Prepol AS-CC Controlled Combustion
Prepol AS-MSC Multi Stage Combustion
Prepol AT* Air Through
Pyroclon R Regular = Air Separate KHD Humboldt Wedag KHD Humboldt Wedag
Pyroclon RP Regular Parallel
Query:
Pyroclon RP Regular Parallel
Pyroclon R Low NOx
Pyroclon R Low Nox
with Pyrotop
Pyroclon S* Special = Air Through
EVS-PC
(only fuel - oil)
Echangeur voie sche avec
prcalcination
Fives-Cail Babcock Fives-Cail Babcock
KKS-KKN n.a. Prero Prerov
SF Suspension Flash Calciner Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy
Ind.
Chichibu Cement
Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Ind.
Fuller Company /
Fives-Cail Babcock
NSF New SF
RSP Reinforced Suspension
Preheater
Onoda Cement Onoda Engineering & Consulting
Kawasaki Heavy Industries
Allis-Chalmers
CLE-Technip
KSV Kawasaki Spouted Bed and
Vortex Chamber
Kawasaki Heavy Industries Kawasaki Heavy Industries
NKSV New KSV
MFC Mitsubishi Fluidized Calciner Mitsubishi Mining & Cement Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
GG Reduction Gas Generator Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
DDF Dual Combustion and Denitration
Furnance
Nihon Cement Kobe Steel
CSF (CFF) Chichibu Suspension Flash
Calciner
Chichibu Cement Chichibu Cement (own plants)
SCS Sumitomo Cross Suspension
Preheater and Spouted Furnace
Process
Sumitomo Cement Kawasaki Heavy Industries
Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy
Industries
*Air through: secondary firing systems
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Precalcining Systems / 7. TEST QUESTIONS
7. TEST QUESTIONS
1) Which is the chemical reaction with the highest heat consumption within the clinker burning
process? How much does it consume in absolute terms (kJ/kg clinker) and in percent of the total
heat consumption of a modern kiln system?
2) Which are the three basic precalciner arrangements and what are their differences?
3) At what temperature does the calcination take place and how much CO
2
is totally dissociated from
the CaCO
3
?
4) Which are the benefits of precalciner technology?
5) Which is the most important design criteria for precalciner dimensioning?
6) Explain the term apparent calcination degree. How can it be determined and what is its
significance?
7) How do the effects of a bypass compare in case of a straight preheater kiln and a precalciner kiln?
Fig. 1 Sketch of Dotternhausen Kiln, the first Precalciner (KHD, 1966)
Query:
Table 4: Temperatures and Process Steps for Clinker Burning
Temperature [C] Process Step, Type of Reaction Heat
20 - 100 Evaporation of free H
2
O Endo
100 - 300 Loss of physically absorbed H
2
O Endo
400 - 900 Removal of structural water Endo
> 500 Structural changes in silicate minerals Exo
600 - 900 Dissociation of CO
2
from CaCO
3
Endo
> 800 Formation of intermediate products
Belite, Aluminate and Ferrite
Exo
> 1250 Formation of liquid phase (aluminate
and ferrite melt)
Endo
Formation of alite Exo
1300 - 1240 Crystallization of liquid phase into mainly
aluminate and ferrite
Exo
For numerical calculations, an approximate quantity of CO
2
from the raw material (dissociated from the
calcites) can be used, regardless of the exact chemical composition.
CO2 from raw mat = 0.28 Nm3/kg cli
Table 5: Energy Balance of Process Steps for Clinker Burning
Endothermic Processes: kJ/kg cli kcal/kg cli
Dehydration of clays 165 40
Decarbonisation of calcite 1990 475
Heat of melting 105 25
Heating of raw materials (0 to 1450C) 2050 490
Total endothermic 4310 1030
Query:
Total endothermic 4310 1030
Exothermic Processes: kJ/kg cli kcal/kg cli
Recrystallization of dehydrated clay 40 10
Heat of formation of clinker minerals 420 100
Crystallization of melt 105 25
Cooling of clinker 1400 335
Cooling of CO
2
(ex calcite) 500 120
Cooling and condensation of H
2
O 85 20
Total exothermic 2550 610
Net Theor. Heat of Clinker Formation: kJ/kg cli kcal/kg cli
Endothermic - exothermic 1760 420
Heat consumption of Kiln System: kJ/kg cli kcal/kg cli
Average 4-stage SP system 3300 790
Modern 6-stage SP system 3000 720
Rel. Heat Requirement of Calcination:
Average 4-stage SP system 60%
Modern 6-stage SP system 66%
Fig. 12 FCB Low-NOx Precalciner
Fig. 13 FLS
Query:
Fig. 14 FLS Adjustable Kiln Orifice
Fig. 15 Pyroclon
Fig. 16 Pyrotop
Query:
Fig. 17 Polysius
Fig. 18 Prerov
Fig. 19 EVS-PC
Query:
Features of EVS-PC PC system
Supplier: Fives-Cail Babcock
Fig. 20 SF / NSF
Fig. 21 RSP
Features of RSP PC system
Suppliers: Onoda Engineering & Consulting
Kawasaki Heavy Industries
Allis Chalmers
Creusot - Loire Entreprises
Query:
Fig. 22 KSV / NKSV
Features of KSV/NKSV PC system
Supplier: Kawasaki Heavy Industries
Fig. 23 MFC
Fig. 24 GG
Features of GG PC system
Supplier: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
System abandoned
Query:
Fig. 25 DD
Fig. 26 CSF
Features of CSF PC system
Supplier: Chichibu Cement in own plants
Fig. 27 Voest Alpine PASEC System
Fig. 28 FLS
Query:
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers
Clinker Coolers
U. Gasser / D. Brassel
PT 97/14232/E (Revision 1, February 1999)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 Heat Flow in a Kiln System
2.2 Definitions
2.3 Calculations
3. GRATE COOLERS
3.1 The Reciprocating Grate Cooler
3.1.1 Principle
3.1.2 History
3.1.3 Conventional Grate Coolers (1980s)
3.1.4 Typical Grate Cooler Problems
3.1.5 Modern Grate Coolers (1990s)
3.1.6 Design Highlights of Modern Grate Coolers
3.1.7 Clinker Crushers
3.1.8 Cooler control
3.1.9 Cooler Dedusting
3.1.10 Developments
3.2 The Cross Bar Cooler
3.2.1 Principle
3.2.2 Main features
3.2.3 Strengths and Weaknesses
3.3 The Travelling Grate Cooler
3.3.1 Principle
4. ROTATING COOLERS
4.1 The Rotary Cooler or Tube Cooler
4.1.1 Principle
4.1.2 Design Features
4.1.3 Cooling performance
Query:
4.1.4 Strengths / Weaknesses
4.2 The Planetary Cooler
4.2.1 Principle
4.2.2 Historical
4.2.3 Design features
4.2.4 Internal heat transfer equipment (see Fig. 26)
5. VERTICAL COOLERS
5.1 The Gravity Cooler (G - Cooler)
5.2 The Shaft Cooler
SUMMARY
Clinker coolers have two tasks to fulfil:
Recuperate as much heat as possible from the hot clinker by heating up the air used for
combustion
Cool the clinker from 1400C to temperatures adequate for the subsequent process equipment,
normally to 100 - 200C.
There are mainly two different types of clinker coolers in operation with the following features:
Grate coolers
Crossflow heat exchange through horizontal clinker bed with cold air from below.
Cooling airflow exceeding combustion air requirement allows low clinker temperatures, but
necessitates excess (waste) air dedusting.
Modern cooler technology with sophisticated plates and forced aeration systems allow combustion
air temperatures exceeding 1000C.
Trend to wider and fewer grates, less cooling air and fixed inlets
Largest units: 10000 t/d
Travelling grate (Recupol): last unit built around 1980
Rotating coolers
Rotary tube coolers with separate drive or planetary cooler attached to kiln shell
Quasi counter-current flow heat exchange
Cooling air determined by combustion air, no waste air
Heat exchange (recuperation) determined by condition of internal heat transfer equipment
Limited unit size, up to 3000 t/d
Planetary cooler not suitable for precalciner technology
Practically no new installation built anymore
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 1. INTRODUCTION
Query:
1. INTRODUCTION
The clinker cooler is a vital part of the kiln system and has a decisive influence on the performance of
the plant. Three key indicators characterize a good cooler:
Maximum heat recuperation
Minimum cooling air flow
Unrestricted availability
There have been periodic changes in trends during the past decades. Grate coolers were first
introduced by Fuller Company (USA) around 1930. While its design was continuously being optimized,
the grate cooler became the predominant type in the 1950's. In the late 1960's, the planetary cooler
gained popularity which reached its peak in the 1970's, mainly due to its simplicity. Larger unit
capacities with precalciner technology made the grate cooler the preferred solution again. A wave of
grate cooler reengineering starting in the mid 1980's has generated a much improved grate cooler
technology as well as a new situation on the suppliers' side. New problems were experienced and have
been or are being solved.
Since cement plants have life cycles of 40 years and more, numerous units of each cooler type,
planetary, rotary or grate cooler of old or new designs, will remain in operation for many more years.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The clinker cooler has the following tasks to fulfil:
Process internal heat recuperation by heat transfer from clinker to combustion air
Reduce clinker temperature to facilitate clinker handling and storage
Provide maximum cooling velocity to avoid unfavorable clinker phases and crystal size
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS / 2.1 Heat Flow in a Kiln
System
2.1 Heat Flow in a Kiln System
The importance of the cooler as a heat recuperator can be well demonstrated with a heat flow (Sanki)
diagram.
Figure 1 Clinker cooler and kiln system
Query:
Figure 2 Energy turnover (Grate cooler)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS / 2.2 Definitions
2.2 Definitions
As for other components of the kiln system, specific figures for clinker coolers refer to 1kg of
clinker. This eliminates the influence of plant size and allows direct comparison of clinker coolers
of different types and sizes.
Cooling air is the air which passes the clinker thus being heated up while cooling the clinker. It
corresponds approximately to the combustion air requirement, only grate coolers allow additional
air for better cooling.
Primary air is the air which is required for proper functioning of the burner. Ambient air insufflated
by a separate small fan plus the air from a pneumatic transport system, amounting from < 10% up
to > 30% of the air required to combust that fuel. Some precalciner burners are equipped with
primary air fans (for cooling) as well.
Secondary air is the hot air entering the rotary kiln via clinker cooler. Its flow is determined by the
combustion of the burning zone fuel. While cooling the clinker, it reaches temperatures of 600 to
over 1000C, depending on type and condition of the cooler.
Tertiary air is that part of the combustion air which is required for combusting the precalciner fuel.
It is extracted from kiln hood or cooler roof, and then taken along a duct (=tertiary air duct) parallel
Query:
to the kiln to the precalciner. It reaches temperatures near or equal to the level of the secondary
air.
Middle air (grate cooler only) is extracted from the cooler roof if drying of process materials
requires a temperature level which is higher than the waste air. If the quantity is small, up to 450C
can be expected at normal cooler operation.
Waste air (grate cooler only) is also called cooler exit air or cooler excess air. The total cooling
airflow from the fans is normally higher than the flow required for combustion (=tertiary + secondary
air). The extra air, which has normally a temperature of 200 to 300C, must be vented to ambient
via a dedusting system.
False air is cold air entering the system via kiln outlet seal, burner opening, casing or clinker
discharge. It either dilutes secondary air thus reducing recuperated heat or adds load to the waste
air system of grate coolers.
Specific air volumes are airflows per kg of clinker (m
3
/kg cli, Nm
3
/kg cli). Independent of the kiln
size, airflows of cooler systems can be directly compared.
Specific loads express the relation of clinker production to a characteristic dimension of the cooler
(t/d m, t/d m
2
, t/d m
3
). Exact definitions vary with cooler type.
Radiation losses from the cooler casing/shell are particularly important for planetary coolers,
where they actively support the cooling of the clinker.
Efficiency expresses the quality of heat transfer from clinker to the air which is used for
combustion in the burning zone and precalciner firing.
Remark: Since the heat recuperated is proportional to hot air used for combustion and temperature,
an efficiency figure is only meaningful if it is related to a heat consumption figure (resp. a
combustion airflow).
Figure 3 Clinker coolers - Definitions
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS / 2.3 Calculations
2.3 Calculations
The calculations below are examples of heat balance investigations:
Query:
Heat in hot clinker Q
cli
:
Q
cli
= m
cli
* cp
cli
* (t
cli
- t
ref
) Example with m
cli
=1 kg/h:
t
cli
= 1400C:
Q
cli
= 1 kg/h * 1.090 kJ/kgC * (1400C-20C) = 1504 kJ/h
Heat in hot air Q
air
:
Q
air
= V
air
* cp
air
* (t
air
- t
ref
)
Example with V
air
= 1Nm
3
/h:
t
air
= 1066C:
Q
air
= 1 Nm
3
/h * 1.421 kJ/Nm
3
C * (1066C-20C) = 1486 kJ/h
Radiation loss Q
rad
:
Q
rad
=C
R
* * A {(t/100)
4
-
(t
0
/100)
4
}
Grate cooler
Q
rad
= 20 kJ/kg cli (from experience)
Cooler efficiency
cooler
kiln from clinker kiln from clinker
air combustion
Q
1
Q

loss
cooler
Q
Q
The secondary (+ tertiary) air requirements are dictated by the amount of fuel fed to the burners. Per
this definition, the efficiency of a cooler is getting better with increasing kiln heat consumption. It is thus
obvious that a cooler efficiency figure is only meaningful if the corresponding heat consumption (or
airflow) is indicated.
Example: production 5000 t/d
heat consumption 3000 kJ/kg cli
secondary and tertiary
air temperatures
1066C
Primary air main burner 10%
PC fuel ratio 60%
False air and excess air neglected (not realistic!)
Q
comb air
:
V
Comb air = 3000 MJ/kg cli * 0.26 Nm
3
/MJ * 5000/24*10
3
kg/h * (1-0.4*0.1)
= 156'000 Nm
3
/h
t
comb air

= 1066C q
combustion air
= 1.421 kJ/Nm
3
* (1066-20)= 1486 kJ/Nm
3
Q
comb air
= V
comb air
* q
comb air
= 1486*156'000 kJ/h = 231'816 GJ/h
Q
clinker
:
m
clinker

= 5000 t/d /24 h/d *10
3
kg/t = 208'333 kg/h
Query:
m
clinker

= 5000 t/d /24 h/d *10
3
kg/t = 208'333 kg/h
t
clinker from
kiln
= 1400C q
clinker from kiln
= 1.09 kJ/kg* (1400-20)= 1504 kJ/kg
Q
clinker
= 208'333 * 1504 kJ/kg = 313'333 GJ/h
Efficiency = 231'816 / 313'333 * 100% = 74.0%
Figure 4 Clinker cooler typical data (4-stage SP Kiln, 2000 t/d)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 3. GRATE COOLERS
3. GRATE COOLERS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 3. GRATE COOLERS / 3.1 The Reciprocating Grate Cooler
3.1 The Reciprocating Grate Cooler
The reciprocating grate cooler is the most widely applied type and is exclusively used for new plants.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 3. GRATE COOLERS / 3.1 The Reciprocating Grate Cooler /
3.1.1 Principle
3.1.1 Principle
The following major system components can be distinguished:
Casing with kiln hood and connections for air at different temperature levels
Reciprocating grate with drive system
Aeration system with fans, undergrate compartments and direct air ducts
Riddling (= fall through) extraction system with hoppers, gates and transport
Clinker crusher
Material transport
The clinker is pushed by the vertical part of the front edge of the preceding plate. The entire grate
consists of a combination of fixed and moving rows which results in a quasi-continuous motion of
the clinker bed.
Query:
Heat exchange
Heat exchange from clinker to air is according to the cross current principle. The cooling air
penetrates the clinker bed which is laying on the grate from underneath and leaves it at the
surface. While passing through the hot clinker, the air is accumulating heat which is transferred
from the clinker.
Cooling air
Normally, ambient air is blown to underneath of the grate plates loaded with clinker by a number of
cooling air fans. Delivery pressure must be sufficient to penetrate the clinker bed and to
compensate for the expansion (increase of actual volume) of the air from heating it up
Under ideal conditions, the required cooling air depends directly from the desired clinker
temperature. One part of the cooling air is used for combustion in the kiln, the rest is cleaned and
vented to ambient, unless it is further used, e.g. for drying.
Cooling curve
A simplified mathematical model for clinker cooling in a conventional, optimized grate cooler gives
the relation between cooling air quantity and clinker temperature as follows:

[ ] ) 77 . 0 / ( exp
T T
T T
amb in cli
amb cli
air
V
with T
cli
in
= clinker temperature at cooler inlet
C
T
amb
= ambient temperature C
V
air
= cooling air quantity
Nm
3
/kg cli
The above approximation (curve Fig. 17: T
cli
= 1400C) has been found to give satisfactory results for
conventional grate coolers from various suppliers.
Figure 5 Reciprocating Grate Cooler: Design Features
3.1.2 History
3.1.2 History
Query:
It was the Fuller Company (USA) who introduced the first reciprocating grate cooler in the late 1930's
with a grate slope of 15.
Fluidized material running down the grate leads to 10grate inclination. The 10cooler was
predominantly used until the mid 1950's. Problems were encountered with those 10coolers when the
clinker was fine and started to fluidize. As an attempt to solve this problem, wedge grate plates were
used. Another drawback of those 10coolers was the building height required for larger units.
In the mid 1950's, the first horizontal grate coolers were introduced. They were initially just 10grates
installed horizontally with accordingly reduced conveying capacity. Some of these coolers were
severely damaged by overheating, due to fluidization and accumulation of hot fine clinker at the feed
end.
This drawback of the horizontal cooler lead to the development of the so-called combi cooler. Is has
one (or formerly two) inclined grates with normally 3slope, followed by one or two horizontal grates.
Not all suppliers followed the same philosophies, so all three concepts (all horizontal, combi and all
inclined) can be found all over the world.
The planetary cooler boom period in the 1970's came to an end, when large production capacities were
in demand. Precalciner technology required grate coolers which eventually needed to be reengineered
again. Problems related to the clinker distribution, growing awareness of heat and power consumption
as well as the demand for higher availability forced the suppliers to introduce new solutions. Initiated by
the new company IKN, the grate cooler technology underwent significant changes since the mid
1980's. Modern grate plates, forced (direct) aeration and better gap design were introduced by all
cooler makers helping to reduce cooling airflow and cooler size.
The new approach lead to better recuperation in most cases. However, serious wear problems with
the new systems forced most of the companies to modify their solutions once again. Today, in the mid
1990's, we are still gaining experience with latest designs.
The ultimate solution would be the waste air free grate cooler with unlimited flexibility and availability.
However, right now the cement industry would be happy with smooth operation, high recuperation, low
cooling air and no cooler related kiln stops.
Figure 6 Various configurations of reciprocating grate coolers
Query:
3.1.3 Conventional Grate Coolers (1980s) / 3.1.3.1 Typical Design Features
3.1.3.1 Typical Design Features
Grate plates with round holes
Two to three grates, depending on size
Grate slope 0or 3or both, depending on supplier
Mechanical excenter drives for reciprocating grate
Chamber aeration
Fan pressure 45 mbar (first) to 25 mbar (last)
Smaller compartments at inlet, larger towards outlet
Clinker riddling extraction with hoppers, gates and dragchain (some earlier designs: internal drag
chain without hoppers)
Hammer crusher at cooler discharge
Worlds largest kilns (10'000 t/d in Thailand) are equipped with conventional grate coolers from CPAG
with 4 grates.
3.1.3 Conventional Grate Coolers (1980s) / 3.1.3.2 Strengths and Weaknesses of Conventional Grate Coolers
3.1.3.2 Strengths and Weaknesses of Conventional Grate Coolers
Strenghts Weaknesses
Lower clinker end temperature due to
higher amount of cooling air
Possibility of adjusting cooling air and
grate speed provides higher flexibility
Optimization possibilities during
operation
Waste air handling system
(dedusting, fan) required
More complex cooler requires higher
capital investment
Higher power consumption than
planetary or tube cooler
Uneven clinker discharge /
segregation leads to several
problems
Red river
Snowmen
Air breakthrough (bubbling, geyser)
Reduced plate life
Excessive clinker fall through
between gaps
Query:
Causes and mechanism of those problems are further explained in the next paragraph.
Figure 7 Conventional grate coolers: Design features
Most grate coolers show a tendency to one or more of the system inherent problems, and in many
cases there is no real cure. Investigations of the causes lead to the development of the modern cooler
technology.
Segregation:
Due to its physical properties, the clinker is lifted by the kiln rotation before it is discharged into the
cooler. Installation of the grate axis offset from the cooler axis should compensate for this effect.
However, since discharge behavior of finer and coarser clinker particles differ from each other, the
clinker fractions are not evenly distributed across the grate. Fines are discharged later and are thus
found predominantly on the rising side of the kiln shell (Fig. 8a).
Thin clinker bed in recuperation zone:
With a conventional grate cooler with chamber aeration, the clinker bed thickness is limited directly
by the installed cooling fan pressure and indirectly by the quality of compartment seals and
distribution of the clinker across the width. In order to avoid overheated plates, the operator will set
the bed not higher than allowed to guarantee airflow through the plate carrying the clinker with the
highest bed resistance.
Thin bed operation leads to unfavorably high air to clinker ratio and poor heat exchange on the
sides with consequently low recuperation efficiency.
Red river:
The infamous red river is one of the most feared problems with grate coolers.
Due to segregation, fine clinker has always its preferred side (see above).
Different bed resistance on either side and only one air chamber across the entire width often
cause fluidization of the fine clinker laying on top. This fluidized clinker does no longer follow the
speed of the grate, but shoots much faster towards the cooler discharge end. Because the
residence time of that fine clinker is much reduced, it does not follow the general cooling curve and
Query:
forms a red hot layer on top of the regularly cooled, already black clinker. Hence the term "red
river".
It is not the missed heat recuperation, but the red hot material being in touch with cooler walls,
plates and side seals in the colder area where such temperatures should normally not occur.
Premature destruction of those pieces results in poor availability, high maintenance and ultimately
in loss of production and sales revenues.
Snowman:
The sticky consistence of the hot clinker leaving the kiln combined with the compaction at the drop
point often leads to formation of solid clinker mountains on the grate. Not permeable for cooling air,
they grow larger and disturb the flow pattern of the clinker in this anyway critical inlet area.
Air breaking through:
Due to the different resistance of the clinker bed and the fear of overheated plates, too much air is
put on the first grate compared to the clinker bed. The result is air shooting through the bed, hardly
taking any heat and thus not contributing to the heat exchange.
In addition to that, the clinker is mixed which can be seen by the bubbling action, and the layered
clinker bed (colder clinker below, hotter on top) is destroyed thus disturbing the cross flow heat
exchange pattern.
The results are low recuperation and too much heat going to the aftercooling zone.

Figure 8a: Segregation at cooler inlet
Figure 8b: Clinker bed depth effect on
cooling
Figure 8c Red River Figure 8d Snowman
Query:
3.1.5 Modern Grate Coolers (1990s) / 3.1.5.1 Design Features
3.1.5.1 Design Features
The successful clinker cooler has:
1) Correct allocation of cooling air to clinker
Sustainable gap widths in the entire cooler
All new or redesigned clinker coolers are aiming at the above two goals:
Modern grate plates, designed to cope with high temperature differences
Inclined inlet section without moving rows
Pattern of zones for individually adjustable aeration in recuperation zone
Modern plates for a tight grate in the after cooling zone
New, improved side seal plate design for tight gaps and low wear
Careful undergrate compartment sealing
Adequate seal air system with correct control
Wider and shorter coolers; lower number of grates
Improved and wear protected moving grate support and guidance
Hydraulic grate drive with optimized control system
Cooling air fans with inlet vane control and inlet nozzle for measuring flow
Roller crusher
3.1.5 Modern Grate Coolers (1990s) / 3.1.5.2 Strengths and Weaknesses of Modern Grate Coolers
3.1.5.2 Strengths and Weaknesses of Modern Grate Coolers
Query:
More constant heat recuperation
improved, smoother kiln operation
Cooler inlet: improved clinker
distribution across grate width
Elimination / control of red river
Significantly reduced grate
riddlings (clinker fall through)
Higher waste air temperature
(valuable for drying)
Lower heat consumption due to
higher heat recuperation (cooler
efficiency)
Reduced power consumption due
to less waste air
Lower civil cost due to more
compact cooler
Lower investment due to smaller
waste air system
Reduced cost for maintenance
More complicated mechanical
installation (varies with supplier)
Higher secondary air temp.
increases wear of nose ring and
burner refractories
Higher actual (m
3
/h) tertiary air
flow can increase dust entertainment
at take off point
Teething problems with new
designs -> design changes still in
progress
Figure 9 Modern Grate Coolers: Design features
3.1.6 Design Highlights of Modern Grate Coolers / 3.1.6.1 Modern Grate Plates
3.1.6.1 Modern Grate Plates
Query:
In the mid 1980's, the first modern grate plates were installed in grate coolers by IKN and CPAG. They
were designed for the following targets:
Allow for lower air/clinker ratio in the recuperation zone for higher recuperation
Improve clinker distribution across the grate width
Assure that all grate plates are always sufficiently cooled by air
The above targets were reached using the following ideas:
Higher built-in pressure drop
Similar to the effect of thick bed operation, a higher pressure drop across the plate reduces the
relative influence of variations in permeability of the clinker bed.
No more fine clinker falling through
Fine clinker falling through means loss of heat and thermal stress on the drag chain. For forced
aeration (below) it is mandatory that no material can fall in the air ducts where it would cut off
the air supply.
Forced (direct) aeration via air ducts
In order to ensure that all plates get enough air, to allow individual allocation of air to different
areas and to avoid that air escapes through gaps, groups of plates are supplied with air directly
via a special duct system
Tight gaps between plates and plates/casing
Not only through the grate surface, but also through gaps between plates within the same row
as well as from one row to the next, fine clinker can fall through. Those gaps have to be sealed
as well, e.g. by interlinked steps in the plate sides (Fuller, Polysius) or by bolting them together
as packages (IKN).
The modern grate plates are the basis of modern cooler technology. Problems experienced with the
first generation of modern grate plates lead to several detail modifications:
Cracks in corners of air outlet openings
Solution: modified shape
Plastic deformation caused premature failure with many designs
Solution: thermally flexible plates built from two or more pieces
Preferred plate internal airflow left plates locally uncooled
Solution: plate internal guide vanes, optimized air channelling

Modern grate cooler, as the IKN Pendulum Cooler, use also Pneumatic Hopper Drains (PHD) to
withdraw the fine clinker fall through.
Figure 10 Modern grate plates
Query:
3.1.6 Design Highlights of Modern Grate Coolers / 3.1.6.2 Air Ducts
3.1.6.2 Air Ducts
The concept of forced aeration, i.e. the idea to bring the air directly to the grate plates requires a
flexible air connection between the (stationary) fan and the moving rows.
Initially, the most obvious and simple approach was chosen: flexible hoses or bellows. IKN, CPAG,
Polysius and Fuller used this solution at the beginning.
However, experience showed that those hoses were sensitive to design (geometry), installation and
material qualities. While many coolers operated without any problem, others showed frequent rupture
of those hoses, very often causing severe plate damage and consequently kiln downtime.
Meanwhile, all suppliers developed new solutions. Only KHD avoided these problems by using
telescopic ducts from the beginning.
The individual suppliers are now using the following standard solutions:
Telescopic air connector (BMH-CPAG, KHD)
Ball and socket type air connector (FLS, Fuller)
Gate type air connector (Polysius)
Open air beam (IKN)
Figure 11 Forced (direct) aeration to moving rows: Flexible ducts
Query:
3.1.6 Design Highlights of Modern Grate Coolers / 3.1.6.3 Aeration Concept
3.1.6.3 Aeration Concept
It was soon recognized that only a few (6 to 8) rows of direct and individual aeration are not sufficient
to improve clinker distribution or to eliminate/control red river formation. The number of rows with direct
aeration was gradually increased and soon the suppliers started to equip the entire recuperation zone
or even the entire cooler with direct aeration. Indeed, this improved the control possibilities, but created
the following new drawbacks:
Complicated and expensive equipment
More parameters to control
Difficult access underneath grate
High number of potential problem areas (flexible hoses!)
Ways had to be found to reduce the number of air ducts to the individually aerated cooler zones. There
are two ways to achieve this:
Reduce number of individually aerated zones
Modify the air duct system
Today, the following different solutions with varying degrees of experience are presently available from
the suppliers:
No moving rows requiring flexible air connectors in inlet section
Longitudinal structural beams designed as air ducts
Short air ducts from one moving row to the next (Air bridge)
Direct aeration for fixed rows only (hybrid aeration)
Full chamber aeration with modern grate plates
Figure 12 Aeration patterns
Query:
3.1.6 Design Highlights of Modern Grate Coolers / 3.1.6.4 Seal Air (Confining Air)
3.1.6.4 Seal Air (Confining Air)
When direct plate aeration was introduced, the significance of the seal air or confining air was not
properly investigated. It was expected that direct individual aeration of the plates alone would be
enough to get the desired improvement due to better air to clinker allocation.
If the cooler grates were tight and had no or very narrow gaps between moving and fixed rows or
between grate and cooler casing, this would indeed be true. However, real grates have large gaps,
which is one of the reasons why direct aeration was introduced.
The effect of insufficient seal air pressure for direct aerated grates can be explained as follows:
High resistance in clinker bed (bed thickness, kiln upset, granulometry)
Cooling air sneaks around plate edge to undergrate compartment instead
Clinker dust carried in this air abrasion / wear
Gap becomes larger seal air can escape more sneak air
Stops for repair reduce availability and increase operating cost
Today it is generally accepted that partition, sealing and pressurizing of the undergrate compartments
is even more important than with chamber aerated coolers.
Ideally, the partition of the undergrate compartments should repeat the pattern of the individually
aerated grate zones of the grate itself. Since this would lead to very complicated and expensive
designs with difficult access, simpler solutions had to be found.
One of the most common countermeasures is, to install larger seal air fans. It was interesting to
observe the installed cooling air to be gradually increased with each new project. This did not only lead
to larger waste air systems but also to higher cooling fan motor power which partially offset the savings
expected from modern coolers.
The suppliers have proposed the following improvements:
Larger seal air fans
Seal air branched off from cooling air fans
Seal air from booster fan using air from cooling air fans
Undergrate pressure controlled by cooling air fan pressure
Careful sealing of undergrate compartments
No more moving rows in hot inlet zone
Figure 13 Seal air systems
Query:
3.1.6 Design Highlights of Modern Grate Coolers / 3.1.6.5 Side Seal Systems
3.1.6.5 Side Seal Systems
Extremely serious wear problems occurred along the side seal plates on each side of the grate.
Excessive fall through along the sides and shockingly short lifetime of the side seal plates, mainly in
the recuperation zone, were the result. The main reasons for this problem can be listed as follows:
The same seal element used for lateral and longitudinal movement
Side seal plates fixed to cooler casing
Entire thermal expansion to be compensated by (cold) gap on each side
Side plates used for lateral guidance of the grate (older designs)
More lateral thermal expansion of wider grates for large units
The following new solutions have been developed and are now part of the contemporary standards:
Entirely new side seal plate concepts
Side seal plates bolted to cross beams of fixed rows (no longer to cooler casing)
Joints for thermal lateral expansion and mechanical longitudinal movement between moving rows
and casing separated
Center grate guide for large coolers
Figure 14 Side seal designs
Query:
All kiln systems produce larger than normal clinker lumps more or less frequently. Large balls of
material enter the cooler when coating drops during kiln upsets.
Such large clinker masses can only be cooled superficially and contain a lot of heat. Before being
discharged to the clinker conveyor, they must at least be crushed to smaller particles.
All clinker coolers, regardless of the type, are equipped with a clinker crusher. Traditionally, this is a
hammer crusher which has proven to be reliable.
In order to cool large clinker lumps, they must be crushed within the cooler. In reality, this means
installing the crusher before the last grate. Early trials with hammer crushers were not successful,
however.
Based on the idea and experience with roller grate bottoms in shaft kilns (and shaft coolers), CPAG
developed the roller crusher to be used as intermediate crusher in a step cooler.
The advantages of the roller crusher make it also superior at the cooler outlet. Hydraulic or electric
drives as well as different combinations of reversing rollers are available from various suppliers.
Compared to the hammer crusher, the roller crusher is rated as follows:
Strengths Weaknesses
low speed
low wear
low dust generation
equalization of material rushes
suitable for high temperatures
lower power consumption
higher initial investment
chokes easier
more difficult to design
Query:
Figure 15a Hammer crusher
Figure 15b Roller crusher
Figure 16 Heat and air balance of a modern Grate cooler
Figure 17 Optimization
Query:
One of the advantages of the reciprocating grate cooler is its high flexibility, due to operating variables
adjustable independently from kiln operation. Usually three main variables are controlled automatically.
a) Grate speed
In order to prevent the clinker bed resistance from exceeding the pressure capabilities of the cooling
fans (which would mean too little cooling air and danger of heat damage), the bed resistance on the
grate should be kept constant.
To do this, each grate section drive is controlled by the undergrate pressure of the first or second
compartment in each grate section. An increase in pressure indicates an increase in bed resistance
(either more material in the cooler or finer material). The reaction is an increase of the grate speed,
causing the bed to become thinner. If the undergrate pressure decreases, the drive slows down and
the bed becomes thicker.
Another possibility is to control only the first grate by the undergrate pressure, and to keep the speed
of the following grates proportional to the speed of the first grate.
More sophisticated control systems use the weighted average of several undergrate pressures to
control first grate speed. In many cases, however, control systems amplify fluctuations from the kiln
instead of smoothening them. Increasing the bandwidth of the control system has shown good results
in several cases.
b) Airflow
This control is complementary to the grate speed control. It maintains a constant volume of cooling air
entering the cooler independently from the grate underpressure.
Each cooling fan is equipped with a piezometer sensor which will recognize an increase or decrease of
the airflow and cause the cooling fan damper to close or open (in case of inlet vane damper control) or
the fan motor speed to decrease or increase (in case of variable speed fan drives).
During normal conditions the cooling fans operate at about 2/3 to 3/4 of their maximum performance so
that enough spare capacity is left to cope with eventual kiln rushes.
Together, grate speed and air flow control will on one hand ensure a sufficient cooling air supply to the
cooler and, on the other hand, tend to provide more uniform combustion air temperature to the kiln.
Query:
c) Hood draft
The third component of the cooler control system is the hood draft control.
An automatically controlled grate cooler can improve the whole kiln operation and allows the operator
to concentrate on other problems.
The kiln hood pressure is used to regulate the cooler vent air fan speed to maintain a constant pre-set
draft. As the draft tends to become positive, the cooler vent fan speed is increased. This takes more air
from the cooler and maintains the draft setpoint. As with the other controls, reaction in the opposite
direction is just as important.
Coolers with radiation walls (IKN) allow hood draft control by one of the first cooling air fans.
Figure 18 Cooler control
While dedusting of kiln exhaust gas can be commonly solved by using one type of dust collector only
(electrostatic precipitator), the choice of the most adequate system for dedusting clinker cooler vent air
raises quite often many discussions. This choice problem is basically a result of the special and
fluctuating conditions of the vent air to be dedusted:
normal operation kiln upset
airflow (actual volume) % 100 up to 150
air temperature C 200 - 250 up to 450
air dew point C 5 - 20 5 - 20
dust load
g/Nm
3
5 - 15 25 - 35
The dust particle size distribution can vary in a wide range depending on the burning conditions in the
kiln.
Dimensioning of the dedusting equipment must take into account the worst conditions, in order to
Query:
maintain the required clean gas dust content even at kiln upset condition.
The types of dust collectors for this application are compared below. Today's trend is:
multiclones will no longer be tolerated in new and many existing plants
gravel bed filters have proved to be inefficient and expensive
use of electrostatic precipitators is possible without restriction
bag filters with cooling of the vent air in a heat exchanger are often used nowadays
Type of collector Strengths Weaknesses
multiclone simple
low investment cost
low space requirement
not sensitive to
temperature peaks
poor efficiency for particles
< 20 m
efficiency sensitive to gas
flow fluctuation
comparatively high
pressure loss
high operating cost
electrostatic precipitator low pressure loss
low operating cost
low maintenance cost
big unit required or use of
pulse generator -> high
investment cost
possibly water injection
required
gravel bed filter not sensitive to
temperature peaks
highest investment cost
highest pressure loss
high operating cost
bag filter high efficiency
relatively low investment
cost
no bags for temperatures
up to 450C precooling
required
high pressure loss
high operating cost
high maintenance cost
Figure 19 Grate cooler dedusting
Query:
3.1.10 Developments
3.1.10 Developments
Air recirculating (Duotherm) cooler
A patent has been taken out in 1970 by the "Socit des Ciments Franais" concerning the
recirculation of the vent air after sending it through a heat exchanger.
The first application of the unconventional system has been realized in 1970 at the Beaucaire plant of
the above mentioned company, on a 1500 t/d Fuller cooler.
Initial experience gained with this installation was very satisfactory.
Only few installations using this principle have been realized, e.g. in the Ulco plant. The main
advantages and disadvantages of this system are:
no dust emission at all
simple
low investment cost
heat recovery possible (at various
temperature levels)
extension possible by adding further
heat exchange units
possible wear of fan blades
(preventative measures
necessary)
maintenance and operating
costs higher than conventional
cooler dedusting system with EP
Modern cooler technology and problems in some cases have pushed this idea in the background.
However, it might be reactivated if it can be combined with modern cooler systems.
Dual pass cooler
A completely new principle of cooling in a grate cooler has been introduced by Polysius in 1994: the
dual pass cooler or REPOL-ZS.
Query:
This cooler can be considered a two-grate cooler with intermediate crusher where grate 1 and 2 are
identical.
The hot, 1400C clinker from the kiln is fed on top of a layer of colder clinker already laying on the
cooler grate. At the end of the grate, the now cold lower clinker layer is extracted via a special system
consisting of reciprocating bars and a hopper. The upper layer which has reached about 500C passes
a roller crusher and is then returned to a intermediate hopper below the kiln from where it is fed onto
the empty grate to pass the cooling air a second time, this time below the fresh hot clinker.
One 1400 t/d unit is in operation in Germany using Jet-Ring technology. With less than 1.6Nm
3
/kg
cooling air, extremely low clinker temperatures have been reported. The crucial problems of this
solution are intermediate transport and storage.
In spite of the compact size, high cooling degree with low air flow and low plate temperatures, this
cooler will only be successful if the intermediate temperature level can be increased and the heat
losses reduced.
Figure 20a Non venting cooler
Figure 20b Dual pass cooler (Polysius)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 3. GRATE COOLERS / 3.2 The Cross Bar Cooler
3.2 The Cross Bar Cooler
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 3. GRATE COOLERS / 3.2 The Cross Bar Cooler / 3.2.1
Query:
Principle
3.2.1 Principle
F.L.Smidth and Fuller developed together the new SF (Smidth-Fuller) Cross Bar Cooler representing
a completely new concept.
The basic idea was to develop a cooler in which conveying of clinker and air distribution systems are
separated. The SF cooler has a clinker conveying device installed above an entirely fixed grate.
In addition the cooler should be less complicated, more efficient and easier to operate than other grate
coolers on the market. Sealing air is eliminated and the distribution of air is optimized for all modes of
operation
The thermal behavior of the SF cooler (e.g. heat balance, recuperation) is similar to the other grate
coolers.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 3. GRATE COOLERS / 3.2 The Cross Bar Cooler / 3.2.2 Main
features
3.2.2 Main features
One inclined fixed grate.
Clinker conveying by cross bars, separate from air distribution.
No thermal stress of grate.
Minimum wear on grateplates due to a dead layer of clinker (50mm) protecting the grate surface.
The thickness is given by the space between the cross bars and the grate. (Anticipated service life
time at least 5 years)
Dynamic flow control unit (mechanical flow regulator) for each grate plate. The mechanical flow
regulator maintains a constant airflow through the grate and clinker bed, irrespective of the clinker
bed height, particle size distribution, temperature, etc.
No fall through of clinker to the undergrate compartment.
Eliminating undergrate clinker transport resulting in low installation height
for new plants.
Easy cooler operation by elimination of sealing air and automatic control of air distribution.
Modularized cooler concept short delivery and installation time.
Different drive speeds across the cooler possible.
Additional control of clinker distribution.
Fewer and less expensive wear parts (easy to replace).
Easy visual inspection of undergrate compartment (clean undergrate, windows).
Sustainably high thermal cooler efficiency throughout the lifetime of the cooler.
Reduced system heat consumption.
Figure 21a: SF Cross Bar Cooler
Query:
Figure 21b: SF cooler grate with cross bars
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 3. GRATE COOLERS / 3.2 The Cross Bar Cooler / 3.2.3
Strengths and Weaknesses
Query:
No clinker fall through (no hoppers, no
dragchain).
The grate is protected from
overheating.
Very high availability is expected.
Wear and tear affects only the
conveying system and not the air
distribution system.
For each plate, the cooling air is
individually controlled.
The amount of cooling air is about 1.6
to 1.8Nm
3
/kg.
Reduced height and maintenance
required since the undergrate clinker
transport can be dropped.
Time for installation is short due to
modular concept.
The clinker bed seems to be influenced
by the conveying reciprocating cross
bar, resulting in disturbed clinker layers.
In case of fine clinker and coating
drops, air breakthroughs can occur.
The performance of the mechanical
flow regulator (amount of cooling air)
and its distribution is yet to be
assessed.
Airflow through the fixed grate at the
cooler inlet (CIS) can generate dust and
dust cycle.
Remark: So far, no SF Cross Bar Cooler is in use within the Holderbank group and therefore no first
hand experience is available. Worldwide, there are only three SF cross bar coolers installed.
Two of a capacity of 450t/d and one of 2000t/d. (as of January 1999)
Figure 22a: Cross Bars: Easy to replace wear parts
Figure 22b: Mechanical flow regulator
Query:
Figure 22c: Modular concept: One module
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 3. GRATE COOLERS / 3.3 The Travelling Grate Cooler
3.3 The Travelling Grate Cooler
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 3. GRATE COOLERS / 3.3 The Travelling Grate Cooler /
3.3.1 Principle
3.3.1 Principle
The traveling grate cooler (Recupol) was originally developed by Polysius for use in combination with
grate preheater (Lepol) kilns. Using the same principle and similar technology, it uses the same wear
parts. The following main components can be distinguished:
Casing with kiln hood and connections for air at different temperature levels
Inlet with water cooled chute (2nd generation) and pulsator
Traveling grate with return carrying idlers and drive system
Aeration system with fans, undergrate compartments
Riddling extraction system with chutes, flap gates, hoppers and transport
Query:
Clinker crusher
Material transport
The clinker is carried by a horizontal traveling grate which works like a stationary caterpillar chain
with perforated chain plates. In contrast to the reciprocating grate cooler, the clinker does not
tumble over plate edges, but remains as undisturbed layered bed from inlet to discharge.
Heat exchange
Heat exchange takes place, like for the reciprocating grate according to the crosscurrent
principle. Because the layers remain, it should be even better, at least theoretically.
Cooling air
Ambient air is blown by a number of cooling air fans to underneath of the travelling grate plates
carrying the clinker. Pressure and flow criteria of cooling air are basically as for the reciprocating
grate cooler.
Water cooled inlet chute
In order to achieve rapid cooling in the inlet section, but also to protect the travelling grate from the
highest clinker temperatures, Recupol coolers were equipped with a water cooled inlet chute.
Key figures / KPI
Specific grate loading: 25 - 30 t/d m
2
(design)
Largest units: 3000 t/d (Lgerdorf kiln 10)

Figure 23 Travelling grate cooler
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 3. GRATE COOLERS / 3.3 The Travelling Grate Cooler /
Travelling grate cooler compared to reciprocating coolers:
Query:
Possibility of replacing grate plates
during operation (on the returning part)
Undisturbed, layered clinker bed is
better for optimum heat exchange
Larger machine for the same
grate area equipment requiring
more space and higher civil cost
Lower specific grate loadings
adding further to overall size
More expensive to build than a
reciprocating grate cooler
The absence of clinker
movement (see above) was
often considered a disadvantage
because of cases where a solid
(fritted) layer on top of the
clinker bed made it impermeable
for air. For this reason, pulsators
were installed for first cooling
fans.
Much higher maintenance
requirement with ageing
equipment
Heat loss via cooling water for
inlet chute
Due to the mentioned weaknesses, Polysius eventually decided to develop their own reciprocating
grate cooler (Repol) around 1980:
Figure 24 Travelling grate cooler: Design details
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 4. ROTATING COOLERS
4. ROTATING COOLERS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 4. ROTATING COOLERS / 4.1 The Rotary Cooler or Tube
Cooler
Query:
4.1 The Rotary Cooler or Tube Cooler
Cooler / 4.1.1 Principle
4.1.1 Principle
The rotary cooler consists mainly of a rotating cylinder, similar to a rotary kiln.
The clinker is fed through the inlet chute and is then cooled by air while being transported towards the
outlet end. Cooling is performed in countercurrent flow. The tube is equipped with internal lifters which
improve the heat transfer. About 2/3 (66%) of the cooler length is lined with refractory bricks.
The rotary cooler is of simple design and is the oldest type of clinker coolers. It was seldom used for
modern, large kiln systems. Therefore comparatively little design and operating experience is
nowadays available for rotary coolers above 2000 t/d. However, the application of rotary coolers still
offers certain advantages. Presently units up to 4500 t/d (dimensions dia 6.3/6.0 x 80 m) are in
operation. It will be interesting to follow the future development of large rotary coolers.
Cooler / 4.1.2 Design Features
4.1.2 Design Features
Arrangement of the rotary cooler is normally in the extension of the kiln axis; in many cases the
reverse manner (underneath the kiln) has been applied.
The diameter of the cooler is similar to that of a corresponding suspension preheater kiln. Likewise
the rotating speed is in the same range as for the kiln (max. 3 rpm). Length/diameter ratio: L/D ~
10.
Many cooler tubes are designed with an extension in diameter in order to reduce air velocity.
The inclination is comparatively high (in the order of 5%).
Like for all rotating coolers, the internal heat transfer equipment is an important part of the rotary
cooler. Its task is to generate additional area by scattering the clinker without generating too much
dust. Basically a similar design may be applied as in a planetary cooler tube (see next chapter)
however the following differences must be considered:
The clinker falling heights are larger. Wear protection of shell and lining is essential.
At a comparative length position the clinker in a rotary cooler is hotter than in a planetary
cooler.
Figure 25 Rotary cooler
Query:
The following zones can typically be distinguished in a rotary cooler (simplified):
A Lined inlet zone
B Lined crushing teeth zone
(metallic teeth)
C Lined cast lifter zone, lining protected by wearing plates
(at least in the second half)
D Cast lifter zone, shell protected by wearing plates
(having air gap, giving also insulating effect)
E Sheet metal zone with wearing plates
Construction materials have to be selected according to the high temperature and wear requirements.
Cooler / 4.1.3 Cooling performance
4.1.3 Cooling performance
Depending on the design and the shape of the lifters clinker outlet temperature usually tends to be
high. In many cases it is necessary to enhance the cooling by injecting water into the tube (up to 60
g/kg clinker) in order to reach reasonably low clinker temperatures of 100to 150C.
The cooling efficiency (heat recuperation) is equal or even slightly better than on a planetary cooler.
Cooler / 4.1.4 Strengths / Weaknesses
4.1.4 Strengths / Weaknesses
Query:
Simplicity of cooler design, robust
piece of equipment.
No special mechanical problems
comparable to a rotary kiln.
No control loops.
Easy commissioning.
No waste air and therefore no
dedusting equipment required
Electrical energy consumption up to 5
kWh/t lower compared to grate cooler.
Rotational speed can be adjusted and
therefore upset kiln conditions can be
handled easier than with a planetary
cooler.
Suitable for AS type precalcining
system tertiary (extraction of hot air is
possible).
Not recommended for large units
(above 2000 t/d)
Formation of build-ups ("snowmen") in
the inlet chute. A water-cooled chute or
a dislodging device is required in such
case.
Clinker outlet temperatures tend
to be high and therefore water injection
is usually required.
Due to large falling height wear
protection in the tube must be
reinforced (compared to a planetary
cooler).
High kiln foundations are required.
Cooler inlet seal can contribute to
additional false air inlet.
Figure 26 Internal transfer equipment for rotary and planetary coolers
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 4. ROTATING COOLERS / 4.2 The Planetary Cooler
4.2 The Planetary Cooler
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 4. ROTATING COOLERS / 4.2 The Planetary Cooler / 4.2.1
Principle
4.2.1 Principle
The planetary cooler is based on the same cooling principle as the rotary cooler in the preceding
chapter. However, the essential difference of a planetary cooler is the number of individual cooling
tubes. The flow of clinker is subdivided into 9 to 11 (usually 10) cooling tubes which are installed
around the kiln circumference at the kiln outlet (see Fig. 15). Therefore the planetary tubes follow the
Query:
kiln rotation. Because of their connection to the kiln rotation, planetary coolers do not need a separate
drive. This fact already illustrates one main advantage of the planetary cooler: its simplicity in
operation.
Strictly speaking the cooling of clinker does not only start in the cooling tubes but already in the kiln. In
the case of a planetary cooler the kiln burner pipe is always inserted into the rotary kiln so that a
cooling zone behind the flame of 1.5 to 2.5 kiln diameters is created. This zone is called the "kiln
internal cooling" zone and must be considered as an integral part of any planetary cooler. In this zone
the temperature of the clinker drops from 1450to 1200 - 1300C. This temperature reduction is
important for the protection of the inlet opening, the elbow and the first section of the cooling tubes.
After this first cooling in the kiln internal cooling zone the clinker falls into the elbows when they reach
their lowest point of kiln rotation. The hot clinker is then cooled by air in counterflow (the amount of air
equals the amount of secondary air). The air is heated up to approx. 700C. The clinker reaches final
temperatures which are typically in the range of 140to 240C.
A considerable amount of heat is also transferred to ambient by radiation and convection since approx.
75% of the cooler shell is not insulated.
Historical
4.2.2 Historical
Planetary coolers have been used since 1920. When large kiln units and grate coolers were developed
planetary coolers were abandoned for many years. But about 1966 planetary coolers of large
capacities were introduced. At that stage serious mechanical problems occurred on these first large
planetary coolers. As a consequence a lot of work had to be done in order to improve the mechanical
design of planetary coolers. As a result of extensive computer calculations and operating experience
the planetary cooler became a mechanically reliable piece of equipment.
In the late 1970's, the design had reached a high standard and a considerable level of perfection. Units
of up to 5000 t/d were envisaged. With the demand for permanently larger units using precalciner
technology with separate tertiary air dusts, the boom period of the planetary coolers came to an end.
Figure 27 Planetary cooler
Design features
4.2.3 Design features
Query:
Planetary coolers in the late 1970's had the following design features:
Shell extension:
The kiln shell is extended beyond the cooling tube outlets and is supported by an additional roller
station.
Fixation of cooling tubes:
Fixed support of cooling tubes near inlet and loose support near outlet end.
With larger coolers, the cooling tubes can consist of two separate sections requiring three supports. In
that case two fixed supports are located near inlet and near outlet and a loose support is located at the
interconnection point in the middle.
Design of cooler supports:
The kiln shell is reinforced (high thickness) where the cooler support structure for the cooler is
welded on. The support structure (base and brackets) itself is of heavy design consisting of
reinforcement ribs and box beams.
Cooler length:
Length/diameter ratio of tubes is approx. 10:1
Inlet openings:
The inlet openings to the cooler elbows weaken the kiln shell and high mechanical and thermal
stresses occur in that zone.
The openings are made of oval shape and the kiln shell is considerably reinforced in its thickness
(up to 140 mm in large kilns) in order to compensate for the weakening.
In some cases a diagonal retaining bar (made of high heat resistant steel) is incorporated in the
opening in order to avoid that large lumps can enter the cooler.
Kiln-to-elbow joint:
This joint is designed in a manner that no forces due to thermal expansion and deformation are
transmitted from elbow to kiln.
Elbow:
In order to prevent that clinker is falling back into the kiln while the opening is on top position, the
position of the cooling tube is displaced back against the direction of rotation. The elbow design
must avoid excessive dust backspillage and wear.
Internal heat transfer equipment (see Fig. 26)
4.2.4 Internal heat transfer equipment (see Fig. 26)
Cooling performance depends strongly on efficient lifters of solid and durable design. Since high heat
resistant metallic lifers are available on the market also the high temperature zones can be adequately
equipped. Special high temperature alloys can be used for this purpose. They can withstand maximum
temperatures of up to 1150C. These alloys are usually characterized by a high chromium content of
approx. 30% Cr. Other elements as Ni or Mo can occur in various proportions. Fig. 26 shows a typical
arrangement of heat transfer internals. Breaking teeth are applied in the hottest zone. They are able to
crush large lumps of clinker and create also a tumbling effect, which improves the heat transfer. They
are of heavy design and mounted on separate supports.
The first rows of lifters must be carefully selected regarding design and material. Their functioning is
very important since they also protect the following lifters from overheating.
Figure 28a Temperature profile in planetary cooler
Query:
Figure 28b Water cooling for planetary coolers
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 5. VERTICAL COOLERS
5. VERTICAL COOLERS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 5. VERTICAL COOLERS / 5.1 The Gravity Cooler (G -
Cooler)
5.1 The Gravity Cooler (G - Cooler)
The Claudius Peters Company have developed the g-cooler. The letter "g" stands for gravity since
clinker movement is performed by gravity.
This cooler is designed as an after cooler and can therefore only be used in connection with a primary
cooler such as a short grate cooler or a planetary cooler. The installation together with a grate cooler is
shown in Fig. 29.
An intermediary crusher reduces the clinker size to 20 - 30 mm. The material of approx. 400C is then
filled by a drag chain into a vertical shaft. Cooling is performed by horizontal rows of tubes which are
cooled by internal air flow. The heat is therefore exchanged indirectly and the air remains dust-free.
The clinker slowly drops down (at a speed of 20 30mm/s) and reaches final temperatures of approx.
100C at the discharge.
Query:
There is no dedusting equipment required for the cooling air. However, the system according to Fig. 29
as a whole is usually not free from dusty waste air. In case of a suspension preheater kiln system there
is still some waste air required on the grate cooler since the kiln cannot take all the hot air produced
during the first cooling step. In addition, a marginal amount of dusty air is produced by the g-cooler
itself (top and discharge).
The application of this cooler type is often considered for kiln extension projects. If an existing grate
cooler (or a planetary cooler) has to be operated at higher capacity the new clinker outlet temperature
can become too high. In this case the clinker temperature can be reduced by a g-cooler used as an
aftercooler.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C01 - Kiln Systems / Clinker Coolers / 5. VERTICAL COOLERS / 5.2 The Shaft Cooler
5.2 The Shaft Cooler
A shaft cooler can be operated waste-air-free and theoretically offers an ideal countercurrent heat
exchange and thus high recuperating efficiency. Based on the idea the first large shaft cooler was
designed and constructed on a 3000 t/d kiln in 1973.
The experience gained in the plant shows that it is possible to operate such equipment but some
serious disadvantages have to be taken into account:
All depends of the clinker granulometry! Theoretically, an extremely uniform clinker granulometry
having no fines and no coarse material would be required. This is hardly achievable in a cement
kiln. Therefore, fluctuations occur.
High cooling air quantity (= secondary air) of 1.05 Nm
3
/kg cli is required but even so the clinker exit
temperature of 350C is very high.
High power consumption (10 kWh/t)
For the above reasons, the technical realization is not yet solved. The shaft cooler so far is not a
reasonable alternative to the conventional clinker coolers.
Figure 29 Gravity cooler (g-cooler, CPAG)
Figure 30 Shaft cooler
Query:
Figure 31 Claudius Peters CPAG: Combi Cooler
Figure 32 FLS: Coolax Grate Cooler
Figure 33 Fuller: Controlled Flow Grate (CFG) Cooler
Query:
Figure 34 IKN: Pendulum Cooler
Figure 35 KHD: Pyrostep Cooler
Figure 36 Polysius: Repol RS Cooler
Query:
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings
C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems
Kiln Chain Systems
A. Obrist
PT 96/ 14036 / E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. Functions of a Kiln Chain System
2.1 Heat Exchange
2.2 Cleaning of the Kiln Shell
2.3 Transport of Material
2.4 Reduce Dust Emissions
3. Individual Zones of a Chain System
3.1 Free Zone of the Kiln Inlet
3.2 Dust Curtain Zone
3.3 Plastic Zone
3.4 Granular Zone (Preheating Zone)
3.5 Heat Resistant Zone
1.6 Main Characteristic Data of the Individual Chain System Zones
4. Arrangement of Chains
4.1 Straight Curtain
4.2 Spiral Zone
1.3 Multiple Spiral Curtain
1.4 Triangular Curtain (Z-Curtain)
1.5 Garlands
1.6 Festoons
1.7 Spiral Garlands
1.8 Thermochains
5. Types of Chain Links
5.1 Round Links
5.2 Long Links
5.3 Oval Links
5.4 Other Types of Chain Links
6. Chain Material
6.1 Mild Steel Chains
Query:
6.2 Heat Resistant Alloy Chains
7. Chain Hangers
8. Main Characteristic Data of Chain Systems
9. ANNEXES
10. LITERATURE
11. Test Questions
Query:
Summary:
A kiln chain system has four main functions:
It helps to increase the heat exchange between gas and raw meal
It keeps the kiln shell (lining surface) clean
It assists the transport of material through the kiln tube
It helps to reduce the dust emission
A properly designed chain system must respect the changing properties of material passing through
the kiln tube. In a wet process kiln the material is fed as a liquid slurry and changes it properties
subsequently in several steps inside the chain system to dry preheated granules. In accordance with
the changing material properties different arrangement of chains (straight curtains, spirals, garlands,
etc.) have to be used for individual parts of the system to satisfy the specific requirements. Also the
chain densities and the height of the free tunnel below the chains have to be selected carefully in order
to reach the maximum efficiency.
The chain links can have different shapes (round, long, oval etc.), preferably round links. The chemical
composition of the chains' alloy and its physical treatment (hardening) strongly influence the life time of
the system.
Different types of chain hangers can be used (single or multiple hangers, with or without shackles etc.).
They have to guarantee a sufficient stability, to enable an easy installation and they should as far as
possible assist the function of the chains.
NOMENCLATURE
Just a few symbols and names are to be explained before starting this lecture, the other ones will be
explained in the respective chapters.
Figure:
D
is
Diameter inside kiln steel shell
D
IL
Diameter inside kiln lining
h
fr
Theoretical free height under the chains (see attached sketch),
expressed in mm or as % of D
IL
Query:
expressed in mm or as % of D
IL
density of chains m
2
/m
3
is calculated for individual parts (zones) of the system as the total
surface area of chains in the respective zone divided by the
volume inside lining of this zone
density of chains kg/m
3
similar to the above mentioned density, but concerns the weight of
chains instead of their surface
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Wet process kilns cannot be successfully operated without internal kiln fittings, among which the kiln
chains are the most typical and most frequently used ones. The number of existing wet process kilns is
still high (~33% in "Holderbank" Group) and a conversion from wet to dry process is very expensive. By
improving the existing chain systems or, where necessary, by installing a completely new chain
system, the kiln operation can be upgraded considerably with relatively moderate investment costs.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 2. FUNCTIONS OF A KILN CHAIN SYSTEM
2. FUNCTIONS OF A KILN CHAIN SYSTEM
The kiln chain system has 4 main functions:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 2. FUNCTIONS OF A KILN CHAIN SYSTEM / 2.1
Heat Exchange
2.1 Heat Exchange
The heat exchange between hot gases and the raw material depends on the surface area exposed to
the hot medium. In the parts of kiln where no chains are installed, this surface area consists of the
surface of the material layer on the kiln bottom and of the surface of the remaining part of the kiln shell
(resp. lining). By installing the chains a large additional surface area can be gained, exceeding that one
mentioned above several times (up to 10 times and more) in the respective part of the kiln. By
improving the heat exchange the specific heat demand is reduced and the kiln output is increased.
In Fig. 1 different positions of a chain during one kiln rotation are shown. In position 1 the chain is
exposed to the stream of hot gases and thus heated up. The cooling of the chain (which passes its
heat to the layer of material) starts in position 2, continues in position 3 and ends in position 4.
Figure 1:
Query:
Cleaning of the Kiln Shell
2.2 Cleaning of the Kiln Shell
In the upper part of the kiln the characteristics of the wet, sticky raw material favors the formation of
mud coating and mud rings. This would reduce the free kiln cross sectional area and thus obstruct the
flow of material and gases. Growing mud rings make the kiln operation difficult. It is one of the main
functions of the chain system to keep the internal kiln shell surface clean, free of coating or rings. Due
to the kiln rotation the chains slide on the kiln shell (resp. lining) and destroy the rings and the coating.
The sliding movement of a chain cleaning the kiln shell is shown in Fig. 1 (position 3).
Transport of Material
2.3 Transport of Material
The properties of material in different parts of the kiln differ considerably. In some sections of the upper
part of the kiln, where the material is sticky and plastic, its transporting is more difficult than in other
sections.
As a regular flow of material is of an eminent importance for a smooth kiln operation, it is necessary to
install material flow assisting devices in some sections. Some special arrangements of chains can help
to draw the material through the critical sections. This can be achieved by chains moving in the desired
direction (garlands) or by a screw shaped arrangement of the chain fastening points. Other
arrangements of chains can be an obstruction to the flow of material and should therefore never be
used in the critical sections.
Reduce Dust Emissions
2.4 Reduce Dust Emissions
The gases leaving the kiln contain a certain amount of dust consisting mainly of partly calcined, hot raw
material. The dust load of gases depends on the properties of the raw material and on the specific
conditions of the kiln operation. Dust loss should be kept small, it means a loss of heat and material.
The kiln chain system, mainly its upper part, can help to reduce the dust emission. Dust particles
carried by the stream of gases stick to the wet surface of chains and later when these chains are
emerged into the layer of material, this dust is passed over to the slurry.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 3. INDIVIDUAL ZONES OF A CHAIN SYSTEM
Query:
3. INDIVIDUAL ZONES OF A CHAIN SYSTEM
The material passing the chain system changes subsequently its properties - it loses water and is
heated up. According to the different material properties the total chain system can be divided into
several zones. These zones are:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 3. INDIVIDUAL ZONES OF A CHAIN SYSTEM /
This short zone is considered to be a part of the chain system in spite of the fact that no chains are
installed here. A sufficient amount of slurry should be accumulated in this zone in order to guarantee a
constant and regular flow into the lower parts of the system.
Good results have been obtained with the zone length of 1 to 1.5 kiln diameters.
The dust curtain zone is relatively short, its length does not exceed 0.5 D
IL
under normal conditions.
The material entering this zone still has the relatively good flow properties of the kiln feed (slurry).
When leaving this zone, the material has a lower water content and becomes more "plastic",
essentially due to the inter-mixing of the dust previously retained by the chains in this zone.
In order to achieve a good dust catching efficiency, the density of chains must be high (some 8 to 15
m
2
/m
3
) and the free height below the chains should be 18 - 27% of D
IL
.
3.3 Plastic Zone
3.3 Plastic Zone
The length of this zone depends on properties of raw material, slurry moisture, characteristics of the
kiln operation etc. and can vary in a wide range (approx. between 1.5 and 4 D
IL
). The material in this
zone is plastic and sticky, still relatively cold and wet and because of these properties it favors mud
coating and mud ring formation. The transport of material through this zone is the most difficult one
among all the zones of the chain system.
Due to the material properties mentioned above the chains in this zone must have a good shell
cleaning and material transporting efficiency. The density of chains should be relatively low, some 5 to
8 m
2
/m
3
. As to achieve a big free tunnel under the chains, the free height h
fr
should be approx. 30%
or, if garland chains are installed in this zone, some 40%. Heavier (thick wire) chains should be
installed.
In order to be sure that the zone of plastic material will always stay inside the zone of chains which can
treat it successfully, the respective arrangement of chains should be slightly extended in the
downstream direction as to obtain a sufficient safety.
Query:
The recommendable length of this zone depends on the desired material temperature and the rest
water content at its discharge end. Good results have been achieved with a zone length between 2 and
4,5 D
IL
.
The material entering this zone is not plastic any more, it forms granules which are easy to be
transported and do not favor a mud ring formation. The granules should be dried and heated up in this
zone.
The chains should heat the material gently without unnecessary dust generation, they should enable a
good heat exchange. Lighter (thin wire) chains should therefore be installed. A chain density of approx.
6 to 10 m
2
/m
3
and a free height of approx. 25 to 30% can be recommended. This zone is sometimes
divided into an upper and a lower part. Both parts have the same (or at least a similar) arrangement,
but the lower part has a higher density of chains than the upper one. The damming effect of the lower
part, caused by the thicker layer of chains on the kiln bottom, helps to increase the material retention
time and improves the heat exchange.
This zone is relatively short, its length does not exceed 1,5 D
IL
. The material, dry and hot granules, can
easily be transported. A very gentle treatment of the material is required in order to keep the dust
creation as low as possible.
The main function of the chains is to protect the upstream part of the system against heat radiation and
too high a gas temperature. Chains made of heat resistant steel should be installed in this zone.
Lighter (thin wire) chains should be preferred.
Table 1
Zone
Free Dust Plastic Granular Heat
Curtain Upper Lower Resistant
Length D
IL
1,5 0.5 1.5 to 4 1 to 3 1,5 1,5
h
fr
% D
IL
18 - 27 40 / 30 25 to 30
Density
m
2
/m
3
8 to 15 5 to 8 6 to 10
Moisture % 30 to 40 15 - 25
Material temp. C 20 100 <600
Chain temp. C <400 <1'000
Gas temp. C 160 to 240 <1'100
Material flow
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 4. ARRANGEMENT OF CHAINS
4. ARRANGEMENT OF CHAINS
Each individual zone of a chain system must have its own specific properties in order to satisfy the
requirements mentioned previously.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 4. ARRANGEMENT OF CHAINS / 4.1 Straight
Curtain
4.1 Straight Curtain
As shown in Fig. 2, this arrangement of chains is very simple. The chain fastening points form a ring.
Several straight curtains are combined to a straight curtain zone. The distance between the individual
straight curtains (rings or rows) should not be too long, this would lead - in order to achieve a sufficient
density - to too great a number of chains per ring and thus to big heaps of chains on the kiln bottom
obstructing the flow of material.
Figure 2: Straight Curtain
The main advantages of a straight curtain are its simple design and installation as well as an easy
maintenance. Its main disadvantages are the poor shell cleaning efficiency and the fact that this
arrangement does not assist the transport of material. The straight curtains should therefore not be
used in the plastic zone or in the dust curtain, but they can be recommended for the granular zone.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 4. ARRANGEMENT OF CHAINS / 4.2 Spiral Zone
4.2 Spiral Zone
In a spiral curtain the chain fastening points follow the screw lines on the kiln shell.
The spiral (screw) lines should have an inclination of approx. 30(see Fig. 3). In order to assist the
transport of material, the inclination must have the proper sense, i.e. the sense of rotation must be
taken into consideration.
Figure 3: Spiral Curtain (4-start spiral)
Query:
The arrangement with 4 screw lines per circumference, called a 4-start
spiral, is most frequently used. This arrangement allows for a good shell cleaning effect and at the
same time overlapping of chains can be avoided, as shown in Fig. 4a. The recommended chain length
is namely approx. 0.7 D, and the circumferential distance between adjacent screw lines is D/4 = 0.78
D.
The benefits of this solution become clear if we compare it with other arrangements having a different
number of screw lines. An arrangement with less than 4 screw lines per circumference (Fig. 4b) does
not enable a full shell cleaning effect, because some parts of the shell have no contact with a chain. An
arrangement with more than 4 screw lines leads necessarily to overlapping of chains (Fig. 4c) and thus
to a higher layer of chains on the kiln bottom which is not favorable for the transport of material.
Figure 4a-c:
The very good material transporting and the good shell cleaning efficiency are the main advantages of
a spiral curtain. Its disadvantages are a slightly smaller heat exchanging efficiency, a more difficult
brick lining work and a limited maximum chain density. For these reasons, the spiral curtain
arrangement should not be used in the granular zone but it can be recommended for the plastic zone.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 4. ARRANGEMENT OF CHAINS / 4.3 Multiple
Spiral Curtain
4.3 Multiple Spiral Curtain
A spiral curtain having 8 or more spirals per circumference is called a multiple spiral curtain. Such an
arrangement enables to achieve high chain densities and the passages between chains are narrow,
therefore, it can be used in the dust curtain zone. its material transporting efficiency is not as good as
Query:
that one of a 4-start spiral, but it is still better than that one of any other arrangement enabling a
similarly high chain density. A multiple spiral arrangement can therefore be recommended for dust
curtain zones in such cases where the kiln feed flow properties are poor.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 4. ARRANGEMENT OF CHAINS / 4.4 Triangular
Curtain (Z-Curtain)
4.4 Triangular Curtain (Z-Curtain)
In a triangular curtain, also called Z-curtain, the chain fastening points follow a zig-zag line (see Fig. 5).
This arrangement enables to reach high chain densities without obstructing the flow of material and
gases too much. Because of the equal distribution of chains the heap of chains on the kiln bottom is
not too high in spite of the high chain density (see Fig. 6).
Figure 5 & 6
The arrangement with angles of 60and with 8 "triangles" per kiln circumference has proved to be the
most successful one. In such an arrangement the layer of chains on the kiln bottom is only approx. 4
chains high (because 8 triangles have all together 16 fastening lines and the chain length of approx.
0.73 D corresponds to D/4, therefore, each chain passes 16/4 = 4 lines).
The dust catching efficiency of such an arrangement is very good, it was therefore used in the dust
curtain zone in such cases where the kiln feed flow properties are relatively good. Frequently one
single triangular curtain was installed, but two are also possible.
Nowadays, for dust curtains a multiple start spiral arrangement is preferred to a triangular curtain
because of its material transport efficiency.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 4. ARRANGEMENT OF CHAINS / 4.5 Garlands
4.5 Garlands
Chains having their both ends fastened to the kiln shell are called garlands (Fig. 7) The fastening
points form straight rings in the kiln shell. The shape of a garland is characterized by the chain length,
by the axial distance L
AX
and by the angle (see Fig. 7 and 8). Good results have been achieved with
an angle 90 to 110and a distance L
AX
0.5 to 0.9 D.
Figure 7 & 8:
Query:
Due to the sliding movement of the garland chains on the kiln shell (resp. lining) surface, their shell
cleaning and material transporting efficiency is very good and their heat exchange efficiency is approx.
1.5 times higher than that one of pending chains (see Fig. 9).
Figure 9
As can be seen in Fig. 9 the garland chain should be hung in a "reverse" sense, i.e. in a sense differing
from that one of a screw line, in order to assist the material transport.
Due to the properties mentioned above, the garland chains have been used mainly in the plastic zone.
In spite of the advantages mentioned above CS/PT does usually not recommend the installation of
garlands because of their disadvantages, namely:
complicated installation
difficult maintenance
relatively short life time
at the ends of the garland zone the shall cleaning efficiency is very poor (no movement of chain)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 4. ARRANGEMENT OF CHAINS / 4.6 Festoons
4.6 Festoons
Garlands without overlapping chains in the axial direction are called festoons (Fig. 10). The installation
and maintenance of festoons are less difficult than that of garlands but their shell cleaning efficiency is
poorer (the areas between the individual bays of festoons are not cleaned reliably).
Query:
Figure 10
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 4. ARRANGEMENT OF CHAINS / 4.7 Spiral
Garlands
4.7 Spiral Garlands
An arrangement of garlands where the chain fastening points form screw lines ("spirals") is called
spiral garlands. Its material transporting efficiency is even better than that one of normal straight
garland zone, but the erection and maintenance are more complicated.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 4. ARRANGEMENT OF CHAINS / 4.8
Thermochains
4.8 Thermochains
Thermochains are a special type of festoons, meeting the following conditions:
The axial distance L
AX
between the two fastening points is short (approx. 0.1 to 0.15 D
IL
).
The angle between the two fastening points is approx. between 60and 120, preferably 90to
120.
The free height under the chain h
fr
is approx. between 0.4 D
IL
(for 120) and 0.6 D
IL
(for =
90).
The chain (shackles included, if used) is approx. 1.1 times longer than the distance between the
two fastening points, measured on the lining surface (see Fig. 11a and 11b).
A good heat transfer and at the same time a gentle treatment of material preventing an unnecessary
dust creation are the main advantages of thermochains. Their disadvantages are a low shell cleaning
ability and a very limited material transporting efficiency. Thermochains only have a limited sliding
movement on the kiln lining compared to garlands and for this reason the sense of hanging (reverse or
non-reverse) does not make too much difference. Thermochains cannot be used in the upper and
central part of the chain system where the shell cleaning efficiency is of an eminent importance. They
should be used in the lowest (hot) part of the system in such cases when another type of chain
arrangement enabling the same heat exchange would lead to an excessively high dust emission.
Figure 11a & b:
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 5. TYPES OF CHAIN LINKS
5. TYPES OF CHAIN LINKS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 5. TYPES OF CHAIN LINKS / 5.1 Round Links
5.1 Round Links
The round links (Fig. 12a) can rotate slowly when kiln is in operation which has two advantages:
the wear is distributed equally over the whole link circumference, and therefore, in comparison
with other types, round links have a longer life time.
due to the rotation of links their surface is kept clean which enables a good heat exchange
(links are not surrounded by an insulating mud layer).
Because of the properties mentioned above round links should be preferred to other types mainly in
those zones where the material is wet and sticky.
For calculations of the chain surface area and chain weight, the following formula can be applied:
surface area of 1 link
) (
2
d s S O +
volume of 1 link
4
0
s
V
weigt of 1 link
) 8 . 7 (
3
m t V G
The above formulas are valid for round chain links with a round wire cross section.
Some chain suppliers express the mentioned specific properties as chain surface area per 1 m of chain
and chain weight per 1 m of chain. These values are formulated as follows:
Query:
0
1m
=
) (
1000
0
link m 1
mm d
mmm
G
1m
=
) (
1000
link m 1
mm d
mmm
G
Therefore, if the chain weight and surface area are to be calculated from the 1m specific data, the
chain length L
CH
should be measured as shown in the following sketch:
Figure
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 5. TYPES OF CHAIN LINKS / 5.2 Long Links
5.2 Long Links
The long links (Fig. 12b) cannot rotate like the round ones, their life time is shorter and their
self-cleaning ability poorer.
For calculations of the chain surface area and chain weight, the following formulas can be applied:
surface area of 1 link
{ } ) ( ) ( 2 d s d l s O + +
volume of 1 link
4
0
s
V
weigt of 1 link
) 8 . 7 (
3
m t V G
The above formulas are valid for long chain links with a round wire cross section.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 5. TYPES OF CHAIN LINKS / 5.3 Oval Links
5.3 Oval Links
The oval links (Fig. 12c) are similar to long links, they have similar properties and their surface area
and weight can be calculated (with a negligible mistake) by means of the formulas mentioned in the
part 5.2.
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 5. TYPES OF CHAIN LINKS / 5.4 Other Types of
Chain Links
5.4 Other Types of Chain Links
Besides the links types mentioned above, the suppliers occasionally offer various other types of chain
links such as asymmetric links, overlapping links (Fig. 12e), links with a non-round wire cross section
(Fig. 12d) etc. These types are not to be recommended for cement kilns and are very rarely used,
except the links with a non-round wire cross section.
Figure 12: Type of Chain Links
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 6. CHAIN MATERIAL
6. CHAIN MATERIAL
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 6. CHAIN MATERIAL / 6.1 Mild Steel Chains
6.1 Mild Steel Chains
A big majority of the kiln chains are made of mild steel. In order to withstand the friction between
chains, between chain and raw material, between chain and hanger etc. they have to be made of a
"through hardened" steel. This hardening (result of a thermal treatment) is one of the important chain
properties and only experienced kiln chain suppliers are in possession of the necessary know-how for
this procedure. For this reason, even the mild steel chains should be purchased from experienced
suppliers.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 6. CHAIN MATERIAL / 6.2 Heat Resistant Alloy
Chains
6.2 Heat Resistant Alloy Chains
Due to the thermal load of the kiln and the chain temperature at the hot end of the system, the portion
of the heat resistant chains should be some 15% of the total weight of chains. Mild steel chains should
not be installed in that part of the system where a chain temperature of 450C or more is to be
expected.
The chain suppliers offer a lot of various heat resistant steel qualities. Besides the thermal treatment
the chemical composition of the respective alloy is the most important criteria. The two main
components are nickel and chromium.
Query:
Nickel increases the alloy resistivity against reducing kiln atmosphere, but a higher nickel content
becomes dangerous if the raw material or kiln gases contain sulphur compounds which could react
with it.
Chromium increases the alloy resistivity against high temperatures, but a higher content of chromium
makes the alloy sensible to sudden changes of temperature.
Above 20% Cr and at operating temperatures between 600 - 900C an intermetallic compound can
occur (-phase) which makes the alloy very brittle and causes destruction. Whether this phenomenon
occurs or not depends also on the Ni-content and on other elements. Alloys which are sensitive to
-phase formation must be used at working temperatures above 900C.
Because of the properties mentioned above, it is necessary to find a compromise. Good results have
been achieved with heat resistant alloys containing approx. 18 to 25% Cr and approx. 5 to 13% Ni.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 7. CHAIN HANGERS
7. CHAIN HANGERS
Chain hangers can be divided into 2 groups, namely single chain hangers and multiple chain hangers.
The single hangers have only one chain fastening point, the multiple hangers have several fastening
points. The single chain hangers should be preferred in cases, where larger distances between the
chain hanging points are desired - this solution enables to keep the weight of hangers as low as
possible. (Under favorable circumstances, the weight of hangers should not exceed some 15% of the
weight of the chains).
The chain can be fixed to the hanger by means of a shackle (Fig. 15). Specially designed hangers
enable shackleless hanging of chains.
In Fig. 13 and 14 some examples of the chain hangers are presented, namely:
Fig. 13 a, b, c single hangers with shackles
Fig. 13 d single hanger, shackleless
Fig. 13 e, f
Fig. 14 b, c multiple hangers with shackles
Fig. 13 g
Fig. 14 a multiple hangers, shackleless
Figure13:
Query:
Figure 14:
The gap between the plate of a multiple hanger and the steel kiln shell should not be too wide. Gaps
exceeding some 20 mm enable, when the kiln lining is worn out, penetration of chains into the space
between kiln shell and hanger. This leads to tangling of chains and finally to a destruction of chains
and hangers.
Figure 15: Shackle
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 8. MAIN CHARACTERISTIC DATA OF CHAIN
SYSTEMS
8. MAIN CHARACTERISTIC DATA OF CHAIN SYSTEMS
Query:
The following average data are to be understood only as a very rough guideline.
Length of the total chain system 18 to 35% of total kiln length
(some 6 to 10 D)
Total weight of chains:
- smaller kilns (< 1000 t/d)
- bigger kilns
9 to 12% of daily kiln output
11 to 20% of daily kiln output
Total surface area of chains:
- smaller kilns
- bigger kilns
F
e
/F
ii
*) = 1.1 to 1.8
F
e
/F
i
= 1.5 to 2.6
*
F
e
= total surface area of chains
F
i
= total surface are of kiln shell (inside lining)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 9. ANNEXES
9. ANNEXES
Annex 1: Example of chain system record keeping (DA K5)
Annex 2: Example of material sampling port arrangement on wet kiln (BP K1)
Annex 3: Example material sampling and mass balance (BP K1)
Annex 4: Example of material sampling port on wet kiln (BS K1)
Annex 1: Example of chain system record keeping (DA K5)
Query:
Annex 2: Example of material sampling port arrangement on wet kiln (BP K1)
Annex 3: Example material sampling and mass balance (BP K1)
Query:
Annex 4: Example of material sampling port on wet kiln (BS K1)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 10. LITERATURE
10. LITERATURE
P. Weber Wrmebergang und Wasserverdampfung beim Nassdrehofen
Zement-Kalk-Gips (1959), No. 5, p. 208 ff
Legrand: Calcul des coeffients de perte de charge et de filtration d'un rideau
de chaines
Rew. Mater. Constr. (1961), No. 549, p. 327 - 332
De Beus, Cement Technology: Design of Kiln Chain Systems Narzymski:
Rock Products 69 (1966), No. 7, p. 77 ff
Bennet, C.S.: Chain Experience in Wet Process Kilns
Minerals Processing, Vol. 8 (1967), No. 10, p. 18 - 19
De Beus, A.J.: Mind your Chain Dollar
Minerals Processing, Vol. 8 (1967), No. 10, pa. 12 - 17
Feiser, C.F.: Comments on Kiln Chain Developments in the Cement Industry
Query:
Drayton, W.E.: Know your Kiln's Chain System
Rock Products (1972), H. 5, p. 88 ff
Numerous TC-VA Reports
Numerous Reports of "Holderbank" Group Plants
"Datenbank-Blatt" Collection of TC-VA
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C02 - Internal Kiln Fittings / Kiln Chain Systems / 11. TEST QUESTIONS
11. TEST QUESTIONS
1) Name the main functions of a chain system and explain them!
2) According to the changing properties of material passing along the kiln tube, which
individual zones do we distinguish inside of a chain system? Describe them, define the
main requirements which the chains have to meet in each individual zone!
3) Name the different arrangements of chains and describe them!
4) Each arrangement has advantages as well as disadvantages, please list them!
5) Follow the stream of material in the kiln and define which chain arrangements can be
used for the individual parts of the system! Explain why!
6) Explain the reverse sense of hanging garlands! Compare it to the sense of hanging
thermochains
7) Would you recommend garlands for the downstream (hot) end of the system,
thermochains for the upstream (cold) end? Please explain why!
8) What are the specific advantages of round link chains?
9) Describe the material and gas temperature profile along the system!
Query:
10) What portion of heat resistant steel chains would you recommend for a system? Define
the main criteria for estimating this amount!
11) Which basic types of hangers do you know? In which case would you prefer single
chain hangers?
12) Name the main characteristic data of a chain system: Length, total weight and total
surface area of chains?
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C03 - Refractory Linings
C03 - Refractory Linings
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C03 - Refractory Linings / Refractory Lining of Cement Kiln Systems
Refractory Lining of Cement Kiln Systems
1. IMPORTANCE OF REFRACTORIES FOR CEMENT PRODUCTION
2. SUBDIVISION OF THE BURNING PROCESS AND SELECTION OF REFRACTORY QUALITIES
2.1 Drying Zone (applies only for wet and semi-wet process kilns)
2.2 Chain Zone
2.3 Preheating Zone
2.4 Calcining Zone
2.5 Transition Zone
2.6 Sintering Zone
2.7 Cooling Zone
3. IMPORTANT FEATURES OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION
3.1 General
3.2 Brick Joints and Jointing Materials
3.3 Thermal Expansion Compensation
3.4 Lining Methods
3.5 Stripping and Removing of Old Lining
4. LINING OF PREHEATERS, KILN HOODS AND COOLERS
4.1 Suspension and Grate Preheaters
4.2 Kiln Hood
4.3 Clinker Coolers
5. OPERATIONAL ASPECTS REGARDING KILN LININGS
5.1 Heat-Up of Rotary Kiln Systems
5.2 Kiln Shell Deformation
5.3 Fluctuating Process Parameters
6. CONCLUSIONS
7. TEST QUESTIONS
Query:
SUMMARY
Since the sole costs of refractory materials per ton of clinker produced play only a minor role in the
overall manufacturing costs, the prior task of refractory lining optimization is to prolong the useful life of
the installed materials which fact in turn increases the kiln availability for production.
Selecting of the appropriate refractory qualities for the different kiln zones is of particular importance in
various problem areas of the kiln system. As an example, alkali corrosion in calcining zones may be
reduced by selecting acidic types of bricks, whereas eutectic reactions in the safety zone generally can
only be countered by installing basic types of refractories.
Apart from selecting the correct refractory materials, the work quality of lining installation is a key
element in obtaining a long refractory life. Tight lining and adequate joint dimensions are important
features.
The operational influences on refractories materials, the work quality of lining installation is a key
element in obtaining a long refractory life. Tight lining and adequate joint dimensions are important
features.
The operational influences on refractories performance are of thermal, chemical and mechanical
nature. By considering an adequate heating-up procedure, thermal and mechanical damage can be
avoided during start up. Measures to provide an optimum raw material composition on one hand and to
avoid kiln feed fluctuations on the other hand may be necessary to decrease wear of chemical nature
and to improve coating stability. In the area of kiln tyres, mechanical destruction of bricks can be
caused by excessive kiln shell deformation. Continuous control of the mechanical condition of the kiln
shell in the tyre areas allows to detect possible deterioration and to take appropriate measures in an
early stage in order to prevent damage to the lining from this side.
Refractory lifetime is generally not a matter of one single criterion. The influences described in this
paper are nearly always jointly responsible for the results achieved and should be considered as an
entirety.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C03 - Refractory Linings / Refractory Lining of Cement Kiln Systems / 1. IMPORTANCE OF
REFRACTORIES FOR CEMENT PRODUCTION
1. IMPORTANCE OF REFRACTORIES FOR CEMENT PRODUCTION
Cement plans represent quite big amounts of invested capital which fact demands for a production as
continuous as possible in order to guarantee a corresponding return.
The sole cost of the refractory lining of a cement kiln, including the outlay for removal of the old and
installation of the new materials amounts to barley 2 to 4% of the cement production costs. The losses
caused by interruption of production, on the other hand, are already higher than the annual lining costs
when the kiln has been idle for 10 to 15 days. Improvement or optimisation of the useful life of
refractories with the object of impairing the availability of the kiln as little as possible by shut-down for
relining, is therefore one of the major objectives for cement producers.
The durability of refractory linings is mainly influenced by three factors:
The choice of the quality of materials employed in the various zones.
The installation of the lining with due consideration of the methods of placing, size of joints and
jointing materials.
Due attention to operational criteria which affect the durability of the lining, namely the correct
procedure for heating-up and for cooling down of a kiln system on the one hand and the
Query:
minimisation of process fluctuations in order to maintain the continuous operation of the kiln on the
other hand.
This paper contains accordingly remarks and information on how to consider the above criteria in order
to improve refractory performance and kiln availability.
For types and classification of refractory materials and other aspects related to materials technology,
reference is made to the MA Cement Course Documents Vol. 2.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C03 - Refractory Linings / Refractory Lining of Cement Kiln Systems / 2. SUBDIVISION OF THE
BURNING PROCESS AND SELECTION OF REFRACTORY QUALITIES
2. SUBDIVISION OF THE BURNING PROCESS AND SELECTION OF REFRACTORY
QUALITIES
With regard to the requirements on refractory materials, the kiln system can be subdivided into various
zones according to specific operating conditions (Fig. 1). The designation of the various zones refers to
the respective reactions in the burning process which, however, are anything but clearly defined as
they overlap in both directions. The point, at which the change from one refractory quality to another is
made can usually be determined only by observing the behaviour of the lining in operation.
Fig. 1
The main points of the following explanations are also summarised in Table 1.
Table 1
Query:
BURNING PROCESS AND SELECTION OF REFRACTORY QUALITIES / 2.1 Drying Zone (applies only for wet and semi-wet process
kilns)
2.1 Drying Zone (applies only for wet and semi-wet process kilns)
In the drying zone, the water content of slurry or nodules is evaporated. This reaction is almost
terminated at material temperatures of 100C.
In wet process kiln, the drying zone is generally a part of the chain zone. In grate pre-heater kilns,
drying takes place in the first pre-heater chamber.
BURNING PROCESS AND SELECTION OF REFRACTORY QUALITIES / 2.2 Chain Zone
2.2 Chain Zone
In wet process kilns, the chain zone can be subdivided into a drying and a preheating zone. The
material temperature at the outlet of the chain zone depends on arrangement and qualities of chains as
well as type of system, i.e. nodule or dust kiln, and is in the order of magnitude of 200 to 400C.
The length of the chain zone ranges from 7 to 9 kiln diameters in wet kilns and from 3 to 5 kiln
diameters in long dry kilns.
The lining of the chain zone should be of a dense, low alumina firebrick with high abrasion resistance
to withstand the abrasive action of the chains.
An air setting mortar should be used as there is insufficient temperature to vitrify a heat setting mortar.
In wet kilns, furthermore, the mortar must be water resistant.
Since the arrangement of the chain hangers requires extensive modification work, sometimes dense
fireclay castables are installed, which, however, should be carefully compacted in order to obtain high
abrasion resistance.
BURNING PROCESS AND SELECTION OF REFRACTORY QUALITIES / 2.3 Preheating Zone
2.3 Preheating Zone
In the preheating zone, hydrate-water is driven off and the raw material is heated up to approx. 700C.
The length of the preheating zone in long kilns is approx. 4 to 8 kiln diameters (excluding chain zone).
In short pre-heater kilns the preheating zone is a part of the pre-heater.
Regarding the lining of preheaters, reference is made to paragraph 4.1: Lining of Suspension and
Grate Preheaters.
The preheating zone of long kilns is usually lined with low alumina firebricks or, for better thermal
insulation, with lightweight firebricks. With respect of lining stability, two layer lining is generally not
recommended in rotary kilns of more than 3.5 m diameter.
BURNING PROCESS AND SELECTION OF REFRACTORY QUALITIES / 2.4 Calcining Zone
2.4 Calcining Zone
The calcining reaction starts already at material temperatures below 600C and is completed at approx.
1200C. Since, however, the most part of calcination takes place between raw material temperatures
of 700 to 900C, usually this range is designated as calcining zone.
The length of the calcining zone in long kilns is in the order of magnitude of 6 to 9 kiln diameters. In
Query:
short pre-heater kilns calcining takes partially place in the pre-heater. There, the length of the calcining
zone in the kiln amounts to approx. 4 to 6, in kilns with precalciners 1 to 3 kiln diameters.
From the refractory point of view, the calcining zone can still be lined with normal fireclay bricks or, for
better insulation, with fireclay lightweight bricks. In case of alkali attack good operational results have
been achieved with acidic light weight bricks with an SiO
2
content above 65%. These bricks form with
alkalis a vitreous layer of 2 to 3 mm thickness on the surface, which prevents the further alkali
infiltration.
Two layer linings are generally not recommended. There are, however, two layer bricks on the market,
consisting of a dense working part and a porous insulating part. Such bricks are generally installed for
heat saving purpose, if lightweight bricks show unsatisfactory operating results.
BURNING PROCESS AND SELECTION OF REFRACTORY QUALITIES / 2.5 Transition Zone
2.5 Transition Zone
The transition zones are located on both sides of the sintering zone. Since the length of the sintering
zone varies with process fluctuations, the transition zones are characterised in particular by unstable
coating formation.
Usually, the inlet-side transition zone is further subdivided into a colder section, so-called safety zone,
and into a hot section, the proper transition zone.
The safety zone has a length of approx. 2 kiln diameters and is usually lined with alumina rich bricks
with Al
2
O
3
content of 50 to 60%. The bricks must have good thermal shock resistance and low porosity
in order to have good resistivity against chemical attack. The application limit of alumina rich or high
alumina bricks in the transition zone is generally determined by eutectic reactions in the system Al
2
O
3
-
CaO - SiO
2
or by alkali-spalling. In such cases, lining lifetime can be improved only by installing basic
bricks.
The transition zones are often exposed to considerably higher loads than the sintering zone itself.
Quite often no or only unstable coating is formed. Thus, the bricks are exposed directly to the flame
radiation and considerable temperature variations. The lengths of the transition zones vary from 2 to 4
kiln diameters.They are usually lined with chrome free magnesia-spinell bricks produced of very pure,
synthetic materials or with magnesia-chrome bricks containing approx. 60 to 70% MgO.
BURNING PROCESS AND SELECTION OF REFRACTORY QUALITIES / 2.6 Sintering Zone
2.6 Sintering Zone
Although this zone is often referred to as burning zone preference is given to the expression sintering
zone on account that this better describes the mechanism of reactions taking place.
The sintering zone is generally covered with a more or less stable coating, formed with clinker and
liquid phase. Liquid phase starts to form at raw material temperatures above approx. 1250C.
However, as the lining surface temperature is higher than the one of the raw material, coating
formation starts already at raw material temperature above 1050 to 1150C.
The term sintering zone can also be explained as zone of increased material diffusion with formation
of C
3
S modifications, the latter starting at temperatures above approx. 1100C.
The maximum material temperature in the sintering zone is in the order of magnitude of 1400 to
1500C at the beginning of the cooling zone.
Query:
The length of the sintering zone is generally between 3 to 5 kiln diameters and depends largely on the
shape of the flame and type of fuel. Coal flames give generally short, oil flames medium and gas
flames longer sintering zones. In kilns with precalciner, the sintering zone length amounts to 5 to 8 kiln
diameters due to the higher specific material throughout.
The bricks in the sintering zone are exposed to chemical attack by the liquid phase of the clinker and
by alkali sulphates, high temperatures and, depending on coating stability, high thermal shocks. These
conditions are best met by basic bricks due to their high refractoriness and good resistance against
chemical attack.
Thus, generally, chrome free magnesia-spinell bricks, magnesia-chrome or dolomite bricks are
installed. When using chrome-free magnesia-spinell bricks, qualities particularly developed to improve
coating adhesion should be chosen (qualities based on natural sinter).
Dolomite bricks have generally good operating performance in zones with coating formation. The price
for dolomite bricks is only approx. 60% of that of magnesite. A disadvantage of dolomite bricks is,
however, its sensitivity to moisture. Thus, for longer storing times, these bricks are to be stored
air-tight. During longer kiln stops the dolomite lining is to be protected against moisture by tightening
the kiln tube and putting a hygroscopic agent (e.g. burned lime) in the kiln.
Raw material analysis and tests can give some indications on selection of brick quality to be installed.
The final decision, however, is often to be based on operating experience, i.e. by trial and error.
Insulation of the burning zone with insulating back-lining is generally not recommended. By insulating,
basically the hot face temperature of the bricks will be increased, resulting in reduced coating thickness
and higher chemical and thermal load of the bricks. Furthermore, two layer lining is less stable and
leads, particularly in big kilns, often to early failure due to relative movement and loosening of the
lining.
In cases, where a coating does not form, insulation may be helpful in reducing heat losses and
protecting the kiln shell, particularly in the tyre area. In such specific cases basic bricks with
back-linings of 40 mm hard fireclay slabs are sometimes installed. However, generally installation of
two layer linings is not recommended due to reduced lining stability.
BURNING PROCESS AND SELECTION OF REFRACTORY QUALITIES / 2.7 Cooling Zone
2.7 Cooling Zone
The cooling zone in the rotary kiln reaches approx. from the burner nozzle to the kiln outlet. In this
zone, the clinker is cooled down from its maximum burning temperature of 1400 to 1500C to approx.
1350C in kilns with grate, rotary or shaft coolers and to approx. 1250C in kilns with planetary coolers.
The cooling zone in kilns with planetary coolers has a length of approx. 1.5 to 2 kiln diameters. It
consists generally of a cam lining for better cooling efficiency and a dam ring for equalising of clinker
distribution to the individual cooler inlet openings. For camlining and damring, dense high alumina
bricks with approx. 80% Al
2
O
3
and considerable thermal shock resistance are generally used. The
backing of the damring can be made of hard fireclay bricks with adequate mechanical strength.
The length of the cooling zone of kilns with grate, rotary or shaft coolers is generally 0.5 to 1 kiln
diameter. It is usually lined with dense, abrasion resistant high alumina bricks containing 80% Al
2
O
3
. In
case of heavy chemical attack it can be necessary to line this zone with basic bricks, which however,
should have high thermal shock resistance (magnesia-spinell bricks). Since the outlet zone is often
free of coating, kiln shell temperature will increase due to the higher thermal conductivity of basic
bricks. Due to the high thermal and mechanical load of the bricks in this zone, insulating back-lining is
Query:
not recommended.
The end of the cooling zone, the nose ring, is one of the most critical points of cement kiln linings. Its
lifetime is often lower than the one of high loaded sintering zones. Shape and quality of nose ring
bricks requires therefore careful consideration.
Basically, complicated special shapes should be avoided since special shaped bricks are often
hand-made and can have a much poorer quality than machine made bricks of the same composition.
Nose ring design according to Fig. 2a and 2b would allow to use standard brick sizes with minor
modifications and is to be preferred against the design according to Fig. 2c.
Fig. 2a Nose Ring Design Using Bricks
Fig. 2b Nose Ring Design Using Bricks
Fig. 2c Nose Ring Design Using Bricks
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C03 - Refractory Linings / Refractory Lining of Cement Kiln Systems / 3. IMPORTANT FEATURES
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION
3. IMPORTANT FEATURES OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.1 General
3.1 General
Depending on specific requirements and local conditions, refractory brick linings in rotary kilns are
installed dry or with mortar. For specific applications, unshaped materials are used, which are installed
by casting, gunning or ramming.
Apart from selecting the correct refractory materials, the quality of the installation procedure is a key
element in obtaining a durable refractory lining and long service life.
High refractory lining quality requires:
Tight installation of brick
Correct compensation for thermal expansion with adequate joints
Selection of suitable mortar for mortar joints
Selection of the optimum lining method, so that kiln rotation in the cold state can be minimised
Loose linings may result in spiral displacement of entire lining sections (see Fig. 3). The bricks jam in a
twisted position and can no longer expand freely when hot. Result: spalling due to excessive
mechanical stresses.
Fig. 3
The lining ring must run true to the vertical kiln axis. Using a welding seam as reference, alignment
lines can be drawn on the shell at regular intervals.
Installation of closure bricks requires special care.
Procedure (Fig. 4)
1) Tension the ring with a hydraulic spreader jack.
2) Insert the most tightly fitting combination of key bricks
Query:
3) With basic lining: drive in key plates between axial joints of the ring until ring becomes completely
stable. Use only key plate per joint.
With linings containing Al
2
O
3
: closing with key plates should be avoided because iron reacts with
Al
2
O
3
at high temperature to form a compound with a low melting point. For this lining quality, the
combination of key bricks must fit particularly well.
Fig. 4
For closing lining rings, key bricks of various dimensions are available which can be combined to
obtain optimum closures. If necessary, standard formats can be cut to the desired widths. The brick
lengths of the last lining ring generally will have to be cut as well.
Rotary kiln bricks may only be cut to 2/3 of their original length or width; if necessary two rows must be
cut.
Offset brick linings as shown in Fig. 5 may not be installed in rotary kilns. Each ring must be
self-supporting in order to avoid shearing stress occurring as a result of relative lining motion.
Fig. 5
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.2 Brick Joints and Jointing Materials
3.2 Brick Joints and Jointing Materials
Bricks laid in mortar generally give better performance than dry placed bricks provided that the mortar
used is of the correct quality. Mortar joints must be even and not thicker than 1.5 to 3 mm, preferably 2
mm.
Query:
To achieve the desired lining quality with mortar, qualified and experienced bricklayers are required,
who regrettably are becoming a rarity in many countries.
In contrast, dry bricking can be executed in less time by less specialised personnel.
Dry lining is therefore the standard procedure for basic bricks. They are currently almost exclusively
laid dry with or without steel plates in every radial joint. The steel plates react at high temperatures with
the magnesia brick to form a highly refractory combination of magnesiaferrite which is claimed to give
increased stability to the ring. Clench lining (dry lining without steel plates) is becoming more and more
popular. Its main advantages are:
tighter lining
no handling of steel plates
no separation of steel plates required when recycling old bricks
Expansion allowances in axial and circumferential joints of the brick linings are sometimes necessary in
order to compensate for the thermal expansion of the brick. With insufficient compensation of thermal
expansion, the bricks can be mechanically overloaded at operating temperature. Excess compensation
conversely leads to loose lining or even lining displacement and collapse of brick rings. Therefore the
correct dimensioning of thermal expansion allowance is a most important feature of ensuring a stable
lining.
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.3 Thermal Expansion Compensation
3.3 Thermal Expansion Compensation
The thermal expansion of a refractory lining (re: Fig. 6 and 7) is partially compensated by the following
factors:
thermal expansion of kiln shell
burning out of glue if sheet metal shims are glued to the brick surface
lining inaccuracy
compressibility and pyroplastic behaviour of the bricks
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Query:
The thermal expansion which cannot be absorbed by the above factors has to be compensated by:
the elasticity and pyroplasticity of mortars
the elasticity and softening of steel plates
combustible materials (cardboard shims)
The thermal expansion of refractory linings is strongly dependent on materials and operating
conditions. For the correct dimensioning of the expansion allowance, the recommendations of the
manufacturers of each brick type should be strictly followed.
For dry lining consisting of basic bricks, most manufacturers recommend a longitudinal expansion
allowance of 1%, i.e. installation of a 2 mm cardboard in each circumferential joint for 200 mm brick
length (for designation of joints see Fig. 8). Most qualities of basic bricks are normally laid without
cardboards in the axial joints in order to achieve the tightest possible lining at working temperature.
Fig. 8
For some particularly dense, high fired qualities additional expansion allowances within the rings are
recommended. In addition to the normal steel plate, a 1 mm thick, 50 mm wide cardboard is to be
installed near the hot face of the axial joints after every 4th to 8th brick. To prevent the cardboards
from slipping-in, they are bent at right angles to the brick face (see Fig. 9).
Fig. 9
Query:
If basic bricks are laid in mortar, additional expansion allowance in the axial joints is not necessary. In
the circumferential joints an allowance of about 0.2% is made, i.e. a 2 mm cardboard is inserted
between each fifth ring without mortar.
Alumina and fireclay bricks as a rule are installed without expansion allowance in the interest of a
stable lining. This is possible due to the lower thermal expansion of these bricks compared to the basic
materials and due to good pyroplastic properties which permit accommodation of the stresses at high
temperatures.
Steel plates are not used with Alumina bricks, since steel and aluminium silicates form low melting
compound at high temperature, which can lead to lining damage.
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.4 Lining Methods
3.4 Lining Methods
The following factors have to be considered for kiln lining methods:
safety
tight installation of the bricks
time required for lining
The methods applied can be generally classified as:
rotating methods, i.e. the kiln has to be turned during lining
formwork methods: the bricks are installed on a curved formwork without turning of the kiln
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.4 Lining Methods / 3.4.1 Rotating Methods
3.4.1 Rotating Methods
With the rotating methods, kiln zones of 5 to 20 m length are lined at one time. Work is carried out only
in the bottom of the kiln, which is rotated intermittently as the work of lining proceeds. The bricks must
be fastened to the shell, e.g. by means of screw jacks or glues, as the ring of bricks is rotated into the
overhead position before being closed.
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.4 Lining Methods / 3.4.1 Rotating Methods / 3.4.1.1 Screw-Jack Method (Fig. 10)
Query:
3.4.1.1 Screw-Jack Method (Fig. 10)
The lining is fastened by means of screw-jacks, usually of steel. The bricks are clamped in position by
means of wooden wedges. The screw-jacks should be furnished with pressure control facilities as e.g.
discsprings or load cells. The screw-jack method should not be employed for kilns more than 4 m in
diameter.
Fig. 10
Lining Procedure
1) Lining of slightly more than the bottom half of the kiln.
2) Fastening of the lining by means of screw-jacks and wooden wedges. The distance of the
screw-jacks is 0.5 - 1 m, depending on kiln diameter.
3) Turning the kiln by one quarter of circumference.
4) Lining of the third quarter.
5) Fastening according to point 2.
6) Turning of the kiln until the last section is on the bottom
7) Lining of the last section and keying with closure bricks.
Disadvantages of the Screw-Jack Method
Kiln has to be turned during lining.
With large kilns there is a danger of the screw-jacks slipping and the shell being distorted.
Average Lining Speed with the Screw-Jack Method
1 to 3.5 m
2
/h or 0.17 to 0.25 m
2
/man-hour
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.4 Lining Methods / 3.4.1 Rotating Methods / 3.4.1.2 Gluing Method
3.4.1.2 Gluing Method
With the gluing method the bricks are glued to the shell in an alternative manner, following a specific
pattern according e.g. Fig. 11.
The glues used are two component expoxy or polyurethane resins and for very low temperatures down
to minus 25C there are synthetic resins based on polyesters or polyacrylates.
Query:
Fig. 11
The glues decompose after heating up above 200C and lose their effect.
Lining procedure:
1) Cleaning of the shell down to the bright metal, if necessary with the aid of a grinder. The surface
must be free from dust or grease.
2) Gluing of the first lining sector of approx. 5 brick rows.
3) Installation of the next sector without glue etc. The number of bricks between the glued sectors
depend on brick weight, kiln diameter, glue properties, etc. Generally the brick and/or glue
suppliers specify the gluing pattern. As a rule approx. 20% of the bricks laid are glued. Glue
consumption amounts to approx. 0.4 to 0.8 kg/m
2
of lined area or approx. 2 kg/m
2
glued area.
Using the gluing method, the following points require careful consideration:
The start to be glued must be fitted together before the adhesives start to set.
The kiln should not be turned before the glue has developed sufficient strength.
The glue must be carefully prepared according to the suppliers specifications, particularly with
respect to mixing ratio.
Disadvantages of the gluing method:
Kiln has to be turned during lining.
Tightening of the brick rings before keying is not possible, but only the bricks between two glued
sectors. Thus, lining mistakes are not easy to be localised.
Safety risk if kiln is turned before glue has developed sufficient strength.
With the gluing method, average lining speeds of 3 to 7 m
2
/h or 0.4 to 1.2 m
2
/man-hour can be
achieved.
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.4 Lining Methods / 3.4.2 Formwork Methods
3.4.2 Formwork Methods
The formwork methods can nowadays be considered as the standard lining method. They are safe in
operation and permit very accurate installation of the bricks.
With the curved formwork methods, first the lower half shell of the kiln is lined without any particular
Query:
aid, and then, the upper half ring by ring with the aid of the curved formwork. There is a wide choice of
equipment, form simple wooden forms to hydraulically operated mechanised forms.
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.4 Lining Methods / 3.4.2 Formwork Methods / 3.4.2.1 Pogo Stick Method
3.4.2.1 Pogo Stick Method
The main equipment for the pogo stick method is:
supporting construction
working scaffold
wooden curved drum
spring loaded pogo sticks
The working scaffold is installed upon the lined bottom half of the kiln. Then the bricks of the upper half
section are installed and fixed by means of the pogo sticks. Generally two bricklayers and two helpers
line from each side towards the top position. After keying, the pogo sticks are removed and the
formwork is put into the new position.
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.4 Lining Methods / 3.4.2 Formwork Methods / 3.4.2.2 Wooden Curved Form Method
3.4.2.2 Wooden Curved Form Method
The main equipment for the wooden curved form is:
supporting framework
working platform
wooden curved formwork
wooden wedges
The supporting framework is so constructed to permit a fork lift vehicle to move beneath the working
platform, lifting the brick pallets to the platform. It is installed on the lined bottom half of the kiln. The
bricks of the upper section are then laid on the wooden arch and pressed against the shell by means of
wooden wedges. Work is done from both sides towards the top by two men on each side. After keying
of a ring the curved formwork is moved into the next position, thereby, normally the wooden wedges
are loosening themselves.
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.4 Lining Methods / 3.4.2 Formwork Methods / 3.4.2.3 Mechanised Curved Forms (Fig. 12)
3.4.2.3 Mechanised Curved Forms (Fig. 12)
Mechanised curved forms are mechanised variations of the simple arch forms. They basically consist
of a travelling working platform on a supporting framework. The curved form is installed on the working
platform and is equipped with mechanically or pneumatically operated pressure tools by which the
bricks are pressed against the shell. The supporting frame is so constructed as to allow the passage of
a fork lift vehicle.
The most used mechanised lining machines are the Mult-O-Ring, the DAT-Appartus and the Reintjes
lining machines. The Mult-O-Ring is equipped with two parallel rows of pressure tools which almost
doubles the speed of work.
Query:
The lining procedure is similar to that with simple curved forms, except that the fastening of the bricks
is mechanised.
With mechanised lining machines very high lining speeds of up to 6.5 m
2
/h or 0.5 m
2
/man-hour for
mortared linings and up to 9.5 m
2
/h or 0.75 m
2
/man-hour for dry lining can be achieved.
Fig. 12
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.4 Lining Methods / 3.4.3 Lining with Unshaped Materials
3.4.3 Lining with Unshaped Materials
Unshaped refractory materials can be installed by casting, gunning or ramming. The installed masses
are fixed by metallic anchors which provide a good lining stability even in cases of local damages or
spallings. Usually V-type anchors, generally delivered by the refractory supplier, are welded in a cross
pattern on the shell. About 15 to 25 anchors per m
2
are required, depending on lining thickness.
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.4 Lining Methods / 3.4.3 Lining with Unshaped Materials / 3.4.3.1 Castables
3.4.3.1 Castables
Castables or refractory concrete contain a hydraulic setting agent (high alumina cement). They are
installed generally in suitable formworks, e.g. by the rotocasting method (Fig. 13) and compacted by
vibrating. In order to avoid spalling due to quick water evaporation during heating up, it can be
advisable to perforate the surface by pushing steel wires of 5 mm thickness into the freshly placed
castable at a distance of approx. 5 cm. The steel wires are to be removed after hardening of the
castables. During the hardening period just after installation of the castable, its surface should be
protected against too quick evaporation of water by means of wet cloths or water spray.
Fig. 13
Query:
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.4 Lining Methods / 3.4.3 Lining with Unshaped Materials / 3.4.3.2 Guniting Materials
3.4.3.2 Guniting Materials
Guniting materials are supplied either with chemically or with hydraulically setting bonding agents. The
materials are placed pneumatically, passing through a hose to a mixing nozzle where water is
introduced (Fig. 14).
Fig. 14
Guniting should always be done by specialised personnel, since quality of the lining as well as amount
of losses in rebounding is highly depending on the ability of the operator. Depending on shape and
position of the working surface losses in rebound amount from 10 to 50%.
During the hardening period, the gunned surface must be protected against water evaporation similar
to castables. Also perforation of the surface by means of steel wires can be advisable.
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.4 Lining Methods / 3.4.3 Lining with Unshaped Materials / 3.4.3.3 Ramming Material
3.4.3.3 Ramming Material
Ramming materials are plastic or granular materials, generally chemically, seldom hydraulically
bonded.
Due to the low water content, rammed refractories generally have low porosity, high volume stability
and strength and good resistance against chemical attack.
Query:
The masses are placed by compacting layer by layer of approx. 25 to 50 mm thickness each by means
of a vibrating hammer fitted on a compressed airhammer. Appropriate and homogeneous compression
is necessary for good operating performance of rammed materials, therefore, highly qualified
personnel is required for placing.
Chemically bonded materials should be installed only shortly before heating up. Spare parts lined with
chemically bonded rammed materials must be tempered at approx. 250C. After tempering, the lining
surface must be protected against humidity by bituminous paint, in order that they are not damaged by
absorbing water during storage.
OF REFRACTORIES INSTALLATION / 3.5 Stripping and Removing of Old Lining
3.5 Stripping and Removing of Old Lining
Stripping and removing of old lining and coating manually requires approx. the same time as the
relining of the same zone with new bricks. By use of mechanised stripping machines, this dangerous
and time consuming operation can be done much safer in considerably shorter time with less
personnel.
Manually, 6 to 7 men remove approx. 3 to 5 m
2
/h of old lining. By means of mechanised stripping
machines, 2 to 3 men remove approx. 15 to 18 m
2
/h.
The dismantling unit consists generally of a drilling machine chassis with an all-round pivoting arm on
the end of which a compressed airhammer or drilling device is mounted (Fig. 15). For removal, small
front-end-loaders are used. The shovel is shaped to fit the curve of the kiln shell.
Fig. 15
The stripping procedure is generally done in the following steps:
1) If the coating is more than 25 cm thick it should be cleared away before the actual lining is to be
opened up.
2) In small kilns of < 4 m diameter the removed coating must be transported away before the stripping
of lining starts.
3) The process of opening up a slit should be done very careful in order not to damage the steel shell.
4) When the lining has been opened up, actual stripping can commence. Due to the opening already
made in the lining, the stripping tool can more or less work parallel to the shell, thereby causing no
damage.
Query:
5) After the upper half of the kiln is stripped, the kiln is rotated so that the remaining brickwork fall
down.
6) The rubble can now be carted away by means of the front-end-loader.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C03 - Refractory Linings / Refractory Lining of Cement Kiln Systems / 4. LINING OF
PREHEATERS, KILN HOODS AND COOLERS
4. LINING OF PREHEATERS, KILN HOODS AND COOLERS
PREHEATERS, KILN HOODS AND COOLERS / 4.1 Suspension and Grate Preheaters
4.1 Suspension and Grate Preheaters
The lining of preheaters should have good insulating properties, therefore, basically two or three layer
linings are installed. The working lining generally consists of abrasion resistant fireclay bricks with low
porosity. In case of alkali attack acid firebricks with SiO
2
-content above 65% are installed. Monolithic
linings are used particularly for complicated shapes where the installation of bricks is difficult and
expensive. For plane walls and gas ducts lining with bricks generally is easier and cheaper than lining
with unshaped materials.
A three layer insulating lining is generally composed of a backing of ceramic fibre board, an
intermediate layer of insulting firebricks and the dense working lining.
The bricks of the working lining are usually placed with chemically setting mortars in order to obtain
gas tight linings. For compensation of thermal expansion, expansion joints are installed horizontally
and vertically at distances of approx. 2 m, as well as in corners. The expansion joints have a width of
approx. 15 to 20 mm and should be staggered and filled with ceramic fibre mats in order to avoid
penetration of dust (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16
For stabilising of the linings, anchor bricks and holding irons which are flexibly fitted with the steel shell
are used.
Roofs are either lined vaulted without use of anchors or flat with hanger bricks and holding irons.
Suspended roofs are often lined combined with hanger bricks and unshaped materials.
Pre-heater cyclones usually are lined with bricks and insulating back-lining, except the complicated
shaped parts as e.g. cyclone inlet and control openings, which generally are lined with unshaped
Query:
materials.
Meal chutes should be lined with highly abrasion resistant materials. Usually dense castables with
metallic anchors or prefabricated materials are installed.
PREHEATERS, KILN HOODS AND COOLERS / 4.2 Kiln Hood
4.2 Kiln Hood
For kilns equipped with planetary coolers, refractory lining in the hood section is limited to the hinged or
otherwise movable kiln door with openings for burners, measuring instruments and observation. The
most frequently used lining material is dense castable fireclay together with insulating backing.
The lining of the kiln hood of kilns equipped with grate or rotary coolers generally consists of a dense
working face and an insulating backing. The working lining must possess high thermal shock
resistance and abrasion resistance. In the upper region, where the lining is exposed to direct flame
radiation, alumina refractories with Al
2
O
3
-contents of up to 70% are used. The lower region is usually
lined with dense fireclay. As insulating linings conventional insulating bricks as well as insulating
gunning mixes or castables are used.
PREHEATERS, KILN HOODS AND COOLERS / 4.3 Clinker Coolers
4.3 Clinker Coolers
(Fig. 17)
Approximately 15 to 35% of the length of planetary coolers is refractory lined. This lining should have a
high resistivity against thermal shock and abrasion. For the cam lining section dense, high alumina
bricks with high hardness and strength are used. The inlet bends are usually lined with dense high
alumina, or even pure Corundum castables. For simpler geometric shapes conventional bricks of
suitable quality can also be used.
In rotary coolers, about 50% of the tube length is lined with refractory materials. In the inlet zones,
similar as in planetary coolers, refractories of high strength fireclay are normally installed.
The refractory lining of grate coolers, with the exception of the areas immediately above the grate
(where direct contact with clinker occurs), is exposed to far a lower extent to thermal fluctuations and
abrasion. Normally a two or three layer refractory wall and roof is installed, consisting of an insulating
rear and a dense fireclay working lining.
The wear zones immediately above the grate consist of particularly abrasion resistant bricks or
castables.
Fig. 17
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C03 - Refractory Linings / Refractory Lining of Cement Kiln Systems / 5. OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
REGARDING KILN LININGS
5. OPERATIONAL ASPECTS REGARDING KILN LININGS
REGARDING KILN LININGS / 5.1 Heat-Up of Rotary Kiln Systems
5.1 Heat-Up of Rotary Kiln Systems
The heating-up program, which mainly determines the amount of kiln temperature increase per unit of
time and the timing of the raw material feed, must consider a number of factors such as type of
refractory material, design of kiln system, mechanical systems etc.. The optimum heating program
constitutes a compromise which best satisfies the various requirements.
Optimum Heating Period:
Refractory Materials
Material quality
Type of bond
Installation method
Riding Ring
Riding ring clearance
Riding ring dimensions
Monitoring capabilities
Exhaust Gas Flow
Temperature profile in kiln
Permissible temperatures
Environmental regulations
REGARDING KILN LININGS / 5.1 Heat-Up of Rotary Kiln Systems / 5.1.1 Requirements from a Refractory Materials Viewpoint
5.1.1 Requirements from a Refractory Materials Viewpoint
The minimum heating-up duration from the refractory materials viewpoint is given by the type of special
Query:
bricks and castables installed. Generally, the heating-up specifications of the suppliers must be
respected. The minimum heating-up time is indicated by that material which requires the longest
heating-up period because the minimum heating-up time can generally be extended but not shortened
without causing damage. Exception: basic brick linings tend to hydrate when kept at temperatures
between 100 and 450C for several days.
Generally, the heating-up time is influenced by the following materials:
Castable refractories with hydraulic bonding (Fig. 18)
Approx. 24 hrs setting time at room temperature
Approx. 24 hrs drying time at 100 to 200C
Heating-up at the rate of 25C/h up to 500C (expels crystal water)
In subsequent heating-up cycles, operational temperatures may be reached more rapidly. The
speed of reaching operational temperatures might be limited by other factors as e.g. the tyre
situation.
Castable refractories with chemical bonding
Approx. 8 to 16 hrs drying time at 100 to 200C
Heating-up at the rate of 20 to 30C/h up to 700C (until chemical bonding is completed)
In subsequent heating-up cycles, operational temperatures may be reached more rapidly, as
explained above.
Untempered, phosphate bonded bricks
Heating-up to 700C (termination of chemical bonding) at the rate of 30C/h
In subsequent heating-up cycles, operational temperature may be reached more rapidly, as
explained above
Jointing materials (mortars)
Theoretically the same rules would apply as for casting mixes; however, the situation is not
critical because of the limited joint thickness.
Fig. 18
Based on the above listed criteria, most suppliers of refractory materials recommend for the start-up of
new kilns, and after major overhauls with monolithic linings, a maximum heating-up rate of approx.
25C/h, in the sintering zone, up to a sintering zone temperature of 900C. (Whereby a previous drying
of heat exchanger systems and monolithically lined kiln zones is assumed.)
After reaching 900C, heating -up can continue at the rate of 50C/h up to working temperature.
Query:
After minor repairs and after shut-downs not caused by defective lining, refractory materials suppliers
generally recommend a heating-up rate in the sintering zone of 50C/h.
An example of heating-up scheme is shown in Fig. 19.
Fig. 19
Faster heat-up times are sometimes reported. Some Japanese suppliers heat-up new kilns in 5 to 8
hours without any damage to lining and kiln system. Such procedures can, however, not be
recommended in general, i.e. without considering the entire situation of lining quality and mechanical
details of kiln design. Since expansion joints are dimensioned to produce optimum lining stability under
standard working conditions, rapid heat build-up may cause spalling due to excessive mechanical
stress of the brick surface because the lining face heats-up more rapidly than the kiln shell.
REGARDING KILN LININGS / 5.1 Heat-Up of Rotary Kiln Systems / 5.1.2 Riding Rings (Floating Type)
5.1.2 Riding Rings (Floating Type)
From a riding ring point of view, the minimum heating-up period is determined by the time required to
stabilise the temperature difference between the kiln shell and riding rings. The shell will heat-up more
rapidly than the tyre. The critical temperature difference results in a constriction of the kiln shell, which
will cause permanent deformation if the yield strength of the kiln shell material is exceeded. This in turn
will cause excessive play in the riding ring after the normal working temperature is regained, as well as
increased ovality of the kiln shell, a factor which may contribute to excessive refractory lining wear.
As a general rule, the riding ring creep, i.e. the relative motion between riding ring and kiln shell should
be monitored at regular intervals or, even better continuously, at least during the heat-up cycle. Various
measures may be taken to protect the riding ring section from overheating.
With imminent danger of seizure, the heating-up process should be slowed down or interrupted until a
measurable amount of relative movement is again present. For this reason, the tyre creep may
become the limiting factor in determining the heating-up rate.
REGARDING KILN LININGS / 5.1 Heat-Up of Rotary Kiln Systems / 5.1.3 Exhaust Gas Control
5.1.3 Exhaust Gas Control
Temperature Gradient in Kiln System
Already during the heating-up process a temperature gradient is sought which at the start of the raw
Query:
meal feeding to the kiln is equivalent or similar to the temperature gradient prevailing under normal
operating conditions. This condition can be approximately reached under ideal heat-up conditions and
with correct flame patterns, because in a dynamic heating process, the cold kiln system is heated
along the flow direction of the exit gas while the exit gases are simultaneously cooled. With optimum
fuel addition, this procedure is ideally continued with material feed by preheating the raw meal in the
counterflow. In practice, however, such a smooth transition is not possible because the amount of
material fed can, for mechanical reasons, not be reduced to indefinitely small amounts and because
the heat transfer to the meal is governed by endothermic and exothermic reactions.
For correct temperature gradients, fuel combustion at lowest possible amount of excess air is a
necessity. In this manner, the temperature gradient between gas and lining and the dwell time of the
gases within the kiln system will result in optimum absorption of the available heat by the refractory
lining.
REGARDING KILN LININGS / 5.1 Heat-Up of Rotary Kiln Systems / 5.1.4 Shut-down of Kiln Systems
5.1.4 Shut-down of Kiln Systems
The procedure for shutting down a kiln depends mainly on whether it is a planned shut-down or an
emergency stop due to a breakdown.
To protect the lining, the cooling rate should, if possible, not exceed the maximum permissible heating
rate, i.e. approx. 50C/h measured in the sintering zone. Excessively rapid cooling may cause damage
to the refractory lining due to thermal shock.
After stopping raw meal and fuel feed, the exhaust gas damper is closed and the exhaust gas fan is
stopped. Closing the exhaust gas path prevents gas circulation within the kiln and the temperature
profile is more or less maintained. The cooling rate of 50C/h will initially be reached by radiation alone.
Only after a dull red heat is reached in the sintering zone cooling should continue with a light draft until
the end of the cooling phase is reached.
REGARDING KILN LININGS / 5.2 Kiln Shell Deformation
5.2 Kiln Shell Deformation
The refractory life and coating stability in the area of kiln tyres is significantly influenced by kiln
deformation. As a result of changes in the kiln shell radius, there is a movement between the bricks
which results in local surface pressure, leading to rapid wear and possibly total lining collapse.
The measurement of kiln shell deformation can be made during kiln operation with the aid of the
Holderbank Shell-Test Gauge.
The measuring principle is illustrated in Fig. 20.
Fig. 20
Query:
The yoke (A) of the Shell-test gauge covers a circular section with a chord of length of 1 m and height
h.
During kiln rotation the chord height h changes with the continuously changing curvature radius r of the
kiln shell.
This change is transferred via a plunger (D) and recorder (C) to produce a polar diagram (shell-test
diagram).
The closed line drawn on the diagram represents a geometrically similar figure to the deformed kiln
shell cross section.
The subsequent calculation is based on determining the difference between the longest and the
shortest radius of the shell-test diagram after which the ovality is calculated according to the method of
G. Rosenblad.
The mechanical condition of kiln shell and kiln tyres with respect to allowable ovality should be
regularly checked.
For kiln with loose tyre design, an indication on the mechanical condition of the tyre section can be
gained by continuous measurement of the difference in rotational speed of the kiln tyre and kiln shell.
This method permits continuous indication/recording in the control room (Fig. 21).
Fig. 21
REGARDING KILN LININGS / 5.3 Fluctuating Process Parameters
5.3 Fluctuating Process Parameters
Query:
Unstable burning conditions of cement kilns belong still to the most frequent reasons of refractory lining
failures. All types of used sintering zone refractories show structural changes between hot and cold
face, infiltrated circulating elements of faded brick sections by overheating, do not immediately result in
refractory failures. However, if kiln operating conditions change, followed by changed thermal profile or
changed coating conditions, the bricks break off in large lumps since, due to its altered structure, their
mechanical characteristics have deteriorated.
Unstable burning conditions can be caused by
Unstable kiln feed due to insufficient material flow control
Fluctuating kiln feed composition due to insufficient homogenising of raw material
Fluctuating flame length due to insufficient fuel flow control or fluctuating fuel quality
Frequent kiln shut-down due to maintenance problems of auxiliary equipment, power failures or
refractory failures.
Without going into details it is evident, that these points need to be carefully watched and, if required,
improved, in order to establish the conditions which make the improvements in the field of refractory
lining selection, installation and operation effective.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C03 - Refractory Linings / Refractory Lining of Cement Kiln Systems / 6. CONCLUSIONS
6. CONCLUSIONS
Improvement of refractory lining lifetime is not a matter of one single criterion. There exist several fields
of influence which often are jointly responsible for the results obtained.
The following list contains suggestions concerning the most important and general consideration for
achieving improvement in lining life.
Since the major refractory problems occur in the sintering and transition zone, most of the
considerations will concentrate on these kiln areas.
Most important factors:
1) Optimisation of kiln feed (qualitatively and quantitatively)
by selective quarrying procedures
by selection of optimum raw material composition
by appropriate homogenising of raw materials
by improvement of kiln feeding equipment
2) Optimisation of flame shape and length
by evaluation of the influence of adjustable flames
by the most constant burning possible with the optimally established flame shape
3) Improvement of mechanical condition of kiln shell in the tyre area
by adjustment to minimum possible tyre clearance
by continuously monitoring tyre creep
by cooling of kiln tyre areas when danger of seizure exists
4) Optimisation of brick quality in the sintering zone
by methodical investigations (trials) with alternative brick qualities
5) Thermal load reduction
by introduction of secondary firing (if applicable)
Query:
6) Reduction of the number of kiln shut-downs
by improving the mechanical and electrical reliability of the system
by installation of emergency power supply
7) Optimisation of the bricking process
by refining existing or selecting better methods
by improvement of working conditions or methods
by introducing clear instructions, control (bonus systems)
by optimised bricking policy
8) Prevention of rapid heating or cooling
by observing the important factors on kiln light-up
by prevention of rapid cooling on shut-down
This list is not claimed to be complete and some of the suggestions might not be realisable for a
specific case on hand. As a check-list, however, it allows the identification of points of weakness and
the establishment of further procedures in order to be able to define the actual problem and finally to
solve it as effectively as possible.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C03 - Refractory Linings / Refractory Lining of Cement Kiln Systems / 7. TEST QUESTIONS
7. TEST QUESTIONS
1) Please make a sketch of the various zones of a suspension pre-heater-, Lepol -and a long wet kiln
and indicate what type of refractories are used in each zone.
2) Explain the different methods you know of refractory brick installation in a rotary kiln (sketches).
3) Where are the unshaped refractories mainly used in cement kiln system?
4) What are the main features of brick joints (jointing materials) for rotary kiln linings in the case of
alumina and basic bricks, considering dry and mortar lining?
5) Establishment of a heating-up program for cement kilns is mainly based on considerations regarding
three main factors. What are these considerations?
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems
C04 - Firing Systems
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems / Firing Systems: Handling and Preparation of Noble Fuels
Firing Systems: Handling and Preparation of Noble Fuels
D. Pauling
PT 98/14353/E
1. Introduction
2. coal Firing Systems
2.1 Classification of Coal Firing Systems
2.2 Quality of Coal Preparation
2.3 Pulverized Coal Dosing
2.3.1 Feed Bins for Pulverized Coal
2.3.2 Weighing and dosing of pulverized coal
2.3.3 Most Common Pulverized Coal Dosing Systems
2.4 Pneumatic Transport of Pulverized Coal to the Burner
3. Oil firing systems
3.1 Fuel Oil Transfer from Delivery Point to the Storage Tank
3.2 Fuel Oil Storage
3.3 Fuel Oil Preparation
3.3.1 Heating with Steam
3.3.2 Heating with Thermal Oil:
3.3.3 Heating with Electricity
3.3.4 Heating with Flame Radiation
3.4 Quality of Fuel Oil Preparation
3.5 Control Loops in the Fuel Oil Circuit
4. Natural gas firing systems
4.1 Natural Gas Preparation
4.2 Safety Precautions
4.2.1 Flexible Hoses Bursting
4.2.2 Leak Tests
4.2.3 Explosions in the Kiln
5. list of references
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems / Firing Systems: Handling and Preparation of Noble Fuels / 1.
INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Noble fuels are coal, fuel oil and natural gas. Handling and preparation of those fuels has to fulfill
certain requirements in order to produce similar combustion conditions for those different fuels and
avoid incomplete combustion, e.g. CO at kiln inlet or local reducing conditions due to combustion of
fuel particles in the clinker bed.
For coal firing the main types of firing systems are described (direct, semi-direct and indirect firing). For
pulverized coal dosing and transport to the burner the important design criterias are outlined. The
required coal dust qualities for a good combustion in the cement kiln are described.
For fuel oil firing, preparation and heating systems are outlined. The required fuel oil qualities
(pressure, viscosity and temperature) are given.
For natural gas firing, preparation and safety precautions are described.
Burners, injection characteristics and flames are not subject of this paper (see paper: "Burners and
Flames").
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems / Firing Systems: Handling and Preparation of Noble Fuels / 2. COAL
FIRING SYSTEMS
2. COAL FIRING SYSTEMS
Before the coal is fired, it has to be prepared according to the required fineness. The coal has to be
dried to 0.5 - 1.5 % residual moisture content, since moisture in the coal means loss of calorific value,
as the water has to be evaporated and heated up to flame temperature. Coal drying is done
simultaneously with the grinding.
FIRING SYSTEMS / 2.1 Classification of Coal Firing Systems
2.1 Classification of Coal Firing Systems
With reference to gas and material flow, the coal firing systems can be classified into four main groups
which in total sum up to six individual systems (Fig. 1).
Figure 1: Classification of Coal Firing Systems
Query:
System 1 - Direct firing
Represents the most simple case. The coal is ground in the mill, dried and blown into the kiln together
with the drying gases.
Basically describes the same solution with the exception of the mill working under positive pressure.
This solution is generally applied to protect the fan when processing abrasive coal.
In system 3, the fan is protected by separating the pulverized coal in a cyclone and feeding it after the
fan into the primary air stream.
System 3a - Direct firing with recirculation
Same as system 3, but with recirculating drying air. This arrangement allows reduced primary air ratios.
System 4 - Semi-direct firing
Has little technical significance since the solution with intermediate storage of coal would generally be
given preference.
System 5a - Semi-indirect firing
With system 5a, the kiln can be operated independently of short mill shut downs since the pulverized
coal is stored in an intermediary storage bin. The exhaust air from the mill enters the kiln as primary
air.
System 5b - Semi-indirect firing with recirculation
Same as system 5a, but with recirculating drying air. This arrangement allows reduced primary air
ratios.
System 6 - Indirect firing
In system 6, the grinding installation is completely separated from the kiln. The pulverized coal is
stored in an intermediary storage bin and the exhaust air from the mill is released through a filter into
the atmosphere. By this way, the kiln operation is completely independent from the combined drying
and grinding operation.
Major Advantages / Disadvantages of the Different Coal Firing Systems:
Direct firing Semi-indirect firing Indirect firing
Conventional modified Conventional Modified
System 1 and 2 System 3a System 5a System 5b System 6
Query:
System 1 and 2 System 3a System 5a System 5b System 6
Advantages Simple
design
Low risk of
explosions
Simple
extinction of fire in
the in the grinding
system by
stopping coal
feed. No spread of
fire into silos
Lower
primary air
ratios and
thus lower
heat
consumption
compared to
conventional

Independent
primary air
fan
No exhaust
gas, therefore no
filter required,
thus lower risk of
explosions than
with indirect firing
Short mill
shut down not =
kiln shutdown
Only one
mill required for
several kilns
Easy
sampling for
fineness control
Lower
primary air ratios
and thus lower
heat
consumption
compared to
conventional

Independent
primary air fan
Simple flame
control
Low primary
air ratio
Water vapour
from coal drying is
not introduced into
the kiln
Short mill
shut down not = kiln
shutdown
Only one mill
required for several
kilns
Easy
sampling for
fine-ness control
Disadvantages Combined
operation with the
kiln, therefore
often not optimal
operating
conditions.
Mill
shutdown = kiln
shut-down
Number of
kilns = number of
mills thus
reducuing the
advantage of
lower investment
cost if several
kilns are installed
High
primary air ratio up
to 30%
Slow control
loops, long dead
time
Sampling for
fineness control
difficult
More
complex
installation
requiring
additionally:
primary air
fan, longer
ducting
More
complex
installation
requiring
additionally:
cyclones ,
pulverized coal
silos, pulverized
coal feeders,
measuring and
control system
High
primary air ratio
up to 30%,
during start up
and shut down of
grinding plant
disturbed kiln
operation
Investment
cost higher than
with a direct firing
system (valid for
one kiln only)
Risk of
self-ignition of
the pulverized
coal in the
storage silo
More
complex
installation
requiring
additionally:
primary air fan,
longer ducting
More
complex installation
requiring
additionally
dedusting filter
Investment
cost higher than
with a direct firing
(valid for one kiln
only)
More
vulnerable to fires
and explosions in
gas ducts and filter
Risk of
self-ignition of the
pulverized coal in
storage silo
Impact of Firing System on Kiln Operation:
Direct firing systems tend to enhance coal fluctuations and therefore disturb combustion.
If the mill vent air enters the kiln as primary air as it is the case with the direct- and semi-direct
firing, the primary air ratio is higher than required for optimum combustion. At a given excess air
factor, the primary air ratio has a direct influence on the heat recuperation efficiency of the
cooler and finally on the overall kiln heat consumption. If the heat consumption can be reduced,
the exhaust gas quantity is automatically decreasing, which offers potential for a capacity
increase.
Another very important advantage of lower exhaust gas quantities is the effect of decreased
gas velocities in the kiln. This on the other hand has the benefit of lower dust generation for wet
kiln systems.
With a direct firing system the water vapor from coal drying enters the kiln with the primary air.
Query:
The water vapor has no direct influence on the combustion process, but increases the kiln
exhaust gas quantity accordingly. A water content of 15% in the coal increases the exhaust gas
quantity of a dry process kiln by approx. 1.5% and of a wet process kiln by 1.2 %.
At the same time, the flame stability may decrease as a result of dilution of the primary air.
Flame shape is strongly influenced by the type of firing system. An indirect system will not only
support a more stable flame, but also a shorter one, which results in smaller, more even
distributed alite crystals with higher reactivity. Benefits are better quality of the clinker and a
lower energy demand for the cement grinding.
For new projects direct firing will not be selected anymore because of the above mentioned
disadvantages. Today indirect firing systems are "State of Technology". Conversion projects
from direct to indirect firing for existing installations can not always be financially justified on the
basis of reduced thermal energy consumption. In countries with low coal prices, pay back times
of several years must be expected. However, what can make a conversion project interesting,
are the positive effects on kiln operation and thus product quality.
FIRING SYSTEMS / 2.2 Quality of Coal Preparation
2.2 Quality of Coal Preparation
Inadequate coal preparation (fineness) can result in both burn-out problems (CO formation) and the
presence of fuel in the material bed (increased volatility of sulfur).
The combustion time of coal depends on the content of volatile elements.
Fig. 2 shows the principal requirements for coal fineness in function of the volatile content.
Figure 2: The Grinding Fineness of Coal in Function of its Volatile Content
The aim is to comply with the following simple rule as an upper limit:
Residue on the 90 m sieve < (% volatile components)
Residue on the 200 m sieve < 2%
For low volatile and difficult to burn coal types such as petrol coke and anthracite, the above mentioned
rule has to be tightened:
Residue on 90 m sieve for petrol coke and anthracite < 5 %
Residue on 200 m sieve for petrol coke and anthracite < 1 %
Query:
It has to be pointed out, that both values, the residues on 90 m and on 200 m are important. The 90
m values influence flame length and CO formation, excess residues on 200 m create reducing
conditions in the material bed and can be responsible for increased volatilization of sulfur.
FIRING SYSTEMS / 2.3 Pulverized Coal Dosing
2.3 Pulverized Coal Dosing
For coal firing, in order to obtain perfect fuel feed, the entire feed system - from discharge from the
coal dust silo, through weighing and dosing, to coal dust transport to the burner - must function as well
as possible (Fig. 3).
Figure 3: Pulverized Coal Dosing
FIRING SYSTEMS / 2.3 Pulverized Coal Dosing / 2.3.1 Feed Bins for Pulverized Coal
2.3.1 Feed Bins for Pulverized Coal
The feed bin design has a decisive impact on feed rate control. A feed bin design ignoring a product's
flow characteristics may result in inconsistent discharge rates due to problems such as arching, erratic
flow and flushing, conditions that can not be corrected by any feeder system.
Design of feed bin, activation and discharge:
The capacity of the feed bin should be sufficient for at least 15 but not more than 60 minutes of
kiln/precalciner operation
The bin has to be designed for mass flow.
The activated discharge opening section must be large enough to prevent bridging (at least 1200
mm in diameter for circular outlets and 600 x 1800 mm for slotted discharges).
The discharge opening should be activated preferably by using mechanical discharge device such
as paddle or agitator.
Pulsed aeration systems for flow activation are only suitable for bins feeding loss-in-weight dosing
systems. As a compromise aeration can help to solve discharge problems at existing bins, but
should be avoided for new bins.
FIRING SYSTEMS / 2.3 Pulverized Coal Dosing / 2.3.2 Weighing and dosing of pulverized coal
Query:
2.3.2 Weighing and dosing of pulverized coal
Proper weighing and dosing requires a uniform coal dust supply (feed bin discharge; see above). It is
necessary to distinguish between accuracy of weighing and short term variations.
The dosing system should meet the following requirements:
Weighing accuracy: +/- 2% is normally accepted.
Short term variations (referring to 10 sec. measurements): < +/- 1% (short term variations are
responsible for CO peaks)
Long term variations (approx. 10 min. to 1 hour): < +/- 0.5%
Sensibility: < +/- 0.5%
(Example: A dosing system with a maximum capacity of 5 t/h has to be capable to handle set point
changes of +/- 25 kg/h).
Adjustment range: 1:20 (of the maximum capacity).
The best indicator for the accuracy of the dosing is the oxygen level at kiln exit. Poor dosing of coal
dust leads to big fluctuation of the oxygen concentration.
FIRING SYSTEMS / 2.3 Pulverized Coal Dosing / 2.3.3 Most Common Pulverized Coal Dosing Systems
2.3.3 Most Common Pulverized Coal Dosing Systems
At present two systems are on the market which offer the best solutions for dosing pulverized coal.
Rotor Feed Scale (Pfister) Fig. 4
Coriolis Scale (Schenk) Fig. 5
Only second choice are the following systems:
Loss-In-Weight System (complex setup requiring skilled maintenance)
Impact-Flow Meter (limited accuracy)
Figure 4: Rotor Feed Scale (Pfister)
Figure 5: Coriolis Type Feed Scale (Schenk)
Query:
FIRING SYSTEMS / 2.4 Pneumatic Transport of Pulverized Coal to the Burner
2.4 Pneumatic Transport of Pulverized Coal to the Burner
The highest accuracy of the dosing and feeding system is not useful for the kiln operation if the
transport to the burner is not designed well.
What is required is a high accuracy at the feed point to the process. This means that a careful design
of the pneumatic transport of the pulverized coal to the burner is of utmost importance too.
The coal dust transport should meet the following design criteria:
Pneumatic transport velocity to burner is one of the most critical items for regular coal flow. To
avoid pulsations caused by pocket formation in the pneumatic transport line, the transport velocity
(from feeder to burner) should be in excess of 32 m/s.
The fuel load carried by the air is not a critical value. Normal loads lie at about 5 kg/m
3
, but values
of up to 12 kg/m
3
are found without any operation problems.
Fluctuations caused by the feeding device of coal to transport air (pneumatic pump, rotary air
valve) have to be avoided by adequate design of the feeder (sizing, number, arrangement of rotary
feeder cells, dedusting).
Pressure fluctuations in the pneumatic transport: < +/- 5 mbar.
Transport lines should run horizontally and vertically (no in-/declining sections). Long curves should
be avoided because they lead to segregation of the coal dust through centrifugal forces and this in
turn leads to plugging. Diversion pots have proved the best solution in three respects: 1. low wear
and tear 2. low loss of pressure and 3. the coal dust is remixed with the transport air at every turn
(Fig. 6).
Maximum number of turns: 5 (preferably by diversion pots); first turn after the dosing no diversion
pot
Total length of the pneumatic transport line: < 120 m
Figure 6: Diverting Pots for Pulverized Coal Transport (Units: mm)
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems / Firing Systems: Handling and Preparation of Noble Fuels / 3. OIL FIRING
SYSTEMS
3. OIL FIRING SYSTEMS
The handling of fuel oil in a cement plant can be subdivided into the following steps:
1) Transfer to the storage tanks
2) Storage and extraction from storage tanks
3) Preparation, measuring, dosing
4) Atomization and combustion
The last point will be delt with in the separate paper: "Burners and Flames".
SYSTEMS / 3.1 Fuel Oil Transfer from Delivery Point to the Storage Tank
3.1 Fuel Oil Transfer from Delivery Point to the Storage Tank
For easy handling, fuel oil must have a temperature of about 50 to 60C. If it is delivered at lower
temperatures, which - due to the insulation of the wagons - is rather seldom, it has to be heated up.
This can be done by circulating saturated steam (8 to 12 atm), thermal oil or electricity through the
heating coils at the bottom of the railway wagons or trucks. Heating time depends on the boiler output,
on the capacity of the wagon, on delivery temperature of the oil and on ambient temperature and lies
between 2 and 6 (12, 24) hours (200 to 250 kg/h of steam is needed for a 20 tons capacity wagon). It
is therefore common practice to do this - whenever required - in the afternoon, to heat up the oil during
the night and to empty the wagons in the following morning. Via coarse strainers (for pump protection)
the fuel oil is then pumped to the storage tanks (Fig. 7).
Figure 7: Fuel Oil Handling
Query:
SYSTEMS / 3.2 Fuel Oil Storage
3.2 Fuel Oil Storage
The main storage requirements depend on the situation of the plant with respect of the fuel oil supply
possibilities. A few plants are located sufficiently close to a refinery so that the oil is received by
pipeline, directly from the refinery. Such cases require a minimum storage capacity.
Where oil is delivered by truck or by rail, typical main storage capacities allow a kiln operation of 2 to
10 weeks. Tanks are usually designed as welded steel constructions. Due to the fuel oil forming an
insulating layer on the walls, any particular insulation efforts are unnecessary.
Suction heaters are used to maintain the fuel oil locally - i.e. in the area of the tank suction point - in a
pumpable condition, i.e. at temperatures between 50 and 60C. This is done in order to minimize the
rate of deposit forming reactions, which doubles with each 10C increase in fuel oil temperature.
SYSTEMS / 3.3 Fuel Oil Preparation
3.3 Fuel Oil Preparation
Successful burning of oil requires that it is heated to approx. 140 - 170C (see Chapter 3.4) in order to
reduce its viscosity enough to allow it to be properly atomized by pressure atomization.
Heating up of the fuel oil is usually accomplished through an assembly of equipment all contained on a
common base. This minimizes expensive piping and valving and centralizes the equipment for ease of
maintenance and control.
Due to the foreign matter that all residual oils contain and the high rate of deposits that form at
elevated temperatures, resulting in frequent maintenance, all equipment associated with and on the
final heat and pump set is duplicated.
Such a set would contain (see Fig. 7):
2 strainers with coarse meshes for pump protection
2 oil pumps (gear pumps or screw pumps)
2 heat exchangers for heating up the fuel oil to atomization temperature
2 strainers with fine meshes for control equipment and atomizer head protection
The supply of heat mainly to the heat exchangers of the fuel oil preparation set, but also to the storage
tank suction heater as well as to all oil carrying piping can be accomplished by:
Query:
SYSTEMS / 3.3 Fuel Oil Preparation / 3.3.1 Heating with Steam
3.3.1 Heating with Steam
Steam has certainly been the most popular heat carrying medium for oil heating in the past (see Fig.
8). The principal problems associated with steam generation and its use are:
feed water treatment
steam trapping
condensate handling
high pressure operation
freezing problems during plant stop
Steam can be produced by:
conventional oil fired steam generators
electrical submersion heaters in a pressure vessel
waste heat based steam generators (e.g. cooler exhaust air)
Figure 8: Fuel Oil Preparation System Based on Steam
SYSTEMS / 3.3 Fuel Oil Preparation / 3.3.2 Heating with Thermal Oil:
3.3.2 Heating with Thermal Oil:
The essential advantages of these inorganic, low flammability oils as a heat transfer medium are:
operation in a constantly liquid phase
low pressures even at operating temperatures of 250 to 300C
no freezing problems
They might be treated up by:
oil fired thermal oil heaters
electrical submersion heaters
waste heat based thermal oil heater (e.g. cooler exhaust air)
Query:
Thermal oils are subjected to aging. Their quality has therefore to be checked in regular intervals of
about one year. About every five years replacement by a new charge is required (see Fig. 9).
Figure 9: Fuel Oil Preparation System Based on Thermal Oil
SYSTEMS / 3.3 Fuel Oil Preparation / 3.3.3 Heating with Electricity
3.3.3 Heating with Electricity
Due to high operating costs, direct electrical heating of fuel oils is used for low capacities only.
However, it is sometimes used as auxiliary heating for large systems to permit starting when the
system is cold.
Electrical power is also used in heating oil lines through "resistance heating". The oil line itself is used
as the conductor for high current, low voltage power.
SYSTEMS / 3.3 Fuel Oil Preparation / 3.3.4 Heating with Flame Radiation
3.3.4 Heating with Flame Radiation
The heating medium in this case is the flame itself. The thermal oil heater is an example of the direct
fired heater. Replace the thermal oil with fuel oil and this, then, is the direct fired fuel oil heater.
Since fuel oil cannot be heated to the same high temperature as the thermal oils, burner flame
modulation (shape and length) within the heating chamber must be closely controlled to maintain a
narrow oil temperature range, e.g. (120C 2+C) over a wide range of oil flow. This close burner flame
control must be maintained to prevent overheating and carbonization of the residual oil.
SYSTEMS / 3.4 Quality of Fuel Oil Preparation
3.4 Quality of Fuel Oil Preparation
For heavy oil combustion, the kinematic viscosity at the burner nozzle must lie within the range of 12 to
20 cSt - preferably 12 - 15 cSt (upper limit 20 cSt) - this ensures that the droplet size needed for good
combustion can be achieved. In today's heavy oil market, particularly in the South American OPEC
countries, heavy oil is offered which has a significantly higher viscosity than the limit specified by DIN
51 603. It is therefore essential to keep track of the relationship viscosity - temperature and adjust the
oil temperature as necessary.
Query:
Fig. 10 shows the kinematic viscosity of different fuel oil types in function of temperature. The upper
limits for atomization and pumping are indicated.
Fig. 11 shows a conversion table for the different viscosity units.
Furthermore it is important to keep the oil temperature constant within a very narrow range to have a
stable flame.
Figure 10: Kinematic Viscosity of Current Fuel Oils
Figure 11: Conversion of Different Viscosity Scales
SYSTEMS / 3.5 Control Loops in the Fuel Oil Circuit
3.5 Control Loops in the Fuel Oil Circuit
Between storage tanks and fuel oil burners, there are generally four control loops installed, which have
to keep constant the following values:
1) Fuel oil temperature at the storage tank suction point.
2) Pressure in the oil circuit line between storage tanks and preparation station (Bypass of a part of
the flow back to the storage tank; see Fig 7).
3) Temperature of the fuel oil to be atomized (Preparation Station).
4) Atomizing pressure: Accomplished by means of a bypass valve which leads part of the flow back to
the storage tank (see Fig. 7) or by means of variable speed high pressure pumps, which are
directly controlled by the oil flow meter.
Query:
For burner nozzles with separate feed for axial and radial oil (Pillard, Unitherm), the oil pressure
difference for optimum atomizing is set to 1,0 1,5 bar. However, as the accuracy of the reading on
the oil manometer at the operating pressure of about 40 bar is unsatisfactory, it is recommended that
both channels are equipped with flow meters. The pressure (flow characteristics given by the nozzle
suppliers) can be taken into account in optimizing atomization.
Furthermore, whenever a kiln stop occurs, the oil lance and the atomizer head have to be cleaned
automatically by steam or compressed air in order to avoid overheating and coking of the oil.
Continuation of burner cooling has to be assured by having the primary air fan connected to the
auxiliary power generators. In cases of prolonged kiln stops removal of the oil lance is preferable, thus,
also providing the opportunity to check the condition of the atomizer plate, which is very important for
complete combustion.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems / Firing Systems: Handling and Preparation of Noble Fuels / 4. NATURAL
GAS FIRING SYSTEMS
4. NATURAL GAS FIRING SYSTEMS
GAS FIRING SYSTEMS / 4.1 Natural Gas Preparation
4.1 Natural Gas Preparation
Gas distribution by means of pipelines is accomplished at pressures of 30 to 80 bars. At consumer's
site the gas pressure is reduced to the required operational pressure, mostly by means of a two stage
expansion process. The first stage takes place in the NG transfer station while the second runs off in
the NG pressure reduction station.
As a standard solution the NG transfer station is an independent, self-sustaining installation contained
in a separate building (noise suppression). Similarly to the fuel oil preparation plant, all equipment is
duplicated and provided with a number of bypass possibilities. The main equipment list is as follows
(Fig. 12):
Remote controlled main shut-off safety valve
Transfer station inlet filters for protection of equipment from solid particles originating from the
pipeline
Thermal oil heated exchangers aiming to preheat the natural gas to such an extent that the
following temperature drop due to expansion will not cause valve internal and external ice formation
(Joule - Thompson effect: 0.3 to 0.5C/bar)
Safety shut off valves
Pressure reduction valves (for reduction of the gas pressure to the pressure level of the plant
internal distribution network of 3 to 10 bar)
Figure 12: Handling and Preparation of Natural Gas in the Cement Plant
Query:
The heat value of the natural gas can be measured and recorded continuously by means of on-line
calorimeters. Though this is often not done - plant people tend to rely on the heat values given by the
gas suppliers - it would be worthwhile, since in some cases the heat values might vary in range of 300
kJ/Nm
3
from day to day.
To enable leaks from the gas pipes to be detected surely and quickly, a powerful odorizer (e.g.
mercaptan) is added to the gas just after the gas leaves the transfer station.
The second stage of pressure reduction, taking place in the pressure reduction station, is located near
the point of consumption (Fig. 13). With the exception of the NG heaters it contains about the same
equipment as the transfer station. The aim of this installation is to completely even out supply network
pressure fluctuations and to set the final pressure according to the requirements of the consumer i.e.
the burner and kiln systems.
Figure 13: Secondary Pressure Reducing Unit
Immediately before the kiln, the gas stream is split up in order to supply the radial and the axial gas
nozzle of the burner (Fig. 14).
Figure: 14: Kiln Ramp Unit
Query:
GAS FIRING SYSTEMS / 4.2 Safety Precautions
4.2 Safety Precautions
GAS FIRING SYSTEMS / 4.2 Safety Precautions / 4.2.1 Flexible Hoses Bursting
4.2.1 Flexible Hoses Bursting
Since there is some risk of the flexible gas hoses between kiln burner and gas supply line bursting or of
the proceeding valves etc. failing, pressure monitors for the maximum and minimum pressure are
inserted immediately before the hoses concerned. In the event of an emergency stop, a safety stop
valve, or two in series, are actuated to stop any further input of fuel at once.
GAS FIRING SYSTEMS / 4.2 Safety Precautions / 4.2.2 Leak Tests
4.2.2 Leak Tests
To check the gas pipes and fittings inside the plant for leaks the following methods are used:
Normally leaks can be detected naturally as a result of adding odorizer.
When machines are switched off, the hissing sound of the escaping gas is easily discernible.
A somewhat riskier method is to run a naked flame along the gas pipe. This results in a flaming
torch being produced at the leak, which cannot be overlooked. There is no risk of this flame striking
back into the supply pipe (quenching distance, lack of oxygen), but escaped gas could cause an
explosion.
When constructing buildings which contain gas pipes, it is essential to allow for sufficient ventilation.
This point does not usually give rise to any difficulty in cement works. But to be quite sure, certain
items of equipment can be fitted with guard flames from the start. Their task is to ignite any gas that
escapes before a large quantity of explosive mixture has a chance to collect.
A further possibility is to install gas detectors in critical places such as the gas preparation station or
the burner tunnel.
GAS FIRING SYSTEMS / 4.2 Safety Precautions / 4.2.3 Explosions in the Kiln
4.2.3 Explosions in the Kiln
Query:
The most important requirement is that the fuel should not be allowed to enter the kiln unintentionally
or at an uncontrolled rate, as this is essential to prevent explosions occurring in the kiln itself or in the
systems following it (e.g. preheater tower, EP).
This means that the fuel input has to be stopped immediately in the event of the flame going out. In this
respect it must be said that extinction of the flame in a hot kiln has never been observed so far, even
during material rushes.
Nevertheless during the start up of the cold kiln, lifting off and extinction of the flame can occur, for
example caused by partly blocked burneroutlets which lead to increased injection speed of the gas. If
the gas is injected with a too high speed, the flame can be blown out.
Therefore careful observation of the flame during the whole start up period is of utmost importance. In
the case of the flame going out, fuel supply has to be cut off immediately to prevent explosions.
Excessive fuel input can also cause explosions because of CO accumulations. Therefore careful
monitoring of CO concentrations is important.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems / Firing Systems: Handling and Preparation of Noble Fuels / 5. LIST OF
REFERENCES
5. LIST OF REFERENCES
1) "Firing Systems"
VA 82/4898/E
2) "Flames and Burners"
VA 93/4056/E
3) "State of Technology of Rotary Kiln Burners"
F. Schneider, PT 96/14078/E
4) "Proportioning of Bulk Materials"
F Bucher, PT 96/14071/E
5) "A Review of Coal Firing Systems and their Influence on Heat Consumption,
Production and Kiln Operation"
H. Meier, PT 96/14210/E
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems / Safe Handling of Coal and other Combustible dusts
Safe Handling of Coal and other Combustible dusts
F. Schneider
(Original title: Basic safety theory of solid fuel preparation)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR HANDLING PULVERIZED FUELS
2.1 Development of Dust Explosions and Fires
2.2 Possible Protective Measures against Dust Explosions and Fires
3. APPLICATION OF PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
3.1 Preventive Safety Measures
3.2 Explosion Protection Techniques
4. LITERATURE
4.1 Approximate Values for Explosion Limits and Ignition Temperatures
Query:
SUMMARY
Dust explosions can only occur when - besides certain marginal conditions - the following factors
simultaneously are present:
Stirred-up, combustible dust
Oxygen
Source of ignition
A basic distinction is made between active explosion protection techniques (prevention of the
occurrence of explosions) and design related explosion protection (reduction of the effects of
explosions).
In practice, the following measures are applied:
1) Preventive Measures:
Their aim is:
to exclude possible ignition sources within the installation
to prevent the building up of coal dust deposits, wherever possible
to detect the source of a fire as soon as possible
to extinguish the fire with a minimum of danger
2) Explosion Protection Measures:
Either active protective measures involving inert gas operation. This is the case when the
oxygen concentration within the pulverizing plant is kept below the critical limit - for solid
fuels dust, as a rule, less than 12 to 14% - as long as combustible dust is present in the
system.
Or, alternatively, design related protective measures based on the use of explosion resistant
construction in accordance with VDI Guidelines No. 3673.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems / Safe Handling of Coal and other Combustible dusts / 1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
The operational safety of solid fuel plants is an important decision factor when the choice of the
preparation system is being considered. For this reason, the three most important basic systems will be
briefly reviewed here, differentiated according to their different methods of handling gas and coal dust
(Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Firing Systems
Query:
a) Direct firing
In this system, the combustible dust is conveyed into the kiln together with the exhaust gases
resulting from the drying-cum-grinding operation. This arrangement represents the simplest design
and is easily controllable from the safety point of view. However, there are also considerable
disadvantages involved with the use of this system in clinker manufacture with increasing ballast
content of the fuel.
b) Semi-direct firing
In this system the combustible dust is separated in an intermediate silo, while the mill exhausts,
possibly as recirculated air, are conveyed to the cement kiln as the primary air supply. This results
in the technical disadvantages of direct firing being reduced to a certain extent - at the expense of a
somewhat more complex installation - but all drying gases are still conveyed to the kiln.
c) Indirect firing
This solution is surely the best possible version when the operation of a rotary kiln is being
considered. The pulverized fuel can be conveyed to the firing system from the silo independently
from the pulverizing plant operation. The firing system can be operated with a primary air ratio
designed for optimal flame generation, as the mill exhaust gases are filtered. Against this we have
increased risks with respect to safety due to the operation of the filters and silos and higher control
technique requirements.
Further discussion of the decision criteria for the selection of an optimal preparation system is outside
the scope of this lecture. However, it is certain that when factors such as
the growing size of installation
installations with several firing systems
the use of fuels rich in ballast
the use of fuels of widely differing quality characteristics
are considered, the decision will be influenced in favor of the indirect firing system which needs far
more advanced and sophisticated safety techniques than the simpler direct firing system does.
For this reason the damage prevention possibilities discussed below refer basically to the indirect firing
system and must be adjusted accordingly if they are applied to other systems.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems / Safe Handling of Coal and other Combustible dusts / 2. BASIC
PRINCIPLES FOR HANDLING PULVERIZED FUELS
2. BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR HANDLING PULVERIZED FUELS
Query:
PRINCIPLES FOR HANDLING PULVERIZED FUELS / 2.1 Development of Dust Explosions and Fires
2.1 Development of Dust Explosions and Fires
In order to effectively ensure the safety of a solid fuel preparation plant, we must first be aware of the
sequence of the possible fuel reactions.
Dust explosions can only occur if the following three conditions are simultaneously fulfilled (Fig. 2).
a) Stirred-up, combustible dust present in explosive concentration.
b) Air or oxygen above the critical concentration, for coal dust as a rule, above 14%, for lignite above
12%.
c) An ignition source possessing energy above the minimal ignition energy (depending upon the type
of dust).
Fig. 2 Preliminary Conditions for an Explosion
After the ignition of an optimally explosive mixture in an enclosed space, the pressure increases more
or less rapidly until it reaches the maximal explosion pressure P
max
, and then decreases more or less
slowly to the original pressure, depending on the aerodynamic conditions (Fig. 3). While the maximum
explosion pressure is almost independent of the containers form and size, and in case of coal and
lignite dusts, amounts to approximately seven to nine times the initial pressure the maximum rate of
pressure rise max
,
_
dt
dp
- which is a measure of the explosion violence - is dependent on the container
volume in accordance with the cubic law:
st
K t cons V
dt
dp
tan
3
1
max

,
_
K
st
is a material coefficient that depends on the type of dust, the degree of turbulence of the dust/air
mixture at the moment of ignition, the grain size distribution, and the type of ignition source. The
method for determining K
St
is given in the VDI Guidelines No. 3673.
Fig. 3 Pressure Development of an Explosion Over Time
Query:
The degree of explosion violence of dusts is subdivided in industrial praxis into explosion classes,
whereby the explosion class and K
St
are related in the following manner:
Table 1
Dust Explosion Class
K
St
(bar . m . s
-1
)
St0 0
St1 > 0 to 200
St2 > 200 to 300
St3 > 300
All types of mineral coals as well as the majority of lignites belong to explosions class St1.
Table 2 illustrates arbitrarily selected comparative values for K
St
characterizing different types of dust.
Table 2
Dust Type
K
St
(bar . m . s
-1
)
Hard coal 85
Lignite 150
Organic pigments 300
Aluminium 550
This comparison shows, that hard coal dust develops a less violent explosion than aluminium dust.
It must be noted, that the value K
St
does not allow any conclusion as regards the risk involved with
that particular dust. The main significance of K
St
is for the dimensioning of design related protective
measures.
Smoldering fires, characterized by slowly smoldering combustion, can occur wherever combustible
dust is stored for a longer period of time, whereby the ignition sources can be spontaneous
combustion, initiated by external heat sources, mechanical sparks, or electrical sparks and arcs.
Query:
Combustion propagation in smoldering fires is quite possible in very low oxygen concentrations.
PRINCIPLES FOR HANDLING PULVERIZED FUELS / 2.2 Possible Protective Measures against Dust Explosions and Fires
2.2 Possible Protective Measures against Dust Explosions and Fires
In dust explosion protection techniques a distinction is made between active protective measures
(prevention of the occurrence of explosions) and design related explosion protection (explosion
resistant construction).
PRINCIPLES FOR HANDLING PULVERIZED FUELS / 2.2 Possible Protective Measures against Dust Explosions and Fires / 2.2.1
Active Explosion Protection
2.2.1 Active Explosion Protection
The active explosion protective techniques aim to exclude at least one of the three preliminary
conditions necessary for an explosion, i.e.:
Stirring-up of combustible dust
Oxygen content above the critical concentration of generally 12% for lignite or 14% for hard coal
Ignition source
Active Explosion Protection / 2.2.1.1 Ignition Source
2.2.1.1 Ignition Source
In a pulverizing plant, ignition sources cannot be excluded with absolute certainty. It is always possible
that mechanical sparks will be generated by the action of foreign bodies or by friction between moving
machine part or that the hot gas or coal feeding system will supply smoldering fuel particles.
Active Explosion Protection / 2.2.1.2 Combustible Dust
2.2.1.2 Combustible Dust
It is of course impossible to replace the combustible dust with a non-combustible material in the
preparation of fuel.
Thus, the only remaining possibility is the exclusion of air or oxygen respectively, or the reduction of
the oxygen content in the fuel preparation plant.
Active Explosion Protection / 2.2.1.3 Air and Oxygen
2.2.1.3 Air and Oxygen
Dust explosions can be effectively prevented through inertization, i.e. the replacement of the oxygen in
the air by a non-combustible gas, particularly CO
2
or N
2
, if it can be ensured that the inert gas
atmosphere will be maintained as long as combustible dust is present in the system.
The maximal O
2
concentration, below which no explosive propagation reactions of mineral coal dust
Query:
are noted, is approx. 14%, the one for lignite approx. 12%. However, this concentration can vary in
accordance with the type of fuel processed. As a safety margin of at least 2% O
2
is required, the
maximal permissible limit of 0
2
concentration for mineral coal dust is therefore as a rule 12%, for lignite
10%.
Design Related Explosion Protection
2.2.2 Design Related Explosion Protection
Reduction of the effects of already proceeding explosions, and therewith the protection of people and
machines, can be achieved by:
Explosion pressure resistant construction
Explosion pressure venting measures
Explosion suppression techniques (Fig. 4)
Fig. 4 Passive Protection Measures
Design Related Explosion Protection / 2.2.2.1 Explosion Pressure Resistant Construction
2.2.2.1 Explosion Pressure Resistant Construction
Explosion pressure resistant construction restrict any possible explosion to the dust conveying
installation, whereby a certain amount of minor damage to the installation commensurate with the
complexity of the facility is accepted.
All dust conveying installation parts as well as the adjacent equipment and sealing elements must be
designed to resist the maximal explosion pressure of 9 bar expected in the case of coal or lignite dust.
If deformation of the container is accepted, the maximum permissible explosion pressure may be up to
50% above its design value (pressure shock resistant design). A design for 6 bar static overpressure is
required for an expected maximum explosion pressure of 9 bar. Such construction methods are of
course quite complex and expensive. However, in the event of an accident the installation is again
operational within a short time.
Design Related Explosion Protection / 2.2.2.2 Explosion Pressure Venting Measures
Query:
2.2.2.2 Explosion Pressure Venting Measures
In a broader sense explosion venting means all measures that serve to open temporarily or
permanently the previously closed installation in a safe direction, at the beginning or after a certain
spreading of an explosion. The purpose of this is to prevent any overstressing of the mechanical
equipment beyond its pressure shock resistance. The strength of the equipment does not have to be
designed for P
max
, but only for the reduced explosion pressure P
red
(Fig. 5). A deformation of the
container may again be acceptable, but it must not burst.
Fig. 5 Pressure Response in Explosion-Pressure-Relief Techniques
The explosion pressure venting technique operates in the following manner: When the dynamic
response pressure of the pressure venting installation is reached, predetermined breaking points, rip
foils or doors open to vent the shock wave outdoors, mainly by means of amply dimensioned discharge
channels. Immediately after the pressure venting system responds an increase in the temporal rate of
pressure rise can often be observed which is due to the higher turbulence caused during the venting of
the shock wave. The pressure rise then quickly stops at P
red
. Guidelines concerning the design layout
and dimensioning of the explosion pressure venting installations are contained in VDI Guidelines No.
3673. If the method of explosion venting is applied not only the inserts of the containers such as filter
cloths etc. must be considered but the expected recoil forces as well. With a pressure venting area of 1
m
2
, a reduced explosion pressure of 2 bar, and under the assumption that the shock wave escapes
with the velocity of sound, a thrust of approx. 15 t acts upon the housing to be protected. This must be
properly supported or else the container may be torn from its foundations.
Design Related Explosion Protection / 2.2.2.3 Explosion Suppression
2.2.2.3 Explosion Suppression
In the explosion suppression techniques, the shock wave preceding the combustion front or the
infrared radiation of the combustion area is detected by a device which quickly distributes extinguishing
agents under a propellant pressure of 60 to 120 bar by means of detonator-operated valves. With a
programmed dynamic response pressure threshold (P
dyn
) of the detectors, the maximal explosion
pressure is again lowered to a reduced level (P
red
).
Design Related Explosion Protection / 2.2.2.4 Limitation: Explosions from Ducts into Containers
Query:
2.2.2.4 Limitation: Explosions from Ducts into Containers
The described constructive protection techniques are effective under the condition that the reaction
takes place as described in the paragraph 2.1. The description is applicable to most explosions that
occur in pulverizing plants. However, if an explosion strikes from a duct into a container, and in doing
so the residual dust deposited there is stirred up with great turbulence and ignited, the reaction within
the duct and the adjacent container can develop into a detonation of such dimensions that the resulting
pressures can amount to 50 times the original pressure, accompanied by a combustion front traveling
at supersonic speed, so that any relief or suppression installation is too sluggish in action. However,
such events are, fortunately, relatively rare in coal operations. As a limit for a spontaneous explosion
propagation, an explosion characteristic of 100 bar.m.s
-1
was observed under particular conditions in a
200 m long pipeline of 1800 mm diameter located at the experimental mining research station in
Dortmund, while the usual values for coal are generally lower (approx. 85 bar.m.s
-1
).
However, if the principles of design related explosion protection are to be consequently pursued, every
duct conveying combustible dust in an explosive concentration and whose length exceeds five times its
diameter must be safeguarded by an explosion vent placed ahead of its inlet into a container (such as
a filter) (Fig. 6). Through this any explosion originating in the pipeline will be vented so that the
protective measures taken with respect to the adjacent container can be designed in accordance with
the criteria of an explosion starting in the container itself.
Fig. 6 Venting of a Duct in Front of a Precipitator
Prevention of Smoldering Fires
2.2.3 Prevention of Smoldering Fires
Smoldering fires in dust deposits are best prevented by preventing the possibility of greater quantities
of dust accumulating. This is achieved through the appropriate design and slope of surfaces, pipelines
and supports, as well as sufficiently high gas speeds within the conveyor systems.
In silos where great quantities of combustible dust are stored for the plants own specific purposes, any
combustion that may occur must be detected as early as possible by carefully monitoring of the dust
temperature and the CO content of the silo atmosphere so that proper countermeasures can be taken.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems / Safe Handling of Coal and other Combustible dusts / 3. APPLICATION OF
PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
Query:
3. APPLICATION OF PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
The fire and explosion protection measures described above result for practical applications on the one
hand in a network of preventive safety measures that significantly reduce the risk of an accident in the
operation of combustible dust installation, and on the other hand in actual explosion protection
techniques that can prevent explosions, or at least shall hold the explosions within acceptable limits.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT / 3.1 Preventive Safety Measures
3.1 Preventive Safety Measures
The primary aim of preventive safety measures is to exclude possible ignition sources as causes of
conflagration or explosion if at all possible. In addition, they are also intended to prevent secondary
damage caused by the expulsion or stirring up of vast quantities of dust and their subsequent ignition.
These essentially preventive safety measures can be listed as follows:
Temperature measurement of
mill exhausts
stored dust, preferably in silo entry and exit
CO analysis of
the silo atmosphere in silos
mill exhaust after the filter
Prevention of local overheating caused by friction in conveyor belt systems, high speeds of screw
conveyors, bucket elevators, rotary valves, and bearing, and/or the detection of increasing
temperatures by measuring techniques. Relative velocities of moving parts < 1 m/s are considered
safe, > 10 m/s are considered as potential ignition sources.
Spark separators in air heaters
Metal separator prior to the mill
Prevention of electrostatic discharges by conductive connections and grounding of all installation
parts
Prevention of arcing in electrofilters by appropriate voltage control measures
Prevention of dust accumulation possibilities:
All surfaces to have a slope of at least 70to the horizontal plane, especially in filter or silo
cones
Regular disposal of dust deposits
Gas speeds in conduits of more than 22 m/s
Protection of the stored dust from the effects of external heat, for instance by spraying the silo
externally with cooling water
Provision of inert gas supplies (e.g. CO
2
) for inertization of the silos in the case of smoldering fires
Cleanliness of operating rooms
Effective removal of the dust generated by means of proper dedusting installations
Safe elimination of dust deposits by means of suitable auxiliary material
Query:
From the point of view of safety a solid fuel pulverizing plant must be operated as continuously as
possible, as critical situations often arise when the plant is not in operation. This fact must be
considered when the capacity of the installation is being decided upon.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT / 3.2 Explosion Protection Techniques
3.2 Explosion Protection Techniques
PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT / 3.2 Explosion Protection Techniques / 3.2.1 Inert Gas Operation
3.2.1 Inert Gas Operation
As described under 2.2.1, active explosion protection in solid fuel pulverizing is practically limited to
inert gas operation, i.e. operation with a maximum of 10 to 12% oxygen in the pulverizing plant,
depending on type of fuel, as ignition sources and the stirring-up of dust can never be excluded with
absolute certainty.
Active explosion protection can be applied if hot inert gases such as the kiln exhaust from cement kilns
or hot gases from a combustion chamber, combined with a corresponding design for the mills
recirculation gas are available. In the last case the dew point problem becomes significant, therefore
this solution is rarely applicable for very moist fuels, or special measures will have to be taken for
drying of the circulation gases.
If the inert gas atmosphere can be maintained with absolute certainty through appropriate design and
interlocking of the installation for as long as combustible dust is present in the system, design related
protection measures become in principle redundant. In those cases where these conditions cannot be
guaranteed, for example, because hot gases with higher oxygen content are being used such as
clinker cooler exhausts, or because of dew point problems, design related explosion protection
techniques must be rigorously applied.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT / 3.2 Explosion Protection Techniques / 3.2.2 Explosion Pressure
Resistant Construction
3.2.2 Explosion Pressure Resistant Construction
Explosion pressure resistant construction, i.e. the dimensioning of the installation section to resist
maximal explosion pressure, are mainly applicable where pressure venting methods cannot be used at
all or only with difficulty, for geometrical reasons.
This is mostly the case in mills, and definitely in all conduit pipe systems where the length of the
system exceeds five times the tube diameter. As a rule such components are designed to withstand a
static overpressure of 10 bar.
Venting Measures
3.2.3 Explosion Pressure Venting Measures
All combustible dust conveying components that are not in themselves designed to be explosion
pressure resistant, such as cyclone, filters, pulverized fuel silos, etc. are to be provided with properly
dimensioned devices for explosion pressure venting. Thereby containers and all interconnected
aggregates such as bin vent filters, etc. must be dimensioned in pressure shock resistant design to
Query:
withstand the reduced explosion pressure.
Explosion venting openings within a particular building must be connected to properly dimensioned
exhaust channels leading into the open. In order to prevent an explosion originating in the mill
spreading into the filter via the conduit pipe, the conduit pipe must be equipped with an explosion vent
in front of its connection to the filter. This measure is not required for pneumatic conveying systems as
in this design the dust concentration is normally above the explosion limit. In addition, the minimal
ignition energy is significantly higher under the operating conditions of pneumatic conveying than it is in
the case of stirring-up combustible dust in containers.
The area containing the vent opening for explosion pressure venting must not be accessible to anyone
when the installation in operation.
VDI Guidelines No. 3673 can serve as a basis for the design of such an explosion pressure venting
system. Naturally, the system must be inspected regularly.
Venting Measures / 3.2.3.1 Underpressure Protection
3.2.3.1 Underpressure Protection
After venting an explosion in very large enclosures such as pulverized fuel silos through explosion flaps
considerable underpressure can develop inside the silo due to dynamic effects and due to cooling
down of the hot gases remaining in the silo after the explosion. Typical examples for the size of
underpressure valves are given in Table 3. Guidelines for the individual design of underpressure valves
can be taken from the relevant literature (10).
Table 3
Volume
m
3
100 1000
Diameter m 3.4 .5
Cylindrical length m 9.5 22.0
Plate thickness mm 6 8
Max. negative pressure mbar 100 25
Required aspiration area m2 0.1 1.0
PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT / 3.2 Explosion Protection Techniques / 3.2.4 Explosion Suppression
3.2.4 Explosion Suppression
Techniques of explosion suppression can basically replace all the previously mentioned methods.
However, in practical experience it has been seen that in pulverizing plants, the costs involved in the
consequent application of explosion suppression techniques are significantly higher than they are for
explosion pressure venting techniques and explosion pressure resistant construction methods, both
with respect to procurement and maintenance of the sensitive equipment.
Thus applicability of explosion suppression may be primarily limited to existing, insufficiently protected
pulverizing plants whose retrofitting in accordance with alternative protection techniques would be
entirely uneconomical.
Query:
PROTECTIVE MEASURES IN THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT / 3.2 Explosion Protection Techniques / 3.2.5 Fire Extinguishing
Measures
3.2.5 Fire Extinguishing Measures
If an accumulation of considerable quantities of combustible dust can be prevented inside the actual
pulverizing plant (except in pulverized fuel silos), any fires that may arise following an explosion will not
be able to grow to any significant size. The installation of a fire extinguishing system can nevertheless
still be recommended for cloth filters and electofilters.
In the case of smoldering fires in pulverized fuel silos, all further fuel supply must be stopped
immediately. Following this, the silo exit must be made airtight and the silo atmosphere flooded with
CO
2
. Sufficient time must now pass until the temperature conditions have normalized. An
underpressure valve is required in order to avoid collapsing of the silo due to the vacuum produced
during cooling down. The above procedures can take several days, depending on the size of the
smolder location. An alternative technique is to deliver the fuel as quickly as possible to the burner
system via the dosing and conveyor systems. Of course this method is possible only when the dosing
and conveying systems are heat-resistant, dustproof and explosion resistant. In addition, under no
circumstances is glowing fuel to be returned to the silo, as for instance via overflow feeders.
Fig. 7 shows the practical preventive safety measures for pulverized fuel silos. In Fig. 8 the application
of design related protective measures for solid fuel preparation is illustrated.
Fig. 7 Preventive and Safety Measures for Coal Dust Silos
Fig. 8 Example to Show the Application of Design Related Explosion Protection
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems / Safe Handling of Coal and other Combustible dusts / 4. LITERATURE
4. LITERATURE
1) VDI Guidelines 2263
Verhtung von Staubbrnden und Staubexplosionen
2) VDI Guidelines 3673
Druckentlastung von Staubexplosionen
3) VDI Report No. 304
Sichere Handhabung brennbarer Stube
4) Arbeitskreis der chemischen Industrie, October 1, 1973
Sicherheitsmassnahmen gegen Staubbrnde und Staubexplosionen
Published by BASF, Bayer, Ciba-Geigy and Farbwerke Hoechst
5) Dr. W. Bartknecht
Explosions, Course Prevention Protection
Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1981
6) K.N. Palmer
Dust Explosions and Fires
London, Chapman and Hall, 1973
7) H. Wibbelhoff
Der Umgang mit Kohlenstaub in der Zementindustrie
Steine und Erden 2/1978
8) F. Schneider
Kohlenaufbereitung und Kohlenfeuerung fr Zementdrehfen
Zement, Kalk, Gips, No. 7/1976
9) E.W. Scholl, D. Reeh, W. Wiemann, M. Faber, G. Khnen, H. Beck, N. Glienke
Brenn- und Explosionskenngrssen von Stuben
STF-Report No. 2 - 79 (as well as BVS-Report) *
* see paragraph 4.1
10) W. Wiemann, R. Bauer, F. Mller
Unterdruck-Sicherung von Silos nach Staubexplosionen bei Anwendung von Explosionsklappen
VDI Report No. 701, 1988, Volume II
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C04 - Firing Systems / Safe Handling of Coal and other Combustible dusts / 4. LITERATURE / 4.1
Approximate Values for Explosion Limits and Ignition Temperatures
4.1 Approximate Values for Explosion Limits and Ignition Temperatures
The numerical values of the following data are depending on the test procedure applied and can vary
within certain limits according to the origin and geological age of the coals. The following values refer
to the Literature (9).
Explosion Limits
1) Dust concentration:
lower explosion limits 40 to 130 g/m3
upper explosion limits 2000 to 6000 g/m3
2) Oxygen concentration:
Query:
hard coal 14%
lignite 12%
3) Concentration of non-combustible parts (ash):
hard coal (-medium volatile bituminous) 65%
Ignition Temperature
Cloud C Layer C
Lignite 380 to 450 225 to 300
Hard coal 590 to 710 245 to 380
Petrol coke 690 280
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames
C05 - Burners and Flames
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames
Burners and Flames
D. Pauling
PT 98/14354/E
1. Terminology
2. Burners
2.1 Mono Channel - / Straight Burners
2.1.1 Burner Design
2.1.2 Burner Characterization
2.2 Multi Channel Burners
2.2.1 Burner Types
2.2.2 Burner Design Recommendations
2.3 Fuel Oil Atomizers
2.3.1 Mechanical Atomizers with Fixed Orifice and Variable Pressure
2.3.2 Mechanical Atomizers with Variable Orifice and Constant Pressure
2.3.3 Nozzles with Assisted Atomization through Steam or Compressed Air
2.4 Natural Gas Burners
3. flames
3.1 Prerequisites for the Ideal Flame
3.2 Flame Characteristics of the Different Burner Systems
3.2.1 Single Channel Burner
3.2.2 Multi Channel Burner
3.3 Factors Influencing the Flame
3.3.1 Primary Air Momentum
3.3.2 Position of the Burner in the Kiln
3.3.3 Alignment of the Burner in the Kiln
3.3.4 Secondary Air Temperature
3.3.5 Excess Air
3.3.6 Interaction Flame - Material Bed
3.3.7 Burner Dimensions
3.3.8 Pulverized Coal Characteristics
3.3.9 Fuel Oil Flame Adjustments
3.3.10 Natural Gas Flame Adjustments
Query:
3.3.11 Combined Firing of Different Fuels
3.3.12 Oxygen Enrichment
3.4 Combustion Indicators
3.4.1 Clinker Quality
3.4.2 Sintering Zone Temperature
3.4.3 Coating Formation
3.4.4 Exhaust Gas Analysis
3.4.5 Kiln Inlet Temperature
3.4.6 Volatilization of Circulating Elements
3.5 NOx Formation
3.6 Flame Adjustment Procedure
4. secondary firing / precalciner
5. list of references
6. ANNEX
6.1 Formulas and Definitions for the Calculation of Burner Momentum and Swirl Number
Introduction
The function of the burner is to introduce the fuel into the burning zone.
The propagation of the combustion process depends on how fast the combustible comes into contact
with oxygen. It is therefore the essential function of the burner to regulate this mixing process
adequately in order to achieve a correct flame shape.
This process must take place in such a fashion that the heat is released at exactly the right place
without producing any damaging effects and without producing excessive pollutant elements such as
NOx, SOx and CO. Consequently, any optimization of the burning process must start with the correct
adjustment of the flame.
This paper describes how the flame can be adjusted, what burner types are available and under what
conditions they work best.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 1. TERMINOLOGY
1. TERMINOLOGY
Primary air + secondary air + false air = combustion air
Stoichiometric combustion air + excess air = combustion air
Query:
Figure 1: Terminology of Combustion Air
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 2. BURNERS
2. BURNERS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 2. BURNERS / 2.1 Mono Channel - / Straight
Burners
2.1 Mono Channel - / Straight Burners
Burners / 2.1.1 Burner Design
2.1.1 Burner Design
The mono channel burner is the most simple burner design. With this burner type, coal dust and all the
primary air is injected together through a single tube. Usually this type is used for long kilns, equipped
with direct firing.
Mono channel / straight burners can also be used for fuel oil firing or for a combination of coal and oil
firing (additional channel for the oil nozzle in the center).
Conical burner tips can be used to increase the injection velocity (Fig. 2).
Figure 2: Straight Burner
Query:
Burners / 2.1.2 Burner Characterization
2.1.2 Burner Characterization
A high axial impulsion (massflow of fuel and primary air multiplied with the injection velocity) leads to an
intense mixing of the combustion air with the fuel. This intensive mixing has two effects:
1) strong and stable flame; good (complete) combustion
2) high NOx formation
Recommended range of specific axial impulsion (Gax) for mono channel burners:
MW
N
V M
Gax 7 6
Q
fuel
air transport fuel) air (transport

+
M: Massflow Transport Air + Fuel (kg/s)
V: Injection Velocity (m/s)
Q:
Fuel Input (calorific value fuel massflow)
[ ] MW
s
kg
kg
MJ
1
]
1
This corresponds with the old rule of thumb, which states that the kinetic energy of the primary air jet of
a mono channel burner should be kept constant within certain limits:
(Velocity of Primary Air)
2
(%Primary Air) = 65'000 75'000
Even if this formula will not give optimal values in each case, it enables a rough estimate of the
dimension of the burner if presupposed as a second condition that the primary air jet velocity should lie
between 50 and 100 m/sec (valid for straight burners without swirl).
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 2. BURNERS / 2.2 Multi Channel Burners
2.2 Multi Channel Burners
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 2. BURNERS / 2.2 Multi Channel Burners / 2.2.1
Burner Types
2.2.1 Burner Types
The most simple design of a burner is the mono channel burner (see Chap. 2.1). However, for optimum
flame shaping when considering changing coal quality and different requirements from the point of
view of raw mix burnability, burners with adjustable flame are to be preferred. In such burners, the
Query:
primary air is usually divided into an axial and a radial component with the coal also introduced via a
concentric ring tube.
These burners are called multi channel burners, and are usually suitable for alternate or combined
firing of coal, oil or gas. The axial air is injected in the direction of the kiln axis (similar to a mono
channel burner where all the air is injected in axial direction).
The radial air or swirl air is injected with a direction towards the kiln wall.
The swirl component of the radial air creates a rotating air flow along the kiln axis (similar to the threat
of a screw). This airflow is also pushing towards the outside, in direction of the kiln wall.
Since the radial air channel is located inside the axial air channel (both are concentric ring channels),
the radial air is opening up / widening the flow of the axial air.
An increase of radial air versus axial air therefore creates a wider and shorter flame. An increase of
axial air versus radial air create a longer flame.
Besides flame shaping, the primary air also has to keep the burner pipe cool.
A typical example of the first generation of multi channel burners is the Pillard 3-Channel Burner (Fig.
3). This burner has the coal channel in between the axial- and the radial air channel. A problem
recognized with these burner types is that a shortening of the flame tends to produce a too wide flame
(flame impeigements on the kiln wall).
Furthermore coarse cool particles (residue on 200 m sieve) can be thrown out of the primary air jet by
the radial air. These particles can cause reducing condition on the clinker bed and high NOx formation.
Figure 3: Conventional 3-Channel Burner (Pillard)
A new generation of multi channel burners has therefore been designed. With special arrangements
and constructions of the primary air channels the above mentioned negative effects can be avoided
through the creation of a longer and more homogenious internal recirculation zone in the flame (see
chapter 3.2.2).
The leading burners of this generation are the Pillard Rotaflam and the KHD Pyrojet.
The particular features of the Pillard Rotaflam Burner (Fig. 4) are the location of the coal channel inside
the axial and radial air channels, as well as the flame holder / flame stabilizer (bluff-body-effect) in the
enlarged center cross section.
Figure 4: Pillard Rotaflam Burner
Query:
The particular feature of the KHD Pyrojet Burner (Fig. 5) is the jet air. The effect of this burner can be
explained by the better and more uniform mixing of fuel and secondary air due to the jet air being
introduced at nearly sonic velocity. For this reason the Pyrojet requires a compressor for the jet air.
Figure 5: KHD Pyrojet Burner
The FLS Swirlax Burner (Fig. 6) applies Pyrojet technology with a license from KHD. The experience in
the Holderbank Group is limited.
Figure. 6: FLS Swirlax Burner
Unitherm offers an interesting solution with their M.A.S. Burner (Fig. 7), featuring only one primary air
channel with adjustable swirl. However, so far with no application within the Holderbank Group.
Query:
Figure 7: Unitherm M.A.S. Burner
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 2. BURNERS / 2.2 Multi Channel Burners / 2.2.2
Burner Design Recommendations
2.2.2 Burner Design Recommendations
(Calculation of Gax and S
b
: see Annex)
Specific Axial Impulsion: Gax = 3 - 7
low volatile coal (10% volatiles): Gax = 7
high volatile coal (35% volatiles): Gax = 3
The axial impulsion affects the overall entrainment into the flame. In general a higher axial
impulsion results in enhanced mixing and higher NOx emission levels.
Swirl Number: Normal Range: S
b
= 0.1 - 0.25
Maximum Range: S
b
= 0.4
In general higher tangential momentum (expressed through the swirl number) results in a more rapid
heat release in the near burner zone and higher NOx emission levels.
Primary Air Ratio: 10 - 12%
Experience with these new generation (low primary air) burners has shown, that primary air ratios
of 6 - 8% are on the technical limit below which it is no longer possible to guarantee stable
combustion conditions.
With primary air ratios of 6 - 8%, any disturbance of the burning process tends to shift combustion
to the back kiln zone, producing high kiln inlet temperatures and poor clinker quality
(underburning). Therefore in designing the primary air content for modern burners, a minimum of
Query:
10% is recommended (including transport air in coal fired systems).
Seen from a heat saving point of view the primary air ratio should be as low as possible in order to
recuperate as much hot secondary air as possible. On the other hand, the kinetic energy of the fuel
air mixture must be sufficiently high to provide a good mixture with the secondary air to ensure
rapid burning.

Axial air velocity (injection): 100 - 190 m/s (Pyrojet: 300 m/s)
Radial air velocity (injection): 100 - 190 m/s
Pressure of radial and axial air: 150 - 200 mbar (Pyrojet axial air: 0.5 - 1 bar)
Transport air coal (injection): 20 - 30 m/s
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 2. BURNERS / 2.3 Fuel Oil Atomizers
2.3 Fuel Oil Atomizers
Once properly prepared in terms of filtering, heating up and delivering to the burner with constant
pressure and viscosity, the fuel oil must be atomized for effective mixing with the combustion air.
Therefore fuel oil atomizing nozzles are used. These nozzles are located in the center of the burner,
surrounded by the injection of the primary air. The oil nozzle is held in place by a jacked tube which is a
fixed part of the burner. Thus the atomizing nozzle is retractable, which is necessary to change the
orifice plate when increasing the throughput (only mechanical atomizers with fixed orifice - see below)
or to take out the oil nozzle whenever it is not needed (e.g. switching to coal firing) to prevent
overheating or coking of the unused atomizer.
For fuel oil atomization different principles are employed:
Mechanical atomization with fixed orifice and variable pressure
Mechanical atomization with variable orifice and constant pressure
Assisted atomization with steam or compressed air
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 2. BURNERS / 2.3 Fuel Oil Atomizers / 2.3.1
Mechanical Atomizers with Fixed Orifice and Variable Pressure
2.3.1 Mechanical Atomizers with Fixed Orifice and Variable Pressure
This type of atomization is the most common. Hereby the oil throughput is governed by the pressure of
the fuel oil (within the range given by the selected discharge opening/orifice plate).
With these atomizers the fuel oil flow in the atomizer head is often subdivided into an axial and a radial
component. By adjusting the pressure and thus the ratio of these components, it is possible to alter the
spray angle of the fuel jet. In general, an increase of the radial/tangential oil pressure leads to
intensified swirling of radial and axial oil which has the tendency to shorten the flame. Typically the
differential pressure is in the range of 1.5 bar (tangential minus axial oil pressure) with an overall
pressure of approx. 40 bar. Since the reading accuracy of such small values, compared to the
operating range of 40 bars, is unsatisfactory, it is suggested to equip both, radial and axial oil flow with
oil flow measuring devices and optimize on flow basis using the flow-pressure curve of the nozzle
Query:
supplier or to install a separate measurement of the pressure difference between radial and axial oil
pressure. Flame shape control is, however, not only a result of atomizer adjustments, but also a
function of primary air control.
Fig. 8 and 9 show two current atomizers (Pillard and Unitherm) with radial-axial flow or alternatively
return-flow for start-up operation. For return-flow, the axial oil flow is used to return a portion of the
radial oil flow to the storage tank, in order to have a high flow velocity and oil pressure in the nozzle
head (swirl chamber) despite the small amount of oil injected in the kiln (start up phase). Thus the
turndown ratio can be increased, still with a good atomization.
Atomizer turndown ratios of 10 to 1 are often given by the suppliers. Practical turn down ratios (without
changing the orifice plate) however, are limited to values below 5 to 1 (even for return flow operation
during start up).
As an additional feature, the length of the swirl chamber in the Unitherm atomizer is adjustable.
Fig. 10 (Coen Tri-Tip Nozzle) shows a mechanical atomizer with fixed orifice without radial-axial oil flow
division.
Figure 8: Pillard MY Atomizer
Figure 9: Unitherm Atomizer
Figure 10: Coen Tri-Tip Nozzle
Query:
Mechanical Atomizers with Variable Orifice and Constant Pressure
2.3.2 Mechanical Atomizers with Variable Orifice and Constant Pressure
This type of atomizer employs the adjustable needle valve principle for throughput control. By moving
the needle position, contrary to the above described types, the orifice can be adjusted. Atomizing
pressures are in the range of 20 bar. The turndown ratio are also limited. Needle value atomizers are
mainly used by FLS for long wet kilns (see Fig. 11). Flame shaping is accomplished by adjusting the
needle position, oil pressure and primary air.
Figure 11: FLS Atomizer (Needle Valve Principe)
1) tangential slots
2) swirl chamber
Nozzles with Assisted Atomization through Steam or Compressed Air
2.3.3 Nozzles with Assisted Atomization through Steam or Compressed Air
This type of atomizer (Fig. 12) uses steam or compressed air instead of radial oil to create an intense
swirl in front of the orifice plate. The advantage of these atomizers is the higher turndown ratio because
even a small amount of oil can be atomized effectively with steam or compressed air. The
disadvantage of these atomizers is the need for a significant amount of steam or compressed air,
which cost money to produce.
Query:
Figure 12: Pillard Atomizer with Assisted Atomization
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 2. BURNERS / 2.4 Natural Gas Burners
2.4 Natural Gas Burners
In most modern gas burners the gas flow divided is into radial and axial gas. Primary air is not
necessarily needed. However most burners use primary air for flame shaping and burner cooling.
Pillard Rotagas Burner (Fig. 13)
The Rotagas burner is the most recent development from Pillard. The burner is designed for 100% gas
firing. Compared with the conventional Pillard Gas Rotaflam, the possibilities to adjust the flameshape
have been ameliorated.
Arrangement of the channels (from outside to the center):
exterior, high pressure gas channel
radial swirl air channel
interior, low pressure gas channel
central air channel
center: jacket tube for ignition burner
Figure 13: Pillard Rotagas Burner
Pillard Rotaflam KGD Gas/Coal/Oil Burner (Fig. 14)
Query:
The Rotaflam multipurpose burner is equipped for combined or separate firing of gas, coal and oil.
Flame shaping is achieved with separate axial and radial primary air.
Arrangement of the channels (from outside to the center):
axial air
radial swirl-air
single gas channel
pulverized coal channel
central air / flame stabilizer
center: jacket tube with oil atomizing nozzle
Figure 14: Pillard KGD Gas / Coal / Oil Burner
Gyro-Therm Gas Burner (Fig. 15)
The Gyro-Therm burner applies a special flow phenomena to achieve the air/gas mixing. A "processing
jet" is generated in a specifically designed nozzle. Experiences with this burner are limited.
Figure 15: Gyro-Therm Gas Burner
KHD Gas Burner (Fig. 16)
This burner has been used in various kilns since a long time. Owing to the principle on which it
operates, it requires a rather high supply pressure (3 - 5 bar) to allow the fuel throughput and the
shape of the flame to be varied.
Query:
Primary air is not needed for this burner.
Arrangement of the channels (from outside to center):
axial gas channel
center: radial gas
Figure 16: KHD Gas Burner
FLS Gas Burner (Fig. 17)
Flame adjustment is done with this burner using the "needle valve method".
Arrangement of the channels (from outside to center):
primary air (10)
secondary gas (15)
primary gas (14)
center: primary gas with regulating cone (13)
Figure 17: FLS Gas Burner
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 3. FLAMES
3. FLAMES
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 3. FLAMES / 3.1 Prerequisites for the Ideal
Flame
3.1 Prerequisites for the Ideal Flame
The optimization of the burning has to start with the correct adjustment of the flame.
A look at the effects of poor burning makes this immediately clear:
Unstable coating behavior, particularly in the transition zone, reduces the lining life.
Incomplete burning and a local reducing atmosphere dramatically increase sulfur volatilization and
build-up of coating in the preheater and in the kiln inlet area. Thus a significantly higher dust cycle
is created which shifts the entire temperature profile toward the kiln inlet.
With high CO-formation, secondary combustion forms at the back of the kiln which leads to ring
formation.
As a result, the kiln cannot operate at maximum output, the specific heat consumption increases
and the efficiency of the unit drops.
The "ideal" flame can prevent, or at least keep within limits, the operating problems described above.
The flame is stable over the entire burn-out distance:
By continually mixing hot secondary air into the burning zone. Therefore combustion can take place
in a controlled manner over the entire flame length.
No local temperature peaks are formed.
No local reducing conditions develop over the clinker bed.
Burn-out is complete at the end of the sinter zone.
In addition this "ideal flame" has to be achieved with the lowest possible formation of NOx in the
exhaust gas.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 3. FLAMES / 3.2 Flame Characteristics of the
Different Burner Systems
3.2 Flame Characteristics of the Different Burner Systems
Different Burner Systems / 3.2.1 Single Channel Burner
3.2.1 Single Channel Burner
Straight burner pipes tend to produce an axial flame without internal recirculation. The heating up of
the fuel jet to ignition temperatures is predominantly by external recirculation of the hot combustion
gases (Fig. 18).
Figure 18: Flame Shape of Single Channel Burner
Query:
Effects:
Long sinter zone
Long retention time of the kiln charge in the hot zone and thus high volatilization of alkalis and
sulfur (very suitable for the production of low-alkali clinker)
High NOx formation
With a constant primary air ratio, the length of the flame reaches a minimum for a given primary air
velocity. If the velocity is further increased, the primary air jet develops an excessive suction effect
which results in a reverse flow of flue gases. The recirculating flue gas thins the secondary air so much
that the flame becomes longer again.
For the recommended range of the specific axial impulsion see chapter 2.1.
However, for optimum flame shaping in response to changing production requirements, burners with
adjustable flame (multi channel burners) are to be preferred.
Different Burner Systems / 3.2.2 Multi Channel Burner
3.2.2 Multi Channel Burner
Multi channel burners can produce a divergent flame with internal and external recirculation zones. The
ability to change the relationship between axial and radial air provides an important control mechanism
for influencing the flame shape.
A hollow cone flame shape is produced, which can be modified by adjusting the pressure and/or
injection-orifice of the radial and axial air (Fig. 19).
The first generation of three channel burners (e.g. Pillard 3-Channel) has some negative effects on the
flame shape, if there is a high content of radial air used. Two different flame zones can appear:
In the first zone with internal recirculation there is intense combustion. Depending on the
arrangement of the swirling flow, in this zone coarse fuel particles are spun out of the flame and
then burn quickly in the oxygen-rich atmosphere of the hot secondary air.
In the second, long, instable zone, dominated by external recirculation, burn-out is completed.
Effects:
Peak temperatures in the internal recirculation zone.
With very divergent flames, there are problems with the lining.
Query:
CO formation above the clinker bed caused by incomplete burn-out of the extended fuel jet.
Unstable coating formation in a long transition zone, caused by an enlarged unsteady burn-out
zone.
Increased NOx formation because of the long retention time of the gasses at high temperatures.
High sulfur volatilization because of the reducing zone above the clinker bed and the long retention
time at relatively high temperatures.
The new generation of three channel burners (e.g. Pillard Rotaflam and KHD Pyrojet - see also chapter
2.2) has been optimized so that these effects are largely avoided. The special arrangement and
construction of the primary air channels make the internal recirculation zone (IRZ, Fig. 19) longer and
more homogenous. This reduces the length of the burn-out zone with external recirculation. To reduce
NOx formation, these burners have been optimized for very low primary air quantities.
For a faster mixing of the primary air with the fuel, these burners have an enlarged flame stabilizer in
form of a bluff body in the center.
Figure 19: Flame Shape of New Generation Multi Channel Burner
Effects:
Homogeneous temperature distribution, no excessive temperature peaks.
Low volatilization rate of alkalis and sulfur.
Homogeneous recirculation zone, and therefore low NOx formation.
In some cases the flame is too long. Therefore a rearrangement of the coal channel in between the
axial and radial air (Pillard Rotaflam) is under discussion.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 3. FLAMES / 3.3 Factors Influencing the Flame
3.3 Factors Influencing the Flame
In most cases the most favorable operation is achieved with a rather short and powerful flame, giving a
high heat transfer rate to the material bed and a short and stable burning zone.
The flame shape may be optimized during operation by adjusting the following parameters:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 3. FLAMES / 3.3 Factors Influencing the Flame /
Query:
A shortening of the flame is normally achieved by increasing the injection momentum of the primary air.
With existing burners this can be achieved to a limited extent by increasing the radial air and
decreasing axial air correspondingly. With jet burners (KHD) the flame can be optimized by varying
number and diameter of jet nozzles and adjusting the jet air pressure.
For burner design recommendations: see chapter 2.2.2.
One of the most pronounced influence on flame length is the position of the burner tip: Shifting the
burner further in the kiln increases the flame length significantly and vice versa.
This is because the turbulence field of the in-flowing secondary air significantly improves the mixing of
the fuel jet with the air. In planetary cooler kilns this effect is less noticeable as the position of the
burner tip is defined by the kiln's internal cooling zone.
Recommendations for burner tip position (except planetary cooler):
Dry kiln:
Distance from rotary kiln end to burner tip 1 m.
Long wet kiln: Distance rotary kiln end - burner tip approx. 1 m or a little more.
If the burner tip is too close to the rotary kiln end, overheating of the nose ring can occur.
Basically the burner should be aligned parallel to the kiln axis. In the cold kiln the burner should even
be pointed slightly upwards, (specially long burners in kilns with planetary coolers), to compensate for
the bending downwards in the hot kiln. If the burner is aligned horizontally (the kiln axis has an angle of
approx. 3to the horizontal) as is often seen, the flame tends to reach the material bed. A local
reducing atmosphere is created resulting in high sulfur volatilization.
The secondary air temperature defines, firstly, the ignition behavior of the flame (black plume) and,
secondly, the possible flame temperature. Insufficient secondary air temperature has to be
compensated by fuel, and this means an increase in the combustion gas quantity and a lengthening of
the temperature profile. In point of fact, the clinker cooler operation is one of the main factors
influencing the flame.
3.3.5 Excess Air
Query:
3.3.5 Excess Air
Some excess air is required for complete combustion. The optimum value for excess air to maintain
the shortest possible sinter zone is about 10% (equal to 2% O
2
at kiln inlet). Burning at a too low
excess air factor increases the burning time and hence the flame length. This creates a reducing
atmosphere which increases sulfur volatility thus leading eventually to clogging problems in the
preheating zone. If the excess air is significantly higher than the optimum value, the temperature profile
is extended again because of a too low flame. This results in an insufficient temperature gradient
towards the material bed and a longer sinter zone. For this reason, for example, the secondary firing
rate for Air-Through systems is restricted to about 25 t 5%.
As the heat transfer from the flame to the material bed in the sinter zone is almost entirely through
radiation, the key factors affecting heat transfer are the temperature and the emissivity of the flame. If
radiation is reduced by a dusty kiln atmosphere, a long drawn-out temperature profile with long sinter
zone is produced. In this situation, the clinker dust is overheated in the flame and often deposited in
the transition zone or even further upstream the kiln in the form of a clinker ring. Ways to counter this
effect include all those measures which serve to improve clinker granulation (short and hot flame,
different raw mix design).
Basically the burner must be of the right dimensions for nominal operation. This is observed particularly
for burners in kilns with precalcination.
Oversized burner nozzles have to be operated with unfavorable primary air settings (either too high
primary air content or too low primary air speed) and should be adjusted for nominal operation.
Volatile content:
The combustion time of pulverized coal increases as the volatile content decreases, therefore low
volatile coal has a longer burning time and ignition distance than bituminous coal.
Grinding fineness:
The burning time of a coal dust grain increases approx. with the square of its diameter. The
combustion time of a grain of coal increases as its volatile content decreases. Thus, low volatile
coal must be ground more finely in order to burn within the desired time, e.g. in order to produce
the desired flame length.
Recommendations for optimum grinding fineness:
see paper "Firing Systems - Handling and Preparation of Noble Fuels".
Ash content:
Query:
A high content of ballast material (ash) has a retarding effect on the burning time caused by the
reduced coal dust concentration and the lower flame temperatures as a result of the heat
absorption of the ballast material.
Rate of swelling:
The higher the expansion of the coal grain during heating in the flame, the shorter the burning time.
Coal types with high density expand / swell less. Therefore petrol coks has to be ground finer to
reach the same combustion time as regular coal.
A faster burn out of the fuel oil can be achieved by lowering the oil viscosity / increasing the oil
temperature (recommendations for optimum oil temperature: see paper "Firing Systems - Handling and
Preparation of Noble Fuels") or by better atomization (see chapter 2.3).
The main requirement with natural gas burners is the possibility of producing a reverse flow zone in the
center of the flame in order to achieve locally a reducing atmosphere where the hydrocarbon molecules
agglomerate to larger chains. This is necessary to increase the emissivity of the gas flame, a
prerequisite for heat transfer in the sintering zone.
Adjusting the shape of the flame visually is almost impossible, because clearly defined flame contours
are hardly recognizable. Optimization of the flame shape should be done following the combustion
indicators (see chapter 3.5).
When firing two different fuels at the same time, the higher volatile fuel tends to burn more rapidly. this
reduces the oxygen content so that the remaining fuel burns further to the back of the kiln.
However, a small amount of high volatile fuel can also have a positive effect on the flame, because it
accelerates the ignition and burning of the other fuel.
In extreme cases, two separate burning zones are created. It is therefore important to improve the
burning time of the less volatile fuel (e.g. by adjusting the fineness of grinding for coal).
By adding oxygen to the combustion air, the flame temperature can be increased significantly. At the
same time the specific exhaust gas quantity is lowered. This decreases the energy losses of the
exhaust gas and allows to increase the production capacity of the kiln.
Practically feasible is the increase of O
2
in the combustion air by 2 - 3% (from 21% to 24%).
Query:
Disadvantages are the higher NOx formation, the lower cooler efficiency for planetary coolers and the
oxygen costs.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 3. FLAMES / 3.4 Combustion Indicators
3.4 Combustion Indicators
One of the main problems in the evaluation of the flame is that, in the rotary kiln, it is only possible to
observe the flame visually to a limited extent. On closer consideration, however, there are a number of
indicators which can provide much more information about the quality of the flame than can be
obtained from simple visual observation.
In the following, the most important operation indicators (combustion indicators) with direct relation to
firing parameters are discussed:
Clinker quality (free lime, liter weight)
Burning zone temperature (pyrometer, NOx, amps)
Coating formation (indicated by kiln shell temperature profile)
Exhaust gas composition (CO, O
2
)
Kiln inlet temperature
Volatilization of circulating elements (hot meal analysis, encrustations in the preheater)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 3. FLAMES / 3.4 Combustion Indicators / 3.4.1
Clinker Quality
3.4.1 Clinker Quality
There exists a close interdependence between sintering zone temperature, granulometry, free lime and
literweight of the clinker. The correlation of these parameters is to a high degree influenced by the
flame shape. Fig. 20 shows an example, where by flame optimization, the literweight for the required
free lime could be lowered. In other words, for the required clinker quality (free lime), burning could be
done less hard (liter weight).
Burning less hard leads to substantial savings of energy and refractories.
Figure. 20: Correlation between Free Lime Content and Literweight with Two Different
Operating Conditions
When modifying the burner settings, the correlation of the parameters shown above has to be closely
Query:
recorded before and after any change to the burner in order to draw the relevant information for
optimum burner settings.
Sintering Zone Temperature
3.4.2 Sintering Zone Temperature
Information about the sintering zone temperature can be obtained by:
Measuring the clinker bed temperature under the flame using a radiation pyrometer.
Measuring the NOx concentration in the exhaust gas.
Measuring the inclination of the kiln charge using a tallumeter.
Measuring the kiln drive power consumption (Amps or kW) - (only reliable in some cases).
It has to be noted, that all the above mentioned measurements do not supply absolute but rather
relative temperature indications and that the NOx-level is also highly depending on the flame
characteristics (see chapter 3.6).
Coating Formation
3.4.3 Coating Formation
The length of the sinter zone and transition zone gives a guide to the length and temperature profile of
the flame. Ring formation can indicate poor combustion, incorrect burner setting, or insufficient fuel
preparation (coal not fine enough or poor oil atomizing).
Coating formation can be determined indirectly, by measuring the temperature profile of the kiln shell.
The influence of burner adjustments on coating formation can be checked by recording the kiln shell
temperature profile before and after any change to burner settings.
Exhaust Gas Analysis
3.4.4 Exhaust Gas Analysis
Exhaust gas analysis at kiln inlet supplies valuable information on the completeness of the combustion.
Due to factors such as fluctuations in fuel supply and quality, generally a too high O
2
level would be
required for 0% CO. Usually the kiln is set to an O
2
level at kiln inlet, at which < 500 ppm CO is
produced. A thus required O
2
level in excess of 2.5% would indicate combustion problems.
Too high CO levels do not only cause energy losses but do also increase Sulfur volatilization and may
cause Sulfur rings and cloggings in the cyclones.
Kiln Inlet Temperature
3.4.5 Kiln Inlet Temperature
With preheater kilns, the kiln inlet temperature (= back end temperature) supplies information on flame
length and retarded combustion. The target is to have the kiln inlet temperature as low as possible. Kiln
inlet temperatures in excess of 1100C need improvement of the firing system.
Query:
Volatilization of Circulating Elements
3.4.6 Volatilization of Circulating Elements
The flame has an important influence on the volatilization of the circulation elements, especifically on
Sulfur. This is governed by factors such as retention time of the material in the hot zone (flame length)
and local or general reducing atmosphere including the presence of oversize fuel particles in the
material bed (Fig. 21).
Figure 21: Influence of Temperature and O
2
Concentration on Sulfur Volatility
To assess the degree of volatilization of the circulating elements, the enrichment of SO
3
, CI and K
2
O in
the hot meal has to be measured before and after any change to the firing system.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 3. FLAMES / 3.5 NOx Formation
3.5 NOx Formation
NOx formation is dominated as well by peak temperatures as by the amount of air entrained into the
primary fuel jet at ignition. NOx reduction measures are deduced essentially from these facts as
follows:
Low primary air ratio
Flame front near the burner (short ignition distance)
Flame shaping with the aim to avoid high peak temperatures with at the same time shorter flame
Lower burning temperatures (free lime, raw mix)
The minimum technically achievable NOx emission with measures related to the rotary kiln burner are
in the order of magnitude of 800 to 1'000 mg/Nm
3
(dry basis). Further reduction of NOx requires
additional secondary measures such as staged combustion (air / fuel staging, reburning) at the
precalciner or NH
3
injection.
For more details on NOx formations see paper "State of Technology of Rotary Kiln Burners".
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 3. FLAMES / 3.6 Flame Adjustment Procedure
3.6 Flame Adjustment Procedure
1) Follow the operating instruction of the supplier for a medium flame setting.
2) Wait until kiln is stable before undertaking any adjustment.
3) Progressively adjust parameters (axial/radial air, oil pressure, gas pressure) to get required flame.
Query:
Cautions:
axial air outside channel also serves to cool the burner pipe; keep always
min.8% of total primary air
watch continuously the corresponding combustion indicators
The kiln reacts slowly to any change. It may take up to a few days to reach stable running
conditions again. It is therefore useless to try to adjust a flame within one shift!
4) It is not recommended to operate the kiln with the shortest possible flame. A safety margin for
adjustment in both directions should be maintained for control of burning zone disturbance.
NOx Emission: In some countries with severe regulations, the NOx emission might be in a near future
the most important parameter for flame adjustment.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 4. SECONDARY FIRING / PRECALCINER
4. SECONDARY FIRING / PRECALCINER
The burning conditions for a secondary firing or precalciner burner are quite different from the kiln
firing:
In most cases the combustion takes place in a exhaust gas + air mixture instead of pure air.
Combustion takes place in a very dusty atmosphere.
Temperature range of 1000C instead of 2000C.
Due to the poor burning conditions, incomplete combustion is quite common in precalciners. Beside
CO, coal firing produces carbon skeletons and also CH
4
, which both cannot be traced by CO
measuring equipment. Further signs for incomplete combustion are:
Higher gas temperature at bottom cyclone outlet than at precalciner outlet.
Only moderate drop of the gas temperature over the two lowermost cyclone stages.
Both indication an after-burning within the preheater. This results in increased exhaust gas
temperature and heat consumption.
Improvement Measures:
Avoiding fluctuations of the fuel feed.
Grinding the coal to the required fineness.
Providing enough gas retention time in the precalciner. As a rule of thumb for coal firing:
gas retention time = 2 to 3 sec.
(kiln capacity [t/d]) / (precalciner volume inside lining [m
3
] ) = 7 t 2 t/m
3
d
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 5. LIST OF REFERENCES
5. LIST OF REFERENCES
1) "Firing Systems"
VA 82/4898/E
2) "Flames and Burners"
VA 93/4056/E
Query:
3) "State of Technology of Rotary Kiln Burners"
F. Schneider, PT 96/14078/E
4) W.L. van de Kamp / J.P. Smart
IFRF Research Report CEMFLAM1
"The effect of burner design and operation and fuel type of cement kiln flames"
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 6. ANNEX
6. ANNEX
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C05 - Burners and Flames / Burners and Flames / 6. ANNEX / 6.1 Formulas and Definitions for the
Calculation of Burner Momentum and Swirl Number
6.1 Formulas and Definitions for the Calculation of Burner Momentum and Swirl Number
Calculation of Burner Momentum and Swirl Number / 6.1.1 Primary Air / Combustion Air:
6.1.1 Primary Air / Combustion Air:
Kiln heat consumption Q [MJ/kgcli]
Min. combustion air Amin. 0.26 x q
[Nm
3
/kgcli]
Good approximation for
conventional fuels
Total combustion air A n x Amin.
[Nm
3
/kgcli]
n = excess air factor, n>1
Excess combustion air Amin. x (n-1)
[Nm
3
/kgcli]
Primary air ratio Expressed in %
Amin.
[%A min.]
Note:
In order to get lower primary air ratio figures, burner suppliers usually relate primary air ratio to total
combustion air.
Calculation of Burner Momentum and Swirl Number / 6.1.2 Burner Geometry:
6.1.2 Burner Geometry:
Following burner geometry calculations are based on the list of symbols and units stated below:
r
i
Burner channel radius of channel I [m]
r
eg. i
Equivalent channel radius of channel I [m]
G
x
Axial momentum [N]
G
x.i
Axial momentum of channel I [N]
G
ax
Specific axial momentum [N/MW]
Query:
G
ax
G
t
Tangential momentum [N]
M
i
Mass flow through channel I [kg/s]
Q
fuel
Fuel heat input [MW]
S
b
Burner swirl number [-]
v
i.ax
Axial velocity in channel I [m/s]
v
sw.tan
Tangential velocity on swirling channel [m/s]
Figure A: Typical Burner Geometry
Calculation of Burner Momentum and Swirl Number / 6.1.3 Mono Channel Burner:
6.1.3 Mono Channel Burner:
Total specific axial momentum through burner [N/MW]:
1
]
1
,
_
+
MW
N
Q
v M
G
fuel
tr c tr
ax
Calculation of Burner Momentum and Swirl Number / 6.1.4 Multi Channel Burner:
6.1.4 Multi Channel Burner:
Total specific axial momentum through burner [N/MW]:
( )
( )
1
]
1
+ +
+
MW
N
Q
v M v M v M
G
fuel
ax ax ax tr c tr ax sw sw
ax
, ,
Burner Swirl Number:
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] ( )
[ ]
m Radius Channel stical Characteri N Momentum Axial

m Radius Swirl stical Characteri N Momentum Tangential
number Swirl
Query:
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
m r N G
m r N Gt
S
i eq xi
sw eq
b
.
.
A common method for the calculation of the characteristical or equivalent radius is to determine the
radius of gyration for each individual channel cross-section as follows (Mathur and Maccallun - 1967):
( )
( )
[ ] m
r r
r r
r
i eq 2
1
2
2
3
1
3
2
.
3
2

For a typical multi channel coal burner with axial-, transport- and swirl air, the burner swirl number can
be calculated according to the following formula:
( )
[ ]
+ +

+ sw eq sw sw tr eq tr c tr ax eq ax ax
sw eq sw
b
r v M r v M r v M
r v Msw
S
. . .
. tan ,
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C06 - Combustion Engineering
C06 - Combustion Engineering
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C06 - Combustion Engineering / Combustion, Gasflows and Gas Composition
Combustion, Gasflows and Gas Composition
A. Obrist
VA 89/5584/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COMBUSTION
2.1 Basic Relations and Definitions
2.2 Calorific Value
2.3 Combustion Calculations
3. GAS FROM RAW MATERIAL
3.1 Gases from Dry Raw Meal
3.2 Water from Wet Raw Meal or from Raw Slurry
4. KILN GAS
4.1 Measurement of Exhaust Gas Composition
4.2 Immediate Calculations from Gas Composition
4.3 Calculation of Exhaust Gas Quantities
4.4 Calculation of the CO
2
Content of Cement Kiln Exhaust Gas
5. FALSE AIR INVESTIGATIONS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Evaluation
5.3 Example of an Investigation
Query:
SUMMARY
In context with gas measurements on a cement kiln there are important numerical relations which must
be understood.
Such numerical relations involve the following subjects:
Fuel properties, calorific value
Raw meal properties
Combustion calculations
Gas composition
Gas properties
Gas quantities
False air
Calculations can be done with complete, exact formulas but sometimes also by using approximations.
Approximations are never 100% precise but often sufficient for practical purposes. Important, basic
approximations given in this chapter are e.g.:
Min. combustion air = A
min
0.26 Nm
3
/MJ
Min. combustion gas = V
min
0.28 Nm
3
/MJ
The exhaust gas of a cement kiln consists of:
Gas from raw meal
Gas from combustion
Excess air and false air
Water from slurry or raw meal
By considering the above contributions the exhaust gas quantity of a kiln can be calculated.
This method of calculation and many other relations are given in this chapter.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C06 - Combustion Engineering / Combustion, Gasflows and Gas Composition / 1.
INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Once, in the Greenfield cement factory, they wanted to do a few measurements on their kiln system,
which seemed to run at its capacity limit. The specialist who was in charge of these measurements
wanted to know the actual gas flows in the kiln system. Unfortunately, a few years ago, the designers
of the Greenfield kiln had to fight with some difficult space problems when they had to plan the layout
of the gas ducts in the narrow space. They never had considered that somebody would have to take
flow measurements in this ductwork. The shape of the gas ducts was far away from the ideal, long
straight tube for a precise flow measurement.
After a hard job within the hot areas of the gas ducts the specialist realized that his results from the
pitot tube measurement was still not as precise as he had imagined. He therefore started to think about
his problem. Maybe, there was another method to come to a result? Obviously gas flow has something
to do with the fuel combustion and also raw meal produces some gas. So, why not calculate the gas
Query:
from other parameters such as fuel quantity and raw meal? And wouldnt it be possible to calculate
also the gas composition? But where do I find the necessary relations and formulas?
With this kind of thoughts in mind the specialist in the Greenfield plant was about to use the paper on
hand, and finally to do a more interesting and effective job.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C06 - Combustion Engineering / Combustion, Gasflows and Gas Composition / 2. COMBUSTION
2. COMBUSTION
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C06 - Combustion Engineering / Combustion, Gasflows and Gas Composition / 2. COMBUSTION /
2.1 Basic Relations and Definitions / 2.1.1 Combustion
2.1.1 Combustion
Combustion of fuels is a chemical reaction of fuel with oxygen (O
2
) according to the general scheme:
FUEL + OXYGEN
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
(CO
2
, H
2
O, SO
2
, Ash)
Combustion reactions usually go through intermediate steps where some intermediate products may
occur. However after complete combustion (total oxidation) the resulting combustion products are of
extremely simple nature because complete combustion always ends at only 3(!) simple gas molecules,
namely CO
2
, H
2
O and SO
2
.
The overall combustion reactions can therefore be characterized by three very simple combustion
equations:
C + O
2
CO
2
2H + O
2
H
2
O
S + O
2
SO
2
2.1 Basic Relations and Definitions / 2.1.2 Air
2.1.2 Air
Oxygen for combustion of fuels is taken from the air. For the considerations within this chapter the
composition of the dry air can be simplified (neglecting trace gases) as follows:
Query:
OXYGEN (O
2
) 21.0 Vol%
NITROGEN (N
2
) 79.0 Vol%
AIR 100.0 Vol%
According to the local climate air contains some water vapor, e.g. 2 Vol% at 20C and 80% relative
humidity.
2.1 Basic Relations and Definitions / 2.1.3 Normal Conditions
2.1.3 Normal Conditions
Normal conditions for gases are defined as:
Pressure = 1.0133 bar = 760 Torr
Temperature = 0C = 273.16K
By the above conditions, the Nm
3
(Normal-cubicmeter) is defined which is used as unit for gas
quantities.
Note:
1) The normal conditions refer to the average atmospheric pressure at sea level (Fig. 1 at altitude =
0 m) and at the zero point of the Celsius temperature scale (0C).
2) There is a similar definition of standard conditions (USA) which refers to the 60F point of the
Fahrenheit temperature scale (30 inch Hg = 1.016 bar, 60F = 15.6C). Unfortunately these
conditions are not equal to the normal conditions in the metric system.
Fig. 1 Average Barometric Pressure in Function of Altitude
2.1 Basic Relations and Definitions / 2.1.4 Kmol and Ideal Gas
2.1.4 Kmol and Ideal Gas
To characterize the quantity of substances in context with chemical reactions the unit kmol is used.
Query:
One kmol means a certain number of molecules (Avogadros constant = 6.02 x 10
26
/kmol).
If the molecular weight of a compound is taken in kg it equals to 1 kmol of this substance. For example:
The molecular weight of CO
2
is 44. Therefore 44 kg of CO
2
are equal to 1 kmol (which contains 6.02 x
10
26
molecules) of CO
2
.
One of the basic relations of chemistry and thermodynamics says that a certain number of 1 kmol of
any gas molecules takes always the same volume (at constant pressure and temperature). The
formula of the gas molecules does not have any influence on their volume in gaseous state.
To say this more precisely it must be added that this applies only for ideal gases. Gases at low partial
pressures and at temperatures above the critical point can be considered as ideal gases. All gases
occurring in context with this chapter can be considered as ideal gases with sufficient accuracy
(approx. 0.1%).
This fact can be used by the following quantitative relationship:
1 kmol of an ideal gas takes a volume of 22.4 m
3
at normal conditions (1.0133 bar, 0C)
Or in short form:
1 kmol of gas = 22.4 Nm
3
Note that even H
2
O and CO
2
behave nearly like ideal gases as long as they occur in gas mixtures at
low partial pressures.
2.1 Basic Relations and Definitions / 2.1.5 Conversion of the Volume of Ideal Gases
2.1.5 Conversion of the Volume of Ideal Gases
Ideal gases or mixtures of ideal gases behave according to the fundamental equation:
pv = RT
(p = absolute pressure, V = volume, R = gas-constant, T = absolute temperature)
Therefore, volume conversions from condition 1 to condition 2 can be done easily by means of the
ratios of absolute temperature [K] and absolute pressure as follows:
,
_
,
_

1
2
2
1
1 2
T
T
P
P
V V
Example: Convert V
1
= 1 m
3
at 350C (623.16 K) and 0.9 bar to normal conditions:
3 3
2
389 . 0
K 623.16
K 273.16
bar 1.0133
bar 0.9
1 Nm m V
,
_

,
_
This type of calculation is frequently used for practical gas flow calculations. However, for the
considerations within this paper it will not be required in the following.
2.1 Basic Relations and Definitions / 2.1.6 Minimum Air and Air Factor
2.1.6 Minimum Air and Air Factor
To perform a complete combustion a theoretical minimum amount of oxygen O
2
min) is required,
Query:
depending on the type of fuel. The corresponding minimum quantity of air is called A
min
:
] [
21 . 0
min
3 2
min
Nm
O
A
Practically a combustion requires always slightly more air than the theoretical minimum A
min
in order to
avoid local lack of O
2
and unburnt products. The air factor n is defined as the following ratio:
] [
min

A
A
n
A is the effective air quantity, n must be always higher than 1 in order to maintain complete
combustion.
2.2 Calorific Value
2.2 Calorific Value
2.2 Calorific Value / 2.2.1 Gross and Net Calorific Value (CV)
2.2.1 Gross and Net Calorific Value (CV)
The calorific value of a fuel sample is measured in a bomb calorimeter. The fuel sample and a surplus
of oxygen are ignited in the bomb and after combustion the amount of heat is measured. The bomb is
thereby cooled to room temperature level.
By cooling the calorimeter the water vapor is condensed and therefore the heat of water condensation
(2450 kJ/kg H
2
O at 20C) is included in the resulting heat.
The direct result (amount of heat) obtained from the calorimeter is therefore always the so called gross
calorific value CV
gross
(in German: oberer Heizwert, Brennwert, H
o
) of the fuel.
The gross value, however, is not very significant for common technical applications because the effect
of water condensation does usually not occur. Therefore the net calorific value (in German: unterer
Heizwert, H
u
) value is calculated by subtracting the heat of condensation, as follows:
CV
net
= CV
gross
- (water in combustion products) x 2450 [kJ/kg fuel]
The water in combustion products is calculated as follows:
H
2
O = H
2
O
fuel
+ 9 x H
fuel
[kg/kg fuel]

hydrogen in fuel [kg/kg fuel]
Important Note: Within this chapter and also within the cement course chapter on Heat Balances the
net calorific value is used as reference. Unless otherwise noted, fuel energy or fuel heat always refers
to net calorific value.
2.2 Calorific Value / 2.2.2 Calculation of CV
Query:
2.2.2 Calculation of CV
2.2 Calorific Value / 2.2.2 Calculation of CV / 2.2.2.1 Gaseous Fuels
2.2.2.1 Gaseous Fuels
If the gas components are known by analysis the calorific value can be calculated exactly by adding
the contributions of the pure gas components.
The gas analysis is given as volume % (which is the same as mole %) and the calorific value is usually
referred to one Nm
3
(not kg of gas).
Gas Component Formula CV net
[MJ/Nm
3
]
Methane CH
4
35.8
Ethane C
2
H
6
63.8
Propane C
3
H
8
91.3
Butane (gas) C
4
H
10
118.8
Pentane (gas) C
5
H
12
146.1
Ethylene C
2
H
4
59.1
Propylene C
3
H
6
86.1
Acetylene C
2
H
2
56.1
Carbon monoxide CO 12.6
Hydrogen H
2
10.8
Hydrogen sulfide H
2
S 23.2
Example:
Natural gas: CH
4
= 90.5%
C
2
H
6
= 2.0%
C
3
H
8
= 0.5%
CO
2
= 0.4%
N
2
= 6.6%
100.0%
CV = 0.905 x 35.8 + 0.02 x 63.8 + 0.005 x 91.3 = 34.1 MJ/Nm
3
2.2 Calorific Value / 2.2.2 Calculation of CV / 2.2.2.2 Liquid and Solid Fuels
Query:
2.2.2.2 Liquid and Solid Fuels
Usual liquid and solid fuels (fossil fuel oil and coal) consist of complex organic compounds. Usually the
ultimate analysis or the elemental analysis (content of C, H, S, N, O) is available.
Strictly speaking it is impossible to calculate the exact calorific value of a fuel only from its elemental
composition without knowing the kind of its organic compounds. However, as long as fossil fuel oils
and coals are considered, the following approximation produces fairly accurate results:
CV
net
34.8 x C + 93.9 x H + 10.5 x S 6.2 x N - 10.8 x 0 - 2.5 x W [MJ/kg]
C, H, S, N, O, W are the weight fractions [kg/kg fuel] of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen and
water.
The above approximation produces also good results for other organic materials such as wood, paper
and peat. But is should not be used for extreme cases such as e.g. pure carbon or pure sulfur.
Note that for exact determination of the CV of fossil fuel oils and coals only the calorimeter method -
and not the above approximate calculation - can give the correct result.
2.2 Calorific Value / 2.2.3 Examples of Calorific Values
2.2.3 Examples of Calorific Values
(Including also alternative fuels)
CV [MJ/kg] (net)
Pure polyethylene 46
Light oil 42
Heavy oil 40
Pure polystyrene 40
Pure rubber (without inert material) 36
Anthracite 34 High grade
Waste oils, various refinery wastes 30 to 40
Petcoke 33
Waste tires (with steel and inert material) 28 to 32
Bituminous coal (low ash) 29
Bituminous (high ash) 24
Acid sludge, acid tar (from oil refining) 16 to 22
Lignite (10% moisture) 16 to 21
Pot liners (from aluminium smelter) 20
PVC 19
Query:
PVC 19
Palm nut shells (10% moisture) 19 Medium
grade
Pressed olive cake 18
Dried peat (10% moisture) 18
Fuller earth (from oil refining) 13 to 18
Dried wood, bark, saw dust (10% moisture) 16
Rice husks (10% moisture) 16
Shredder wastes 15
RDF (from domestic refuse, 10% moisture) 15
Cardboard, paper (air dry) 15 Low grade
Dried sewage sludge (10% moisture) 10
Domestic refuse (30% moisture) 8.5
Pure iron (heat of oxidation!, occurs e.g. in waste tires) 7.5
2.3 Combustion Calculations / 2.3.1 Exact Calculations
2.3.1 Exact Calculations
The following calculations are based on the combustion equations (see 2.1.1) and some basic
relations.
To demonstrate the calculation method, the simple example of combustion of pure carbon is given as
example.
2.3 Combustion Calculations / 2.3.1 Exact Calculations / 2.3.1.1 Combustion of Pure Carbon (C)
2.3.1.1 Combustion of Pure Carbon (C)
The combustion of 1 kg of pure carbon (C) without any excess air (n = 1) is considered.
The combustion equation and the corresponding weights and volumes are as follows:
C + 02 C02
= 12 kg/kmol = 32 kg/kmol
= 22.4 Nm3/kmol
= 44 kg/kmol
= 22.4 Nm3/kmol
Query:
The above equation refers to 1 kmol or 12 kg of C. The final results are wanted per 1 kg of C i.e. per 1
kg of fuel.
The minimum oxygen is:
O
2min
=
22.4 Nm
3
/12 kg
=
1.87 Nm
3
/kg C
Air contains 21% O
2
, therefore:
A
min
=
1.87 Nm
3
/kg / 0.21
=
8.89 Nm
3
/kg C
The combustion products are only CO
2
and N
2
(coming from A
min
):
CO
2
=
22.4 Nm
3
/12 kg
=
1.87 Nm
3
/kg C
N
2
= A
min
x 0.79 =
7.02 Nm
3
/kg C
Total combustion gas = V
min
=
8.89 Nm
3
/kg C
Calorific value of pure C = CV (from handbook) = 32.8 MJ/kg C
If A
min
and V
min
are referred to the CV the following results are obtained:
A
min
/CV =
0.271 Nm
3
/MJ
V
min
/CV =
0.271 Nm
3
/MJ
From this simple example it would appear that A
min
= V
min
, but in general the V
min
will be a few percent
higher than A
min
. Nevertheless the example of pure C gives already a fairly representative impression
of a typical combustion calculation.
2.3 Combustion Calculations / 2.3.1 Exact Calculations / 2.3.1.2 General Case
2.3.1.2 General Case
In general a fuel is given either by its elemental composition or by its volume composition in case of
gases. Therefore two types of formulas are required (2.3.1.2.1 and 2.3.1.2.2) which are based either
on weight composition or on volume composition of the fuel.
A
min
= Minimum air
V
min
= Minimum combustion air
2.3 Combustion Calculations / 2.3.1 Exact Calculations / 2.3.1.2 General Case / 2.3.1.2.1 Calculation based on Elemental Analysis /
Weight Composition
2.3.1.2.1 Calculation based on Elemental Analysis / Weight Composition
C, H, S, N, O, H
2
O are the weight fractions (kg/kg fuel) of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen
and water in the fuel.
Query:
A
min
= 8.89 x C + 26.5 x H + 3.3 x S - 3.3 x 0 [Nm
3
/kg fuel]
V
min
= 0.79 x A
min
+ 0.8 x N + 1.87 x C
+ 0.7 x S + 11.2 x H + 1.24 x H
2
O
+ A
min
x H
2
O air
[Nm
3
/kg fuel]
The terms in the V
min
-formula mean:
0.79 x A
min
+ 0.8 x N
N
2
1.87 x C
CO
2
; dry gas
0.7 x S
SO
2
11.2 x H + 1.24 x
H
2
O+
H
2
O wet
+ Amin x H
2
0 air
Example:
Coal: C = 71.0% Moisture of air = O
H = 4.0%
O = 6.0%
N = 1.5%
S = 1.0%
H
2
O = 0.5%
Ash = 16.0%
100.0%
A
min
= 8.89 x 0.71 + 26.5 x 0.04 + 3.3 x 0.01- 3.3 x 0.06 =
7.207 Nm
3
/kg coal
V
min
= 0.79 x A
min
+ 0.8 x 0.015 + 1.87 x 0.71+ 0.7 x 0.01
+ 11.2 x 0.04 + 1.24 X 0.005
=
7.494 Nm
3
/kg coal
Query:
2.3 Combustion Calculations / 2.3.1 Exact Calculations / 2.3.1.2 General Case / 2.3.1.2.2 Calculation based on Volume (or Mole)
Composition (only for gaseous fuels)
2.3.1.2.2 Calculation based on Volume (or Mole) Composition
(only for gaseous fuels)
The general formula of any compound (also inert gases) in the fuel gas is defined as:
C
c
H
h
S
s
O
o
N
n
Examples: CH
4
c = 1 h = 4
C
2
H
6
c = 2 h = 6
CO c = 1 o = 1
H
2
S h = 2 s = 1
N
2
n = 2
A fuel gas is a mixture of various compounds, each having a certain volume fraction of vf (Nm
3
/Nm
3
).
The combustion calculations need a summation of all compounds in the mixture, therefore the
(sigma) sign appears in the equations.
,
_
+ +
2 4 21 . 0
1
min
o
s
h
c vf A
] / [
3 3
fuel Nm Nm
air
O H A
h
s c
n
vf A V
2 min min min
2 2
79 . 0 +
,
_
+ + + +
] / [
3 3
fuel Nm Nm
The above two formulas apply for any type of gaseous compounds (combustible or even inert) and
their mixtures.
The terms in the V
min
-formula mean:
0.79 x A
min
+ vf x (n/2) N
2

vf x (c) CO
2
; dry gas
vf x (s) SO
2

Query:
vf x (s) SO
2
vf x (h/2) + A
min
x H
2
O
air
H
2
O } wet
Example: 90% CH
4
vf = 0.9 c = 1 h = 4
4% C
2
H
6
vf = 0.04 c = 2 h =6
3% CO vf = 0.03 c = 1 o = 1
2% N
2
vf = 0.02 n = 2
1% O
2
vf = 0.01 o = 2
3 3
min
/ 262 . 9
2
2
01 . 0
2
1
1 03 . 0
4
6
2 04 . 0
4
4
1 9 . 0
21 . 0
1
Nm Nm A
1
]
1
,
_
+
,
_
+
,
_
+ +
,
_
+
( )
3 3
min min
/ 267 . 10
2
2
02 . 0 1 03 . 0
2
6
2 04 . 0
2
4
1 9 . 0 79 . 0 Nm Nm A V
1
]
1
+ +
,
_
+ +
,
_
+ +
Composition of V
min
The composition of V
min
(N
2
, CO
2
, SO
2
, H
2
O) can be easily calculated by identification of the terms of
the formula of V
min
.
The best way to show this is on the previous example of coal where a V
min
of 7.494 Nm
3
/kg coal was
obtained.
Comp. Calculation Term
Nm
3
/kg coal
% in V
min
N
2
0.79 x 7.207 + 0.8 x 0.015
(A
min
)
5.706 76.1
CO
2
1.87 x 0.71 1.327 17.7
SO
2
0.7 x 0.01 0.007 0.1
H
2
O 11.2 x 0.04 + 1.24 x 0.005 0.454 6.1
Total 7.494 100%
Note: Due to the absorption of SO
2
with cement raw meal the above calculation of SO
2
will not produce
the true amount of SO
2
in the gas of a cement kiln.
Fig. 2 shows typical compositions of V
min
for 6 common types of fuels.
Fig. 2 Typical Compositions of V
min
(for 6 common fuels)
Query:
2.3 Combustion Calculations / 2.3.2 Approximate Calculations
2.3.2 Approximate Calculations
In the previous paragraph 2.3.1 the exact calculation procedures for A
min
and V
min
are shown. In many
practical cases it is, however, not necessary to do exact calculations if approximations of sufficient
accuracy can be given.
Such approximates have been found by investigating a large number of different types of fuels (see
HMC report VA 81/4849/D).
For all fuels of practical use in the cement industry such as coal, fuel oil, natural gas and most of the
alternative fuels the following approximations for A
min
and V
min
can be used:
Minimum air: Amin 0.26 x CV
Minimum combustion gas (wet): Vmin 0.28 x CV
where A
min
resp. V
min
= [Nm
3
] and CV = [MJ]
Or expressed in words:
Each MJ (Megajoule) of combustion energy requires 0.26 Nm
3
minimum air and produces 0.28 Nm
3
minimum combustion gas.
By using the above approximations, a very quick determination of gas quantities is possible.
Note that no analysis of the fuel is required.
Furthermore, the above approximations can also be used if the CV of the fuel is not given expressively.
For example, if the specific heat consumption of a cement kiln is 3.5 MJ/kg clinker the specific A
min
and
V
min
per kg clinker can be calculated directly:
A
min
= 3.5 x 0.26 = 0.91 Nm
3
/kg cli
V
min
= 3.5 x 0.28 = 0.98 Nm
3
/kg cli
If the type of fuel is known the actual factors can be taken from the following table in order to obtain
Query:
somewhat more accurate results.
Type of Fuel A
min
-Factor
(Nm
3
/MJ)
V
min
-Factor
(Nm
3
/MJ)
Anthracite, coke at 1% moisture 0.26 0.27
Bituminous coal
(low to medium volatile)
at 1...2% moisture 0.26 0.28
Lignite (high volatile) at 10% moisture 0.26 0.29
Wood / Peat at 10...15% moisture 0.26 0.30
Light oil 0.26 0.29
Heavy oil (bunker oil) 0.26 0.28
Tar 0.26 0.28
Waste tires (rubber) 0.26 0.27
Natural gas (high CH
4
content) 0.27 0.30
Natural gas (approx. 24% C
2
H
6
) 0.26 0.30
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C06 - Combustion Engineering / Combustion, Gasflows and Gas Composition / 3. GAS FROM
RAW MATERIAL
3. GAS FROM RAW MATERIAL
RAW MATERIAL / 3.1 Gases from Dry Raw Meal
3.1 Gases from Dry Raw Meal
If cement raw meal is heated up, hydrate water and CO
2
are released.
The true quantity of dry raw meal (not kiln feed) required to produce 1 kg of clinker is called R.
Normally R equals to approx. 1.55 kg/kg cli.
R must be calculated from the loss on ignition:
I O L
R
. . 1
1
[kg/kg cli]
loss on ignition of raw

meal in [kg/kg meal]
The above formula applies if the kiln dust is completely returned into the kiln. If some dust is discarded
(without return to kiln) the factor R increases accordingly.
The quantity of hydrate water released from dry raw meal is calculated as follows:
Query:
H
2
O
hyd
= R x hydrate content x 1.24
[Nm
3
/kg cli]
(kg hydrate water/kg raw meal)
The quantity of CO
2
released from dry raw meal is calculated as follows:
C0
2
= [R x (1 - hydrate content) - 1] x 0.509
[Nm
3
/kg cli]
(kg hydrate water /kg raw meal)
Normal dry cement raw meals release approximately the following gas quantities per one kg of clinker:
H
2
O
hyd
0.01 Nm
3
/kg cli
CO
2
0.27 Nm
3
/kg cli
Total
0.28 Nm
3
/kg cli
In most cases it is sufficient to use the above approximation. If dust is discarded the above value must
be increased accordingly.
RAW MATERIAL / 3.2 Water from Wet Raw Meal or from Raw Slurry
3.2 Water from Wet Raw Meal or from Raw Slurry
If w (kg/kg) means the moisture or slurry water content of the kiln feed, the amount of water vapor is
calculated as:
24 . 1
1
2

R
w
w
O H
[Nm
3
/kg cli]
In case of a dry kiln the above quantity is usually negligible, but it is essential on a wet kiln. At a slurry
water content of e.g. 35% it amounts to 1.03 Nm
3
/kg clinker.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C06 - Combustion Engineering / Combustion, Gasflows and Gas Composition / 4. KILN GAS
4. KILN GAS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C06 - Combustion Engineering / Combustion, Gasflows and Gas Composition / 4. KILN GAS / 4.1
Query:
Measurement of Exhaust Gas Composition
4.1 Measurement of Exhaust Gas Composition
Within this section O
2
, CO
2
, CO and N
2
are considered. Trace gases such as NO
x
and SO
2
and
hydrocarbons belong to the scope of emission measurements and are usually in the order of less than
0.1% and are therefore not significant with regard to the main components (O
2
, CO
2
, CO, N
2
).
Measurement of Exhaust Gas Composition / 4.1.1 Gas Sampling
4.1.1 Gas Sampling
Although gas sampling may appear as one of the easiest things, it is in fact the source of more than
50% of all measuring errors! Sampling can be done either continuously or by extracting a gas sample
into a rubber bladder.
The aim of sampling is to obtain a representative gas sample from a gas duct into the analyzer. The
possible problems and solutions in general are as follows:
Problem Solution
Gas is not homogeneous
within the cross section of
the gas duct, because
gases do not mix well
(sample not
representative)
Sample the average of the total cross section (instead of
one sampling point).
Avoid sampling points where poor upstream mixing seems
obvious.
Prefer sampling points after fans (mixing effect of fan
blades).
False air is entering into
gas sampling system(too
much O
2
in gas sample)
Check tightness of sampling system, especially when
sample is extracted from high underpressure.
Avoid small sampling tubing which may become clogged by
dust (and produce high suction pressure at low sample gas
flow).
In case of spot sampling with rubber bladder: rinse bladder
at least once with sample gas.
O
2
may react with steel
tube at > 400C (too little
O
2
in sample)
Use hot extraction tubes made of sicromal, ceramics or
quartz.
CO
2
may be absorbed by
dust and condensate (too
little CO
2
in sample)
Use a filter directly at the hot extraction point.
Keep sampling system free of dust and condensate(e.g.
rubber bladder must be clean inside).
To a certain extent reliable sampling for CO
2
will always be
a problem as long as gas cooling is applied.
Query:
a problem as long as gas cooling is applied.
Long storage time in
rubber bladder (too little
CO
2
and too much O
2
due
to diffusion)
Analyze rubber bladder after 30 min at the latest.
Measurement of Exhaust Gas Composition / 4.1.2 The Orsat Apparatus
4.1.2 The Orsat Apparatus
An Orsat apparatus is shown in Fig. 3. A gas sample is filled into a burette volume of 100%. Step by
step, CO
2
, O
2
and CO are absorbed by contacting the gas sample several times with the absorbing
agent. The absorbed gas volume is measured after each step in the burette.
Fig. 3 The Orsat Apparatus
It is important to maintain the following, correct sequence of absorption:
1) CO
2
1) KOH solution
2) O
2
1) 2) pyrogallic acid / KOH
3) CO 1) 2) Cu
2
Cl
2
solution
In order to avoid measuring errors the following hints are useful:
1) Check tightness of Orsat apparatus first.
2) Use fresh absorption liquids.
3) While taking a reading always hold liquid level in burette and expansion tank at same height
(constant pressure).
4) Check O
2
absorption by measuring ambient air (21% O
2
).
Advantages of the Orsat:
Measuring principle is very clear and simple
The Orsat is available (or at least known) in every cement factory
Query:
Disadvantages of the Orsat:
Due to is principle a continuous measurement is impossible
Analyzing is time consuming
Although the Orsat can measure CO it is impossible to detect small traces of CO 0.1%.
Therefore the CO result is only useful in cases of bad combustion producing about 0.3 to 1%
CO.
Measurement of Exhaust Gas Composition / 4.1.3 Other Gas Analyzers
4.1.3 Other Gas Analyzers
In most cases continuous gas analyzers which are permanently installed are used for process control
in a cement kiln (see chapter Exhaust Gas Analysis). Such permanent analyzers measure only at one
location and are not flexible enough for an investigation of the complete kiln system (involving a large
number of measuring points).
More and more portable gas analyzers are available on the market. They can usually measure O
2
, CO
and combustibles continuously. At fairly low costs (less than $4000) a quite handy and useful
equipment can be purchased. For an investigation on a cement kiln this is virtually the ideal tool to
perform extensive and quick measurements at various locations in the plant.
In the following a few important measuring principles are compared.
Frequent Measuring Principles for O
2
Paramagnetic effect of O
2
Either thermomagnetical or magneto-mechanical principle is used.
Thermomagnetical principle is cross-sensitive to gases having other heat conductivities than O
2
e.g. CO
2
.
Magneto-mechanical principle with cell containing movable dumb-bell is not cross-sensitive to
CO
2
(see Fig. 4A).
Analyzers based on the paramagnetic effect are the most common type of permanent
installation in the cement industry.
Fig. 4A Frequent Measuring Principles for Gases -
Paramagnetic O
2
Sensor
Electrochemical voltage effect of hot zirconium oxide (Fig. 4B)
Query:
Working temperatures above 600C.
Measuring the voltage of an electrochemical cell, according to the equation:
,
_

f PO
PO
nF
RT
E
Re
ln
2
2
[V]
(R = Gas constant, T = [K], n = 4, F = Faraday constant, PO
2
= partial pressure of oxygen)
Logarithmic output signal, depending on PO
2
.
Principle is seldom used.
Fig. 4B Frequent Measuring Principles of Gases -
Zirconiumoxide Cell
Self consuming electromechanical sensors (Fig. 4C)
Basic design of such a measuring cell is similar to a normal battery. Cell consists of anode,
electrolyte and air cathode (see Fig. 4C).
O
2
enters via diffusion barrier to cathode.
At the air-cathode O
2
is reduced to OH. Thereby an electrical current is produced which is
proportional to the O
2
content and is used as output signal.
Above reaction causes an irreversible consumption of the anode (lead). Therefore lifetime of
the cell is limited.
Practical lifetime of such a cell is about 1 year (even if cell is not in use a certain aging occurs).
Reliable measurements without major cross-sensitivities.
Calibration only with air (zero is self adjusting).
Application: Portable low cost analyzers.
Similar applications: Other electrochemical sensors have been developed for CO, SO
2
and NO
x
working on similar principles. By special design and compensation the effect of
self-consumption could be avoided. These analyzers are widely used for portable applications
but not for permanent emission control.
Fig. 4C Frequent Measuring Principles for Gases -
Query:
Electrochemical Cell
Measurement of Exhaust Gas Composition / 4.1.4 Reference to Dry or Wet
4.1.4 Reference to Dry or Wet
The most frequent type of gas sampling includes a cooling of the gas to approx. 0C (or at least to
room temperature). By this cooling the water vapor is condensed and the measurement in the gas
analyzer refers to dry gas.
The reference to dry gas will be considered as normal case in this paper (unless otherwise noted).
The classic analyzer - the Orsat apparatus - refers always to dry gas. For this particular analyzer
even some residual water content in the gas sample will not affect the final result, the reading means
exactly the dry composition (in this case it would even be wrong to make any correction for residual
water vapor in the gas sample!).
Note that there are exceptional cases e.g. where gas samples are not condensed but introduced
directly in a hot zirconium oxide cell. In such a case the result will refer to wet gas. Furthermore
sampling systems without gas coolers but with dilution of the hot gas instead (thus avoiding any water
condensation) exist, but they are hardly used for O
2
, CO, CO
2
.
Summarizing, sampling with gas cooling and reference to dry gas is considered as normal, i.e. is used
for about 99% of all practical measurements.
Measurement of Exhaust Gas Composition / 4.1.5 Determination of Water Content
4.1.5 Determination of Water Content
Since all measuring systems described above are not able to measure water, other methods have to
be used if water really has to be measured. Important methods are:
Two temperatures method:
Measuring of wet bulb and dry bulb temperature.
If the gas temperature is < 150C wet and dry bulb temperature can be measured directly in the
gas duct. If the gas temperature is > 150C an extraction of the gas and cooling down to <
150C is required.
Evaluation of gas moisture according to calculation sheet 32599e (see measuring techniques
part of cement course).
Method is preferred due to its simplicity, however accuracy at high moisture contents may not
Query:
be always sufficient.
Condensation method:
A gas sample is extracted for a certain time and cooled by ice water, thus water is condensed.
The remaining dry gas extracted is measured by a volume counter.
By measuring the weight of the condensate the moisture content of the gas can be calculated.
Immediate Calculations from Gas Composition
4.2 Immediate Calculations from Gas Composition
Immediate Calculations from Gas Composition / 4.2.1 Dew Point
4.2.1 Dew Point
From the water content the dew point can be calculated.
Vf [Nm
3
/Nm
3
w
] is the volume fraction of water vapor in the wet gas
P
tot
[bar] is the total pressure (usually assumed as 1.0133 bar)
By expressing the vapor pressure in form of a numerical equation the following dew point formula was
developed for precise calculations:
( )
179
ln 045 . 17 3362 . 5
48 . 336
tot
P Vf
[C]
Example:
Vf = 0.10 Nm
3
/Nm
3
w
P
tot
= 1.0133 bar
( )
C
P Vf
o
tot
09 . 46
179
ln 045 . 17 3362 . 5
48 . 336
The corresponding inverse function giving the saturation pressure of water (PW) is as follows:
( )
,
_
+
+
+

2
179
113216
179
3591
4297 . 11
t t
EXP PW [bar]
t = 0...120C, max. deviation t 0.03%.
A section of the above function is shown in Fig. 5 which can be used for graphical evaluation of the
Query:
dew point.
Fig. 5 Determination of Dew Point
Immediate Calculations from Gas Composition / 4.2.2 Air Factor n
4.2.2 Air Factor n
The air factor n can be calculated precisely from the gas composition by considering the N
2
, according
to:
excess N eff N
eff N
N
eff N
n
2 2
2
2
2
min

By using the O
2
and N
2
content of the gas the following important formula can be derived:
2
2
2 2
2
76 . 3 1
1
21 . 0
79 . 0
N
O
O N
N
n
If CO is present the following, general formula applies:

2
2
5 . 0
76 . 3 1
1
N
CO O
n
Note that e.g. the CO

2
from raw meal will not affect the n although it does affect the gas composition
(the ratio O
2
/N
2
is constant when CO
2
is added to the gas).
Therefore this formula is very useful and applicable for any case. On the other hand O
2
, CO and N
2
are
required as inputs which needs a complete Orsat analysis (N
2
is the rest composition after absorption
of O
2
, CO and CO
2
).
Example:
O
2
= 4% N
2
= 68% (CO = O)
28 . 1
68
4
76 . 3 1
1

n
Query:
Immediate Calculations from Gas Composition / 4.2.3 Combustion Efficiency
4.2.3 Combustion Efficiency
Unburned gases are a sign of incomplete combustion. The most important unburned gas is CO,
whereas hydrocarbons are usually < 0.1% on a cement kiln and can be neglected with regard to
energy losses.
If only CO is known the loss due to incomplete combustion is:
Q = (dry gas quantity) x CO x 12.6 [MJ]
[Nm
3
] [Nm
3
/Nm
3
]
Example:
On a cement kiln the fuel combustion is 3.3 MJ/kg clinker, the dry exhaust gas quantity is 1.3 Nm
3
/kg
clinker and the CO content = 0.2%.
q = 1.3 x 0.002 x 12.6 = 0.033 MJ/kg cli
Relative loss =
% 1 01 . 0
3 . 3
033 . 0

MJ
MJ
Some gas analyzers have also a combustible sensor based on a catalytic combustion of the sample
gas. Such a sensor responses to all types of combustible gases (CO, H
2
, CH
4
, C
2
H
6
etc.). Although the
main combustible component is not CH
4
(methane) but rather CO it is common to express the result as
CH
4
equivalent.
If the total of combustibles is given as their CH
4
equivalent the loss is:
Q = (dry gas quantity) x CH4 x 35.8 [MJ]
[Nm
3
] [Nm
3
/Nm
3
]
Immediate Calculations from Gas Composition / 4.2.4 Gas Density
4.2.4 Gas Density
The gas density at normal conditions can be calculated by a simple mix calculation by using the
following densities:
Gas M
[kg/kmol]
Density*
[kg/Nm
3
]
O
2
32.0 1.429
CO
2
44.0 1.964
Query:
CO
2
CO 28.0 1.250
N
2
** 28.15 1.257
H
2
O 18.0 0.804
* Density in a gas mixture (considered) as ideal gas
** Not as pure N
2
but as rest in the air (including also Ar and trace gases)
Note: For the calculation of the true gas density all concentrations (O
2
, CO
2
, CO, N
2
,
H
2
O) are to be referred to wet gas here.
Example:
Exhaust gas density of a suspension preheater kiln with coal firing:
Gas
component
Composition
of dry gas
[Vol%]
Composition
of wet gas
[Vol%]
O
2
CO
2
CO
N
2
4%
31%
0%
65%
0.9 x 4 = 3.6%
0.9 x 31 = 27.9%
0.9 x 65 = 58.5%
;
1
100 - 10 = 90%
H
2
O -- 10 %
Total 100% 100 %
Density = 0.036 x 1.429 + 0.279 x 1.964
+ 0.585 x 1.257 + 0.10 x 0.804 =
1.415 kg/Nm
3
(at normal conditions)
Calculation of Exhaust Gas Quantities
4.3 Calculation of Exhaust Gas Quantities
Calculation of Exhaust Gas Quantities / 4.3.1 Firing / Hot Gas Generator
4.3.1 Firing / Hot Gas Generator
The following calculation applies for any type of firing where gases are coming only from fuel
combustion and excess air (no gases from raw meal).
Problem: The fuel consumption Q = [MJ/h] of the firing is known and the complete exhaust gas
Query:
analysis (CO
2
, O
2
, CO, N
2
) is given. By means of this information the gas flow [Nm
3
/h] shall be
calculated.
Solution: Calculate first the n according to 4.2.2:
2
2
5 . 0
76 . 3 1
1
N
CO O
n
The gas flow V [Nm

3
/h] is then:
V = Q [V
min
+ (n - 1) A
min
] [Nm
3
/h]
V
min
and A
min
are in [Nm
3
/MJ] and can either be calculated exactly according to 2.3.1 or just simply by
introducing the approximations according to 2.3.2, namely:
V
min
0.28 Nm
3
/MJ
A
min
0.26 Nm
3
/MJ
If the complete gas analysis is not known but only the O
2
concentration (dry) a further approximation
for the dry amount of Vmin, namely 0.25 Nm
3
/MJ, has to be introduced which results in the following
approximation formula:
1
]
1
+
2
2
% 21
%
25 . 0 28 . 0
O
O
Q V
[Nm
3
/h]
[MJ/h] O
2
ref. to dry
Note: If the O
2
was based on wet gas the above formula would become even more simple, namely:
2
% 21
21
28 . 0
O
Q V

Calculation of Exhaust Gas Quantities / 4.3.2 Cement Kiln
4.3.2 Cement Kiln
On a cement kiln it is common practice to work with specific quantities referred to 1 kg of clinker,
therefore the fuel consumption is expressed in q [MJ/kg cli] and V means here [Nm
3
/kg cli].
The general calculation formula is:
V = q (Vmin + (n -1) x Amin) + (gas from RM)
[Nm
3
/kg cli]
[MJ/kg cli]
[Nm
3
/kg cli]
Query:
n is calculated from the complete gas composition according to 4.2.2.
If only O
2
concentrations are available the following approximations can be used for dry kilns:
- from combustion 0.28 * q
[Nm
3
/kg cli]
- from raw meal 0.28
[Nm
3
/kg cli]
- excess air plus false air
( )
2
2
% 21
%
25 . 0 28 . 0
O
O
q
+
[Nm
3
/kg cli]
Total = V = 0.28 (q+1) + (0.28+0.25xq) x 2
2
% 21
%
O
O
[Nm
3
/kg cli]
[MJ/kg cli]
In case of wet raw meal or for wet kilns additional water has to be added (see 3.2) to the above result.
The above approximation can be used in form of diagram (Fig. 6)
Fig. 6 Quick Determination of Kiln Exhaust Gas Quantity
Example:
Dry kiln, q = 3.3 MJ/kg cli, O
2
= 3.5%
Total gas = 0.28 (3.3+1) + (0.28+0.25x3.3) x 5 . 3 21
5 . 3
= 1.425 Nm
3
/kg cli
Three typical results for cement kilns are shown in Fig. 7.
Query:
Fig. 7 Typical Exhaust Gas Quantities for Three Cement Kiln Systems
Calculation of the CO2 Content of Cement Kiln Exhaust Gas
4.4 Calculation of the CO
2
Content of Cement Kiln Exhaust Gas
Calculation of the CO2 Content of Cement Kiln Exhaust Gas / 4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.1 Introduction
If no measured CO
2
concentration is available it is possible to complete the gas analysis with a
calculated CO
2
concentration. This can be useful e.g. for calculation of density or specific heat.
It is possible to calculate the CO
2
content at any point in the exhaust gas system (suspension
preheater, cooling tower, raw mill, filter) of a cement kiln if the corresponding O
2
concentration is
known.
The calculation is based on two main facts:
1) The CO
2
balance applies (CO
2
comes from combustion and from raw meal)
2) Starting from the O
2
concentration the corresponding dilution with air can be quantified.
In addition a few other preconditions are to be observed here:
Reference is made to dry gas composition.
The assumption is made that all CO
2
from raw meal is in the kiln gas (i.e. after complete
calcination).
No gas is lost or extracted from the gas stream under consideration (e.g.: an upstream extraction
of a bypass gas is excluded here).
For numerical calculations the following approximations are used:
CO
2
from raw meal 0.27 Nm
3
/kg cli
N
2
from combustion at n = 1
N
2
= 0.79 x A
min
+ N
2
from fuel
= 0.79 x 0.26 + 0.0015 0.207 Nm
3
/MJ
(this approximation is very accurate for all types of fuels)
Query:
Calculation of the CO2 Content of Cement Kiln Exhaust Gas / 4.4.2 Maximum CO2 Content
4.4.2 Maximum CO
2
Content
In a first step the influence of dilution (or excess air) is assumed as zero (0% O
2
). Therefore a
theoretical, maximum CO
2
content can be calculated from the CO
2
balance.
The dry gas contains only CO
2
and N
2
which can be calculated as follows:
CO
2
= 0.27 + c
f
x q
[Nm
3
/kg cli]
N
2
= 0.207 x q
[Nm
3
/kg cli]
q [MJ/kg cli] = specific heat consumption
c
f
[Nm
3
/MJ] = CO
2
from fuel, referred to CV
c
f
depends on the type of fuel and can be calculated according to paragraph 2.3.1.2 (by considering
only the CO
2
term in the V
min
formula).
Typical values for c
f
are:
Coal =
0.050 Nm
3
CO
2
/MJ
Fuel oil =
0.039 Nm
3
CO
2
/MJ
Natural gas =
0.028 Nm
3
CO
2
/MJ
The concentration CO
2max
is calculated from the above quantities of CO
2
and N
2
:
2 2
2
max 2
N CO
CO
CO
+
[Nm
3
/Nm
3
]
Calculation of the CO2 Content of Cement Kiln Exhaust Gas / 4.4.3 True CO2 Content
4.4.3 True CO
2
Content
Due to dilution of the gas with air and due to possible formation of some CO the true CO
2
content is:
Query:
CO
CO O
CO CO
,
_
+
21 . 0
79 . 0
2 21 . 0
1
2
max 2 2
[Nm
3
/Nm
3
]
CO
2
, O
2
, CO = [Nm
3
/Nm
3
]
Fig. 8 shows a graphical mode of evaluation of a gas composition based on the formulas given in this
paragraph.
Fig. 8 Relation Heat Consumption/Exhaust Gas Composition for Cement Kilns (CO
2
= 0.27
Nm
3
/kg cli)
Notes:
1) Although it is theoretically possible to calculate also the specific heat consumption from a given gas
composition (backward calculation) this procedure is not recommended. In most of the practical
cases this will be quite inaccurate because of the lack of a precise gas composition (CO
2
readings
are often too low due to systematic sampling error).
2) It is not recommended to introduce calculated CO
2
values in the n-formula according to 4.2.2,
because calculation with calculated values may finally end in a somewhat doubtful result. The air
factor n should therefore only be calculated from a measured gas composition (or alternative
calculations based on O
2
only should be used).
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C06 - Combustion Engineering / Combustion, Gasflows and Gas Composition / 5. FALSE AIR
INVESTIGATIONS
5. FALSE AIR INVESTIGATIONS
INVESTIGATIONS / 5.1 Introduction
5.1 Introduction
Underpressures at various locations in the gas system may vary from 0 to -100 mbar. Leakages of the
equipment can therefore cause considerable amounts of false air which increase the gas flow.
In addition to the obvious increase of gas flow, false air can also be detrimental for the heat
Query:
consumption.
If the exhaust gas fan (or the mill fan) is running at full capacity any additional false air causes a
reduction of the kiln production capacity. Shortage of production may become an essential financial
loss for the cement factory. Therefore measures against false air must be taken.
The first step is always to locate the major leakage points. For this purpose it is necessary to measure
a complete O
2
profile of the kiln system. This may e.g. include:
suspension preheater
cooling tower
kiln fan
raw mill
E.P.
mill fan
As already mentioned in 4.1.3 such a profile can be measured easily with a portable O
2
analyzer. A
large number of sampling points and repeated checks can be realized.
Proper sampling is essential for such an investigation! During such a measurement the operating
conditions of the system should be constant in order to obtain a consistent O
2
profile. Proceed quickly
from one sampling point to the next and finally re-check all O
2
concentrations if they are really stable.
INVESTIGATIONS / 5.2 Evaluation
5.2 Evaluation
The measured O
2
profile may already give a qualitative impression of the tightness of the gas system.
For a quantitative information in form of real gas flows (Nm
3
/h) the approximation formula from 4.3.2 is
used here (because it is based only on O
2
).
If m denotes the clinker production in [kg/h] the complete formula is:
V = m [0.28 x (q + 1) + (0.25 X q + 0.28) 2
2
% 21
%
O
O
]
[Nm
3
/h]
[kg/h] [MJ/kg cli]
V is the gas flow at the measuring point. The amount of false air is easily calculated as the increase of
V between two measuring points.
Note:
V does not include water evaporation e.g. from raw slurry or from a cooling tower. It is also obvious
from the formula that V will not be influenced by any water evaporation because O
2
is based on dry
gas composition.
For the purpose of false air calculation it is not required to add these additional water quantities. It
Query:
would be even wrong to add such quantities to V before calculating the false air as difference between
two V-valves.
INVESTIGATIONS / 5.3 Example of an Investigation
5.3 Example of an Investigation
On a dry suspension preheater kiln with cooling tower and roller mill in combined operation the O
2
profile was checked by means of 5 sampling points.
The clinker production is 100 t/h with a specific consumption of 3400 kJ/kg cli.
Fig. 9 shows the evaluation of the results by calculating the V [Nm
3
/h] for every sampling point.
Fig. 9 False Air Investigation on a Kiln System
V equals to the true wet exhaust gas quantity at the sampling points 1 and 2. For the points 3, 4 and 5
the amount of water vapor from cooling tower and the amount of water evaporated in the raw mill is not
included in V.
The false air flows are simply calculated as the increase of V.
The final result gives the amounts of false air inleak (Nm
3
/h) for each section. These values are
needed in order to evaluate the possible potential for optimization.
Conclusion:
For the example according to Fig. 9 the exhaust gas quantity after preheater is 145800 Nm
3
/h which is
finally mixed with up to 101700 Nm
3
/h or 70% of false air when it reaches the chimney. Therefore clear
optimization potentials exist in the area of the cooling tower, the raw mill and the electrofilter.
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels
C07 - Alternative Fuels
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels
Use of Alternative Fuels
A. Obrist
PT 96/14024/E (Modification 2000)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS
3. UTILIZATION IN CEMENT KILNS
3.1 List of Applications
3.2 Feedpoints for Alternative Fuels
3.3 Substitution effect and potential capacity loss
3.4 Supply and Inlet Control
4. EMISSIONS IN CONTEXT WITH ALTERNATIVE FUELS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 General Features of Cement Kiln Systems
4.3 Special rules regarding emission behaviour on cement kilns
5. ADVANTAGES / DISADVANTAGES
6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
6.1 Waste Tires
6.2 Domestic Refuse / RDF
6.3 Burning of Contaminated Waste Oil
6.4 Burning pure waste oil
6.5 Burning of Waste Wood at Rekingen
6.6 Mixed examples
SUMMARY
The use of alternative fuels (AF) in cement kilns can save costs and contribute to the solution of
environmental problems. The paper on hand concentrates on technical and environmental aspects.
Rules on how to use alternative fuels and possible impacts are given. Practical examples are attached
(flowsheets).
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Burning of alternative fuels (AF) in cement kilns offers unique advantages from an environmental
Query:
point of view (high temperatures, long retention, no solid residues, no increase of emission, overall
reduction of CO
2
emission).
Using alternative fuels saves costs. Two main factors contribute to this
1) Thermal substitution rate (there are technical limits)
2) Low or even negative energy price (USD per GJ) for AFs
Logically only fuels that are significantly cheaper than conventional fuels (USD per GJ) can create
cost savings. However, even if AFs are cheaper all the additional costs involved have to be
considered to make it profitable (preparation, additional production costs, maintenance, reduction
of OEE, etc.)
Within the Holderbank, Group 52 plants are using significant amounts of AF. The average thermal
substitution rate of all 105 plants is 12.3% (1998).
The fuel cost substitution rate (which is not the same as thermal substitution rate) is not yet being
reported and the difficulty is to get an objective and fair consideration of all additional costs
involved. From the basic principle cost substitution rates of over 100% are possible at negative fuel
prices, but so far very exceptional.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 2. TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS
2. TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS
By definition, fuels, which are not traded in the normal fuel market, are considered as "alternative
fuels". Petcoke e.g. is not classified as alternative fuel and is listed in a separate application list (not
treated here).
Alternative fuels can be roughly divided into solid and liquid fuels (gaseous is negligible).
Whether it is simple or difficult to use an alternative fuel depends much on its physical properties. E.g.
it may be very simple to use waste oil which has been purified by the supplier. On the other hand it is
impossible to use e.g. raw domestic refuse directly as solid fuel, because it is of poor quality and very
inhomogeneous. The only practical way to burn it in a cement kiln is a sophisticated pre-treatment to
produce RDF (refuse derived fuel).
Table (1) shows a list of alternative fuels in the order of their CV compared to conventional fuels. The
calorific value alone does not directly indicate the potential to save costs. E.g. waste tires are as good
as coal from the viewpoint of CV but require expensive handling and tend to cause negative impacts on
the kiln process, so an adequate compensation must be included in the price (disposal fee).
Table 1 Various Alternative and Conventional Fuels,
grouped according to their CV
(*= conventional fuel)
Material CV [MJ/kg]
net
Pure polyethylene
3)
46
* Light oil 42
* Heavy oil 40
Tar (by-product) 38
Query:
Tar (by-product) 38
Pure rubber (without inert material) 36
* Anthracite 34
Aluminium metal
1)
31
Waste oils, various refinery wastes 30 to 40
* Petcoke 33
Waste tires 28 to 32
* Bituminous coal (low ash) 29
* Bituminous coal (high ash) 24
Liquid mix (CSS from SCORIBEL or SYNFUEL from Safety
Kleen)
20 to 30
Landfill gas
16 to 20 (MJ/Nm
3
)
Acid sludge, acid tar (from oil reprocessing) 16 to 22
* Lignite (10% moisture) 16 to 21
Pot liners (from aluminium smelter) 20
PVC
3)
19
Palm nut shells (10% moisture) 19
Pressed olive cake 18
Dried wood, bark, saw dust (10% moisture) 16
Rice husks (10% moisture) 16
Car shredder wastes 15
RDF (from domestic refuse, 10% moisture) 15
Animal meal 15
Cardboard, paper (air dry) 15
Impregnated saw dust (25% moisture) 10 to 12
Dried sewage sludge (10% moisture) 10
Fullers earth (from oil purification, LD actual) 10
Domestic refuse (30% moisture) 8.5
Dried sewage sludge (30% moisture) 7.5
Pure iron
2)
7.5
1)
Al metal may occur e.g. in composite packaging wastes and is oxidised to Al
2
O
3
2)
Fe metal occurs e.g. in waste tires and is oxidised to Fe
2
O
3
3)
Usually not in pure form, but contained in mixed plastics
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 3. UTILIZATION IN CEMENT KILNS
Query:
3. UTILIZATION IN CEMENT KILNS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 3. UTILIZATION IN CEMENT KILNS / 3.1 List of
Applications
3.1 List of Applications
Practical experience and practical applications are the key items in the field of alternative fuels. It is
important to know where practical applications or tests have been realized and obtaining the
experience from such cases.
At HMC/TPT a database on practical applications or test or projects in context with alternative fuels is
used and updated regularly. It includes more than 200 plants inside and outside of the Holderbank
Group. A typical printout for the first few examples looks as follows:
Query:
Fig. 1 Holderbank Alternative Fuels
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 3. UTILIZATION IN CEMENT KILNS / 3.2
Feedpoints for Alternative Fuels
3.2 Feedpoints for Alternative Fuels
Fig. 2 Feedpoints for AF
Query:
Regarding the selection of feedpoints the following comments apply:
Solid fuels of large size tend to produce more combustion problems especially when pushed to high
substitution rates. So the practical substitution rates are often below the above optimum figures.
Remedy is possible by better preparation (size reduction), if economically feasible.
In exceptional cases solid fuels can be transferred into a combustible gas by means of a process
integrated gasifier. The gasifier is then the ultimate preparation which allows a comparatively easy
burning. Since such solutions are expensive they are reserved to special applications (the example
of tire gasification is mentioned in this paper).
The feed point via kiln feed is forbidden because of the emission problems during preheating
(VOC, CO). This feed point is reserved for alternative materials with no organics. The only
exception would be kiln systems where the kiln feed enters the combustion zone without preheating
(one stage precalciner kiln at FC) or kilns with VOC removal system (carbonfilter SG, oxidiser at
DU).
Fig. 3 Feed Points for Alternative Fuels to Cement Kilns
Regarding the different kiln systems the following rules apply:
A Circulation Phenomena
Query:
Kiln systems with cyclon suspension preheater and without bypass are most sensitive to
circulating phenomena. If the following criteria are not respected, the AF use will cause severe
problems or will fail
- Keep total chlorine input below 200 300 mg/kg clinker (from all fuels and raw materials). If
this limit is exceeded a bypass is required. The cyclone preheater without bypass is not
forgiving excessive Cl input, it will just plug.
- Keep sulfur cycles under control! Unlike Cl the most critical factor is not the possible sulfur
input by AF but the impact of poor AF combustion on sulfur volatilisation. This will promote a
high sulfur cycle and sulfur pluggings. Remedies: improve combustion, higher O2 at kiln inlet,
enhanced preheater cleaning.
Kiln systems with grate preheater (Lepol) are of similar sensitivity to circulating phenomena as
cyclone preheater kilns. Condensation of volatile elements in the nodule bed on the preheater can
disturb its permeability and thus the kiln operation.
Long dry kilns or long wet kilns are more forgiving in terms of circulating phenomena as they
have no critical narrow cross sections. However, rings and build-ups in the rotary kiln also occur but
it takes longer until they grow to a critical size. If the kiln system works with 100% dust
reintroduction the sustainable chlorine limit is the same as on a cyclone preheater kiln (200 300
mg/kg clinker).
The difference to the cyclone preheater kiln is that it is easy to realize a valve for chlorine on a wet
kiln if the kiln is equipped with an EP dedusting. This allows to extract a highly enriched fine dust
selectively that removes chlorine effectively when being discarded. Like that up to 5000 mg/kg cli
chlorine input can be handled. In this case the discarded dust causes an additional disposal
problem, because it cannot be added to the cement due to the chlorine limit for cement (0.1% Cl).

Chlorine limit
Regarding the chlorine input the following diagram helps to get a quick overview of what can be
accepted as total input if then chlorine would come only from AFR (whether its a Fuel or a Raw
material does not matter here).
The following limits apply:
Limit A: Normal SP kiln with completely closed dust loop
Limit B: SP kiln with some 20% bypass or wet kiln discarding medium dust quantities
Limit C: Maximum possible for wet kiln discarding high dust or SP kiln with 100%
bypass
Example:
An AFR with 1% Cl at a relative input of 10 g AFR per kg clinker creates an input of 100 mg Cl/kg cli,
which is not critical (assuming no other inputs of Cl).
Fig. 4 Chlorine Input by AFR
Query:
B Temperature and gas residence line
If stable toxic organic compounds in AFs are an issue the main kiln features for their destruction have
to be known.
Main firing
- Flame temperature 1800 2000C
- Total gas residence time in rotary kiln depends on kiln system as follows
- short kiln (2 support) approx. 3 sec.
- normal SP/PC kiln more than 5 sec.
- long wet or dry kiln more than 10 sec.
So typically a gas residence time of approx. 5 sec. above 1200C can be expected.
Secondary firing (no PC), with unextended riser duct 1 sec. above 820C
Precalciner with tertiary air 2-4 sec. above 860C
(in case of hot spot design peaks up to 1200C)
For optimum combustion and safe destruction of stable organics only the main firing shall be used.
Example: waste oil that is contaminated with traces of PCB.
Other feedpoints are reserved for less critical AFs or if they are used for critical substances tests may
become necessary. To avoid extensive tests it is often easier to select the main firing.
Finally the above temperatures are not valid for start up or upset conditions so critical AFs should only
be used under normal operating conditions.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 3. UTILIZATION IN CEMENT KILNS / 3.3
Substitution effect and potential capacity loss
3.3 Substitution effect and potential capacity loss
Introduction
If low grade fuels are used to substitute high grade conventional fuels (coal, oil, gas) the kiln will react
with certain effects that will increase the thermal consumption and decrease the maximum kiln
Query:
capacity. Both phenomena are related to each other.
If the energy costs for AFs are low or even negative one may think the increase in heat consumption is
not that negative because the additional consumption can be covered with low cost AF. This is only
half the truth. If maximum production is required at the same time every ton of clinker that cannot be
produced means a financial loss. Roughly every one % increase in heat consumption also means one
% loss in potential kiln capacity. And if kiln availability is lower due to AFs the OEE can decrease even
further.
Fig. 5 Conventional Fuel versus AF
Factors for increased heat consumption
Why can AFs increase the thermal losses on a cement kiln system and thus create induced losses?
There is a defined number of reasons that contribute to such effects as follows:
1) High water content in AF
A high water content increases both exhaust gas quantity and exhaust gas temperature.
Consequence: increased heat loss in the exhaust gas that needs to be compensated by more fuel.
2) High ash content in AF
A high ash content reduces the amount of kiln feed that passes through the preheating zone and
decreases the heat recovery by kiln feed. The exhaust gas temperature increases.
Consequence: increased exhaust gas loss that needs to be compensated by more fuel.
Note: the same effect happens if cold raw material is added directly into the precalciner.
3) Reduced combustion properties
Certain AFs have poor combustion properties because of too coarse granulometry. Depending on
the control strategy this can mean increased CO losses or increased O
2
level to compensate this.
Example: whole tires at kiln inlet
Consequence: No matter what the strategy is, the final result is always a higher energy loss in the
exhaust gas, which has to be compensated by more fuel.
4) Fluctuating AF feed (at good combustion properties)
Query:
Fluctuations in AF energy input can result from
- Inhomogeneous AF properties (CV)
- Fluctuations of the dosing rate due to more difficult handling properties
Both items have the same impact as for item 3). What happens if a temporary excess of energy
input occurs? Either a CO loss is generated or the O
2
has to be set so high that no CO is
generated.
Consequence: same as in case 3).
(The difference to case 3) is that this can happen even with fuels that have good combustion
properties.)
Example: poorly homogenized liquids or poor performance of dosing system.
5) Cold air introduction
Solid coarse AF usually need a high amount of air for pneumatic injection or an air leakage can
occur at a poorly sealed feed chute for AF. This has the same effect as an increase of the primary
air on a burner.
Consequence: Inleak of additional cold air (due to AF) causes higher fuel consumption.
6) More circulation phenomena due to AF
Circulation phenomena do not only occur because AF can introduce circulating elements but also
be a result of poor combustion (local CO formation). Although the evaporation and condensation of
circulating elements induces a heat transport from the hot zone to the colder zones, the direct
effect on balance heat consumption is not that critical. What really disturbs is the unstable kiln
operation, which results in reduced availability and higher average fuel consumption.
Consequence: reduced availability due to unstable operation/stoppages and increased average
fuel consumption.
The majority of the above factors (1, 2, 4 and 5) can be quantified of predicted and the other factors
are based on experience. (One of the services that can be provided by HMC/TPT.)
Practical substitution effects (examples):
- Liquids with < 10% H
2
O and good homogeneity 95 100%
- Very low grade waste as raw domestic refuse 70% or lower
So the substitution effect would be typically between 70 100% as long as the applications are
approached in a engaged and professional way and no unusual difficulties occur. For low grade AF
(high ash, high water, coarse, inhomogeneous) the lower limit of 70 % would be typical.
Conclusion
1. The potential fuel substitution value of an AF (USD/GJ) cannot be calculated by just using its net
CV. A reduced effect of typically 70 100% can occur. This is only on basis of immediate
additional thermal losses (not yet taking into account other costs that emerge when using AF).
2. When reporting the true heat consumption of a kiln, we have to accept higher consumption when
Query:
using low grade AF's. Manipulating CV's for AF to get the same consumption (on paper) is
physically incorrect and not a good reporting practise.
3. The potential capacity loss when using AFs is directly linked to the % increase in heat
consumption. Increased heat consumption and possibly also reduced kiln availability can have an
important impact on OEE.
Fig. 6 Factors for Increased Heat Consumption
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 3. UTILIZATION IN CEMENT KILNS / 3.4 Supply
and Inlet Control
3.4 Supply and Inlet Control
and Inlet Control / 3.4.1 Organisation of supply
3.4.1 Organisation of supply
To get AF to the cement plant can be basically done in two ways:
1) Get AF directly from a waste source.
2) Get AF through a specialised company that prepares an adequate waste blend for the cement.
Both ways are being used. The possibility 1) is adequate for certain wastes that can be used with
minimum or no pre-treatment before shipped to the cement plant. A standard example would be tires.
The possibility 2) is a more professional approach, which involves also better integration in the whole
waste market. Specialized companies emerged in the previous years and their number is still growing.
Classical examples were
- SCORI (France)
- SCORIBEL (Belgium/Obourg)
- SYSTECH (USA/Lafarge)
- SAFETY KLEEN (USA/partly active for Holnam)
With the exception of Safety Kleen all these organisations were controlled by the cement industry.
The new companies that have emerged within Holderbank recently are mostly orientated on the
Query:
SCORIBEL/Obourg model. From a technical viewpoint of a cement plant these companies provide the
following functions:
- Allocating adequate waste categories to the cement plant
- Control of properties
- Preparation/pretreatment
(in particular blending/homogenising)
The preparation of waste into a useful cement kiln AF is done externally. This seems to become the
preferred approach. The supply companies within Holderbank have a common platform: the VESTA
Forum.
and Inlet Control / 3.4.2 Delivery control
3.4.2 Delivery control
A delivery control at the cement plant is essential. In case of hazardeous wastes this is anyway a must
(given by the permit) and this does not need to be explained further.
What is less obvious is that even harmless or non-hazardeous AFs need to be checked when
delivered to the cement plant. The problem is that AFs can be contaminated with undesirable
inpurities. Whether this happens intentionally or not, it needs to be excluded.
Examples:
Waste oil
The original motor oil would not be critical from its properties but the waste product that is finally
delivered to the cement plant may be contaminated, e.g. with
- Solvents (a small quantity of solvents decreases the flash point drastically and thus the safety
can become a problem)
- PCB (PCB contaminated oils have a high disposal fee and the cement kiln could be abused to
get rid of them cheaply, PCB is not detectable by simple test methods)
Waste tires
When accepting waste tires it is mandatory to have a visual delivery control and the receiving area
must not allow uncontrolled access for various suppliers. Some plants that believed they could do it
without any control finally paid a high price because they were abused as a dumping area for non
usable sizes, rims and other materials (for which they had to pay for the disposal).

Chlorine
It happened from time to time that suppliers came up with new solid waste mixes (RDF) or mixed
plastics where they claimed very low chlorine contents. This is not always true, but difficult to
disprove. There is in fact a problem that sampling of solid RDF is hardly representative and the
chlorine analysis are often lower than the average bulk. So do not believe, but check what you get
for chlorine, it could hurt your kiln operation.
Query:
and Inlet Control / 3.4.3 Check-list for Properties of Waste Fuels
3.4.3 Check-list for Properties of Waste Fuels
Table 2 Checklist for Properties of Waste Fuels
Type of waste
Name, trade name origin
Physical state:
solid
liquid
gaseous
solid/liquid
Size, form, grindability
viscosity at ...C,
impurities
mixing proportions
Density
kg/m
3
Calorific value (net) MJ/kg
Proximate analysis Moisture, ash, volatiles, C
fix
Ultimate analysis C, H, O, N, S
Halogens Cl, Br, F
Ash composition CaO, SiO
2
, Al
2
O
3
, Fe
2
O
3
, K
2
O, Na
2
O,
P
2
O
5
, etc
Heavy metals Hg, Cd, Tl, Be, As, Co, Cr, Pb, Zu, V,
etc.
Flashpoint C
Explosivity non-explosive
Toxicity toxic /non toxic, safety precautions,
warnings
Legal restrictions containing
transport and storage
Storage Chemical or natural degradation,
putrefaction phenomena,
segregations, precipitations,
Corrosivity Construction materials required
Mixing possibilities Mixing with oil, water, solvents
Quantities to be used min, max, average (now, in future)
Fluctuations in quality Quality specification
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 4. EMISSIONS IN CONTEXT WITH
ALTERNATIVE FUELS
4. EMISSIONS IN CONTEXT WITH ALTERNATIVE FUELS
Query:
ALTERNATIVE FUELS / 4.1 Introduction
4.1 Introduction
If alternative fuels are used to substitute conventional fuels the cement kiln emissions are often not
increased and may even drop.
Fig. 6 Emission influence AF
Emissions do occur but they are hardly caused by alternative fuels. Emission results mainly from the
raw material and from the high temperature process (NOx) and the fuels have only a limited influence.
E.g. the SO
2
emission on a suspension preheater kiln does not depend on the sulfur in the fuel. The
difficult part can be how to handle the normal emissions if burning AFs attracts public interest and
implies more stringent emission rules.
ALTERNATIVE FUELS / 4.2 General Features of Cement Kiln Systems
4.2 General Features of Cement Kiln Systems
"Barriers" which prevent toxic substances from being emitted or becoming harmful to the environment
(see figure 7)
Fig. 7 Environmental Aspects: Emission Barriers
Query:
# 1 High incineration temperature
In the sintering zone flame temperatures of some 2000C are required for process reasons. Even very
stable organic compounds (e.g. PCB) are completely destroyed.
This argument does not apply for secondary firings.
# 2 Contact with Fine, Dispersed Raw Meal
Intensive contact of gas and raw meal is required for process reasons (heat transfer). This produces
gas purification through absorption of toxic compounds while contact occurs in counter-current pattern.
Excellent retention of acid gases (e.g. HCl, SO
2
) and also of most of the heavy metals is achieved in
SP-preheaters and raw mills. The key is the contact of gas with fine suspended particles.
This does not apply for the bypass gas extraction, which must be considered e.g. in an emission
estimate.
# 3 Low Final Gas Temperature (favourable equilibrium)
Condensation or absorption on surface active raw meal reduces the concentrations of toxic elements
according to the physical/chemical equilibrium. This effect strongly depends on the gas temperature.
The lower the stack temperature the lower will be the equilibrium concentrations of the vapours of toxic
compounds. Examples for very low stack temperatures are:
Kiln gas after passing the raw mill (during combined operation) ~ 100C
It is therefore possible to keep emission levels low, while the gases are passing the raw mill
(argument #2 and #3 are equally important).

# 4 Efficient Dedusting Equipment
The high absorption capacity of the kiln system avoids emissions but on the other hand can cause
enrichments of the filter dust for certain elements that can reach the outer dust cycle (e.g. Tl). An
efficient dedusting prevents enriched dust from getting into the atmosphere. Also no EP shut offs are
acceptable. Moreover, excessive dust emissions have an over proportional negative psychological
impact as all neighbours can see it.
Query:
# 5 Safe Disposal of Trace Elements
Trace elements or heavy metals cannot be destroyed nor can they disappear. If they are fed into the
cement clinkering process and are not emitted they must have an outlet. Unlike other incineration
systems, which produce concentrated and often toxic by-products, a cement kiln with complete dust
reintroduction offers the unique possibility to incorporate trace elements in the clinker production in
diluted and immobile form. These trace elements occur in concentrations which are usually not
different from clinker, which is produced without alternative fuels and they are not leachable (exception:
hexavalent Cr during make up with water).
If the dust is not completely reintroduced into the kiln or if a bypass is required the above argument - in
its simple form - is no longer true.
ALTERNATIVE FUELS / 4.3 Special rules regarding emission behaviour on cement kilns
4.3 Special rules regarding emission behaviour on cement kilns
The reality with emission is usually too complex for a safe and accurate prediction. However, from
an engineering point of view it is better to have some ideas or rules about the emission behaviour
to roughly identify what could be critical or not.
Low emission of Cl, F and Br, < 0.1% of balance input.
Low volatile heavy metals are not critical. Emission usually < 0.1% of balance inputs.
Medium or high volatile heavy metals can reach the outer dust cycle (Cd, Tl) or even escape in
form of vaporous compounds (Hg). Whereas Cd and Tl are still below < 1% emission Hg can be
emitted almost totally (again this depends on process conditions).
SO
2
emissions are not depending on fuel sulfur in case of a SP kiln. Wet kilns however show a
moderate influence by S on emissions.
AF burning in the secondary firing usually decreases the NOx (0 30%).
CO as discussed previously is often increased when using the secondary firing. Fluctuating energy
input may also cause CO peaks.
Virtually no organics result from AF burning (even in cases of CO formation it does not necessarily
correlate with organics). The improper use of AF via kiln feed is of course excluded from this
consideration.
Dioxine/furan emissions on SP kilns are not critical in view of a limit of 0.1 ng TE/m
3
. Again, there is
no correlation with AF burning.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 5. ADVANTAGES / DISADVANTAGES
5. ADVANTAGES / DISADVANTAGES
Nowadays the destruction of wastes in special incineration plants is being improved e.g. by addition of
more effective gas cleaning. Under this aspect the question may arise whether it still makes sense to
incinerate wastes in cement kilns instead of in special incinerators. To answer this question the
advantages and disadvantages of a cement kiln must be compared as follows:
Query:
Advantages Disadvantages
Possibility of high temperature
incineration (up to 2000C) which
destroys toxic organic compound
completely
The majority of heavy metals can be
captured at > 99.9% in the kiln system
(absorption by raw meal)
Some limitations have to be
considered, e.g. Hg, Tl, Cr
Acid gases are retained efficiently
(e.g. no HCl emission)
Because of kiln internal circulation
phenomena, cement kilns and
especially SP-kilns cannot accept high
inputs of chlorine
No solid residues occur because the
ash is incorporated in the clinker. No
landfill is required
In the case of wet kilns or bypass
installations solid residues in the form
of dust may need disposal
If the necessary rules are observed
there will be no influence on
emissions and clinker quality
For psychological reasons some
customers may not accept cement
which is produced by using waste
No necessity for a new incinerator
since the cement kiln is already
existing
High environmental awareness helps
to allocate certain wastes to cement
plants
Realization of a project may be difficult
and time consuming at the level of
public discussion and obtaining of
permission
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS / 6.1 Waste Tires
6.1 Waste Tires
Energy potential
Calorific value (depends on quantity of steel included) 28 to 32 MJ/kg
Comparison for an industrialized country (per capita):
a) Energy required to burn clinker at
500 kg cement/cap. a (at 3.6 MJ/kg) = 1800 MJ/a cap.
b) Energy from waste tires at
Query:
6 kg tires/cap. a (at 30 MJ/kg) = 180 MJ/a cap.
Theoretical overall fuel replacement
(if tires were fully available for cement industry) 10%
Conclusion:
Tires are an important energy source and so far the most frequent application of AF. The practical
attractivity depends on the disposal fee that is available. Current values (in different areas) range from
0 60 USD/t.
Typical Composition of Tires
Constituents
Rubber 36.0%
Filler (soot, SiO
2
) 37.0%
ZnO 1.2%
Softeners 3.0%
Sulfur 1.3%
Steel, textiles 18.0%
Rest 3.5%
Total 100%
Chemical analysis
C 70%
H 7%
S 1 ...3%
Cl 0.2...0.6%
Fe 15%
ZnO 2%
SiO
2
+ rest 5%
Cr 97 ppm
Ni 77 ppm
Pb 60 to 760 ppm
Cd 5 to 10 ppm
Tl 0.2 to 0.3 ppm
Query:
Incineration in Cement Kilns
Incineration of waste tires in cement kilns has nowadays become a frequent method. At least 40
cement plants are known to do so. They can usually substitute 10 - 20% of their fuel requirements.
From an environmental point of view this method is considered as proven and advantageous
(energetical recycling, low emission, no solid residues). It is often well accepted by the authorities.
Application of feeding methods:
1) Whole tires
This is the most frequent application, based on the secondary firing principle. Originally, this was
first developed and used on dry SP-kilns but then also extended to long dry or wet kilns.
a) Kiln inlet of suspension preheater kilns
A feed system according to the figure 8 involves an investment of some USD
2 Mio. for a fully automatic installation.
b) Mid kiln introduction device on long dry or wet kilns
The principle is similar to a) but the introduction chute is rotating with the kiln
shell, i.e. the tire feed is coupled with the kiln revolution. Figure 9 shows the
introduction chute of the "Cadence" system as used at the Joliette plant.
2) Shredded tires / TDF
TDF = tire derived fuel
Shredded tires allow for a more regular fuel input into the kiln and have a higher density
(advantages for transport and storage).
Shredding costs are some 30 - 60 UDS/t. Sometimes this is already paid by disposal fees.
Shredding is normally not operated by the cement producer.
The use of shredded tires < 300 mm on suspension preheater kilns as in figure 10 is rare because
it would cost less to use complete tires at the kiln inlet.
The use of shredded tires < 50 mm has some applications on long kilns in North America where
still many long dry and wet kilns are in operation. The tire chips are injected into the burning zone.
Figure 11 shows the example of the Seattle plant with 15% substitution. Shredded tires or TDF <
50 mm are successfully used on precalciners according to figure 12 in the plants Midlothian,
Theodore, Ramos Arizpe and Lgerdorf.
3) Ground tires (< 5 mm):
Theoretically, ground tires would be the ideal fuel for any primary firing (without compromise).
However, the costs for grinding are usually prohibitive. Ground rubber as granulate is normally too
expensive as fuel. Nevertheless, a Group Plant in Germany and HCB have tried this and gone
through a learning process.
4) Pyrolisis/Gazification of tires:
The Japanese have realised gasifications for cement kilns and reported more than a decade ago.
It was based on a reactor (shaft) with understochiometric air addition at 700C. The hot gas
produced was directly sent to the cement kiln.
1999 a new gasifier for whole tires (industrial scale) was commissioned by Polysius at Jura
Cement in Wildegg (Switzerland). The hot combustible gases are used in the precalciner.
Investment for a 3 t/h installation is in the order of 3 Mio. USD. (Fig. 13)
Query:
The gasification can potentially help to optimize the use of tires, which still needs to be
demonstrated on a long-term basis. The costs are significantly higher than for burning the tires
directly. Direct burning - not gasification - should always be the first option to be investigated.

Fig. 8 Whole Tire Handling and Lump Fuel Kiln Feed (HCB-Eclpens)
Fig. 9 Cadence valve on Joliette kiln
Fig. 10 Handling of Tyre Chips and Lump Alternative Fuels at Altkirch
Query:
Fig. 11 Burning of TDF ( Tire Derived Fuel) at the Seattle plant
Fig. 12 Generic tire chip feeding system
Fig. 13 Integrated Gasifier (Polysius) for whole tires
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS / 6.2 Domestic
Refuse / RDF
6.2 Domestic Refuse / RDF
Example Germany:
Query:
Domestic refuse Cement
consumption
Quantity 400 kg/cap a 450 kg/cap a
Energy content 3.4 GJ/cap a 1.7 GJ/cap a
(heat energy)
The energy content contained in the domestic refuse is twice the energy consumption of the
cement!
However, a complete use of the energy from raw domestic refuse in the cement industry is by no
means feasible. Reasons:
poor homogeneity, inadequate size, difficult handling
Cl-content of 0.5...1% Cl which can cause clogging problems in the kiln
low calorific value (8 to 10 MJ/kg)
low density and high transport costs per heat unit
competition to existing incinerators
Conclusion:
Domestic refuse needs intensive processing in order to eliminate undesired fractions and to obtain a
reasonable burnable fraction. Such a fraction may represent 30...50% of the original refuse, the rest
needs further disposal. The burnable fraction is called RDF (refuse derived fuel) and offers somewhat
better properties, e.g. a CV of 12...16 MJ/kg.
Experience:
The first application was in the early 80s at BCI/Westbury, now stopped.
The most important application today is the Wittekind plant in Erwitte (Germany) according to figure 14
with 50% substitution and a chlorine bypass. Otherwise very few plants have realized major
applications.
Fig. 14 Processing of Domestic Refuse and Incineration of RDF in a SP Kiln
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS / 6.3 Burning of
Contaminated Waste Oil
Query:
6.3 Burning of Contaminated Waste Oil
The burning of waste oil in cement kilns has a long tradition. In the late 80s and early 90s new efforts
have been made to investigate the influence of contaminants. Extensive measurement programs have
been performed to demonstrate all possible impacts on the environment.
Important examples come from Germany and Austria.
One of the first plants to publish the results of its measurements in 1988 was Phoenix in
Beckum/Germany. They burnt waste oil, which was contaminated with PCB (0 to 1000 ppm).
Emissions of dioxins were also measured. This project was 50% sponsored by the German
Umweltbundesamt (UBA).
The Lgerdorf plant and the Gmunden plant (Austria) have also followed this at an even higher degree
of perfection. The design of the original Lgerdorf installation is shown in the figure 15. A large
program of measurements has been done and published. This program also includes emission
measurements of SO
2
, NOx, heavy metals, F, chlorinated organics, PCB, Dioxins/Furans. It could be
demonstrated that a limit for dioxins of 0.1 ng TE/m
3
(toxic equivalent) could be easily met and that
these emissions are not influenced by burning contaminated waste oils. A similar result was obtained
at Gmunden.
Special efforts were also made with regard to the delivery control, which meant a considerable
extension to the existing laboratory. Limiting values for the waste oil in Gmunden:
Pb < 5000 ppm
Hg < 2 ppm
Tl < 10 ppm
Cd < 60 ppm
PCB < 100 ppm
F < 600 ppm
S < 5%
Cl < 1%
N < 5%
H
2
O < 15%
Sediments < 5%
CV net > 25000 kJ/kg
The original installation Lgerdorf according to figure 15 is designed for low flashpoints (< 21C),
therefore, use of solvents is also possible.
Fig. 15 Burning of Waste Oil at Lgerdorf Plant
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS / 6.4 Burning
pure waste oil
6.4 Burning pure waste oil
The installation from Untervaz according to figure 16 results from a former heavy oil system and is
adequate for high quality waste oil with high flashpoint (> 55C).
Fig. 16 Handling of Waste Oil at BCU Untervaz
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS / 6.5 Burning of
Waste Wood at Rekingen
6.5 Burning of Waste Wood at Rekingen
This installation to process waste wood to a dry saw dust and burn it in a cement kiln went into
operation in 1994. It was stopped in 1997 because the Rekingen plant was closed (market reasons).
The final stage of this project would have been 70000 t/a of processed waste wood or 50% fuel
substitution. The treatment of the incoming wood consisted of delivery control, primary crushing,
sorting fine grinding and drying.
The projected costs were 25 Mio. Swiss Francs and therefore among the highest ever realized for a
single project for an AF. During the project phase the fees for waste wood were overestimated. When it
came into operation, the actual market prices for waste wood were much lower and the installation
could not be amortized.
Query:
Fig. 17 Use of Waste Wood as Fuel at the Rekingen Plant
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Use of Alternative Fuels / 6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS / 6.6 Mixed
examples
6.6 Mixed examples
The following illustrations originate from our reports describing practical AFR applications in our Group
plants. The illustrations are self-explaining.
Content:
- Liquid AF at Altkirch
- Liquid AF at Obourg
- Distillation Residues and Animal Fat at Untervaz
- Mid kiln firing for bales at Obourg
- Dried Sewage Sludge and Animal Meal at Untervaz
- Solid AF (Impregnated saw dust) at Eclpens
- Tire Chips and Ferrocarbon at Lgerdorf
- Fly ash at Lgerdorf
Fig. 18 Handling of Liquid Alternative Fuels (CSL) at Altkirch
(Solvents, Oil-Emulsions, Pasty Liquids)
Query:
Fig. 19 Handling of Solvents (CSL: Combustible de Substitution
Liquide) at Ciments dObourg
Fig. 20 Handling of Destillation Residue and Animal Fat at BCU Untervaz
Fig. 21 Mid Kiln Installation at Ciments dObourg
Query:
Fig. 22 Handling of Dried Sewage Sludge and Animal Meal at Untervaz
Fig. 23 Handling and injecting of solid fuel at HCB Eclpens (impregnated
saw dust, shredded plastic, animal meal)
Fig. 24 Handling of Tire Chips and Ferrocarbon at Lgerdorf
Query:
Fig. 25 Handling of fly ash at Lgerdorf
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Preparation of Alternative Fuels
Preparation of Alternative Fuels
A. Flacher
PT 00/14667/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FROM WASTE TO ALTERNATIVE FUEL
2.1 Waste Properties
2.2 Processing of Waste
3. LIQUID ALTERNATIVE FUEL PREPARATION
3.1 Pollution of Liquid Waste
3.2 Homogenizing
3.3 Safety
4. PREPARATION OF ALTERNATIVE FUEL FROM PASTY WASTE
4.1 High Viscosity Liquid Facility
4.2 Impregnation Facility
5. SOLID ALTERNATIVE FUEL PREPARATION
5.1 Shredding and Granulation of Solid Waste
6. EXAMPLES
6.1 Typical Liquid Waste Handling
6.2 SCORIBEL Impregnated Sawdust Production
6.3 Industrial Plastic Waste Shredding at PLASTREC AG
SUMMARY
Alternative fuels used in the cement manufacturing process originate from waste, which often doesnt
have suitable physical properties for the kiln process. This is where alternative fuel preparation is
needed.
This paper focuses on common waste treatment techniques for alternative fuel production. For a
complete understanding of the subject, the lecture of the Cement Course paper Use of Alternative
Fuels is recommended.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Preparation of Alternative Fuels / 1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Waste is a residual product of some sort of process. Its physical properties are characterized by this
Query:
process. Alternative fuel, on the other hand, is a combustible for clinker manufacture. It must have
physical properties suited for incineration in a cement kiln. In many cases the properties of waste and
alternative fuel do not correspond. This is where alternative fuel preparation is required.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Preparation of Alternative Fuels / 2. FROM WASTE TO ALTERNATIVE
FUEL
2. FROM WASTE TO ALTERNATIVE FUEL
FUEL / 2.1 Waste Properties
2.1 Waste Properties
When waste material is considered for alternative fuel use, first of all, its chemical composition
(circulating elements, ash composition) must be suited for the kiln process. Then there are other
properties and aspects, which need to be looked at:
The viscosity of liquid waste determines the design of the storage and handling installation.
Corresponding to the granulometry of solid waste, a size reduction process might have to be
considered and the suitable kiln feeding point is chosen.
Water contained in liquids requires mixing for better homogeneity of the alternative fuel. Water
contained in solid waste has an impact on the handling as it might change the flowability of the
material.
Foreign bodies and impurities need to be separated in order to reduce wear and the risk of
blockages.
Safety is very important when dealing with waste, e.g. toxicity and flashpoint need to be
considered.
Additional aspects refer to the waste supply, such as annual tonnage as well as form and
schedule of delivery.
FUEL / 2.2 Processing of Waste
2.2 Processing of Waste
As for any other process, for the preparation of alternative fuel the most simple and inexpensive but
also safe process is suited best. A mechanical waste treatment is therefore chosen in almost any case.
Similar to the mechanical processes in cement manufacture the preparation of alternative fuel
comprises of the following main processes:
Screening to separate foreign and oversized material which might cause handling or wear
problems in fuel preparation and firing installations.
Size reduction to fit the fuel to the foreseen firing point (e.g. preheater, main burner), as well as to
allow a proper dosing and to ensure a good combustion.
Query:
Homogenizing and mixing to feed to the kiln process a fuel of constant quality.
Picture 1 gives and overview of the different processes from waste to alternative fuel. Explanation is
given in the following chapters.
Picture 1: Processes from waste to alternative fuel
Thermal waste processing (gasification/pyrolysis) is applied in a few cement plants. It is operated in
conjunction with the kiln. Gasification allows separating the combustible fraction of a waste in a
gaseous form from the non-combustible part. The investment cost for such installation is comparably
high, which makes this process worthwhile only when considerable disposal fees are received.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Preparation of Alternative Fuels / 3. LIQUID ALTERNATIVE FUEL
PREPARATION
3. LIQUID ALTERNATIVE FUEL PREPARATION
In many cement plants, liquid waste has been the first waste material to be accepted and used as
alternative fuel because little preparation is necessary and, in certain cases, existing installations may
be used. However, there are special aspects that need to be considered when handling liquid waste
such as waste oil and solvents.
PREPARATION / 3.1 Pollution of Liquid Waste
3.1 Pollution of Liquid Waste
Liquid waste is likely to be polluted with foreign bodies (metal pieces, sand, plastics etc.). A coarse
filtering upon reception is therefore necessary. With in-line shredders and grinders remaining particles
can be crushed to avoid blockages. Even after a second filter in the kiln firing line, there are still solid
particles present in the liquid. The pumping and kiln injection system must therefore be designed
accordingly.
Picture 2: Screw pole pump, suited for waste oil containing solid particles
Query:
PREPARATION / 3.2 Homogenizing
3.2 Homogenizing
Due to the presence of solids and often also mixtures of liquids with different densities, a mixing tank is
required. A recirculation circuit or mechanical mixer ensures a good blending.
PREPARATION / 3.3 Safety
3.3 Safety
The handling of solvents or liquid waste containing solvents represents a safety risk since there is a
high potential for explosion. The decisive parameter for the safe design of a liquid installation is the
liquids flashpoint (the flashpoint is the temperature at which the evaporations of a combustible liquid
form an inflammable gas). Pure motor oil has a flashpoint of up to 200C whereas other liquids, such
as solvents, can have one below 0C.
Another safety risk to workers and the environment represent toxic substances. Special protection and
safety procedures are required. The guideline for this should always be the safety standards applied in
the chemical industry.
Picture 3: Protected worker sampling liquid waste
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Preparation of Alternative Fuels / 4. PREPARATION OF ALTERNATIVE
FUEL FROM PASTY WASTE
4. PREPARATION OF ALTERNATIVE FUEL FROM PASTY WASTE
In industrial areas there are often considerable amounts of pasty or sludgy waste materials available,
such as
resin, paint, varnish
oil sludges from tank cleaning
destillation residues
grease, soap.
Many of these materials are hazardous. With regard to the variable clinker production cost, they can
therefore be of particular interest as considerable disposal fees may be received.
From the point of view of incineration, it is important that such waste is burnt at high temperatures with
sufficient residence time (The combustion criteria for destruction of halogenated waste for example is
1200 C with 2 seconds residence time). This is only ensured at the main burner of a cement kiln.
Therefore, the hazardous, pasty waste must be pre-treated for incineration in the primary firing.
There are two common ways of sludge pre-treatment for incineration in the primary firing, see below.
For mainly non-hazardous sludges there is the possibility of kiln inlet feeding. With such application,
the sludge is screened to take out coarse foreign bodies before being pumped to the kiln by means of
a concrete pump. Sludge feeding at the kiln inlet is limited due to the high water input.
Picture 4: Sludge feeding installation to kiln inlet (Apaxco plant)
FUEL FROM PASTY WASTE / 4.1 High Viscosity Liquid Facility
4.1 High Viscosity Liquid Facility
A so-called high viscosity liquid facility aims to liquefy the sludgy waste. This is achieved by mixing the
sludge with liquid fuel. The important aspect of this process is the compatibility of the substances
involved. To avoid chemical reaction, sludge and liquid need to fulfill certain requirements. This
Query:
however, limits the use of such pre-treatment system to certain substances, which is a drawback with
regard to flexibility.
FUEL FROM PASTY WASTE / 4.2 Impregnation Facility
4.2 Impregnation Facility
The other common sludge pre-treatment process aims to prepare a pourable, fine, solid alternative
fuel. This is achieved by mixing the sludges with an impregnation support. Saw dust is commonly used
for this purpose. It has a good absorbency and the impregnated product shows little stickiness.
Alternatively, filter cakes and also animal meal have been used as impregnation aid.
In what follows the different steps of an impregnation facility are explained.
FUEL FROM PASTY WASTE / 4.2 Impregnation Facility / 4.2.1 Reception and Preparation of Primary Materials
4.2.1 Reception and Preparation of Primary Materials
The sludgy waste is delivered either in bulk or small containers (typically 200 l steel drums) and
emptied into pits. There are drums, which cannot be emptied by gravity or reasonable manual effort.
For such containers a robust shredding facility is needed.
Picture 5: Drum emptying
According to chemical analysis of the incoming waste and the product requirements, the unloaded
materials are mixed and then shredded. The prepared mix is conveyed to a mixing station by means of
a high pressure pump.
For an optimum product quality and minimum use of impregnation aid the viscosity of the batch mix is
adjusted. If necessary, liquid phases are extracted from the drums or added to the mixing pit.
FUEL FROM PASTY WASTE / 4.2 Impregnation Facility / 4.2.2 Production of Impregnated Alternative Fuel and Dispatch
4.2.2 Production of Impregnated Alternative Fuel and Dispatch
Once there is a batch of sludge prepared it needs to be mixed with sawdust. The mixing ratio is about
one third of saw dust and two thirds of sludge.
For a simple installation, it is possible to mix the components by means of a wheel loader. The more
sophisticated process is to use a continuously operated intensive mixer.
Query:
Legend:
1: mixing container
2: mixing tool
3: material guiding arm
4: discharge opening
5: housing
Picture 6: Intensive mixer (type Eirich)
Before storage, metals are separated and the product is screened in a drum screen. The product is
fine (mostly 10 mm) and well suited for incineration at the main firing.
For storage moving floor type silos are best suited.
FUEL FROM PASTY WASTE / 4.2 Impregnation Facility / 4.2.3 Organic Emission
4.2.3 Organic Emission
Due to the handling of unconfined chemicals there is a lot of organic emission. This requires an
appropriate protection of the workforce on the one hand. On the other hand, an aspiration and thermal
treatment of the emission might be necessary.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Preparation of Alternative Fuels / 5. SOLID ALTERNATIVE FUEL
PREPARATION
5. SOLID ALTERNATIVE FUEL PREPARATION
Solid waste can be fed in a coarse form to the kiln (e.g. whole tyres) but often needs to have a finer
granulometry. A size reduction is necessary and determined mainly by the following process factors:
transportation cost
handling properties
kiln feeding point
thermal substitution rate
Query:
kiln behavior.
The mechanical processes used for the size reduction of solid waste are shredding and granulation.
They are typically applied for materials such as wood, rubber, plastics or waste tyres.
PREPARATION / 5.1 Shredding and Granulation of Solid Waste
5.1 Shredding and Granulation of Solid Waste
PREPARATION / 5.1 Shredding and Granulation of Solid Waste / 5.1.1 Shredders
5.1.1 Shredders
A shredder is a machine for primary size reduction of solid materials. Its operating principle is based on
a tearing and shearing action of slowly rotating tools (10 40 rpm) agitated by a high torque drive.
Picture 7: Typical shredder design with two counterrotating shafts
Typically, a shredder consists of two counterrotating shafts. On these shafts engaging disks with hook
type knives are mounted to grab and tear the material fed. Such shredder is preferably used for the
size reduction of high-density waste (e.g. wood and tyres). Waste materials with a low bulk density
such as plastic films require a shredder with large feed opening and a mechanism to push the material
towards the cutting rotor. For such application single rotor shredders are used.
Depending on the knife size and operation (multiple stage, closed circuit) a minimum chip size of 20
50 mm can be achieved.
PREPARATION / 5.1 Shredding and Granulation of Solid Waste / 5.1.2 Granulators
5.1.2 Granulators
Granulators (also called grinders) are generally used for secondary size reduction. The typical design
consists of a single rotor with a fixed counter knife and an outlet sieve. There is a mechanism to push
waste material towards the rotor where knives grab it. After being cut at the fixed counter knife the
waste chips are further milled before they pass the outlet sieve. A granulator operates at higher rpm
than a shredder, above about 100 rpm.
Picture 8: Typical granulator design with one shaft and outlet sieve
Query:
Due to their high rotor speed, granulators are used for low abrasive material. Waste containing
considerable amounts of metals and/or mineral material should not be granulated because of
excessive wear. The spacing between the rotor knife and the fixed counter knife needs to be small
(about 0.5 mm) to efficiently cut fine material like plastic films.
PREPARATION / 5.1 Shredding and Granulation of Solid Waste / 5.1.3 Multi-Stage Size Reduction
5.1.3 Multi-Stage Size Reduction
For the firing of waste materials at the preheater/precalciner, a single stage size reduction is sufficient
in most cases. If bulky waste material is to be fired at the main burner a multiple stage shredding and
granulation is required for the efficient production of an alternative fuel of a few millimeter size.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Preparation of Alternative Fuels / 6. EXAMPLES
6. EXAMPLES
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Preparation of Alternative Fuels / 6. EXAMPLES / 6.1 Typical Liquid
Waste Handling
6.1 Typical Liquid Waste Handling
A typical handling facility for the reception of liquid waste and the production of liquid alternative fuel is
shown in picture 9.
The installation consists of the following main elements:
Liquid waste decanting tank with primary filtration
Shredder to crush oversized particles for protection of the pump and to avoid blockages.
Discharge pump, typically of centrifugal type
Liquid storage tank with mechanical mixer
Loading pump, typically of centrifugal type
In case of low flashpoint liquid, a nitrogen inertisation system
Query:
Sprinkling system for fire suppression
Picture 9: Typical liquid waste handling installation
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Preparation of Alternative Fuels / 6. EXAMPLES / 6.2 SCORIBEL
Impregnated Sawdust Production
6.2 SCORIBEL Impregnated Sawdust Production
SCORIBEL is a Belgium based subsidiary of Ciments dObourg. At the impregnation workshop of its
Seneffe plant solid, pasty and liquid waste is mixed with an impregnation aid to form a fine, solid
alternative fuel for incineration at the main firing of cement kilns.
The installation consists of three main parts:
A reception section for industrial waste in bulk or containers as well as the impregnation aids
sawdust and filter cake. In a closed building the liquid, pasty and solid waste is premixed and
shredded.
By means of a continuously operated intensive mixer the waste sludge is mixed with the
impregnation aid before being screened.
In two moving floor type silos the product is stored and homogenized before being loaded to trucks.
For reduction of organic emission air is aspirated at the main sources of emission and sent to a thermal
treatment unit.
The plants design production capacity is 15 t/h, actually it is operated at more than 20 t/h.
Investment cost for the impregnation facility (excl. air treatment): BEF 250 Mio.
Picture 10: flowsheet of SCORIBELs impregnation workshop
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C07 - Alternative Fuels / Preparation of Alternative Fuels / 6. EXAMPLES / 6.3 Industrial Plastic
Waste Shredding at PLASTREC AG
6.3 Industrial Plastic Waste Shredding at PLASTREC AG
PLASTREC AG, a subsidiary of HCB, operates a facility for the shredding of industrial plastic and
rubber waste to a product for use at the primary firing of cement kilns. The waste materials received
are cables, textile reinforced plastic, residues from manufacture of hard plastic items, plastic films and
rubber.
The facility is designed to mechanically process the incoming waste to a product of 10 mm size. This is
achieved by pre-shredding and subsequent grinding of the material. Two shredders and two
granulators, each operated in parallel, are used for the two-stage process. Material transport is done
by belt conveyors for raw and pre-shredded material, and pneumatically for the finished product.
The plant has an hourly production rate of 1.5 2.0 t. The annual production is about 5000 t. The
consumption of electrical energy is 100 kWh/t for the whole facility.
Investment cost for whole installation: CHF 1.2 Mio.
Picture 11: flowsheet of PLASTREC plastic shredding plant
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C08 - Circulation Phenomena
C08 - Circulation Phenomena
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C08 - Circulation Phenomena / Circulation Phenomena in the Clinkerization Process
Circulation Phenomena in the Clinkerization Process
Ren Hasler, Daniel Brassel
PT 99/14503/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION PHENOMENA
3. CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM
3.1 Input of Circulating Elements
3.2 Enrichment of Circulating Elements / Endangered Zones for Encrustation Formation
3.3 Output of Circulating Elements
3.4 Volatility of Circulating Elements
3.5 Condensation of Circulating Elements
4. TYPICAL APPEARANCE OF BUILD-UPS
5. KILN OPERATION PROBLEMS DUE TO CIRCULATING ELEMENTS
6. IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS WITH ENCRUSTATIONS AND BUILD-UPS
6.1 Material Balance
6.2 Criteria and Indicators to Assess the Build-up Problem
6.3 Example of a Circulation Phenomena Problem
7. MEASURES AGAINST BUILD-UP FORMATION
7.1 General Measures
7.2 Intelligent Cleaning
7.3 Measures against Chloride Problems
7.4 Measures against Sulfur Problems
7.5 Measures against Alkali Problems
8. MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO SIMULATE THE CYCLES OF THE CIRCULATING ELEMENTS
Query:
SUMMARY
This chapter describes the circulation of volatile elements in the kiln system. It indicates the tolerable
inputs of circulating elements so that no excessive build-up and clogging problems arise.
In particular it shall serve as guideline how an encrustation problem, caused by volatile elements, is
systematically solved.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C08 - Circulation Phenomena / Circulation Phenomena in the Clinkerization Process / 1.
INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Alkali, sulfur and chlorine compounds (hereafter called circulating or volatile elements, see below) in
raw materials and fuels utilized for the cement manufacture, when present in high concentrations often
given rise to difficulties in kiln operation with build-up formation, mainly in the preheater and the kiln
inlet section.
Volatile Elements (VE):
Sulfur SO
3
Potassium K
2
O
Sodium Na
2
O
Chlorine Cl
The build-up formations cause cyclone blockages or restrictions of the kiln inlet area so that the kiln
has to be stopped for cleaning. In extreme cases more than 200 annual kiln stops due to blockages
may occur, so that the impact on kiln availability and productivity can become a severe issue.
Suspension preheaters armed with dozens of shock blowers (Fig. 1a, 1b) to prevent build-up formation
illustrate the importance of this problem.
Fig. 1a
Fig. 1b
Query:
MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION PHENOMENA
2. MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION PHENOMENA
Depending on the degree of volatility, the circulating elements evaporate in the sintering zone of the
cement kiln and are carried by the gases to colder zones, where they mainly condense on the raw
meal and partly also on the surrounding walls.
Afterwards they return with the raw meal into the sintering zone where they partly reevaporate
depending on the degree of volatility. This repeated process through the kiln leads to the establishment
of internal cycles (see Fig. 5). Finally the cycles reach equilibrium so that the output of circulating
elements is equal to their input by the raw materials and the fuels (cp. Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 Circulation of Volatile Elements within the Kiln System
Almost all the circulating elements finally leave the system with the clinker. However, this is only the
case when beforehand sufficiently high internal cycles of the volatile elements have been formed. The
extents of these cycles depend on the degree of volatility of the circulating elements. As the latter
recondense on the colder raw meal and the surrounding walls, the formed sticky molten salts are able
to reduce the fluidability of the raw meal and, if present in sufficient quantities, to glue it finally on the
walls. From time to time, especially during a change of the temperature profile, pieces of build-ups fall
down and mainly block the cyclone outlets (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Build-ups due to Circulating Elements in the Various Kiln Systems
Query:
If the amount of molten salts becomes too high, either because of an excessive input of volatile
elements or due to a high degree of volatility, the installation of a kiln gas bypass becomes necessary
in order to extract part of the circulating elements from the kiln system (Fig. 4a, 4b, 4c).
Fig. 4a Conventional Bypass with Water Injection
Fig. 4b Hot Gas Bypass without Water Injection
Fig. 4c Bypass with Gas Feedback
Query:
A small part of the circulating elements leave the kiln system with the main exhaust gas dust. The latter
is efficiently precipitated in the dedusting unit and is normally reintroduced into the kiln system. This is
called the external cycle of the circulating elements (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5 Circulation Phenomena: Internal and External Cycle
In normal cases a negligible amount of circulating elements is emitted by the stack into the
atmosphere. However, the emission of SO
2
is not negligible anymore, when the sulfur in the raw
material is present in form of sulfide (FeS
2
, PbS, ZnS) or organic compounds. In this latter case the
sulfides are volatilized in the temperature range of 400 to 600C and leave the kiln system partly as
gaseous SO
2
emission (Fig. 6 and section 3.3.4).
Fig. 6 SO
2
Emission in case of Sulfides
Query:
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM
3. CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.1 Input of Circulating Elements
3.1 Input of Circulating Elements
In the following the typical inputs of circulating elements by the raw materials and the fuel(s) are
indicated. It is differentiated between input ranges where usually no encrustation and build-up
problems arise and input ranges that usually lead to severe clogging problems.
Important: All figures may serve as rough guidelines only.
The real limits for the build-up and clogging formation depend on a lot of individual
parameters like the degree of volatilization, the temperature profile, the
completeness of combustion and the excess air factor as well as the kiln system
itself. The indicated values are guidelines for suspension preheater kiln only.
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.1 Input of Circulating Elements / 3.1.1 Input by the Raw Materials (loss free
basis)
3.1.1 Input by the Raw Materials (loss free basis)
Alkalis (K, Na):
Generally appear as interlayer cations in the clay minerals and the feldspars.
Sulfur:
The sulfur is introduced in several mineralogical forms:
as sulfate: gypsum CaSO
4
2H
2
O
anhydrate CaSO
4
as sulfide: pyrite FeS
2
, organic compounds
In the following only the sulfates are considered.
Chlorine:
The chlorides are mainly introduced as NaCl (from seawater) or KCl.
Note: Thekiln feed normally includes already external cycle (see Fig. 2) so that its concentration on
circulating elements is higher than the one of the pure raw mix.
Typical limits for 4 to 5 stage SP kilns are listed in section 6.2.2.
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.1 Input of Circulating Elements / 3.1.2 Input by the Fuel(s)
3.1.2 Input by the Fuel(s)
Mainly sulfur is introduced by the fuels such as Coal, Coke, fuel oil and so on. In Addition alternative
fuels often contain a reasonable amount of sulfur.
Query:
Typical limits for 4 to 5 stage SP kilns are shown in section 6.2.2.
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.2 Enrichment of Circulating Elements / Endangered Zones for Encrustation
Formation
3.2 Enrichment of Circulating Elements / Endangered Zones for Encrustation Formation
Depending on the individual circulating element and its compounds, the condensing point lies in the
temperature range of 650 to 1000C.
Condensation: 650 800C : Chlorides and its compounds
800 1000C : Sulfates
Therefore the endangered zones for the formation of build-ups by the condensed circulating elements
depend on one hand on the circulating element and its compounds and on the other hand on the kiln
system itself (see also Fig. 3).
In the following the build-up zones for the various kiln systems are indicated. At the colder end usually
the encrustations by the chlorides are found whereas at the hotter end the ones of the sulfates are
met.
Kiln System Zones of Build-ups
Precalciner kiln / 4
or 5 stage SP kiln
The two lowest cyclones stage and their riser
ducts, kiln inlet area (first section of rotary part)
Lepol kiln Second preheating chamber, kiln inlet (first
section of rotary part)
3 stage SP kiln Lowest cyclone and its riser duct, kiln inlet, first
section of rotary part
2 stage SP kiln Lowest riser duct, kiln inlet, first section of rotary
part
Long dry kiln / wet Calcining zone of rotary part (transition zone)
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.3 Output of Circulating Elements
3.3 Output of Circulating Elements
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.3 Output of Circulating Elements / 3.3.1 Clinker
3.3.1 Clinker
The chlorides are so volatile that they hardly leave the kiln via clinker. In exceptional cases, when
the sintering zone has largely cooled down or when embedded in big material lumps, the chlorides
may leave the kiln in major quantities. However, normally the chlorides form a large cycle within the
kiln system and they need to be extracted by a kiln gas bypass.
The sulfur and the alkalis leave the kiln system normally via clinker either as definite compounds:
Query:
K
2
SO
4
, K
3
Na(SO
4
), Na
2
SO
4
Ca
2
K
2
(SO
4
)
3
CaSO
4
(rare!)
or in solid solution in clinker minerals:
K with the Belite, Aluminate
Na with the Aluminate
SO
3
with the Belite

The calciumanhydrate CaSO
4
is rather volatile (decomposes at temperatures > 1000C) and forms
therefore a large sulfur cycle in the kiln system. Therefore it is very important that there is sufficient
alkalis to combine with the sulfur and to leave the kiln system as alkali/sulfur compound.
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.3 Output of Circulating Elements / 3.3.2 Kiln Gas Bypass
3.3.2 Kiln Gas Bypass
Kiln gas bypasses (see Fig. 4) are mainly used to extract the very volatile chlorides from SP preheater
kilns. Chloride bypasses withdraw typically 5 to 15% of the kiln gases. The hot gases from the kiln inlet
are quenched down by fresh air, sometimes supported by injection of water into the quench chamber,
to a temperature below 600C. The gaseous chlorides condense onto the withdrawn dust particles and
are separated finally in an electrostatic precipitator or a bagfilter (see Fig. 5a, 5b, 5c).
In rare cases kiln gas bypasses are also applied in case of too much CaSO
4
and not sufficient alkalis.
Also for the production of low alkali clinker large kiln gas bypasses are used (20 to 50% of the kiln
gases) in order to withdraw the alkalis from the kiln charge and to produce a clinker with an alkali
content of < 0.6% (i.e. Na
2
O
eq
< 0.6%). Thereby the alkalis are volatilized by hard burning and by
injection of chlorides into the kiln (see also section 0).
The bypass dust must be discarded e.g. into the quarry or is partly reutilized as additive to the cement,
or in rare cases may be sold as filler material.
A ballpark figure for the amount of bypass dust: 15 g/kg cli per 10% bypass
Due to the extraction of the bypass gases additional heat loss arise. The specific value per %bypass
depends on the kiln system:
Precalciner kilns: 8 11 kJ/kg cli
Preheater kilns: 20 kJ/kg cli
Typical chemical concentrations of bypass dusts are found in Fig. 7 and 8.
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.3 Output of Circulating Elements / 3.3.3 Kiln Dust
3.3.3 Kiln Dust
Another possibility to withdraw circulating elements from the kiln system is via external cycle (see Fig.
5) which is interrupted and partly discarded. The enrichment of this kiln dust by circulating elements
depends on the kiln system. Whereas kiln dusts from long wet kilns are highly enriched, the ones from
SP kilns show nearly the same chemical composition than the raw meal. Typical chemical
Query:
concentrations of dusts from the different kiln systems are shown on Fig. 7 and 8. Thereby the
following legend applies:
WL = long wet kiln
DL = long dry kiln
DG = dry kiln with grate preheater (LEPOL)
DS = SP kilns: F Filter dust from kiln exhaust gas
BP Bypass dust
Fig. 7 Kiln Dust Analyses
Fig. 8 Kiln Dust Analyses
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.3 Output of Circulating Elements / 3.3.4 Emission by Exhaust Gas
3.3.4 Emission by Exhaust Gas
Normally there is no emission of circulating elements by the exhaust gas. The only gaseous
component, the SO
2
which does not condense at low temperatures is effectively absorbed by the free
lime at the lowest cyclone stage.
Query:
However, a source of SO
2
emission is the raw material sulfur in form of sulfide (e.g. pyrite). The
sulfides decompose at temperatures between 400 to 600C, forming SO
2
. Approximately 70% of the
SO
2
immediately reacts with the CaCO
3
of the kiln feed to CaSO
3
and finally at higher temperatures to
CaSO
4
. The residual 30% of the SO
2
are partly absorbed on their way with the flue gases to the stack,
mainly in the raw mill and in the conditioning tower. However, a certain portion of the SO
2
is finally
emitted by the stack, depending on the kiln and raw mill system (see Fig. 6).
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.4 Volatility of Circulating Elements
3.4 Volatility of Circulating Elements
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.4 Volatility of Circulating Elements / 3.4.1 Definition of Total Volatility
3.4.1 Definition of Total Volatility
The total volatility of a circulating element or a compound of it is defined as shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 The Volatility of a Circulating Element
The total volatility of a circulating element or of a compound of it indicates which portion of it is
volatilized in the kiln and does not leave the kiln straight with the clinker.
The total volatility is:
HM
cli
c
c
1
whereas = factor for total volatility
c
HM
= concentration of the circulating element at the kiln inlet
c
cli
= concentration of the circulating element in the clinker
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.4 Volatility of Circulating Elements / 3.4.2 Affinity of the Circulating Elements
3.4.2 Affinity of the Circulating Elements
Circulating elements have a strong affinity to other elements and form chemical compounds. The
Query:
following affinity order has been observed (see also Fig. 10):
1) The chlorine combines first with the alkalis, forming KCI, NaCl.
The residual chlorine, if any, combines with the calcium, forming CaCl
2
.
2) The residual alkalis combine with the sulfur, forming K
2
SO
4
, Na
2
SO
4
. They form also double salts
Ca
2
K
2
(SO
4
)
2
, K
3
Na(SO
4
)
2
.
The residual alkalis, if any, combine with CO, forming K
2
CO
3
, Na
2
CO
3
.
3) The residual sulfur (SO
3
or SO
2
) combines with CaO, forming CaSO
4
.
Fig. 10 Affinity
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.4 Volatility of Circulating Elements / 3.4.3 Volatility of the Circulating Element
Compounds
3.4.3 Volatility of the Circulating Element Compounds
Compounds / 3.4.3.1 General
3.4.3.1 General
In the kiln the alkalis are liberated from the clay mineral lattice. They partly dissociate into the gas
phase and recombine with other elements according to the affinity order as described in paragraph
3.4.2. The rest recombines directly in the charge material with chlorine or sulfur or is integrated into
the lattice of the clinker minerals (belite and aluminate, see paragraph 3.3.1). Especially the sodium
is little volatile and goes preferably direct into the clinker (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11 Circulation of Alkalis
Query:
The chlorides liberated during heating of the material and combustion of the fuel react with the alkalis
to form alkali chloride. This reaction takes place either in the charge material or, after vaporization, in
the kiln gas (Fig. 12).
Fig. 12 Circulation of Chlorine
Upon volatilization of sulfur at burning zone temperatures in the cement kiln, sulfur dioxide is the
predominant component. The gaseous SO
2
derives either from the dissociated sulfur of the
combustibles or the decomposed CaSO
4
and the partly volatilized Alk
2
SO
4
from the charge
material.
Subsequently if there is an excess of alkalis, the internal sulfur cycle is caused primarily by the reaction
with these, which takes place almost entirely in the rotary kiln. The alkali sulfates formed in this
reaction are, in so far as they are present in vapor form, precipitated on the material. This occurs
mainly in the rotary kiln itself, but partly also in the preheater.
The precipitated alkali sulfates thus travel through the kiln again, pass through the sintering zone, and
are partly discharged from the kiln with the clinker, while some of the alkali sulfates remain in the cycle.
The calcium sulfate (CaSO
4
) is formed as a result of the reaction between SO
2
and CaO. It is partly
present already in the raw materials or is formed preferably in the temperature range of 800 to 900C
as illustrated in Fig. 13. Above a temperature level of 1000C the calcium sulfate starts decomposing,
first rather slowly and beyond a temperature of 1300C rapidly. Sulfur dioxide again is formed. If the
alkali input is not high enough to combine the whole incoming sulfur as alkali sulfate, high sulfur
dioxide concentrations in the kiln gas arise. In such circumstances calcium sulfate may pass
un-decomposed through the sintering zone leaving the kiln embedded in the belite mineral or even as
Query:
CaSO
4
. The sulfur cycle is illustrated in Fig. 14.
Fig. 13 SO
2
Absorption by CaO resp. CaCO
3
Fig. 14 Circulation of Sulfur
Compounds / 3.4.3.2 Volatility of the Compounds of Circulating Elements
3.4.3.2 Volatility of the Compounds of Circulating Elements
Fig. 15 indicates the relation between vapor pressure of various alkali compounds at different
temperatures. This demonstrates that the volatilization mechanism is dependent upon the form of
combination of the particular volatile element.
Fig. 15 Vapor Pressure
Query:
Chlorides: KCl, NaCl, CaCl
2
At a temperature level of 1200 to 1300C the chlorides are already volatilized to a great extent. At
sintering zone temperatures they are almost entirely volatilized so that the total volatility factor is
approx. 0.97 to 1.
Sulfates: Alk
2
SO
4
, CaSO
4
Basically, the Alk
2
SO
4
are little volatile, whereas the CaSO
4
is highly volatile.
Therefore the most important criteria for the total sulfur volatility is the molar ratio between the alkalis
and the sulfur itself, corrected by the chlorine:
Molar alkali / sulfur ratio:
80
71 62 94
3
2 2
3
SO
Cl O Na O K
SO
Alk
+
Desirable value:
2 . 1
3
SO
Alk
If there are sufficient alkalis available to combine with the total sulfur input (from raw materials as well
as from the fuel), the total volatility for the sulfur is = 0.3 to 0.5.
However, if there is a surplus of sulfur over the alkalis, the highly volatile CaSO
4
is formed. Its volatility
is approximately = 0.9, but can increase up to = 1, depending on the operating conditions of the
burning process.
In general the sulfur volatility is very much depending on the operating conditions of the burning
process, such as
the maximum temperature in the sintering zone
the retention time of the kiln charge material at high sinter zone temperatures
the granulometry of the kiln charge material (diffusion to the surface of the granules)
the partial pressure of O
2
in the kiln atmosphere
the partial pressure of SO
2
in the kiln atmosphere
Query:
For more details see next paragraph 3.4.4.
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.4 Volatility of Circulating Elements / 3.4.4 Parameters Influencing the Volatility
of the Sulfur Compounds
3.4.4 Parameters Influencing the Volatility of the Sulfur Compounds
of the Sulfur Compounds / 3.4.4.1 Maximum Temperature in the Sintering Zone
3.4.4.1 Maximum Temperature in the Sintering Zone
The essential feature of the volatility - temperature curve is that above a certain critical temperature the
volatility increases first exponentially and then slowly reaches a maximum (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16 Volatility-Temperature Curve
For sulfur this critical temperature is in the order of the burning temperature. Consequently hard
burnable raw mixes or overheating of the kiln charge material (low free limes in the clinker) have a very
important bearing on sulfur volatility.
of the Sulfur Compounds / 3.4.4.2 Retention Time of the kiln Charge Material at High Burning Temperatures
3.4.4.2 Retention Time of the kiln Charge Material at High Burning Temperatures
Volatilization of the sulfur compounds is a dynamic process. The longer the kiln charge material is
exposed to the high burning temperatures, the higher the total amount of volatilized sulfur.
of the Sulfur Compounds / 3.4.4.3 Granulometry of the Kiln Charge Material
3.4.4.3 Granulometry of the Kiln Charge Material
If the kiln charge material is well granulated, the sulfur takes more time to diffuse to the surface of the
granule. Consequently less sulfur volatilizes.
On the other hand poor granulometry conditions result in higher dust formation which negatively
influences the temperature profile in the kiln and shifts it towards the kiln inlet.
Query:
of the Sulfur Compounds / 3.4.4.4 Kiln Atmosphere
3.4.4.4 Kiln Atmosphere
The composition of the kiln atmosphere is an essential factor for the sulfur volatility:
2 2 4
2
) ( O
m
SO m MeO n SO Me
m n
+ +
The equilibrium of the dissociation is shifted with increasing O
2
partial pressure and SO
2
partial
pressure in favor of the sulfates.
Too little excess air or also local reducing kiln atmosphere increases the volatility of the sulfur.
This behavior is illustrated for the K
2
SO
4
:
2 2 2 4 2
O SO O K SO K + +
O
2
excess in burning zone:

2 2 2 4 2
O SO O K SO K + +
O
2
deficiency in burning zone:
2 2 2 4 2
O SO O K SO K + +
Laboratory tests have been executed for the primary volatility

1
, i.e. the volatility of the sulfur when
exposed the first time to high temperatures. It is remarkable that already at a temperature level of
1000C, the sulfur volatility goes up to 1 (100% volatility) if there is no oxygen in the kiln atmosphere.
This is the case if the combustible produces a local reducing atmosphere in the kiln charge material
e.g. when burning whole tires at the kiln inlet. From these tests it can be derived that the main
influence of the oxygen content on an increase of the sulfur volatility is produced between 0 to 2% O
2
.
Beyond 2% O
2
the influence is negligible (see Fig 17).
Fig. 17 Sulfur Volatility depending on Oxygen content
The partial pressure of the sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) also decreases the sulfur volatility. That means that if
the sulfur cycle in the kiln is large enough, the dissociation of the sulfates decreases and the sulfates
can gradually leave the kiln with the clinker. However, this is not much of a help, as the required high
sulfur cycles already cause encrustation problems!
CIRCULATING ELEMENTS IN THE KILN SYSTEM / 3.5 Condensation of Circulating Elements
Query:
3.5 Condensation of Circulating Elements
As previously stated, the circulating elements volatilize in the hot zones of the kiln and condense at the
colder areas of the kiln system (internal cycle).
Melting point and boiling point (at 1 bar) of some chlorides, sulfates and carbonates are listed below.
Generally speaking it can be stated that the chlorides condense at lower temperatures than the
sulfates.
Melting Point [C] Boiling Point [C] at 1 bar
Chlorides
NaCl 801
1413
KCl 776
1500 (sublim.)
CaCl
2
772
> 1600
Sulfates
Na
2
SO
4
884
?
K
2
SO
4
1069
1689
CaSO
4
1280 (d)
-
Carbonates Na
2
CO
3
851 (decomp.)
K
2
CO
3
891 (decomp.)
In the melting phase secondary compounds are formed which are more complex than the original
volatile elements:
Secondary Compounds:
Chlorides Sulfates Carbonates Spurrites
KCl K
2
SO
4
K
2
CO
3
, 2 C
2
S CaCO
3
(NaCl) K
3
Na (SO
4
)
2
(Na
2
CO
3
) 2 C
2
S CaSO
4
Na
2
SO
4
Ca
2
K
2
(SO
4
)
3
CaSO
4
Furthermore, investigations have revealed that calcium sulfate, calcium oxide and alkali sulfate form
eutectic melts which can have much lower melting temperatures than the single compounds (Fig. 18).
Under presence of chlorides these melting temperatures are even more lowered to temperatures below
700C. Very low melting temperatures show also the alkali carbonates. However, in such a case the
alkalis can be sulfatizated by the addition of gypsum so that it presents normally not a major problem.
Fig. 18 Melt Intervals in the System
Query:
CaSO
4
- K
2
SO
4
- Na
2
SO
4
All these melts, when present in sufficient quantities, lead to severe encrustations and build-up
formation in the preheater and kiln inlet area.
A further problem is given by the fact that the volatilization process goes along with an endothermic
reaction whereas the condensation is exothermic. By this way an important amount of heat is drawn
from the sintering zone to the kiln inlet so that the area of condensation is shifted even more towards
the cold end of the kiln system.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C08 - Circulation Phenomena / Circulation Phenomena in the Clinkerization Process / 4. TYPICAL
APPEARANCE OF BUILD-UPS
4. TYPICAL APPEARANCE OF BUILD-UPS
Typical appearance of build-ups and deposits are shown in Fig. 19, 20 and 21.
Fig. 19 Macrographs of Deposit Types
Fig. 20 a) .. d) S.E.M. Micrographs of Deposits
Fig. 20 a) REM 84/506
HD - 1st cyclone: KCl blocks embedded in fine matrix
Query:
Fig. 20 b) REM 84/525
HD - 2nd cyclone: CaSO
4
and C
2
S
Fig. 20 c) REM 84/502
HV - 4th cyclone: Binding nature of glassy KCl matrix
Fig. 20 d) REM 84/550
GM - 4th cyclone: KCl crystal structure filling pore
Query:
Fig. 21 a) .. d) S.E.M. Micrographs of Deposits
Fig. 21 a) REM 84/113
TU - Riser pipe: CaSO
4
and C
2
S
Fig. 21 b) REM 84/117
TU - Riser pipe: K
2
SO
4
and Ca SO
4
border
Fig. 21 c) REM 84/72
WU - Kiln inlet: Fly ash balls
Query:
Fig. 21 d) REM 84/69
WU - Kiln inlet: Primary spurrite
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C08 - Circulation Phenomena / Circulation Phenomena in the Clinkerization Process / 5. KILN
OPERATION PROBLEMS DUE TO CIRCULATING ELEMENTS
5. KILN OPERATION PROBLEMS DUE TO CIRCULATING ELEMENTS
The consequences due to high internal cycles of the circulating elements are rather severe.
First it starts by an increased encrustation and build-up formation at the kiln inlet area and the lower
part of the preheater. As a consequence the pressure loss across the system increases and at the
same time also the inbleeding false air quantity increases. This reduces the maximum kiln draft and
thus the maximum clinker production. When the kiln operator tries to compensate the lower available
kiln draft by a lower excess air rate, the situation becomes even worse as the sulfur cycle further
increases.
Studies have revealed that a high chloride cycle impedes also complete combustion. This in turn
further increases the sulfur cycle.
High sulfur cycles lead to a poorly granulated clinker and therefore to dust formation. The dust entrains
the heat from the burning zone to the kiln inlet, so that the cycles of the volatile elements further
increase due to a longer residence time at high temperatures.
Furthermore, the high cycles of volatile elements transport the heat of the sintering zone to the area of
Query:
condensation by the endothermic - exothermic reactions, causing the same effect as the dust cycles
described above.
The result of these mechanisms is always the same:
Frequent kiln stops due to encrustation and clogging problems, i.e. reduced kiln
utilization factor ( reduction of OEE)
Reduction of the maximum kiln production
Higher heat consumption
Formation of unstable coating at the transition zone and thus high refractory
consumption
IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS WITH ENCRUSTATIONS AND BUILD-UPS
6. IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS WITH ENCRUSTATIONS AND BUILD-UPS
Chlorides, sulfates, alkalis or any combination of them can cause encrustation and build-up problems.
Therefore a detailed analysis is a prerequisite to find an appropriate solution.
The analysis can consist of eight steps as follows:
Systematic analysis of the hot meal (cp section 6.1)
(every shift: LOI, SO
3
, Cl, K
2
O, Na
2
O)
Comparison with the defined limits of circulating elements in the hot meal!
Chlorine problem, sulfur problem, alkali problem of combination?
Performing of a material balance with the inputs and outputs of the circulating elements (cp section
6.1).
Where do the circulating elements come from?
Comparison with typical tolerable inputs of circulating elements by raw materials and fuels.
Which amount is critical?
Calculation of the molar alkali / sulfur ratio and comparison with standard.
Are there enough alkali present to withdraw the sulfur within the clinker?
Calculation of the sulfur volatility and comparison with the standard.
Why sulfur problem?: too high inputs?
unfavorable alkali / sulfur ratio?
because of kiln operation?
Detailed recording where the build-ups occur and possible a chemical analysis of a typical build-up
peace.
Specific measures against build-up formation (see section 7).
IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS WITH ENCRUSTATIONS AND BUILD-UPS / 6.1 Material Balance
6.1 Material Balance
Definition of the balance boundary (Fig. 22):
Query:
Shall the external cycle be included or excluded?
Please note that the kiln feed includes the external cycle so that the concentration on volatile
elements is higher than the real inputs by the raw material. In this case the kiln dust must be
taken into account as further output!
Taking material samples over a sufficiently large period
The sampling period should be at least 8 hours of representative kiln operation.
From every input and output an hourly spot sample shall be taken. The spot samples of the
individual inputs and outputs are finally combined to one integrated sample.
The following quantities for the individual spot samples shall be taken:
raw mix (before grinding): 20.0 kg
meal or dust: 0.5 kg
clinker: 5.0 kg
fuel: 0.5 kg
Besides the samples for the material balance also samples of the hot meal at kiln inlet (outlet of the
lower most cyclone stage) shall be taken, observing the same frequency and sample quantity as
stated above.
Fig. 22 Material Balance Boundaries
IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS WITH ENCRUSTATIONS AND BUILD-UPS / 6.2 Criteria and Indicators to Assess the Build-up
Problem
6.2 Criteria and Indicators to Assess the Build-up Problem
Problem / 6.2.1 Process Variables
6.2.1 Process Variables
Position of the build-ups
If the build-ups are found up to the second lowest cyclone stage or even to the third lowest
cyclone stage the problems could origin from excessive chloride cycles or in rare cases from
too high alkali cycles.
If the build-ups are found mainly at the lowest cyclone stage, the lowest riser dust and the kiln
inlet, the problems normally are caused by excessive sulfur cycles.
Query:
Completeness of combustion
CO at kiln inlet > 0.1% and/or O
2
< 1.5 to 2% cause high sulfur cycles.
If no secondary firing or precalcination is applied also the CO and O
2
concentrations after
preheater can be taken to judge the completeness of combustion (CO must be <0.1% and O
2
usually 3 to 4%, depending on the inbleeding amount of false air).
Temperature profile
Excessive temperatures within and after the preheater indicate a disturbed temperature profile
in the rotary kiln and thus a too high sulfur volatilization.
Pressure profile
The pressure profile over the preheater indicates where the build-ups are located.
Problem / 6.2.2 Material Balance
6.2.2 Material Balance
First a material balance must be performed as described in paragraph 6.1. Afterwards, the following
evaluation shall be done:
Input of circulating elements
It has to be determined in which form the sulfur is present in the raw materials, as sulfate or
sulfide. When present as sulfide, part of it will leave the kiln system as emission via exhaust
gas stack! Therefore the sulfur emission by the stack has to be deducted from the overall sulfur
when judging a potential sulfur problem in the kiln.
The inputs of circulating elements (without emitted sulfur through the stack!) should be
compared to the ones given below in order to check whether they are in a normal range where
usually no build-ups are formed or whether they are too high. This, of course, is only a rough
guideline.
Typical Input Limits for Circulating Elements (for 4 to 5 stage SP kiln only)
Raw Material
(loss free basis)
Cl < 0.02% Normal case, no problems
> 0.05% Heavy clogging problems,
depending on the sulfur cycle
SO
3

1)
< 0.5% Normal case, no problems
> 1.25% Heavy clogging problems
K
2
O < 1.0% Normal case, no problems
> 1.5% Problems with encrustations,
depending on degree of sulfatization
(molar alkali/sulfur ratio)
Query:
Na
2
O Little volatile, thus no problems due to recirculation of Na
2
O
1)
Sulfates: Sulfur in form of sulfides behaves in a different way,
see section 3.3.4 Emission by Exhaust Gas
Fuel(s)
Coal: S < 1.5% No clogging problems,
depending on sulfur and alkalis input by
the raw materials and the completeness
of combustion
(corresponding to
approx.
< 5 g SO
3
/kg cli)
Coke: S < 2%
Fuel oil: S < 2.5%
Coal: S > 3% Severe clogging problems,
depending on the alkalis and sulfur
input by the raw materials and the
completeness of combustion
(corresponding to
approx.
> 10 g SO
3
/kg cli)
Coke: S > 4%
Fuel oil: S > 5%
Gas: Sulfur content is normally zero!
Alkali / sulfur ratio (A/S)
The A/S ratio should be preferably at 1.2 or in a range between 0.8 to 1.5. Compare it to the
A/S ratio of the investigated case, deducting first the emitted sulfur from the total sulfur input by
the raw mix and the fuel.
Problem / 6.2.3 Enrichment of the Circulating Elements in the Hot Meal
6.2.3 Enrichment of the Circulating Elements in the Hot Meal
Fig. 23 illustrates the tolerable concentrations of circulating elements in the hot meal, i.e. in the
meal ex lowest cyclone stage.
Fig. 23 Concentrations in the Hot Meal
Query:
Fig. 24 considers the fact that normally both chlorides and sulfates are present in the hot meal and
that both together determine the tolerable limits of concentrations. The actual case shall also be
compared with this diagram.
Fig. 24 Maximum Tolerable Concentrations in the Hot Meal
Problem / 6.2.4 Total Sulfur Volatility
6.2.4 Total Sulfur Volatility
With the formula for the total volatility (see section 3.4.1) the individual total volatilities of the
sulfates shall be calculated.
If of the sulfur is > 0.7 and if at the same time the A/S ratio is within the range of 0.8 to 1.2,
the sulfur cycle is definitely too high and needs improvements by measures as stated in section
7.4.
IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS WITH ENCRUSTATIONS AND BUILD-UPS / 6.3 Example of a Circulation Phenomena Problem
6.3 Example of a Circulation Phenomena Problem
IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS WITH ENCRUSTATIONS AND BUILD-UPS / 6.3 Example of a Circulation Phenomena Problem /
6.3.1 Material Balance and Hot Meal Analysis
6.3.1 Material Balance and Hot Meal Analysis
Query:
Material Balance
Inputs
Raw mix: SO
3
= 0.5% cli
(loss free basis) K
2
O = 0.5% cli
Na
2
O = 0.2% cli
Cl = 0.05% cli
Coal: S = 2%, SO
3
= 5%
Hu = 26800 kJ/kg, 6400 kcal/kg
Specific heat
consumption:
q = 3350 kJ/kg, 800 kcal/kg
Outputs
Clinker: SO
3
= 0.85%
K
2
O = 0.5%
Na
2
O = 0.2%
Cl = 0.03%
SO2 emission: SO
2
=
400 mg/Nm
3
(= 0.1% SO
3
)
Hot Meal Analysis
(loss free basis) SO
3
= 4.5% cli
K
2
O = 4% cli
Na
2
O = 0.3% cli
Cl = 2% cli
6.3.2 Analysis of the Example
6.3.2 Analysis of the Example
6.3.2 Analysis of the Example / 6.3.2.1 Material Balance
6.3.2.1 Material Balance
Material Balance SO
3
[% cli]
K
2
O
[% cli]
Na
2
O
[% cli]
Cl
[% cli]
Input Raw Mix 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.05
Query:
Input Raw Mix 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.05
Coal 0.6
Total 1.1 0.5 0.2 0.05
Output Clinker 0.85 0.5 0.2 0.03
SO
2
emission 0.1
Total 0.95 0.5 0.2 0.03
Balance Error 0.15 0.0 0.0 0.02
The total sulfur output is smaller than the total input. This often is the case when performing a
material balance. There are two possible explanations:
The samples are not representative.
The process was not in a steady state. Sulfur was kept back in the system, forming
encrustations. During cleaning, the sulfur containing deposits left the kiln with the clinker but
were not catched representatively by the sampling procedure.
The total chloride output is smaller than the total input. Here the same problems arise as described
above. Normally the clinker does not contain more than 0.01% Cl due to the high chloride volatility.
However, if the chloride cycle becomes very large, values up to 0.05% Cl in the clinker have
already been measured.
6.3.2 Analysis of the Example / 6.3.2.2 Form of Sulfur in the Raw Materials
6.3.2.2 Form of Sulfur in the Raw Materials
Note that the raw material contains sulfidic sulfur (FeS
2
) due to the SO
2
emission. The real sulfate
input to the kiln is therefore:
from raw mix to kiln 0.5 to 0.1 = 0.4% SO
3
coal + 0.6% SO
3
total input to the kiln 1.0% SO
3
6.3.2 Analysis of the Example / 6.3.2.3 Comparison with Typical Inputs of Circulating Elements (see section 6.2.2)
6.3.2.3 Comparison with Typical Inputs of Circulating Elements (see section 6.2.2)
Inputs by the raw materials:
SO
3
= 0.4% (sulfates only!) o.k.
K
2
O and Na
2
O o.k.
Cl = 0.05% very high, bypass required
Query:
Sulfur inputs by the coal:
S = 2% high, but within the normal range
6.3.2 Analysis of the Example / 6.3.2.4 Alkali / Sulfur Ratio
6.3.2.4 Alkali / Sulfur Ratio
63 . 0
80
0 . 1
71
05 . 0
62
2 . 0
94
5 . 0
80
%
71
%
62
%
94
%
/
*)
3
2 2
+ +
SO
Cl O Na O K
S A

*)
total input to the kiln (see section 6.3.2.2)
The A/S ratio is outside of the desirable range of 0.8 to 1.5.
6.3.2 Analysis of the Example / 6.3.2.5 Enrichment of Circulating Elements in the Hot Meal
6.3.2.5 Enrichment of Circulating Elements in the Hot Meal
Comparison with tolerable concentrations of circulating elements (see section 6.2.2)
SO
3
= 4.5% High, far beyond normal limit, problems
with encrustation
Alkalis:
0.66 4 + 0.3 =2.9%
Slightly above normal, but highly desirable
due to the large sulfur input!
Cl = 2% High, far beyond normal limit, problems
with encrustations
Comparison with diagram for maximum concentrations (see section 6.2.2)
SO
3

= 4.5%
frequent blockages to be expected
Cl
= 2%

6.3.2 Analysis of the Example / 6.3.2.6 Total Sulfur Volatility (SO3)
Query:
6.3.2.6 Total Sulfur Volatility (SO
3
)
81 . 0
5 . 4
85 . 0
1 1
HM
cli
c
c
> 0.7: Because of the low A/S ratio, a substantial portion of the sulfur is in form of CaSO
4
which
leads to the high volatility of > 0.7.
MEASURES AGAINST BUILD-UP FORMATION
7. MEASURES AGAINST BUILD-UP FORMATION
MEASURES AGAINST BUILD-UP FORMATION / 7.1 General Measures
7.1 General Measures
Reduction of the Inputs of Circulating Elements
The most obvious measure against build-up formation is to reduce the input of circulating
elements. It is normally not possible to change the main raw materials. However, sometimes a
minor component that contains a substantial amount of circulating elements can be replaced. In
most cases the sulfur content of the fuel is more easy to change. Please note that the fuel may
also contain considerable amounts of chlorides.
The circulating elements of the raw materials in the quarry deposits are often not
homogeneously distributed. In such cases prehomogenization of the raw materials combined
with selective quarrying helps to reduce peak inputs of circulating elements into the kiln system.
Smooth Kiln Operation
In many cases the cycles of circulating elements are frequently increased by an inadequate kiln
operation applying to drastic changes in fuel feed and draft.
Also the best kiln operator cannot apply during his daily work of 8 h such a super constant kiln
operation. Therefore the author is of the strong opinion that only a fully automatic kiln control
will provide optimal results (cp. LINKman).
MEASURES AGAINST BUILD-UP FORMATION / 7.2 Intelligent Cleaning
7.2 Intelligent Cleaning
Important: The more circulating elements are introduced into the kiln system the better and more
efficient cleaning methods have to be applied!
Preheaters have to be controlled and cleaned at least once a shift to remove immediately possible
build-ups! Therefore a experienced tower guard is needed.
On each platform enough cleaning slots are required to manually clean the riser duct and the inlet
chamber whenever it is necessary. At particularly critical spots additional slots should be installed.
Critical locations where always material deposits are built shall be armed with air blasters. Please
note that mostly several blasters for one location must be installed since their cleaning radius is
rather small (< 0.5 m). The blasters should always shoot in the direction of material flow (see Fig.
Query:
25).
Fig. 25 Application of Air Cannons
The riser ducts shall be protected by introducing the raw meal from the upper stage as low as
possible (Fig. 26). That way the circulating elements are able to condense at the cooler meal.
Fig. 26 Protection of the Riser Duct Walls against Condensation of Circulating
Elements
The meal ducts should be equipped with pendulum flaps in order to avoid a hot gas bypass through the
ducts into the cyclones (Fig. 27).
Fig. 27 Example of a Pendulum Flape for the hot meal duct of the lowest cyclone in a
suspension preheater (Polysius)
Query:
Meal ducts have to have a sufficient inclination (> 55), a sufficient large diameter and must not
have any sharp bends.
The cyclone outlets for the hot meal should be sufficiently large. If frequent bridging of the
outflowing raw meal occurs, the outlet section shall be first equipped with air blasters and, if this
measure does not help, it must be enlarged.
The installation of coating neutral refractory at the transition chamber and the lowest riser duct has
produced good results in many applications and is state of the art.
Any false air entrance at the kiln inlet area and the lower preheater part must be avoided
(continuous supervision and maintenance). Otherwise false air is likely to increase the formation of
build-ups.
For efficient cleaning special high-pressure water pumps (e.g. type WOMA) shall be applied. The
application of this pump is dangerous and needs special training of the operators. There is also a
danger of destroying the refractory lining!
Adequate meal distribution boxes shall be installed, which distribute the raw meal over the whole
cross section. An example is given in Fig. 28.
Fig. 28 Meal Distribution Boxes by Polysius
Dead corners in riser ducts, cyclones and the transition chamber shall be avoided.
Cleaning should only be done if the pressure profile or a quick inspection indicate a need for.
Opening of the big access doors disturbs kiln operation and let enter cold air, which favors build-up
formation.
MEASURES AGAINST BUILD-UP FORMATION / 7.3 Measures against Chloride Problems
7.3 Measures against Chloride Problems
Important: With the clinker chlorine can only be withdrawn to a very limited amount (0.01 to maximum
0.02% Cl). Therefore the measures against chlorine build-ups are limited.
Reduction of the Volatility
There is little chance to decrease the chlorine and chlorine volatility as evaporation takes place
at a low temperature range (800 to 1000C).
Discarding of Dust (external cycle)
Query:
For long dry and wet kilns as well as for Lepol kilns the chlorides are effectively withdrawn from
the kiln by discarding the finest fraction of the total of the kiln dust.
For preheater kiln dust discarding is normally not very efficient as the accumulation of chlorides
in the dust is small. However, in case of a large internal chloride cycle this measure could help
to keep it at a lower level. The effect of the measure can be calculated by a material balance.
Reduction of the Sulfur Cycle
Build-up formation is provoked by all circulating elements together. As the chloride cycle cannot
be effectively influenced, all possible measures should be taken to reduce the sulfur cycle as it
increases the tolerance threshold for chlorine.
Installation of a Kiln Gas Bypass
If the chloride input of a SP kiln is larger than 0.02 to 0.03% (loss free basis) a chloride bypass
must be installed. Whether the higher limit of 0.03% can be tolerated depends on the expected
sulfur cycle.
A rule of thumb to calculate the quantity of required bypass gases is:
% Bypass = % Cl input by the raw material (loss free) x 100
Example: % Cl input by the raw material = 0.05%
Required bypass size = 0.05 100 = 5%
The Bypass has to be installed at point of highest concentration in the gas of chlorine and
alkalis.
MEASURES AGAINST BUILD-UP FORMATION / 7.4 Measures against Sulfur Problems
7.4 Measures against Sulfur Problems
Important: In contrast to chlorine sulfur can be withdrawn in high quantities with the clinker. All
measure aim to reduce the volatility in order to introduce the sulfur into the clinker.
Reduction of the sulfur input (raw material and fuel)
Adjusting of the molar alkali / sulfur ratio between 0.8 and 1.2; best to a value beyond 1.
K
2
SO
4
is little volatile, CaSO
4
is highly volatile and can be withdrawn only in form of double-salts or
within the belite.
Keep the lime saturation factor as low as possible so that the sulfur can dissolve in the belite.
Possibly modification of the raw mix in order to improve the burnability and the granulation of the
clinker (decrease of the silica ratio). These measures help to reduce the required maximum
temperature in the burning zone and to reduce the sulfur volatilization from the clinker granules.
Minimal fluctuations in the chemistry and the quantity of the kiln feed so that constant burning
conditions can be maintained.
Avoid overburning! High sulfur content means a porous clinker. In this case not a high litre weight is
needed to produce low free lime! For quality control drop litre weight or adjust regularly the rated
value for the litre weight to the free lime values.
High sulfur cycles produce a dusty kiln atmosphere. Do not burn down the dust at all costs in order
to avoid overheating.
Sufficient excess air at the kiln inlet to avoid reducing conditions (2% O
2
). Please note
Query:
that the measurement of O
2
at kiln inlet is a spot sample and does not necessarily represent the
whole inlet cross section. The 2% O
2
can therefore be a guide value only.
Attention: Too much excess air produces high kiln inlet temperatures, which again
increase the sulfur volatility. Use carefully excess air! Do not tolerate any CO at the kiln
inlet, i.e. CO<0.05%.
Introduce automatic kiln control (LINKman) in order to stabalize the kiln operation.
The burner should be directed parallel to the kiln axis and should not point to the kiln
charge in order to avoid local reducing burning conditions.
The burner itself should be of the latest design, which produces a short and stable flame
in order to have the shortest possible retention time of the kiln charge in the high temperature zone
and low kiln inlet temperatures are achieved. As a result the sulfur volatility is minimized.
Apply secondary firing or precalcination to reduce the thermal load in the sintering zone.
This possibility is very limited when the kiln inlet temperatures are too high and reducing conditions
occur. In this case heavy sulfur build-ups or even build-ups from the first clinker mineralization
result.
Very good dispersion of all liquid fuels in order to achieve a short flame (enough
viscosity and atomizing pressure).
Solid fuels (also alternative fuels) should be enough prepared. The main fuel at the main
burner should have the fineness of coal! Use coarser fractions only limited in the main burner (10 to
20% heat). Coarse particles make the flame longer and so increase the sulfur volatility. Introduce
additional coarse fuel fractions separate above the flame and not directly into the flame.
If solid fuels (e.g. used tires) are burnt at the kiln inlet, lifters shall be installed in order to
keep the fuel pieces at the surface of the kiln charge and to avoid local reducing burning
conditions.
Permanent control of pressure fluctuations in the pneumatic pipes at the burner head.
Pulsation < t 5 mbar! Avoid long transport pipe and keep the velocity > 30 m/s.
In case of extremely high sulfur inputs and a alkali deficiency at the same time kiln gas
bypasses are applied. But these are by far not as efficient as for chlorine problems.
Remark: Especially for long dry and wet kilns discarding of dust is a very effective
measure to withdraw the sulfur from the kiln. This does not hold true for SP kilns as the
accumulation of sulfur in the external cycle is small.
For SP kilns the installation of a kiln gas bypass may become necessary if there are
almost no alkalis to extract the sulfur from the kiln.
Shifting of the condensation area of the sulfur towards the kiln inlet and the first zone of
the rotary part.
This effect is achieved by increasing the A/S ratio and by avoiding high kiln
inlet temperatures.
Avoid overburning of the clinker, Fig. 29 demonstrates the strong influence of burning zone
temperature (indicated by the concentration of NO
x
on the accumulation of SO
3
and especially
CaSO
4
in the hot meal. Furthermore also the influence of the excess air is shown.
Fig. 29 Enrichment of SO
3
in the Hot Meal of the Lowest Cyclone Stage
Query:
MEASURES AGAINST BUILD-UP FORMATION / 7.5 Measures against Alkali Problems
7.5 Measures against Alkali Problems
Alkali Volatility
In absence of sulfur the alkali volatility is very high and creates problems in the preheater. In
such a case the raw mix can be sulfatizated by addition of gypsum.
Low Alkali Clinker
If low alkali clinker must be produced, all measures must be taken to increase the alkali
volatility, such as
reducing the sulfur input
producing a long and stable flame
applying hard burning (CaO
free
< 1), if possible reducing the burnability by increasing the
silica ration
applying a minimum of excess air
chlorination of the raw mix either by burning chloride
containing solvents or adding CaCl
2
In case of long dry or wet kilns the alkalis are withdrawn by discarding a fraction or the total dust of
the external cycle. In case of a SP kiln a (large) kiln gas bypass is required.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C08 - Circulation Phenomena / Circulation Phenomena in the Clinkerization Process / 8. 8.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO SIMULATE THE CYCLES OF THE CIRCULATING ELEMENTS
8. 8. MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO SIMULATE THE CYCLES OF THE CIRCULATING
ELEMENTS
The cycles of the circulating elements in the kiln system can be simulated by a mathematical model
(Fig. 30). This model is used for bypass calculations and for simulating special effects on the behavior
of the volatile cycles.
Fig. 30 Mathematical Model to Simulate the Cycles of the Circulating Elements in the Kiln
System (by Weber)
Query:
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C09 - Heat Balance
C09 - Heat Balance
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C09 - Heat Balance / Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics
Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics
Th. Richner / A. Obrist
PT 99/14496/E (update of VA 8/5180/E)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. OVERVIEW OF COMPLETE HEAT BALANCE PROCEDURE
2.1 Why to do a Heat Balance?
2.2 How to Proceed
3. BASIS OF BALANCE AND REMARKS REGARDING EXECUTION
3.1 Balance Limits
3.2 Guidelines for Test Duration
3.3 Kiln Operation
3.4 Kiln Data
4. HEAT BALANCE CALCULATIONS
4.1 General Remarks
4.2 Determination of Clinker Production
4.3 Heat from Fuel
4.4 Burnable Components in Raw Material
4.5 Loss due to Incomplete Combustion
4.6 Heat of Formation
4.7 Heat due to Partly Decarbonized Material
4.8 Heat of Evaporation
4.9 Sensible Heat
4.10 Heat Loss due to Radiation and Convection
5. HEAT BALANCES
5.1 General
5.2 Examples of Heat Balances of Various Kiln Systems
6. SPECIAL PART
6.1 Influence of Reference Temperature
6.3 Radiation Heat Transfer
Query:
6.4 Convective Heat Transfer
6.5 Effect of Thermal Improvements
6.6 Heat Transfer in Preheaters and Coolers and Improvement Potential
7. TEST QUESTIONS
8. LITERATURE
9. SYMBOLS AND UNITS
Query:
SUMMARY
A heat balance is an efficient tool to measure the actual state of a kiln system. It allows a better
assessment of the heat consumption and reveals the potentials for improvements (regarding the
thermal aspects).
The principle of a heat balance is rather simple: we select our system limits for the balance and
measure all inputs and outputs.
After the necessary measuring campaign we need to calculate the various heat items, e.g.:
Heat of fuel combustion
Combustibles in raw meal or exhaust gas
Heat of formation
Heat of evaporation
Sensible heats of all gas and mass flows
Radiation and convection heat
The heat balance shows clearly how the heat is spent among the individual items. This information is
therefore most suitable to detect abnormal operating conditions or potential for improvements. As a
next step we can decide which practical measures should be taken in order to achieve improvements in
the thermal energy consumption.
When improvements are realized we can often take into account that the saving of fuel is by a factor of
1.3 to 1.5 higher than the primary improvements on the balance item (multiplication factor), as long as
we consider the high temperature zone.
Considerable improvements can be realized by reducing shell losses, false air inleaks, heat exchange
in certain preheater types and in clinker coolers.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C09 - Heat Balance / Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics / 1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Heat balances on a kiln system can offer extremely useful information on the thermal performance of
the system. Heat balances show where or how the fuel heat is consumed, based on the simple
principle of:
input = output
Unnecessary energy losses can be easily detected.
The principle aim of this chapter is to serve a practical guide for doing heat balances on cement kilns.
It can be used as working paper and does neither require special thermodynamic knowledge nor
supplementary literature or tables.
For the more interested reader some special aspects are treated in a separate chapter.
The principle of heat balance may be easily transferred to other systems such as preheaters, coolers
and drying systems. Therefore the use of this chapter can be extended to other systems than cement
kilns.
In this chapter, only SI units are used, which means that heat is always given in kJ (kilo Joule).
Conversion calculations within the chapter will no more be required. Incidentally this may also
Query:
contribute to the consequent use of SI units.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C09 - Heat Balance / Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics / 2. OVERVIEW OF
COMPLETE HEAT BALANCE PROCEDURE
2. OVERVIEW OF COMPLETE HEAT BALANCE PROCEDURE
COMPLETE HEAT BALANCE PROCEDURE / 2.1 Why to do a Heat Balance?
2.1 Why to do a Heat Balance?
Various reasons or circumstances may cause a need for a heat balance measurement. The following
situations may justify a heat balance:
Performance test
Recording of kiln performance before/after a modification
Unusually high heat consumption or abnormal kiln operational data
Kiln optimization campaign
It may be self explaining that an extensive heat balance also costs money, especially if a large number
of people are involved. Therefore the costs may be put in relation to the obtainable benefits. A potential
improvement of say 100 kJ/kg of heat consumption on a 3000 t/d kiln means a savings in the order of
US$ 200000 per year (at current fuel prices). In such a case it may be worthwhile to invest some
money for a detailed investigation including a complete heat balance.
Although the specific heat consumption proper could also be determined by measuring nothing but fuel
heat and clinker production, a complete heat balance does offer considerably more information and
security. The consistency of the measured data is proved much better, and the balance shows clearly
where the heat is consumed. A heat balance is obviously a very efficient tool for assessment of thermal
efficiency.
COMPLETE HEAT BALANCE PROCEDURE / 2.2 How to Proceed
2.2 How to Proceed
A heat balance does not only mean calculation of heat balance items. The complete procedure usually
includes the following steps:
COMPLETE HEAT BALANCE PROCEDURE / 2.2 How to Proceed / 2.2.1 1st Step: Preparation
2.2.1 1st Step: Preparation
The extent of works to be done depends on the completeness and reliability which is desired. A careful
planning and preparation is recommendable. The following basic items must be clarified:
What has to be measured (kind and location of measuring / sampling points)?
Duration of test?
Frequency of measurements (continuous recording, spot measurements, time intervals, etc.)?
Under above preconditions the number of people required and the necessary measuring equipment
can be determined. Temporary equipment may usually become necessary, whereas the existing
Query:
permanent instrumentation should be carefully checked and calibrated.
The following list may be used as checklist for a test preparation:
People available for test period?
Does everybody know what to do at what time?
Necessary logsheets for manual recordings ready?
Data recording system (electronic, pen recorder, etc.) available?
Flow of information among test team?
Calibration or checks of instruments and scales done (flowmeters, orifice plates, venturis, dp-cells,
thermocouples, etc.)?
Temporary measuring equipment available? Complete? Correct span? Functionning properly?
For example:
pitot tube
U-tube manometer / electronic manometer
mobile thermometer
radiation pyrometer
gas analyzer / Orsat
sampling equipment for gas
Sampling procedure for solids (e.g. meal, dust, clinker) clarified?
Analyzing facilities?
COMPLETE HEAT BALANCE PROCEDURE / 2.2 How to Proceed / 2.2.2 2nd Step: Execution
2.2.2 2nd Step: Execution
An important precondition for a good test is a steady kiln operation. The test should only be started if
the system has reached a constant equilibrium state. During the test, variations of operating
parameters should be avoided.
For the measuring techniques reference is made to the corresponding chapter.
It is recommended to check completeness and reliability of measurements already during the test,
afterwards missing or uncertain information may create problems at the final evaluation.
COMPLETE HEAT BALANCE PROCEDURE / 2.2 How to Proceed / 2.2.3 3rd Step: Evaluation
2.2.3 3rd Step: Evaluation
This step is the main scope of this chapter. Evaluation of data means to establish a heat balance
calculation according to the principle
input = output.
COMPLETE HEAT BALANCE PROCEDURE / 2.2 How to Proceed / 2.2.4 4th Step: Discussion
2.2.4 4th Step: Discussion
Query:
A heat balance as such must bring some practical conclusions otherwise it would be only of
academical interest. The following items may be considered:
Acceptable (normal) heat consumption?
Are heat balance items normal for given kiln systems?
Measures in order to improve heat economy of the system?
The last item can become quite an extensive work and the economical feasibility must be considered
as well. Such subjects, however, are beyond the scope of this chapter.
Note: Summarizing, it is obvious that the 3rd step Evaluation is only a limited part in the whole
context.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C09 - Heat Balance / Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics / 3. BASIS OF
BALANCE AND REMARKS REGARDING EXECUTION
3. BASIS OF BALANCE AND REMARKS REGARDING EXECUTION
BALANCE AND REMARKS REGARDING EXECUTION / 3.1 Balance Limits
3.1 Balance Limits
In many balance reports the boundary for the balance is not shown expressively. As long as standard
cases are considered it may sometimes seem evident how the balance limits were selected.
Nevertheless it is advantageous to indicate always clearly where the boundary for the balance is. This
will avoid misunderstandings and reduce error possibilities. For that purpose a (simplified) flowsheet is
required. In this scheme the boundary must be marked by a line which envelopes the system under
consideration. When a measuring campaign in a plant is planned such definitions should be made
already in the planning phase, i.e before the test.
Fig. 1 Examples of Balance Boundaries

The boundary generates various cutpoints with ingoing or outgoing solid- and gas streams. Likewise
radiation and convection heat crosses the boundary.
Each cutpoint means a certain item in the heat balance because it represents a heat flow either into or
Query:
out of the system.
By this measure the system is clearly defined and nothing can be forgotten.
Basically, any shape of the boundary could theoretically be chosen. To give an extreme example: The
boundary could even cut a rotary kiln at half length! However, the boundary must be selected
according to practical considerations. This means that the cutpoints which are generated must be:
easily accessible for reliable measurements
of practical interest in the whole context.
BALANCE AND REMARKS REGARDING EXECUTION / 3.2 Guidelines for Test Duration
3.2 Guidelines for Test Duration
A long test duration would allow for a good accuracy but the available time is limited by practical
considerations.
As a rough guideline the minimum test duration should be about ten times the material retention time in
the complete kiln system:
test duration = 10 x retention time
Other factors like regularity of kiln operation also influence the test duration. If the process is very
unsteady longer times should be envisaged.
On a normal suspension preheater kiln the retention time of the material is in the order of one hour. In
contrast, on a lime shaft kiln retention times above 24 hours may occur. Therefore the necessary test
durations for these two cases must be completely different.
Although test durations must be set individually the following list may be used as rough guideline:
Type of Kiln Test Duration (hours)
for Heat Balance
Suspension preheater kiln with precalciner 12
Suspension preheater kiln without precalciner 12 to 24
Long dry / wet kiln 24
BALANCE AND REMARKS REGARDING EXECUTION / 3.3 Kiln Operation
3.3 Kiln Operation
During the test, the kiln must run at constant and steady conditions. Changing of setpoints should be
avoided whenever possible.
Interruptions have to be logged. If serious problems occur, the test has to be extended or even
postponed. Therefore it is often worthwhile to plan a certain time reserve.
From a theoretical point of view a proper balance can only be made if the system runs at steady
conditions. E.g. during heating-up heat is stored in the system and there is no balance between input
Query:
and output (input > output).
BALANCE AND REMARKS REGARDING EXECUTION / 3.4 Kiln Data
3.4 Kiln Data
In order to facilitate the final discussion it is usually necessary to collect the main data of the system
such as:
a) System
process
type of kiln
nominal capacity
type of preheater / precalciner
type of cooler
supplier
year of commissioning
fuel and firing system
type of burner nozzle
dust reintroduction system
dimensions of main equipment (sizes, inclinations, etc.)
data on fans, derives, etc.
b) Operation
various operating data (rpm, kW, temperature and pressure profiles along kiln system, grate
speed, undergrate pressures, etc.)
electric power readings (before / after test)
chemical analysis of raw meal, dust(s) and clinker, LSF, SR, AR, etc.
Above data are not necessarily required for heat balance calculations proper, but they should be
included in a complete balance report in order to describe the system and to give more information on
its performance.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C09 - Heat Balance / Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics / 4. HEAT BALANCE
CALCULATIONS
4. HEAT BALANCE CALCULATIONS
CALCULATIONS / 4.1 General Remarks
4.1 General Remarks
CALCULATIONS / 4.1 General Remarks / 4.1.1 Symbols and Units
4.1.1 Symbols and Units
A
m
2
area
C
R W/m
2
K
4
radiation constant
c
P
kJ/kg C specific heat (at const. pressure),
Query:
c
P
or
kJ/Nm
3
C
specific heat capacity
CV kJ/kg calorific value
D m diameter
g
m/s
2
gravity constant
h kJ/kg heat content (specific)
or
kJ/Nm
3
or kJ/kg cli
L m length
m kg mass
or kg/kg specific mass
m
f
kg/h mass flow
Q
f
kW heat flow (1 kW = 1 kJ/s)
t C temperature (Centigrade)
T K temperature (Kelvin)
v m/s velocity
w kg/kg water content
Greek Letters
W/m
2
K
heat transfer coefficient
- emissivity (for radiation)
W/m C heat conductivity
kg/m
3
density
Dimensionless Numbers
Nu Nusselt number (for heat transfer)
Pr Prandtl number
R kiln feed (raw meal) / clinker-ratio
Re Reynolds number
Indices
conv convection
rad radiation
tot total
o ambient condition or zero condition
Conversion Factors
Length 1 inch 0.0254 m
1 ft 0.3048 m
Area 1 sq. ft
0.092903 m
2
Query:
0.092903 m
2
Volume, Volume Flow 1 cu.ft
0.028316 m
3
1 cu.ft/min
1.699 m
3
/h (actual m
3
)
Mass 1 lb. 0.45359 kg
1 short ton
(USA)
907.185 kg
Pressure 1 bar
10
5
N/m
2
1 mm
H
2
O-Col.
9.806 N/m
2
1 atm. 1.013 bar
Energy 1 kJ 1000 J
1 MJ 1000 kJ
1 kWh 3600 kJ
1 kcal 4.187 kJ
1 BTU 1.055 kJ
Temperature Conversion C = 5/9(F - 32)
K = 273.15 + C
Heat Flow 1 kW 1000 W = 1 kJ/s
1 kcal/h 1.163 W
1 BTU/h 0.29307 W
Specific Heat 1 kcal/kg C 4.187 kJ/kg C = 4187 J/kg C
1 BTU/lb F 1 kcal/kg C = 4.187 kJ/kg C
Heat Transfer Coeffic.
1 kcal/m
2
h C 1.163 W/m
2
C
1 BTU/ft
2
h F 5.678 W/m
2
C
Standard Conditions for
Gases
Standard
Conditions
0C and 1 atm (1.013 bar)
bar 1.013
(bar) p
t(C) 273.16
273.15
m act. Nm
3 3
+

CALCULATIONS / 4.1 General Remarks / 4.1.2 Reference Temperature
4.1.2 Reference Temperature
We will set the usual reference temperature to 20C i.e. the sensible heat of mass flows at 20C
becomes zero.
All heats of transformation such as combustion, evaporation, formation are also based on 20C
reference.
CALCULATIONS / 4.1 General Remarks / 4.1.3 Input / Output
Query:
4.1.3 Input / Output
Whether a heat item represents an input or output is determined by the direction of mass flow,
according to:
into boundary = input
out of boundary = output
This is a simple and useful convention (not a natural law).
If heats of transformation occur within the boundary the net heat effect is normally used as criterion:
heat producing process = input
heat consuming process = output
A heat producing process is e.g. the fuel combustion (exothermic).
CALCULATIONS / 4.1 General Remarks / 4.1.4 Reference Quantity
4.1.4 Reference Quantity
The heat balance is referred to 1 kg of clinker produced. This requires a general calculation step
(division by clinker production) which is not shown in the following formulas in order to maintain a more
simple presentation.
CALCULATIONS / 4.2 Determination of Clinker Production
4.2 Determination of Clinker Production
CALCULATIONS / 4.2 Determination of Clinker Production / 4.2.1 General
4.2.1 General
The clinker production during a test is a key figure for all the following calculations. We will refer all
flows and heats to 1 kg of clinker produced.
Determination of clinker production can be made by direct weighing of the production which is by far
the best method. If this can be done the following chapter 4.2.2 can be ignored. But in some cases no
direct measurement is possible. Therefore, an indirect determination may be necessary as shown in
the following.
CALCULATIONS / 4.2 Determination of Clinker Production / 4.2.2 Indirect Determination
4.2.2 Indirect Determination
It is well known, that from approx. 1.56 kg raw material (not kiln feed!) 1 kg clinker can be produced.
Starting from this fact it seems to be easily possible to calculate the clinker production. However, the
above factor of 1.56 if of limited practical help because it can be superimposed by dust return and
depends on some other influences.
The best method in such a case is to establish a mass balance for the system. Similar to a heat
Query:
balance a boundary for a mass balance can be defined. Thus the clinker production becomes:
Clinker =
'
+ kiln feed
+ coal ash
+ dust insufflated
- dust losses
1
;
1
all calculated on L.o.I. free basis!

This principle is quite simple. The following additional remarks can be given:
The boundary for the mass balance does not necessarily have to coincide with the heat balance
boundary.
The mass balance boundary must cut the kiln feed measuring point (because the mass flow is
known at this point).
The balance is always made on a loss-on-ignition-free (L.o.I.-free) base (no balance for the entire
quantity including L.o.I. can be made since part of it is converted to gas, which is not included
here).
Regarding only the dust loss from the exhaust gas there are two basic possibilities:
a) Dust Flow crosses mass balance boundary

mass balance is influenced by dust flow
note that is not significant whether or how the dust is returned (outside the boundary)!
Query:

b) Dust flow does not leave mass balance boundary (internal dust return)

mass balance is not influenced by dust flow
internal dust return must be steady, i.e. no storage being built up (silos!)

Two practical examples illustrating above two cases are shown in the following.
CALCULATIONS / 4.2 Determination of Clinker Production / 4.2.3 Examples
4.2.3 Examples
a) External Dust Recirculation (outside of boundary)
Fig. 2 Mass Balance / External Dust Recirculation
m
f
(dry)
[t/h]
L.o.I.
[-]
m
f
(1-L.o.I.)
[t/h]
Kiln Feed (KF) 204.0 0.357 131.17
Coal Ash (Ash) 1.8
0
+ 1.80
Dust in Exhaust (D) 11.0 0.315 - 7.54
Bypass Dust (BpD) 2.1 0.070 - 1.95
Query:
Bypass Dust (BpD) 2.1 0.070 - 1.95
Clinker (Cli) 0 123.48 t/h
Note that the kiln feed data (L.o.I.) may slightly change when going from combined operation to direct
operation or vice versa!
Kiln Feed / Clinker = R = 204.0 / 123.48 = 1.652 (all included)
b1) Internal Dust Recirculation (inside of boundary)
Fig. 3 Mass Balance / Internal Dust Recirculation

During direct operation the following calculation method applies:
m
f
(dry)
[t/h]
L.o.I.
[-]
m
f
(1-L.o.I.)
[t/h]
Kiln Feed (KF) 204.0 0.357 131.17
Coal Ash (Ash) 1.8
0
+ 1.80
Bypass Dust (BpD) 2.1 0.070 - 1.95
Clinker (Cli) 0 131.02 t/h
Kiln Feed/Clinker = R = 204.0/131.02 = 1.557
Note the difference to example a)!
Incidentally the example b1) is shown for comparison to example a) and does by no means represent a
superior solution of the dust return!
The following example b2) shows a very similar way of calculation to example b1).
b2) Internal Dust Return (wet kiln)
Query:
Fig. 4 Mass Balance / Internal Dust Recirculation
m
f
(wet)
[t/h]
m
f
(dry)
[t/h]
L.o.I.
[-]
m
f
(1-L.o.I.)
[t/h]
Kiln Feed (KF) 42 26.46 0.360 16.93
Coal Ash (Ash) - 0.8
0
0.8
Clinker 0 17.73 t/h
CALCULATIONS / 4.3 Heat from Fuel
4.3 Heat from Fuel
CALCULATIONS / 4.3 Heat from Fuel / 4.3.1 Fuel Firing
4.3.1 Fuel Firing
Fuel can be introduced at the following locations:
Kiln firing
Secondary firing or precalciner
Burnable components in raw meal
Generally the heat from fuel is calculated:
h = m CV (kJ/kg cli)
h = heat (kJ/kg cli)
m = specific fuel consumption (kg/kg cli or Nm
3
/kg cli)
CV = calorific value (kJ/kg fuel or kJ/Nm
3
fuel)
For the calorific value CV only the low (or net) value is used within the Holderbank Group (for
Query:
conversion see chapter Combustion Engineering).
Heat balance referring to high (or gross) heat value are sometimes encountered. But here an important
note must be made: the use of high heat values is based on a quite different method of considering
heat losses. Therefore those balances cannot be compared directly to our type of balance.
CALCULATIONS / 4.3 Heat from Fuel / 4.3.2 Coal Firing
4.3.2 Coal Firing
For coal firing it is essential that the CV and the consumption (m) refer both to the same conditions.
The normal convention is to refer to the state as fed to the kiln burner.
The state as fed to burner may sometimes be different from the state as analyzed. Differences can
occur because of dust addition in coal mill, loss of volatile matter or just simply by changed moisture
conditions.
If the actual CV at the given coal moisture w is not known it can be calculated from the value CV
o
at
the moisture w
o
:
CV = [(1-w) / (1-w
0
)] (CV
0
+ w
0
r) - w r
where: r = 2450 kJ/kg
= heat of water evaporation at reference temperature 20C
w, w
o
= weight fractions of water
Examples:
a) Coal, CV at 5% moisture = 26500 kJ/kg
CV at 1% moisture (as fed to burner) = ?
CV = [(1-0.01) / (1-0.05)] (26500 + 0.052450) - 0.012.450
CV = 27464 kJ/kg
If above coal (1% moisture) is fired at a specific rate of 0.1230 kg/kg cli:
h = 0.1230 27464 = 3378 kJ/kg cli
b) If the CV for dry matter is known (CV
dry
) the general formula can be simplified (for w
o
= 0):
CV = (1 - w) CV
dry
- w r
CV
dry
= 28 MJ/kg, moisture 2%
CV = 28 (1 - 0.02) - 0.02 2.45 = 27.39 MJ/kg
CALCULATIONS / 4.4 Burnable Components in Raw Material
4.4 Burnable Components in Raw Material
Query:
CALCULATIONS / 4.4 Burnable Components in Raw Material / 4.4.1 Organic Matter
4.4.1 Organic Matter
Organic matter can be present in the raw meal e.g. in form of oil shale or exceptionally even in form of
free crude oil.
Such material is partly volatilized in the preheating zone and leaves the system partly as unburnt light
hydrocarbons. If the latter are actually measured and considered in the total heat balance it is
recommended to determine the calorific value of the raw meal (not directly, but by extracting its organic
matter). Thus the heat input becomes:
h = CV
low
R (kJ/kg cli)
where:
CV
low
= calorific value due to organic matter, referred to 1 kg raw meal
R = kiln feed / clinker - factor
If light hydrocarbons in the exhaust gas are not measured nor considered in the total heat balance
anyway the following approach will produce better results:
Determine the organic content only (org. C, measured by burning in pure O
2
to CO
2
). Then consider
exclusively the organic C (the rest can be neglected). The approximate heat input becomes:
h = C R 33000 kJ/kg (kJ/kg cli)
where
C = organic carbon content in raw meal
Above mentioned is only an approximation but often used due to its simplicity.
Example:
R = 1.6 kg/kg cli, C = 0.2% carbon
q = 0.002 1.6 33000 = 106 kJ/kg cli
CALCULATIONS / 4.4 Burnable Components in Raw Material / 4.4.2 Inorganic Matter
4.4.2 Inorganic Matter
In certain cases residues of non-oxidized pyrite (FeS
2
) can occur in the raw meal. The heat input
becomes:
h = S R 12930 kJ/kg (kJ/kg cli)
where
S = weight fraction of sulfur (expressed as S!) from pyrite in raw meal
Example:
R = 1.6 kg/kg cli, 0.05% S (from pyrite) in raw meal
h = 0.0005 1.6 12930 = 10 kJ/kg cli
Query:
The practical heat effect in the above case is only marginal.
CALCULATIONS / 4.5 Loss due to Incomplete Combustion
4.5 Loss due to Incomplete Combustion
If unburnt gases such as CO, H
2
, CH
4
occur in the exhaust gas an additional heat output occurs.
The loss can be calculated to:
h = m (CO 12640 + H
2
10800 + CH
4
35840) (kJ/kg cli)
m = specific gas quantity (Nm
3
/kg cli)
CO, H
2
, CH
4
= volume fractions in exhaust (referred to wet gas)
In most cases only CO is measured and then the calculation becomes:
h = m CO 12640 (kJ/kg cli)
Example
m = 1.50 Nm
3
/kg cli (SP kiln)
CO = 0.2% (ref to wet)
q = 1.50 0.002 12640 = 38 kJ/kg cli
CALCULATIONS / 4.6 Heat of Formation
The heat of formation takes into account all main reactions which occur when raw meal is transformed
to clinker, as follows:
RAW MEAL
Heat of dehydration of clay (endothermic)
Heat of decarbonation of CaCO
3
+ MgCO
3
(endothermic)
Heat of formation of clinker (exothermic!)
CLINKER
In most of the practical cases it is sufficient to assume a constant value of
h = 1750 kJ/kg cli
The value mentioned before represents a heat output since the overall reaction is endothermic (heat
consuming). The main contribution to the overall value comes from the decarbonation of CaCO
3
(approx. 2100 kJ/kg cli).
The heat of formation may naturally have some variations from one raw meal to the other. But due to
the narrow range which is specified for the cement clinker composition no major deviations (of say
more than +/- 50 kJ/kg cli) have to be expected in normal cases.
If the CaO in clinker does not originate from CaCO
3
, but from raw material sources containing less CO
2
than the CaO balance (such as coal ash or partly decarbonized raw mix) the heat of formation would
Query:
theoretically change. However, this problem can be easily avoided by the following definition:
All mass flows (as kiln feed, dust losses, coal ash) which carry a certain amount of CaO not coming
from CaCO
3
are considered as heat flows according to their non-carbonatic CaO content (see
chapter 4.7).
By following the above definition it is not necessary to make alterations at the heat of formation. An
abnormal situation can simply be treated by creating additional inputs or outputs, but not by changing
the standard heat of formation.
The procedure is based on the idea of an ideal clinker burning from pure carbonates. If those ideal
conditions do not apply we set corrections in the corresponding heat inputs or outputs. Such principles
are well known from calculation of bypass CaO-losses.
Additional information on the heat of formation is given in chapter 6.2.
CALCULATIONS / 4.7 Heat due to Partly Decarbonized Material
4.7 Heat due to Partly Decarbonized Material
Decomposition of carbonates in an essential heat effect in a cement kiln. Usually one thinks of the two
extreme cases of either complete presence of carbonates (CaCO
3
, MgCO
3
) or complete absence of
carbonates (e.g. clinker). But there can also be cases in between which influence the heat balance.
Material streams can transport non-sensible heat due to partly decarbonized material (CaO) or
non-carbonatic CaO. The following possibilities exist:
1) raw meal (containing e.g. CaO free or non carbonatic, CaO-bearing minerals)
2) exhaust gas dust (partly decarbonized)
3) bypass dust (largely decarbonized)
4) coal ash
The heat can either be negative or positive according to the direction of flow (ingoing or outgoing).
If item 2) (exhaust gas) is considered in the balance it is essential to consider also item 1) (raw meal)!
In many cases kiln dust (which contains some free CaO) is returned to the kiln but not necessarily at
exactly the same rate as the outcoming dust (e.g. on a system combined with raw mill, alternating
between combined and direct operation). Even if dust is returned the net heat effect of item 1) minus
item 2) may not automatically be zero!
If the CaO and CO
2
is known from chemical analysis the non carbonatic part CaO
nc
can be calculated:
CaO
nc
= CaO - (56 / 44) CO
2
Strictly speaking, above formula is only correct if no other carbonates than CaCO
3
occur. If MgCO
3
is
present in form of carbonates the carbonatic MgO has to be taken into account:
CaO
nc
= CaO - 56 [(CO
2
/44) - (MgO/40)]
Thus the heat is calculated to
h = m CaO
nc
3150 (kJ/kg cli)
m = spec. mass (kg/kg cli)
CaO
nc
= non-carbonatic CaO, expresses as weight fraction
Query:
Above formula does not consider the small possible influence of MgCO
3
decarbonation heat. If the
assumption can be made that all MgO occurs in non-carbonatic form (e.g. after a heat treatment in the
700C range) the following improved formula can be applied:
h = m (CaO
nc
. 3150 + MgO . 2710) (kJ/kg cli)
Examples
1) Raw Meal and Kiln Dust
(dust returned, measurements refer to balance limits, normal raw mix)
Raw Meal Kiln Dust
R = 1.65 kg/kg cli m = 0.09 kg/kg cli
CaO = 42.3% CaO = 43.5%
MgO = 0.9% MgO = 1.1%
CO
2
= 34.0% CO
2
= 30.5%
CaO
nc
= 42.3-56 [(34/44) - (0.9/40)
= 0.3%
CaO
nc
= 43.5-56 [(30.5/44) - (1.1/40)
= 6.2%
h = 1.65 0.003 3150
= 16 kJ/kg cli (input)
h = 0.09 0.062 3150
= 18 kJ/kg cli (output)
In the above example the net heat effect is virtually zero and may be completely neglected. But this
may not be used as a general rule as shown by the next example.
2) Raw Meal and Kiln Dust
(similar to example 1), but raw mix containing a major proportion of non-carbonatic CaO)
Raw Meal Kiln Dust
R = 1.60 kg/kg cli m = 0.09 kg/kg cli
CaO = 43.2% CaO = 43.5%
MgO = 0.9% MgO = 1.1%
CO
2
= 30.0% CO
2
= 30.5%
CaO
nc
= 43.2-56 [(30/44) - (0.9/40)
= 6.28%
CaO
nc
= 43.5-56 [(30.5/44) - (1.1/40)
= 6.2%
h = 1.60 0.0628 3150
= 317 kJ/kg cli (input)
h = 0.09 0.062 3150
= 18 kJ/kg cli (output)
Query:
Although non-carbonatic CaO occurs seldom, it may largely contribute to the heat balance (in the latter
example a net effect of 299 kJ/kg cli!). The practical problem, however, is to determine the CaO
nc
with
sufficient precision.
3) Bypass Dust
m = 0.04 kg/kg cli (quantity of bypass dust)
CaO = 56.2%
MgO = 1.0%
CO
2
= 1.8%
CaO
nc
= 56.2 - (56/44) * 1.8 = 53.9%
q = 0.04 * 0.539 * 3150 + 0.01 * 2710 = 95 kJ/kg cli
(output)
4) Coal Ash
m = 0.02 kg/kg cli (quantity of ash)
CaO = 21%
MgO = 2%
q = 0.02 (0.21 * 3150 + 0.02 * 2710) = 14 kJ/kg cli
(input)
CALCULATIONS / 4.8 Heat of Evaporation
4.8 Heat of Evaporation
If water is evaporated within the balance limits the heat of evaporation becomes
h = m 2450 (kJ/kg cli)
m = evaporated water (kg/kg cli)
Above items means an output. A large source of water evaporation is usually the slurry feed to a wet
kiln.
Although the calculation of heat of evaporation is obviously simple a few notes are given:
Only the free water of the
kiln feed is considered (the hydrate water is already included in the heat of formation!).
Query:
Water evaporation can also be caused by water injection into preheater, kiln, cooler, etc.
The water evaporated from the fuel must not be included (this effect is already included in the net
heat value, provided it has been determined as described in paragraph 4.3).
Examples
a) Wet Kiln: slurry water content = 35%
R = 1.56 kg/kg cli (dry)
m = 0.35 / (1-0.35) 1.56 = 0.84 kg/kg cli
h = 0.84 2450 = 2058 kJ/kg cli
b) Water Spray into Planetary Cooler
m = 0.05 kg/kg cli
h = 0.05 * 2450 = 123 kJ/kg cli
CALCULATIONS / 4.9 Sensible Heat
4.9 Sensible Heat
CALCULATIONS / 4.9 Sensible Heat / 4.9.1 General
4.9.1 General
Generally the sensible heats are calculated as follows:
h = m c
p
(t - 20C) (kJ/kg cli)
m = specific mass (kg/kg cli or Nm
3
/kg cli)
c
p
= average specific heat (kJ/kg C or kJ/Nm
3
C)
t = temperature of m (C)
Above formula uses a reference temperature of 20C, i.e. sensible heats of material and gas flows at
20C are zero.
The value h (kJ/kg cli) can either be positive (if t > 20C) or negative (if t < 20C).
Whether h represents an input or an output (see 4.1) depends only on the direction of the flow m:
if m = entering boundary h = input
if m = leaving boundary h = output
Basically the value m can be expressed as kg or Nm
3
. It is then logical that the c
p
values used must
also refer to same unit (per kg or per Nm
3
).
For convenience we use the following convention:
for solid flows unit = kg
for gaseous flows unit = Nm
3

1)
Query:
1)
The application of the unit kg for gases would also be thinkable and would even facilitate the
mass balance calculations. But since Nm
3
is well established in the cement industry and since the
cp-diagrams refer to Nm
3
only, Nm
3
is used in this chapter.
The necessary c
p
values are to be found in the diagrams Fig. 5 and 6 (for solids and fuels) and Fig. 7
(for gases).
The same basic mode of calculation of sensible heat can be adapted for all material and gas flows
crossing the boundary such as:
Raw meal
Clinker
Dust(s)
Exhaust gas, bypass gas, waste gas, etc.
Cooling air, false air, etc.
Fig. 5 Cp of Solids
Fig. 6 c
p
of Liquids and Fuels
Temp. c
p
of Liquid Water
0C 4.22 kJ/kg C
50C 4.18 kJ/kg C
100C 4.22 kJ/kg C
Query:
Fig. 7 c
p
of Gases
CALCULATIONS / 4.9 Sensible Heat / 4.9.2 Calculation of cp of Mixtures
4.9.2 Calculation of c
p
of Mixtures
The c
p
values are usually tabulated for pure substances. If a mixture is present it may become
necessary to calculate the c
p
starting from the given composition. This is better shown in a practical
example (instead of a general formula):
Example:
Exhaust gas of suspension preheater kiln at 360 C
Measured by Orsat (dry):
CO
2
= 27.2% (CO = O)
O
2
= 4.3%
N
2
= 100 - 27.2 - 4.3 = 68.5%
From moisture determination:
H
2
O = 0.08 Nm
3
/Nm
3
wet
Query:
What is the c
p
value of the mixture (wet gas)?
Dry Gas
(Vol %)
Wet Gas
(Vol %)
c
p
(pure
(kJ/Nm
3
C)
c
p
x Vol. Frac.
(kJ/Nm
3
C)
CO
2
27.2 25.0 1.92 0.480
O
2
4.3 4.0 1.37 0.055
N
2
68.5 63.0 1.31 0.825
H
2
O 0 8.0 1.55 0.124
Total 100% 100% - 1.484 1.48
Result: c
p
of mixture = 1.48 kJ/Nm
3
C (at 360C)
The above value is typical for a normal SP kiln. We will always find values in the 1.5 kJ/Nm
3
C range.
CALCULATIONS / 4.10 Heat Loss due to Radiation and Convection
4.10 Heat Loss due to Radiation and Convection
CALCULATIONS / 4.10 Heat Loss due to Radiation and Convection / 4.10.1 General
4.10.1 General
In practice it is quite convenient to treat both, radiation and convection heat transfer together. Although
the physical laws of these two heat transfer phenomenas are different they are usually given as a total.
The determination of total heat transfer coefficients by using simplified working diagrams will be
accurate enough. Therefore the theory how to calculate the values is treated in separate chapters (6.3
and 6.4). The user of this chapter does usually not need to go into details of radiation and convection
heat transfer theories. In addition, the calculation from the complete theory would hardly increase the
practical accuracy, since all these theories contain a certain inaccuracy.
CALCULATIONS / 4.10 Heat Loss due to Radiation and Convection / 4.10.2 Radiation Heat Transfer
4.10.2 Radiation Heat Transfer
Radiation heat transfer depends on the surface temperature and the emissivity (0...1).
Typical values for :
Type of Surface Temperature C
Rough oxidized steel 100 1
Rough oxidized steel 400 0.9
Query:
Rough oxidized steel 400 0.9
White lime paint (on steel) 400 0.8
Aluminium paint 100 0.2 to 0.4
Aluminium, rolled sheet metal 100 to 500 0.08
Aluminium, polished or bright foil 100 to 500 0.04
In most cases an value has to be set at the pyrometer used for the measurement (depending on the
type).
For pyrometers giving readings for a constant emissivity = 1. Fig. 8 can be used for correction.
The pure radiation heat transfer coefficient
rad
(W/m
2
C) is shown in Fig. 9.
Note that the temperature axis in Fig. 9 means temperature difference to ambient (same convention as
for the following Fig. 10 and 11 - see paragraph 4.10.3 and 4.10.4).
Radiation heat transfer calculation does usually not create special problems as long as the radiating
surfaces face freely towards ambient. A particular situation occurs on a planetary cooler where certain
directions of radiation are shielded. That means not all areas are able for radiation towards the
ambient.
Here, it would be obviously wrong to consider the total of the tube surfaces as radiation area. As a first
approach the outer enveloping cylinder area (enveloping all tubes, see sketch) can be taken as
reference area.
Fig. 8 Relation between Emissivity and True and Apparent Surface Temperature
Query:
Fig. 9 Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient
CALCULATIONS / 4.10 Heat Loss due to Radiation and Convection / 4.10.3 Convection Heat Transfer
4.10.3 Convection Heat Transfer
Two different types of convection can be distinguished:
Free convection (occurs by natural thermal draft, at low wind velocities)
Forced convection (occurs at high wind velocities)
In practice an intermediate region between these two extreme cases can be encountered, depending
on the wind velocity v (m/s). The resulting
conv
can be taken from Fig. 10.
Fig. 10 Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient
The diagram Fig. 10 refers to a normal kiln diameter range from 3 m to 6 m.
Note that the temperature axis in Fig. 10 means temperature difference to ambient, not temperature
itself.
Influence of diameter
Free convection (v = 0 m/s):
The free convection coefficient is not depending on the diameter (or height) of equipment. If
Query:
there is no wind Fig. 10 can be applied for any dimension.
Forced convection:
In contrast to the free convection the forced convection does depend on the diameter. For
this reason the application range of Fig. 10 is limited to 3 m...6 m, but only if high wind
velocities occur. At low wind velocities no diameter limits exist.
For very small tubes (or gas ducts) the following corrections of
conv
(increases) can be
made:
For 2 m + 15%
For 1 m + 30% ; only at high wind velocities (min. 2 m/s)
For 0.5 m + 50%
CALCULATIONS / 4.10 Heat Loss due to Radiation and Convection / 4.10.4 Total Heat Transfer Coefficient (Radiation and
Convection)
4.10.4 Total Heat Transfer Coefficient (Radiation and Convection)
For the determination of the total heat transfer coefficient
tot
(W/m
2
C) two cases are possible:
a) Standard Case
= 0.9 (rough oxidized steel surface)
This particular case is rather simple. Direct use of Fig. 11 is possible.
(Go into diagram with temperature difference and read out the total heat transfer coefficient.)
b) Non-standard Case
differs clearly from 0.9 and/or correction of convective heat transfer coefficient is necessary.
Make use of Fig. 9 and 10.
tot
=
rad
+
conv
(Caution: never add free convection + forced convection, Fig. 10 does already include the overlapping
of both effects.)
Fig. 11 Radiation and Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient (total)
Query:
CALCULATIONS / 4.10 Heat Loss due to Radiation and Convection / 4.10.5 Total Heat Flow
4.10.5 Total Heat Flow
The total heat flow from radiation and convection heat transfer is calculated according to:
Q
f
=
tot
A (t - t
0
) (W)
Q
f
= heat flow (W); 1kW = 1000W
tot
=
rad
+
conv
= total heat transfer coefficient (W/m
2
C)
A = shell area (m
2
)
t = shell temperature (C)
t
0
= ambient temperature (C)
From the heat flow Q
f
the specific loss can be calculated:
h = Q
f
(kW) / m
f
(t/h) 3.6 (kJ/kg cli)
mf = clinker production (t/h)
3.6 = conversion factor, because of unit (t/h) for m
f
If the temperature of a shell area is not approximately constant it is necessary to subdivide the area
into individual sections.
On a rotary kiln we may e.g. select about 10 (or more) individual cylindrical areas, each of them having
the surface:
A
i
= D
i
L
i
(m
2
)
Example:
Rotary kiln
Clinker production = 1900 t/d = 79.17 t/h
4.4 m x 67 m
Average emissivity: = 0.9
Ambient temperature = 20C
Average wind velocity v = 1 m/s (nearly free convection!)
Shell temperature profile as indicated in the following table:
Length
Position
(m)
Element
Length
(m)
Dia-meter
(m)
Element
Area
1)
(m
2
)
Surface
Temp.
(C)
(-)
total
2)
(W/m
2
C)
Q
f

(heat flow)
(W)
0 - 5 5 4.40 69.1 230 0.9 22.7 331000
5 - 10 5 4.40 69.1 360 0.9 32.9 774000
Query:
5 - 10 5 4.40 69.1 360 0.9 32.9 774000
10 - 15 5 4.40 69.1 310 0.9 28.6 574000
15 - 25 10 4.40 138.2 220 0.9 22.1 611000
25 - 35 10 4.40 138.2 330 0.9 30.3 1299000
35 - 45 10 4.40 138.2 260 0.9 24.9 825000
45 - 55 10 4.40 138.2 290 0.9 27.1 1011000
55 - 60 5 4.40 69.1 270 0.9 25.6 442000
60 - 67 7 4.40 96.8 220 0.9 22.1 428000
Total 67 m
926.1 m
2
6295000 W
Total heat loss = 6295 kW
Specific heat loss =
h t / 17 . 79
6 . 3 295 ' 6
= 286 kJ/kg cli
1)
A = . D . L (cylinder)
2)
radiation plus convection (see Fig. 11)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C09 - Heat Balance / Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics / 5. HEAT BALANCES
5. HEAT BALANCES
/ 5.1 General
5.1 General
The results for heat inputs and outputs as calculated according to the preceding paragraph 4 are
summarized in a balance sheet.
Table 1 (complete kiln system) and Table 2 (cooler only) are given as examples. They may also be
used as checklist for completeness of own measurements and calculations.
Rest-item:
A real balance (from complete date) will always include an item rest, where all measuring
errors (no measurement is 100% accurate) and non-considered items are included. The
amount of the rest item should not exceed 3% of the total heat input.
Heat consumption:
The actual heat consumption is the total of fuel input(s) which is not exactly the same as the
total of heat inputs. If there are more than one fuel input, it is advantageous to indicate the
actual (true) heat consumption separately.
Cooler balance:
On a cooler, reliable measurement of secondary air heat is virtually impossible. Therefore, this
value is determined by balance calculation and no rest item is given. The thermal efficiency of
the cooler is usually defined as:
= heat of secondary (and tertiary) air (%)
heat of hot clinker
Query:
The % values in the balance sheet, however, are based on the total of inputs. This can cause a
slight difference from the percentage of above .
Table 1 Heat Balance of Cement Kiln System
(General case)
- All referred to 1 kg clinker
- Reference temperature = 20C
- Ambient temperature = ...... C
- Production = ...... t/h
- Specific heat cons. = ...... kJ/kg cli
Specifications Temp. Heat
(kg/kg cli),
(Nm3/kg cli)
(kW) etc.
(C) (kJ/kg
cli)
(%)
INPUT
Fuel combustion
- primary firing
- secondary firing
-
-
Burnable matter in kiln feed -
Raw meal: sensible heat
Fuel: sensible heat
Primary air: sensible heat
Cooler air: sensible heat
CaO (non-carbonatic) in kiln feed -
Total of inputs - 100%
OUTPUT
Heat of formation - -
Water evaporation:
- kiln feed
- water spray(s)
-
-
Exhaust gas:
- sensible heat
- dust CaO-loss
- unburnt gases (CO, etc.)
-
-
Cooler: - waste air sensible heat
- middle air sensible heat
- clinker exit sensible heat
Bypass losses: - sensible heat
- dust sensible heat
- dust CaO-loss
- unburnt gases (CO, etc.)
-
-
Query:
- unburnt gases (CO, etc.) -
Radiation and Convection:
- preheater
- rotary kiln
- cooler
- tert. Air duct
kW
kW
kW
kW
kW
Rest
Total of outputs - 100%
Table 2 Heat Balance of Clinker Grate Cooler
All referred to 1 kg clinker
Reference temperature = 20C
Ambient temperature = ... C
Specifications Temp. Heat
(C) (kJ/kg
cli)
(%)
INPUT
Hot clinker
Cooling air
Total input 100%
OUTPUT
Secondary air (incl. dust)
Tertiary air
Middle air
Waste air
Clinker outlet
Water spray
Radiation and convection
Total output 100%
/ 5.2 Examples of Heat Balances of Various Kiln Systems
5.2 Examples of Heat Balances of Various Kiln Systems
Heat balances are given in Table 3 of various kiln systems. While comparing these it has to kept in
mind, however, that kiln systems cannot only be judged based on these heat balances. The heat
consumption of kiln system may depend on many items, those of major influence are:
Query:
Kiln size, i.e. production rate
Heat loss due to radiation and convection
Secondary air quantity and temperature
Operating conditions of kiln
Furthermore related systems have also to be taken into account. Consider a grate preheater kiln (Lepol
kiln):
Its specific heat consumption may almost be as low as that of a 4-stage preheater kiln. However the
grate preheater kiln, the semi-dry type, requires that additional heat is spent for material drying,
whereas the exhaust gas of the 4-stage preheater kiln may be utilized to dry up to 8% water content of
the raw material.
The table 3 gives heat balances of three different kiln systems.
Wet kiln:
The wet kiln has a production capacity of approximately 3000 t/d. The slurry water content is
38%.
Lepol kiln:
The heat balance of the Lepol kiln is of a comparatively small unit. The nodule moisture content
is 12%. In general grate preheater kilns of the semi-dry type have a heat consumption only
slightly higher than the 4-stage preheater kilns.
Dry suspension preheater:

The heat balance of the 4-stage preheater kiln is typical for a unit in the 2000 to 3000 t/d range.
Table 3 Heat Balances of Wet, Grate Preheater and Preheater Kilns
WET PROCESS SEMI-DRY
(LEPOL)
DRY
PRE-HEATER
(4-STAGE)
kJ/kg cli % kJ/kg
cli
% kJ/kg
cli
%
1. INPUT
FUEL
from sensible heat 25 0.4 15 0.4 13 0.4
from combustion 5560 96.7 3343 97.6 3150 97.7
RAW MEAL
from sensible heat 25 0.4 30 0.9 54 1.7
from sensible heat of water 71 0.2 17 0.5 - -
COMBUSTION AIR
from sensible heat of all the air
supplied (prim. sec.)
67 1.2 20 0.6 6 0.2
TOTAL INPUT 5750 100 3425 100 3223 100
2. OUTPUT
Heat of formation 1750 30.4 1750 51.1 1750 54.3
Evaporation of water from raw
meal
2370 41.2 506 14.8 13 0.4
Exhaust gas sensible heat 754 13.1 314 9.2 636 19.7
Query:
Exhaust gas sensible heat 754 13.1 314 9.2 636 19.7
Dust sensible heat 25 0.4 21 0.6 18 0.6
Incomplete combustion (CO) - - - - - -
Clinker exit temperature 59 1.0 50 1.5 63 2.0
Cooler exhaust gases 100 1.7 276 8.1 423 13.1
Losses due to radiation and
convection
540 9.4 452 13.2 297 9.2
Water cooling (Recupol inlet
chute)
- - 42 1.2 - -
Rest 152 2.6 14 0.4 23 0.7
TOTAL OUTPUT 5750 100 3425 100 3223 100
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C09 - Heat Balance / Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics / 6. SPECIAL PART
6. SPECIAL PART
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C09 - Heat Balance / Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics / 6. SPECIAL PART /
The reference temperature for a heat balance is usually set to 20C. At this temperature all sensible
heats become zero. This is quite practical because the normal ambient temperature is always near
20C.
In addition the choice of the reference temperature has various other consequences which are
normally not mentioned expressively. As long as the calculation procedure according to this chapter is
applied we will not run into any practical problems. But if we want to go a bit deeper inside the matter
we are soon confronted with some special questions as will be shown in the following.
6.1 Influence of Reference Temperature / 6.1.1 Heat of Transformation
6.1.1 Heat of Transformation
By the term heat of transformation we summarize here all heat effects by chemical reactions and
changing of the physical state (combustion, heat of formation, evaporation). In order to understand the
meaning of the reference temperature on these heat effects the following diagram is shown. It gives an
example of an (ideal) isothermal process, including upheating and cooling.
Fig.12
Query:
We note from the diagram that the heat of transformation at reference temperature and at true
reaction temperature are not identical. The reason is the different specific heat content of the starting
material and the reaction products. It is also obvious that any other level for the reference temperature
would basically change the heat of transformation.
The heat of transformation at a reference temperature 20C should therefore be seen in its proper
sense: It is the heat effect under the convention, that we start at 20C and end exactly at those 20C.
The real process (heating up, transformation, cooling) has no influence on the result, regardless of the
true temperatures. This is a direct consequence of the principle of energy conservation.
Therefore, we may take into account that all heats of transformation which we use in a heat balance
are based on reference temperature 20C. Such values should not be confused with the heat effect at
the true temperature of transformation or any other temperature.
The items of interest are:
Calorific value (combustion heat):
The CV must also be based on 20C reference. The error which occurs when choosing a
reference of e.g. 0C is fortunately so small that it is within the normal accuracy of a CV
determination.
Heat of formation:
Regarding the heat of decarbonation only we may sometimes find values for the true reaction
temperature (decarbonation, in the 800C range). Such values shall not be used for a heat
balance at 20C reference, because this would produce an essential error!
Heat of evaporation of water:
Note that we must use the evaporation heat at 20C (2450 kJ/kg) in the balances and not the
value at say 100C (2260 kJ/kg). The effects of upheating of water or vapor are automatically
considered by the normal balance calculation procedure (items for sensible heats).
6.1 Influence of Reference Temperature / 6.1.2 Specific Heats
6.1.2 Specific Heats
The specific heats used in this chapter are average values which are consequently based on 20C
reference temperature. We may illustrate this fact by an upheating process starting at 20C as shown
in the following graph:
Query:
Fig.13
The average specific heat can be graphically explained as the inclination of the straight line from P
o
to
P. It is obvious that this inclination depends from the reference point P
o
at 20C.
At the point P the tangent to the heat curve is also shown by a dotted line. The inclination of this line is
the actual specific heat at the temperature t. This value is different from the average specific heat.
Moreover, it does not depend from any reference point.
As a practical consequence we should never use specific heats from any source in the literature
without checking what they really mean. In most cases actual values are given and not averages.
Therefore, an integration or averaging would be required before we can use them for calculation of
heat contents. Special caution should be made in the high temperature range where actual value and
average value may be considerably different! In the 20to 200C range the practical differences,
however, are rather small.
6.2 Heat of Formation / 6.2.1 General
6.2.1 General
The heat of formation expresses the theoretical heat required for producing 1 kg of clinker. The
following steps are taken into account:
Approx.
Temperature
Heat Effect
Step 1 Expelling of hydrate water (+
transformation of clay minerals)
500C negative (heat
consumed)
Step 2 Decarbonation of MgCO
3
(first)
and CaCO
3
(CaCO
3
CaO +
CO
2
)
850C negative (heat
consumed)
Step 3 Formation of clinker minerals
(C
2
S, C
3
S, C
3
A, C
4
AF)
1400C positive (heat
produced)
Query:
The net heat produced by the overall reaction is negative i.e. heat is consumed (listed as output).
The heat formation is defined at 20C. In other words it expresses the theoretical amount of heat to
transform raw meal at 20C to 1 kg clinker at 20C (if no heat losses would occur). It is therefore also
considered as the theoretical minimum heat required for burning clinker.
The heat of formation is not at all depending on the way of the actual reaction (i.e. temperature versus
time). The only precondition of course is that the reactions (step 1, 2, 3) have really been completed.
Although the basic principle of the heat of formation seems quite simple a few conventions (or
definitions) are necessary here:
1) The hydrate water is expelled is considered as vapour (therefore no additional heat of evaporation
has to be introduced into the balance!).
2) As a standard case the assumption is made that the CaO is present as CaCO
3
in the raw meal (in
non carbonatic CaO occurs we do not change the heat of formation, but add heat inputs according
to paragraph 4.7).
3) Burnable components in the raw mix are considered separately as inputs (see paragraph 4.4.2).
6.2 Heat of Formation / 6.2.2 Calculation of Heat of Formation
6.2.2 Calculation of Heat of Formation
6.2 Heat of Formation / 6.2.2 Calculation of Heat of Formation / 6.2.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2.1 Introduction
It is difficult to determine the heat of formation directly be calorimetric measurements. Therefore
calculation methods have been developed in order to take into account the varying influences of raw
mix properties.
Although formulas are given the following they should be applied with care. As long as the raw mix
does not clearly deviate from the standard value of 1750 kJ/kg the calculated figures must not
necessarily give more accurate results than the 1750 kJ/kg.
Even extensive formulas for heat of formation contain a certain incertitude due to the partial lack of
accurate thermodynamic standard values (for the minerals which are involved).
6.2 Heat of Formation / 6.2.2 Calculation of Heat of Formation / 6.2.2.2 Calculation Formulas
6.2.2.2 Calculation Formulas
The following formulas are partly based on the work of H. zur Strassen (Lit. 1) however a few recent
adaptations have been made:
We will use the following notation:
CaO, MgO, SiO
2
, Fe
2
O
3
, Al
2
O
3
= Clinker analysis, expressed as weight fractions
(kg/kg cli)
Query:
H
2
O (kg/kg cli) = Hydrate water in raw material, referred to kg clinker (not to raw meal)
The following general formula for the heat of formation applies:
h = CaO 3200 + MgO 2710 - SiO
2
2140 - Fe
2
O
3
250 + h
Res
(kJ/kg cli)
The last contribution h
Res
depends on the Al
2
O
3
and H
2
O (hydrate) content. The calculation of h
Res
depends on the information which is available on hydrate water and/or type of clay. Usually, the more
information is known the better the result will be.
Case
No.
Hydrate
Water
(H
2
O)
Type of
Clay
Formula for h
Res
(kJ/kg cli)
1 not known not known h
Res
= Al
2
O
3
. 1720
2 known not known h
Res
= Al
2
O
3
. 120
+ H
2
O . 5520
3 not known known h
Res
= (Al
2
O
3
)
K
. 2220
+ (Al
2
O
3
)
M
. 1310
+ (Al
2
O
3
)
I
. 1640
4 known known h
Res
= (Al
2
O
3
)
K
. 1400
+ (Al
2
O
3
)
M
. 620
+ (Al
2
O
3
)
I
. 760
+ H
2
O . 2450
In case 3 and 4 a distinction has to be made from which type of clay the Al
2
O
3
originates. The indices
K
,
M
,
I
denote:
K = Kaolinite
M = Montmorillonite
I = Illite
Note on the formulas for h
Res
:
No. 1:
For general purposes, if no information on hydrate water available.
No. 2:
Takes into account the actual hydrate water content. It is also a very good approach if the hydrate
water does not only originate from clays but for example from Ca(OH)
2
.
Note that the coefficient for H
2
O (hydrate) is more than twice the normal heat of
evaporation
1)
Nos. 3 + 4:
Take into account the type of clay. (Hydrate water must originate from clay only, otherwise take No. 2).
When the CaO is introduced into the formula it is not required to know whether the CaO results from
CaCO
3
or not. If any non carbonatic CaO is entering into the system we will take into account a
balance heat input by definition (see paragraph 4.7) and therefore the calculated heat of formation is
Query:
not affected.
1)
The older formula from H. zur Strassen did allocate only 2450 kJ to H
2
O, but instead 930 kJ to
the Al
2
O
3
, which made it difficult to extrapolate it for other hydrates than from clay. It is certainly more
logical to refer the heat to the H
2
O, which is actually responsible for the heat consumption.
Examples
1) - Clinker composition:
CaO = 64.8 %
MgO = 1.2 %
SiO
2
= 22.6 %
Fe
2
O
3
= 3.3 %
Al
2
O
3
= 5.2 %
SO
3
= 0.52% TiO
2
= 0.29%
Na
2
O = 0.08% Mn
2
O
3
= 0.03%
K
2
O = 1.20% L.o.I = 0.54%
- No information on hydrate water in raw meal available
h = 0.648 3200 + 0.012 2710 - 0.226 2140 - 0.033 250
+ 0.052 1720 = 1704 kJ/kg cli
2) -Clinker composition:
CaO =
65.2 %
MgO =
1.2 %
SiO
2
=
22.9 %
Fe
2
O
3
=
3.0 %
Al
2
O
3
=
5.0 %
- Raw material = 1.1% hydrate water
R = 1.57 kg/kg 0.017 kg hydrate water/kg clinker
h = 0.652 3200 + 0.012 2710 - 0.229 2140 - 0.03 250
+ 0.050 120 + 0.017 5520 = 1721 kJ/kg cli
6.2 Heat of Formation / 6.2.2 Calculation of Heat of Formation / 6.2.2.3 Sulfatization Effects
6.2.2.3 Sulfatization Effects
The SO
2
can react with the alkalis K
2
O or Na
2
O (but also with CaO). For the heat effect the following
Query:
(simplified) reaction is considered as typical:
Na
2
O + SO
2
+ O
2
Na
2
SO
4
+ heat
(molar heat effects of K
2
O and Na
2
O are of similar size!)
The overall degree of sulfatization reactions is usually not known. For the heat effect the following
lower and upper boundaries can be calculated:
lower boundary = - 8370 [(SO
3
)
cli
+ (SO
3
)
D
- (SO
3
)
R
] (kJ/kg cli)
upper boundary = - 10800 [(Na
2
O)
R
- (Na
2
O)
cli
]
- 7120 [(K
2
O)
R
- (K
2
O)
cli
]
+ 8370 [(SO
3
)
R
- (SO
3
)
cli
] (kJ/kg cli)
where SO
3
, Na
2
O, K
2
O are expressed as kg/kg cli (referred to clinker!).
The indices denote: cli = in clinker
D = in dust
R = in raw meal
An average value can be introduced into the heat balance. Preferably this item is just listed under the
item heat of formation (under output). Its sign is then negative, i.e. the outputs are reduced.
6.2 Heat of Formation / 6.2.2 Calculation of Heat of Formation / 6.2.2.4 Lime Kilns
6.2.2.4 Lime Kilns
The formula for heat of formation of burnt lime is quite similar to that of cement clinker.
The following main reactions are taken into account:
CaCO
3
CaO + CO
2
MgCO
3
MgO + CO
2
CaO + 2 SiO
2
C
2
S (dicalciumilicate)
Unlike on cement clinker the CaO in the lime product does not exclusively consist of non carbonatic
CaO, but some residual CaCO
3
is also present. Therefore the non carbonatic proportion CaO
nc
has to
be calculated first:
CaO
nc
= CaO
tot
- CO
2
(56/44)
The heat of formation becomes:
h = CaO
nc
3150 + MgO 2710 - SiO
2
. 2100 (kJ/kg lime)
CaO
nc
, MgO, SiO
2
denote the weight fractions in lime product.
If the lime is present in lump form and the SiO
2
does originate e.g. from coal ash it is unlikely that C
2
S
mineral is formed. In such cases only the SiO
2
which comes from the limestone feed has to be
considered in the formula.
The basic radiation formula is
Query:
Q
f
= C
R
A [ (T/100)
4
- (T
0
/100)
4
] [W]
Q
f
= heat flow [W]
C
R
= radiation constant = 5.67 W/m
2
K
4
= emissivity (0...1)
A = radiating area (m2)
T = absolute temperature of radiating surface [K] (T = 273+t)
T
o
= absolute temperature of ambient [K]
Strictly speaking above formula is only valid for cylinders of infinite length which radiate towards an
ambient which is far away from the cylinder. No obstacles may shield off the radiation.
Though its simplifications this formula may be taken as a good approach for most cases.
By dividing Q
f
by T - To and A, the -value (heat transfer coefficient) can be obtained:
) / (
100 100
2
4
0
4
0
C m W
T T
T T
C
R
1
1
]
1
,
_

,
_
Or alternatively the following formula, which is identical to the latter comes out:
) / (
4
1
1
100 100
4
2
2
3
C m W
T
T T
C
R
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_

2
0
T T
T
+
=average temperature (K)

0
T T T
=temperature difference (K or C)
From the second formula it becomes evident that (at small temperature differences) increases with
the third (not fourth!) power of the average temperature. In addition, the -value does converge
towards a finite value at zero temperature difference.
For practical evaluation of the (radiation) Fig. 9 (see paragraph 4.10.2) is available. It is based on a
constant ambient temperature of To = 293 K (20).
If the true ambient temperature is actually not exactly 20C one commits a slight error. Usually this can
be neglected. In some extreme or exceptional cases the above formulas can be used for calculations.
Since the emissivity is often not known precisely and does also depend on the temperature it is
usually not worthwhile to do small corrections on the -values obtained from Fig. 9.
6.4 Convective Heat Transfer / 6.4.1 Free Convection
6.4.1 Free Convection
Free convection occurs due to density differences between hot air (at the shell surface) and ambient
Query:
air. A natural updraft causes a convective air movement.
For vertical plates or horizontal cylinders the following relationship applies:
Nu = 0.13 (Pr . Gr)
1/3
(-)
where: Nu = D / = Nusselt number (-)
Pr = c
p
/ = Prandtl number (-)
0
2
2 3
T
T g D
Gr
= Grashof number (-)

(W/m
2
K) heat transfer coefficient
D (m) characteristical dimension *
(W/mK) heat conductivity
c
p
(J/kg K) specific heat
g (m/s
2
) gravity constant = 9.81 m/s
2
(kg/m
3
) gas density
T (K) temperature difference (T - To)
(kg/ms) dynamic viscosity
To (K) absolute ambient temperature
* for a cylinder with diameter d D = (/2) d
Application range: Pr Gr > 10
9
As long as there is a minimum temperature difference of a few degrees and the diameter range is over
1 m, above limitation does not affect the calculation.
A mathematical transformation of the basic equation reveals that the free convection heat transfer
does not at all depend on the characteristical dimension! It follows:
) / ( 13 . 0
2
3
1
0
3
1
2 2
K m W
T
T
g c
p
,
_
,
_
At T = 0 the free convection becomes zero (which is different from the behavior of the radiation heat
transfer!).
The numerical values for c
p
, , , must be taken from tables for air at the average temperature
between surface and ambient (use SI-units only).
Note that the density depends also on the barometric pressure and therefore the result will depend
on the altitude above sea level ( p
2/3
). As a general guideline the convective heat transfer drops by
about 8% per 1000 m of altitude.
By using numerical approximations for the properties of air the following relationship has been
developed (dimensional equation):
1.4 (
0
T)
1/3
(W/m
2
K)
Query:
o
(kg/m
3
)= density at ambient temperature
(kg/m
3
)= density at average temperature
Though its simplicity the latter formula covers the temperature range from 0...500C with an accuracy
of better than 1%! This is more than enough for practical purposes.
At sea level and at 20C ambient it follows
) / (
2
1
6 . 1
2
3
1
0
K m W
T
T
T
,
_

Above relationship is also an excellent numerical approximation of the curve for v = O in Fig. 10 (see
paragraph 4.10.3), which is actually based on complete computer calculations out of properties for air.
Table Properties of Air at Pressure = 1 bar
Temp. c
p
Pr
C
kg/m
3
kJ/kg K
10
3
/K 10
3
W/mK 10
6
kg/ms 10
6
m
2
/s 10
6
m
2
/s
1
-180 3.8515 1.071 11.701 9.0 6.44 1.67 2.18 0.77
-160 3.1258 1.036 9.320 10.9 7.85 2.51 3.37 0.75
-140 2.6391 1.021 7.758 12.7 9.20 3.48 4.71 0.74
-120 2.2867 1.014 6.659 14.6 10.49 4.587 6.30 0.73
-100 2.0186 1.011 5.846 16.4 11.72 5.806 8.04 0.72
-80 1.8073 1.009 5.219 18.16 12.89 7.132 9.96 0.72
-60 1.6364 1.007 4.719 19.83 14.02 8.567 12.0 0.71
-40 1.4952 1.006 4.304 21.45 15.09 10.09 14.3 0.71
-20 1.3765 1.006 3.962 23.01 16.15 11.73 16.6 0.71
0 1.2754 1.006 3.671 24.54 17.10 13.41 19.1 0.70
20 1.1881 1.007 3.419 26.03 17.98 15.13 21.8 0.70
40 1.1120 1.008 3.200 27.49 18.81 16.92 24.5 0.69
60 1.0452 1.009 3.007 28.94 19.73 18.88 27.4 0.69
80 0.9859 1.010 2.836 30.38 20.73 21.02 30.5 0.69
100 0.9329 1.012 2.684 31.81 21.60 23.15 33.7 0.69
120 0.8854 1.014 2.547 33.23 22.43 25.33 37.0 0.68
140 0.8425 1.017 2.423 34.66 23.19 27.53 40.5 0.68
160 0.8036 1.020 2.311 36.07 24.01 29.88 44.0 0.68
180 0.7681 1.023 2.209 37.49 24.91 32.43 47.7 0.68
200 0.7356 1.026 2.115 38.91 25.70 34.94 51.6 0.68
250 0.6653 1.035 1.912 42.43 27.40 41.18 61.6 0.67
300 0.6072 1.046 1.745 45.91 29.20 48.09 72.3 0.67
350 0.5585 1.057 1.605 49.31 30.90 55.33 83.5 0.66
400 0.5170 1.069 1.485 52.57 32.55 62.95 95.1 0.66
450 0.4813 1.081 1.383 55.64 34.00 70.64 107 0.66
500 0.4502 1.093 1.293 58.48 35.50 78.86 119 0.66
600 0.3986 1.116 1.145 63.5 38.30 96.08 143 0.67
700 0.3577 1.137 1.027 67.8 40.87 114.3 166 0.69
800 0.3243 1.155 0.932 71.3 43.32 133.6 190 0.70
Query:
800 0.3243 1.155 0.932 71.3 43.32 133.6 190 0.70
900 0.2967 1.171 0.852 74.3 45.65 153.9 214 0.72
1000 0.2734 1.185 0.786 76.8 47.88 175.1 237 0.7
(actual c
p
, not average)
6.4 Convective Heat Transfer / 6.4.2 Forced Convection
6.4.2 Forced Convection
Forced convection occurs at comparatively high wind velocity and dominates the convective heat
transfer, i.e. the free convection is suppressed.
The calculation of forced convection is depending on many factors, such as:
Wind velocity
Direction of the wind
Velocity distribution and flow obstacles
Uniformity of wind
Reynolds number (depends on kiln diameter).
There are a few more influence factors than in case of the free convection. Generally speaking the
calculation of forced convection heat transfer contains more possible sources of error than free
convection.
As a simplification, we will assume a cylinder in a non disturbed flow of a constant velocity v (at 90
against kiln axis).
Fig. 14
For air the following formula apply:
Nu = 0.0239 Re
0.805
for Re = 40000...400000
Nu = 0.00672 Re
0.905
for Re > 400000
Query:
Number Nusselt
D
Nu
Number ynolds
D v vD

Re Re
The properties , , have to be taken at average air temperature.
There are other formulas in use which can give different results, the above formulas are preferred due
to their simplicity. In any case there is always a incertitude from the mode of calculation itself.
Two main factors determine the -value:
Velocity v
Average temperature (between surface and ambient)
In addition the does also depend on the diameter D. If the equation for high Reynolds number (Re >
400000) is solved for , the following relationship is obtained:
D
-0.095

proportional
This means that the value does not much depend on D! Therefore it is possible to work with constant
values within a certain diameter range.
This actually the base of Fig. 10 (see paragraph 4.10.3) which is calculated for a common range from
3...4...6 m diameter.
6.4 Convective Heat Transfer / 6.4.3 Free Convection Plus Forced Convection
6.4.3 Free Convection Plus Forced Convection
If the convection is clearly dominated either by free or forced convection the final determination of the
representative does not give any problem, since the higher value has to be taken.
If the two values are of the same order they must be combined with an appropriate method. It would be
certainly wrong to add the two values. A better approach is the square addition:
forced free
tot
2 2
+
It is also valid if either the free convection or the forced convection dominates.
Fig. 10 is based on the above method.
According to the actual condition of an existing kiln system (heat consumption, heat balance, other
operating data) we can envisage an optimization campaign. From the thermal point of view we can
take certain measures in order to reduce the specific heat consumption. For example:
Better insulation of rotary kiln or preheater/precalciner in order to reduce radiation losses (except
the sintering zone).
Query:
Improvement of the cooler efficiency (optimization of grate cooler operation or installation of highly
efficient internal equipment in planetary or rotary cooler).
Reducing of false air inleaks at kiln seals or at preheater.
Reducing of internal dust circulations in cooler, kiln or preheater (improves the internal
counter-current heat transfer).
Modification of raw mix in order to decrease the sintering temperature which in turn will also reduce
heat losses. A further effect of such a measure can be the reduction of internal dust circulations
due to better clinker granulometry (see above).
Modification of raw mix in order to decrease the heat required for decarbonation, e.g. by making
use of non-carbonatic CaO raw material sources. This possibility, however, is very rare and often
not feasible. (Note the basic difference to the measures which tend to decrease the sintering
temperature or increase the proportion of melting phase!)
The above measures are just a few typical examples. When one goes into such items, an important
phenomenon will appear soon: The so called loss multiplication factor for thermal losses (or savings).
What does this mean?
If a saving (or loss) in the high temperature zone in a kiln of say 100 kJ occurs the possible gain in fuel
heat consumption will not be 100 kJ but rather 130 to 150 kJ. That means that the primary saving (in
terms of heat balance item) will be multiplied by a factor of up to 1.5.
At the first glance the above principle seems to be contradicious because it would violate the principle
of heat balance or the energy law. However, what really happens is a differential change of more than
only one heat balance item. To illustrate this fact we start from an example where we have reduced the
shell radiation losses by 100 kJ/kg cli.
The following differential balance situation occurs:
Fig. 15
The corresponding multiplication factor for the above case is:
multiplication factor = - 140 kJ/kg = 1.40
- 100 kJ/kg
The above fact does result from the thermal behavior of the system and can be verified by simulation
models (not by a simple balance only).
Query:
A factor in the 1.4-range is quite typical for the situation in the high temperature zone (above 800C) of
a cement kiln. The main effect of a change in this zone will be a corresponding change at the exhaust
gas, but also other minor effects will occur (e.g. at cooler losses).
A differential balance of heat can still be applied according to:
Input Change Output Change
fuel = - 140 kJ/kg radiation = - 100 kJ/kg
exhaust = - 40 kJ/kg
total = - 140 kJ/kg total = - 140 kJ/kg
The principle of loss multiplication does not only apply for radiation in the high temperature zone but
also for the heat which is recuperated in the clinker cooler.
Regarding the false air inleaks the corresponding deterioration of heat consumption is often
under-estimated. If false air inleaks into the high temperature zone it does not only cause a heat loss
because this air must be heated up to the exhaust gas temperature of the kiln system! It actually
causes much more losses than what would result from such a simplified calculation approach. As a
rule of thumb we may consider the following two main effects in order to come to a realistic result:
Heating up of false air at the temperature of the high temperature zone which can be set
approximately to 800C (end of HT-zone).
Multiplication of the above heat requirement by a loss multiplication factor.
The above calculation is a rough approach. By more sophisticated simulation models we find e.g. that
a false air inleak into the high temperature zone of 0.08 Nm
3
/kg cli can cause an additional heat
consumption of 100 kJ/kg cli. In contrast, the inleak in the low temperature zone (e.g. air lift on SP-kiln)
is much less critical.
Normally we are considering a cement kiln as an equipment for burning cement clinker. As an essential
feature we must be able to generate a high sintering temperature in the order of 1450C (material
temperature).
But a kiln system is of course much more than a generator of sintering temperature. It is also a system
of heat exchangers which allows for burning at low heat consumption. Generally speaking we will find
two essential heat-exchanging systems on any cement kiln:
a) raw meal preheater
b) clinker cooler
Low heat consumption is only possible if the above two heat exchangers perform optimally.
How can we get optimum heat exchange performance? Form the basic theory it is known that even in
Query:
case of an exchanger which is perfectly insulated against ambient temperature influence, three
important conditions are required for optimum heat exchange:
1) Optimum heat transfer rate (here: from gas to solid) high specific contact or surface area, high
(W/m
2
C).
2) The two heat exchanging streams must flow in counter-current manner, or at least in an
arrangement which has similar characteristics to a counter-current system (e.g. overall
arrangement of a 4-stage cyclone preheater).
3) If we want to recover heat from a flow 1 completely into a flow 2 the flow 2 must have at least
the same heat equivalence as flow 1:
(flow 2) x (c
p2
) (flow 1) x (c
p1
) [kW/C] or [kJ/kg cli C]
flow: [kg/s] or [kg/kg cli]
cp: [kJ/kg C]
In the above equation the c
p
values are considered as constant (approximation).
Graphically this means that the heat characteristic curves of the two heat flows must be in a certain
relationship as shown here:
What are the practical consequences for a cement kiln? We consider:
A) Raw meal preheater
B) Clinker cooler
A) Raw meal preheater
1) Heat transfer rate:
Optimum heat transfer rate and optimum specific surface (small particles) and distribution
has been almost achieved in the cyclone suspension preheater. After every cyclone stage
material and gas come to almost complete temperature approach and there is usually little
to improve on that.
Improvement are rather to be done where the heat exchange takes place in the rotary part
itself. Especially on wet and long dry kilns the kiln internal fittings are essential for good heat
exchange.
2) Counter-current principle:
Counter-current flow in its proper sense does not exist in case of a cyclone suspension
preheater. Instead, we have usually four co-current heat exchanging units, but the overall
Query:
arrangement acts as counter-current system. To reach an ideal state one would have to
apply an infinite number of cyclone stages. Practically the common arrangement of 4 or 5
stages can be considered as sufficient.
True counter-current preheaters are shaft preheaters or preheating in long rotary kilns.
Such preheaters would theoretically be ideal. Practically they are less efficient because of
distribution problems and backmixing effect (internal material circulations) and
comparatively high losses to outside (in case of a rotary kiln).
3) Equivalence of heat flow characteristics:
A general feature of any raw meal preheater is the surplus of heat input by the hot gases.
After the calcining step the hot gas has a temperature of approx. 850C and the specific
quantity is always above 1.3 Nm
3
/kg cli even in case of an optimum kiln system (4-stage
SP kiln). This amount of heat is too much, it cannot be used completely for preheating of
raw meal ( 1.56 kg RM/kg cli) up to calcining temperature ( 800C). Therefore a certain
amount of waste heat will occur even in an ideal case. Theoretically we should not exceed
1 Nm
3
/kg cli for ideal recuperation. Practically this cannot be realized, not even on modern
kiln systems which produce comparatively little exhaust gas.
Graphically we have the following heat situation in a raw meal preheater:
Fig. 16
Above diagram is simplified but typical for any preheater.
Because of the heat surplus of the exhaust gas it is not possible to achieve an ideal recuperation
even at perfect counter-current heat transfer (e.g. infinite number of cyclone stages). The exhaust gas
will always give a certain residual heat content.
Practically this means that all kind of improvements on the preheater have a limited potential. In the
example of a 4-stage preheater kiln we can add a fifth stage which causes a reduction of about 100
kJ/kg cli in fuel heat consumption. More than 5 stages will bring only marginal economical point of view.
*)
Even at 5 stages we may check if the necessary investment and the (possible) increase of pressure
drop can be justified by the local cost structure.
*)
Instead of constructing more than 5 conventional cyclone stages one would prefer here
non-conventional preheaters, such as the cross-suspension-preheater (two strings with cross flow of
raw meals).
B) Clinker Coolers
1) Heat transfer rate:
On a planetary or a rotary cooler we have the possibility to increase the heat transfer rate by
Query:
installation of efficient internal equipment (tumblers, lifters) which increase the active heat
transfer area by better moving and scattering of the clinker. If a cooler has worn out internal
equipment or equipment of inadequate design we may realize a considerable potential for
improvements. Improvements may also result from a more uniform clinker granulometry
(less internal dust circulations).
On a grate cooler we find quite a different situation. The real problem is not the heat
transfer rate between a piece of clinker and the cooling air but rather the uniform air
distribution through the clinker bed. Also here we may realize a considerable improvement
(thick bed operation, mechanical modifications at inlet zone etc.).
2) Counter-current principle:
There is an obvious difference between planetary/rotary coolers and the grate cooler:
- planetary / rotary counter-current flow
- grate cooler almost cross-current flow
The grate cooler has a nearly cross-current performance and has therefore, from its
principle, a limited heat recovery potential. Improvements are possible when air recirculation
(of hot waste air) to the first grate section is applied in order to increase the heat content of
the secondary air. Another quite different measure is the increasing of the bed thickness in
order to come more towards a counter-current-like exchange (similar to a shaft cooler). The
disadvantage is an increase of the cooling air pressure.
3) Equivalence of heat characteristic
On a clinker cooler we would theoretically require approx. 0.77 Nm
3
/kg cli of cooling air in
order to transfer the clinker heat completely to the secondary air (under perfect
counter-current heat exchange).
The practical figures are usually above 0.8 Nm
3
/kg cli. Compared to a raw meal preheater
we have an inverse situation: The heat from the hot clinker could theoretically be completely
recovered (under ideal conditions)! Of course, we know that the common, practical figures
are often below 70%. The latter fact illustrates that from the basic principle there is still a
considerable heat potential which is not used for reducing the kiln heat consumption.
In this context it is also important to note that the practical efficiency of any type of clinker
cooler increases with higher cooling air quantity. As a consequence we should draw as
much cooling air as possible through the cooler and therefore avoid or reduce excessive
primary air quantities or false air inleaks at the kiln hood or kiln seals. The improvement
does not come from the heat transfer proper but rather from the improved heat
characteristic (air/clinker ratio).
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C09 - Heat Balance / Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics / 7. TEST
QUESTIONS
7. TEST QUESTIONS
1) Give an example where it can be worthwhile to execute a complete heat balance on a kiln.
2) Summarize all important measurement points which are needed for doing a complete heat balance
on a suspension preheater kiln.
3) What is the usual value (or range) for the specific heat (kJ/Nm
3
C) of exit gas of an SP-kiln at
350C?
4) What is the sensible heat content of 1 kg clinker at 1450C, expressed as kJ/kg cli?
5) What is the standard value (or range) for heat of formation (kJ/kg cli) for clinker burning?
Which heat effects are included in above value?
Query:
6) Determine the heat transfer coefficient (W/m
2
C) for the total heat transfer by radiation plus free
convection. The temperature of the kiln shell section is 200C (ambient = 20C, = 0.9).
7) When has the forced convection heat transfer (instead of free convection) to be considered?
How is the above value affected in case of smaller dimensions (say 1 m instead of 5 m diameter)?
8) If the shell losses in the calcining zone can be reduced by 50 kJ/kg cli, what will be the approximate
saving of fuel heat (kJ/kg cli)?
9) What is the approximate fuel heat which can be saved through the installation of a fifth cyclone
stage on a suspension preheater kiln?
What would be the approximate amount of false air reduction (Nm
3
/kg cli into the high temperature
zone) in order to achieve a similar fuel heat saving?
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C09 - Heat Balance / Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics / 8. LITERATURE
8. LITERATURE
1) Zur Strassen, H.
Der theoretische Wrmebedarf des Zementbrandes
ZKG 10 (1957), Vol. 1, p. 1-12
1) Jakob, M.
Heat transfer, Vol. I (1949), p. 529
2) Hilpert, R.
Wrmeabgabe von geheizten Drhten und Rohren im Luftstrom
Forsch.-Ing.-Wes., Vol. 4 (1939), p. 215-224
3) Gygi, H.
Thermodynamics of the cement kiln, third industrial symposium on the chemistry of cement
4) Eigen, H.
Beitrag zur Thermodynamik des Drehofens
Tonindustrie-Zeitung 82 (1958), No. 16, p. 337-341
5) Frankenberger, R.
Beitrag zur Berechnung des Wrmebergangs in Zementdrehfen
Dissertation, Technische Universitt Clausthal (1969)
6) Khle, W.
Untersuchung ber die ussere Wrmeabgabe von Drehfen durch Strahlung und Konvektion
Zement-Kalk-Gips, Vol. 6, 1970, p. 263
7) VDZ Unterlagen
Wrmetechnische Berechnungen
Verein Deutscher Zementwerke E.V., Dsseldorf
8) VDI-Wrematlas
Berechnungsbltter fr den Wrembergang
VDI-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf
9) Barin, I. and Knacke, O.
Thermochemical properties of inorganic substances
Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York
10) Elkajer, P. (FLS)
Die Bestimmung des Wrmeverbrauches mit vierstufigem Zyklonvorwrmer durch Aufstellung
Query:
eines mathematischen Modelles
Zement-Kalk-Gips, Vol. 2, 1980
11) Gardeik, H.O.
Berechnung des Wandwrmeverlustes von Drehfen und Mhlen
Zement-Kalk-Gips, Vol. 2, 1980
12) Rother, W.
Ausfhrung von Rohmehl-Wrmetauschern unter Bercksichtigung heutiger Kostenfaktoren
Zement-Kalk-Gips, Vol. 2, 1982, p. 66 ff.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C09 - Heat Balance / Heat Balances of Kilns and Coolers and Related Topics / 9. SYMBOLS AND
UNITS
9. SYMBOLS AND UNITS
A
m
2
area
C
R W/m
2
K
4
radiation constant
c
P
kJ/kg C specific heat (at const. pressure),
or
kJ/Nm
3
C
specific heat capacity
CV kJ/kg calorific value
D m diameter
g
m/s
2
gravity constant
h kJ/kg heat content (specific)
or
kJ/Nm
3
or kJ/kg cli
L m length
m kg mass
or kg/kg specific mass
m
f
kg/h mass flow
Q
f
kW heat flow (1 kW = 1 kJ/s)
t C temperature (Centigrade)
T K temperature (Kelvin)
v m/s velocity
w kg/kg water content
Greek Letters
W/m
2
K
heat transfer coefficient
- emissivity (for radiation)
W/m C heat conductivity
kg/m
3
density
Dimensionless Numbers
Query:
Pr Prandtl number
R kiln feed (raw meal) / clinker-ratio
Re Reynolds number
Indices
conv convection
rad radiation
tot total
o ambient condition or zero condition
Conversion Factors
Length 1 inch 0.0254 m
1 ft 0.3048 m
Area 1 sq. ft
0.092903 m
2
Volume, Volume Flow 1 cu.ft
0.028316 m
3
1 cu.ft/min
1.699 m
3
/h (actual m
3
)
Mass 1 lb. 0.45359 kg
1 short ton
(USA)
907.185 kg
Pressure 1 bar
10
5
N/m
2
1 atm. 1.013 bar
Energy 1 kJ 1000 J
1 MJ 1000 kJ
1 kWh 3600 kJ
1 kcal 4.187 kJ
1 BTU 1.055 kJ
Temperature Conversion C = 5/9(F - 32)
K = 273.15 + C
Heat Flow 1 kW 1000 W = 1 kJ/s
1 kcal/h 1.163 W
1 BTU/h 0.29307 W
Specific Heat 1 kcal/kg C 4.187 kJ/kg C = 4187 J/kg C
1 BTU/lb F 1 kcal/kg C = 4.187 kJ/kg C
Heat Transfer Coeffic.
1 kcal/m
2
h C 1.163 W/m
2
C
1 BTU/ft
2
h F 5.678 W/m
2
C
Standard Conditions for
Gases
Standard
Conditions
0C and 1 atm. (1.013 bar)
bar
bar p
c t
m act Nm
013 . 1
) (
) ( 16 . 273
15 . 73 . 2
.
3 3
+

Query:
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans
C10 - Main Fans
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans
Main Fans
Authors: W. Zeller, Th. Richner, D. Brassel
PT 99/14500/E
1. Design and efficiency of fan impellers
1.1 Fan impeller types
1.2 Selection criteria
1.3 Fan applications in the cement industry
2. Fan performance curves
2.1 System Resistance Curve
2.2 Fan curves
2.2.1 Fan equations
2.2.2 Adjusting fan performance curves
3. Flow control
3.1 Damper control
3.2 Radial inlet vane
3.3 Speed control
3.3.1 Hydraulic transmission with fixed speed motor
3.3.2 Speed-controlled electric motors
4. Possible problems with fans
4.1 Vibrations
4.1.1 Variable speed operation
4.1.2 Thermal effects
4.1.3 Hot shutdowns
4.2 Material build-up
4.2.1 Kiln exhaust fan build-up
4.2.2 Recommendations against build-up
4.3 Erosion
4.3.1 Erosion types
4.3.2 Improper duct connection
4.3.3 Effects of impeller speed and wheel inlet velocity
4.4 Wear protection
4.4.1 Protection of parts subjected to abrasion
Query:
4.4.2 Deflection of abrasive particles
4.4.3 Liner materials
4.5 Bearings
5. Fan Capacity Adjustment
5.1 Fan capacity too low
5.2 Fan capacity too high
6. Troubleshooting
7. Start-up of fans
8. Fan impeller arrangement and connections
8.1 Assembly
8.1.1 Overhung assembly (Fig. 8.1)
8.1.2 Center hung assembly (Fig. 8.2)
8.2 Foundations
8.3 Connections
8.3.1 Inlet connections
8.3.2 Outlet connections
9. Information Sources
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 1. DESIGN AND EFFICIENCY OF FAN IMPELLERS
1. DESIGN AND EFFICIENCY OF FAN IMPELLERS
Fans are essential components of the cement manufacturing process and merit therefore particular
considerations with respect to
design and efficiency of the impeller
fan size and operating point
flow control
reliability
Main fans in a Cement Plant are found as
Kiln ID Fan
Raw Mill Fan
Cooler Exhaust Gas Fan
Kiln Dedusting Fan
Altogether these fans consume between 30 and 50% of the plants total electrical energy.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 1. DESIGN AND EFFICIENCY OF FAN IMPELLERS / 1.1 Fan impeller
types
1.1 Fan impeller types
Query:
There are four basic blade forms used in industrial induced draft service:
backward airfoil blades
backward curved blades
backward inclined blades
radial straight blades
Fig. 1.1 shows design and efficiency of these impellers.
Fig. 1.1: Design and efficiency of impellers
TYPE EFFICIENCY
APPLICATION
backward
airfoil blades > 84 %
for clean gas
applications
(dust < 50 g/m
3
)
backward
curved blades up to 82 %
for gas with a dust
concentration
< 100 g/m
3
Query:
Backward
inclined
blades
up to 80 %
for gas with a
dustload
up to 100 g/m
3
radial straight
blades
60 - 75 %
for gas with a high
dustload
(dust > 100 g/m
3
)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 1. DESIGN AND EFFICIENCY OF FAN IMPELLERS / 1.2 Selection
criteria
1.2 Selection criteria
It is of great importance that critical process equipment, such as fans, is selected on the basis of
proven ability in order to provide maximum reliability rather than on an efficiency rating.
In situations where more than one blade form will meet a performance requirement, it then becomes
necessary to select the one form that will be most overall cost-effective.
For the selection process the supplier should provide the operating and service manual for the
equipment type being considered.
The operating and service report should include all occurrences that require fan maintenance.
To assist in fan type selection, there are at least four important points to be considered.
Fan efficiency:
Because many of the higher efficiency fans can only achieve their stated efficiency within a narrow
operating range, a true energy evaluation must consider the actual operating point and alternate
Query:
operating points on a time basis.
Many systems include a built-in safety factor, which results in reduced efficiency when operated at
constant speed with damper regulation.
Continuous operation:
Any type of equipment will require maintenance. In blade form selection, blade build-up (cp. section
4.2) and erosion (cp. section 4.3) have the greatest effect on fan operation. Build-up on the wheel
results in reduced performance. There is an increased tendency for material to build up on blades
as the blade angle is tilted back from radial. This build-up can accumulate to the degree that it
restricts and alters air passages, reducing both efficiency and performance.
Mechanical design:
All fan rotors are subject to centrifugal force. Depending on blade form and angle, different types of
stress occur in a blade. The radial Blade is in tension, while bending and tensile stresses act on the
backward inclined/Airfoil design. Bending stresses are more subject to fatigue stresses.
Equipment costs
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 1. DESIGN AND EFFICIENCY OF FAN IMPELLERS / 1.3 Fan
applications in the cement industry
1.3 Fan applications in the cement industry
The following table shows an overview of fan applications in the cement industry.
Location
Dust load
[g/Nm
3
]
Blades
mainly
used
Max.
Temp
[C]
max.
speed
[rpm]
Flow
regulation
Rotor
protection
Stator
protection
Efficiency
[%]
Coal Mill
Filter exhaust
Separator / cyclone
exhaust
< 0.15
< 100
F/C/A
R/F/C
150
150
1800
1200
VC/ILD
ILD
(WP)
HSWP
-
WP( HSWP)
70 - 85
55 - 75
Raw Mill
Filter exhaust
Separator /
cyclone exhaust
< 0.15
< 100
F/C/A*
F/C
300
300
1800
1200
VC/ILD/VS
ILD/VS
-
(HW/HWSP)
-
WP
70 - 85
65 - 75
Cement Mill
Filter exhaust
Separator /
cyclone exhaust
< 0.15
< 100
F/C/A
F/C
200
200
1800
1200
VC/ILD
ILD
-
(WP/HSWP)
-
WP
75 - 85
65 - 75
Dry Process
Preheater exhaust
Kiln line filter
exhaust
< 100
< 0.15
R/F/C
F/C/A*
450
350
1200
1200
ILD/VS
VC/ILD/VS
(WP)
-
-
-
55 - 75
70 - 85
Semi-dry process
Recirculation fan
Kiln line filter
exhaust
< 20
<0.15
R/F
F/C/A*
450
450
750
1800
ILD/VS
VC/ILD/VS
HSWP
-
WP
-
60 - 70
70 - 85
Cooler
Filter exhaust
Filter exhaust
Cyclone exhaust
Recirculating
Cooler F.D. fans
<0.15
0.5
< 5
< 15
Traces
F/C
F/C
R/F
R
F/C/A
450
450
450
450
50
1200
1200
1200
750
2200
VC/ILD/VS
ILD/VS
ILD/VS
ILD
VC/VS
(WP)
WP
HSWP
HSWP
-
-
(WP)
WP
WP(HSWP)
-
70 - 88
70 - 80
65 - 75
60 - 70
75 - 85
* in case of bag filter
Query:
Abbreviations:
a. Blade Type
R: radial blade
F: backward inclined flat plate
C: backward curved plate
A: backward airfoil blade
b. Flow regulation (cp. section 3)
VC: Vane control set at the fan inlet
ILD: Inlet louver damper set on the inlet box
VS: Variable speed
c. Rotor and stator protection against abrasion (cp. section 0)
WP: bolted or welded wear plates
- mild steel
- quenched steel
- wear-resistant steel
HSWP: bolted mild steel wear plates with hard surfacing
- chromium carbide
- tungsten carbide
(WP/HSWP): optional
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 2. FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES
2. FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 2. FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES / 2.1 System Resistance Curve
2.1 System Resistance Curve
The System Resistance Curve is the relation between pressure and volume flow for the given
system. For a system in which only air is moved and the geometry of the ductwork is constant, the
pressure drop is proportional to the square of the flow rate.
In most of the applications around the cement plant, this curve is constantly changing because of
the changing system conditions. For instance, the cooler under-grate fan system resistance curve
depends not only on the geometry of the ductwork and cooler, but also on size distribution and
thickness of the clinker bed on the grate above the compartment.
The system resistance curve of a roller mill system is dependent on the geometry of the ducts, the
amount of material being transported by the gas, the composition of the gases and the speed of
the classifier. Because of these variables, it is essential to understand that a system resistance
curve can vary significantly from the slope of the curve illustrated in e.g. Fig. 2.3.
Principally the curve is derived as described next. Fig 2.1 schematically shows a system.
Fig. 2.1: System with fan
Query:
Total pressure (dynamic and static part) at S:

s s suc
p p p
with p
s
= pressure loss due to friction of the suction side
=
( )
2
V f
&
Total pressure (dynamic and static part) at P:
p p press
p p p
with p
p
= pressure loss due to friction of the pressure side
=
( )
2
V f
&
Pressure difference p
fan
, which has to be produced by the fan,
consists of a static and dynamic part and is a function of the gas velocity or gas flow.
p = p
press
- p
suc
= = p
stat
+ p
dyn
= f(w
2
) =
( )
2
V f
&
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 2. FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES / 2.2 Fan curves
2.2 Fan curves
The fan performance curve is derived from laboratory data when the flow conditions to and from the
fan are ideal. Since these conditions seldom exist in cement plant fan locations. The fan curve data
cannot be considered reliable when applied to field conditions. Because of this uncertainty of the
prevailing conditions, we find that engineers specify oversized fans during the plant design stage.
For example, typical factors that can effect the performance of an under-grate cooler fan include a dirty
inlet screen; a structural column too close to the inlet; a silencer at fan inlet or the influence of an
adjacent fan. Likewise, similar factors influencing an induced-draft fan include asymmetrical inlet duct
which effects streamline distribution to the fan or heavier than normal blade wear pads that restrict
blade passage geometry.
A typical fan curve (see Fig. 2.2) shows the quantity of air on the horizontal axis and the fan static
pressure and fan power plotted on the vertical axis. The conditions of density and flow are at the inlet
of the fan.
The actual operating point of the fan will be the intersection of the fan curve with the system
resistance curve (cp. section 2.1).
The efficiency of a fan is best close to its design point of operation.
The farther off these ideal conditions, the lower the efficiency. The operating points of equal fan
Query:
efficiency are located on oval shaped curves around the maximum point.
Fig. 2.2: Fan characteristics and efficiencies by different fan speed
The fan curve depends on the impeller speed and the physical properties of the gas (cp. section 2.2.2)
The pressure which is produced by the fan equals the pressure difference between the total pressure
at the fan outlet and the fan inlet:
p = p
press
- p
suc
= = p
stat
+ p
dyn
For most fans in cement plants, it is satisfactory to assume that the fan's pressure is the difference
between the static pressure at the inlet and outlet of the fans.
The fan power is the power at the fan shaft. For most plant applications where the fan has constant
speed and is direct coupled, this can be assumed to be 96 % of the power consumed by the drive
motor when the motor is fully loaded. Since power factor and motor efficiency vary with motor load, it is
difficult to measure fan shaft power input without a kilowatt meter. However, near full motor load
conditions, the amp reading is a good indicator of shaft power. For fans with variable speed drives,
especially hydraulic or magnetic clutch drives, the efficiency of the drive can be very poor so the power
at the fan shaft cannot be assumed to be a linear function of the power consumed by the motor.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 2. FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES / 2.2 Fan curves / 2.2.1 Fan
equations
2.2.1 Fan equations
Power requirement:
3
10
p V
N
&
[kW]
N : Required power [kW]
V
&
: Gas flow [m
3
/s] (not [Nm
3
/s])
p : Total increase of pressure in fan [Pa]
: Fan efficiency [-]
Depending on the blade shape of the impeller, the power requirement to draw the gas through a given
system (and therefore for determined pressure losses) can vary in a relatively wide range.
Query:
As the required fan power is given by the equation above, it is obvious that considerable savings can
be achieved with the most efficient impeller.
Total pressure increase:
Formula for a rough calculation of the total pressure p = p
press
- p
suc
= p
stat
+ p
dyn
:
p 3600
6 . 0
2 2 2
d n
[Pa]
: Density [kg/m
3
]
n : Fan speed [rpm]
d : Impeller diameter [m]
Remark: p is just a rough guideline and depends very much on the blades shape and the rotor
efficiency.
Example: Effect of fan efficiency
Plant: 4-stage SP kiln, 3000 t/d clinker
Requirement for kiln ID-fan: V
&
= 115 m
3
/s at 350C
p = 6000 Pa
two efficiencies available:
1
= 0.75

2
= 0.85
kW
p V
N 920
75 . 0
10 6000 115 10
3
1
3
1
&
kW
p V
N 812
85 . 0
10 6000 115 10
3
2
3
2
&
Power saving = 108 kW = 0.86 kWh/t cli
Assuming an operation time of 7500 h/year and an energy price of 0.05US$/kWh the
yearly saving will amount to 40500 US$!
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 2. FAN PERFORMANCE CURVES / 2.2 Fan curves / 2.2.2 Adjusting
fan performance curves
2.2.2 Adjusting fan performance curves
It was mentioned above that the fan performance curve is given at specific conditions of density and
fan speed. Most often, it is necessary to correct the fan curve for density and speed other than the
predicted conditions. Fig. 2.3 shows the influence of density changes on the fan performance.
Indices: 1: reference conditions (or original fan curve characteristic)
2: actual conditions
Gas density correction:
Query:
A correction of the density is necessary if:
temperature changes
the chemical composition of gas changes
the altitude changes (height above sea level).
1
2
2
1
2
1
T
T
p
p
stat
stat

Volume flow and efficiency of the fan are unaffected by gas density changes.
Remark: Calculation of actual density
273
273
1013 4 . 22 +

T
p M
density [kg/m
3
]
M molecular weight of gas [kg/kmol]
p actual pressure [mbar]
T actual temperature [C]
Ambient pressure, depending on the altitudes can be calculated by:
[ ] h 001255 . 0 exp 1013 p
h altitude above sea level [m]
Gas
Density
[kg/Nm
3
]
Molecular weight
[kg/kmol]
O
2
1.429 32
CO
2
1.964 44
N
2
1.250 28
Air 1.292 29
H
2
O 0.804 18
Fan speed correction:
Volume flow:
,
_

1
2
1 2
n
n
V V
& &
Query:
Static pressure:
2
1
2
1 2
,
_

n
n
p p
stat stat
Power requirement:
3
1
2
1 2
,
_

n
n
N N
(for
1
=
2
)
Fan wheel dimensions correction:
Volume flow:
,
_
,
_

1
2
3
1
2
1 2
b
b
d
d
V V
& &
Static pressure:
2
1
2
1 2
,
_

d
d
p p
stat stat
Power requirement:
,
_
,
_

1
2
5
1
2
1 2
b
b
d
d
N N
whereas d impeller diameter [m]
b impeller width [m]
Fig. 2.3: Influence of density changes on system resistance and fan performance curves
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 3. FLOW CONTROL
3. FLOW CONTROL
Whether a fan ever will operate at a high efficiency is to a large extent already decided when the fan
size is selected.
Since the efficiency of the fan has a maximum at a specific operating point the fan ought to be sized so
that it can operate at such conditions most of the time. However, since the fan performance needs to
Query:
be flexible to meet variable requirements, the fan size will, to some extent at least, be designed for the
maximum requirement. Reduced requirements have to be met by fan control dampers or variable
speed control.
Besides the efficiency of the fan itself, the type of flow control has the strongest influence on the overall
power consumption.
Damper control generally results in higher power consumption and so more if the damper is installed at
the fan outlet. Therefore the damper should always be installed at fan inlet. Inlet vane control may be
satisfactory from 100 % down to about 70 % of maximum flow, but the power demand becomes high
when the flow is reduced further. Speed control is virtually ideal.
Fig 3.1 shows different arrangements for inlet and outlet dampers.
Fig. 3.1: Design possibilities for fan dampers
Figure 3.2 shows how fan power consumption is affected by the different flow regulation methods.
Fig. 3.2: Comparison: Types of Flow Regulation
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 3. FLOW CONTROL / 3.1 Damper control
Query:
3.1 Damper control
A parallel blade inlet damper is preferred over either outlet damper or an opposed-blade inlet damper.
The parallel-blade inlet damper pre-spins the incoming air in the direction of wheel rotation, resulting in
lower energy consumption in the regulation range of 100 - 80% of maximum flow. Fig. 3.3 shows the
parallel inlet damper arrangement.
Fig. 3.3: Parallel inlet box damper
The inlet box damper influences the fan curve (see Fig. 3.4).
Fig. 3.4: Flow regulation by inlet box damper
Fig. 3.5 shows the operating point at the intersection of the system resistance curve and the fan curve.
By reducing the airflow, the fan theoretically produces a pressure above 80 mbar. Since the system
behaves like the system resistance curve, the damper induces a pressure loss of about 40 mbar.
Fig. 3.5: Flow regulation by outlet damper
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 3. FLOW CONTROL / 3.2 Radial inlet vane
3.2 Radial inlet vane
The radial inlet vane mounted direct at the fan inlet pre-spins the incoming air still better in the direction
of wheel rotation, resulting in a wider range of stable regulation (100 - 70%) and less energy
consumption. Fig. 3.6 shows the parallel inlet damper arrangement.
Fig 3.6: Radial inlet vane
Their use is mainly recommended in connection with over hung arrangement fans with low rates of
dust, thus limited to applications after filters or in clean air, e.g. for cooler under-grate fans.
This arrangement is normally more costly.
Fig. 3.7: Flow regulation by inlet vane damper
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 3. FLOW CONTROL / 3.3 Speed control
3.3 Speed control
Variable speed controlled fans have more fan characteristic curves but only one characteristic curve of
the duct system (see Fig. 3.8).
It is obvious that the variable speed drive is the most efficient type of fan control since no additional
resistance for e.g. damper is built into the system. On the other hand a variable speed control is more
capital intensive than a damper control.
Fig. 3.8: Flow regulation by speed control
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 3. FLOW CONTROL / 3.3 Speed control / 3.3.1 Hydraulic
transmission with fixed speed motor
3.3.1 Hydraulic transmission with fixed speed motor
Hydraulic transmission in connection with a fixed speed motor can be an option for speed ranges from
100% down to 85% of maximum speed, but the energy efficiency becomes low when the flow is further
reduced.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 3. FLOW CONTROL / 3.3 Speed control / 3.3.2 Speed-controlled
electric motors
Query:
3.3.2 Speed-controlled electric motors
Flow control by variation of the fan speed is most efficient with regard to energy savings and permits
also the reduction of wear on the fan wheel.
DC motors have limitations in high speed and power (roughly 1000 rpm for 1500 kW, 600 to 800
rpm for 2000 kW motor) and require a lot of maintenance work (motor ventilation circuits, carbon
brushes etc.), so their use is not recommended any longer.
AC motors with slip recovery. These motors have a limited speed range down from 100 - 30%. Its
cost increases with the width of the range.
Synchronous motors with AC variable frequency control
Both types of AC motors are well suited for high power (500 to 5000 kW).
Fan equations at variable speed:
Volume flow:
,
_

1
2
1 2
n
n
V V
& &
Static pressure:
2
1
2
1 2
,
_

n
n
p p
stat stat
Power requirement:
3
1
2
1 2
,
_

n
n
N N
(for
1
=
2
)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS
4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.1 Vibrations
4.1 Vibrations
Main reasons for fan vibrations are build-ups of process material (refer to section 4.2) and
wear/erosion on the fan impeller (refer to section 4.3/0). A moderate level of vibration can be tolerated
from a mechanical design point of view, although it certainly reduces the bearing lifetime to a certain
extent. Therefore it should be tolerated only to avoid additional main equipment downtime.
If vibrations are excessive, fan impeller balancing, cleaning or replacement is required. For balancing
special vibration detectors are used on site or the wheel has to be shop balanced.
General Machinery vibration severity as per ANSI S2.41 (Fig. 4.1 a) for use as a guide in judging
vibration as a warning of impending trouble)
1. Rigid support
The fundamental natural frequency of the machine/support system is higher
than the operating speed
Query:
excellent 0. to 2.54 mm/s vibration velocity (Peak)
good 2.55 to 6.35 mm/s
alarm 6.36 to 12.7 mm/s
shutdown > 12.7 mm/s
2. Flexible support
The fundamental natural frequency of the machine/support system is lower
excellent 0. to 3.81 mm/s vibration velocity (Peak)
good 3.81 to 10.16 mm/s
alarm 10.17 to 19.1 mm/s
shutdown > 19.1 mm/s
Vibration severity criteria (10 Hz to 1 kHz) per ISO 2372 (Fig. 4.1 b)
1. Large machines with rigid foundations whose natural frequency exceeds
machine speed
good 0.0 to 2.54 mm/s vibration velocity (Peak)
allowable 2.55 to 6.35 mm/s
just tolerable 6.36 to 15.84 mm/s
not permissible > 15.84 mm/s
2. Large machines operating at speeds above foundation natural frequency
good 0 to 4 mm/s vibration velocity (Peak)
allowable 4 to 10 mm/s
just tolerable 10 to 25.4 mm/s
not permissible > 25.4 mm/s
If the tolerable vibration levels are exceeded, the fan must be shut down, which usually results in costly
production losses. To extend the periods between shutdowns due to vibration, the use of automatic
balancing devices, mounted on the fan shaft may be considered. Depending on their size, they are
capable of automatic compensation of a certain rotor unbalance. For manufacturers of such devices,
refer to the information source at the end of this report.
Fig. 4.1 a: Vibration severity chart (ANSI S2.41)
Query:
Fig. 4.1 b: Vibration severity chart (ISO 2372)
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.1 Vibrations / 4.1.1
Variable speed operation
4.1.1 Variable speed operation
All electrical variable speed drive systems can generate harmful harmonics that result in torque
pulsation. Such harmonics can be predicted and filtered, but often at high cost. For fans with variable
speed control it must be verified by the motor supplier that the pulsating torque do not cause excessive
vibrations.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.1 Vibrations / 4.1.2
Thermal effects
4.1.2 Thermal effects
Some typical problem areas are:
Due to expansion joint problems, forces due to thermal expansion of ducts are transmitted to the
fan housing, resulting in damage of the housing or interference between wheel and housing. It can
also cause excessive force on foundation bolts that sometimes can result in foundation cracks.
Rapid temperature changes in a system require proper design of the wheel-to-shaft fit. This will
assure that looseness and resulting vibration sensitivity will be avoided.
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.1 Vibrations / 4.1.3 Hot
shutdowns
4.1.3 Hot shutdowns
Thermal shaft set is a usual concern on centre-hung fans above 120C when shut down in the hot
condition. It is generally agreed that this thermal bowing of the shaft occurs due to uneven thermal
gradients across the wheel and shaft assembly at hot shutdown. This results in small asymmetrical
distortions, often sufficient to cause excessive unbalance forces during start-up.
In some cases the resulting vibrations are within acceptable limits. If so, it is usually found that the
unbalance forces disappear after 12 to 36 hours of operation.
The preferred, but expensive solution is to have an auxiliary drive to slowly rotate the wheel and shaft
assembly, which should be engaged immediately after hot shut-down to avoid the undesirable thermal
distortion. Auxiliary drives are typically designed to maintain a minimum speed (40 to 60 rpm) as the
fan slows down. They are not intended for use in starting the fan rotor from a dead stop.
Most hot gas fans work well without auxiliary drive, since hot shutdowns are infrequent and of short
duration and the natural draft of the chimney keeps the rotor in slow motion for some time.
The tendency is to install hot gas fans without auxiliary drives. Often it is also the case that variable
speed drives have a turndown ratio of 10:1, which corresponds normally to less than 70 rpm.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.2 Material build-up
4.2 Material build-up
A well maintained fan is generally a reliable piece of equipment. However, in case of material build-ups
within the fan, serious operational limitations could occur, such as vibrations.
Possible reasons for material build-ups are:
Mineralogical composition of the material
Burning conditions
Duct/fan arrangement
High temperatures
Inappropriate blade shape and angles
High fan speed
Dew point problems
After balancing, the rotor of a fan will still have a certain residual imbalance, the value of which
depends on the balance quality grade. The unbalance force can be calculated with the formula:
per
e m F
2
[N]
m rotor mass [kg]
angular velocity 2n/60 [s
-1
]
n rotor speed [rpm]
e
per
permissible residual specific unbalance [m]
Industrial fans often handle dust-laden gases and thus dust deposition on the impeller may occur,
increasing the initial unbalance. Asymmetrical wear on the impeller has the same effect. These
Query:
additional unbalances can be considerable compared to the permissible unbalance according to the
balance quality grade. If the resulting vibration exceeds the tolerable limits, the fan has to be shut down
to clean the wheel. See Fig. 4.1 c for permissible unbalance.
Fig. 4.1 c: Balance quality grades
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.2 Material build-up / 4.2.1
Kiln exhaust fan build-up
4.2.1 Kiln exhaust fan build-up
One idea about the causes of build-up is that some particles are "sticky" at temperatures above 300C
and begin to build up on the rotor surfaces. The impact energy of the particles striking the rotor surface
(especially at an angle of 90) is also converted to heat and results in additional softening. Other
particles with a higher softening point are caught in the sticky material and increase the coating layer
thickness. The originally soft build-up gets harder under the influence of heat and pressure (from
centrifugal force and the impact of other particles).
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.2 Material build-up / 4.2.2
Recommendations against build-up
4.2.2 Recommendations against build-up
The fan rotor should be designed for the smoothest possible flow lines to reduce the impact energy
of dust particles. Backward curved and airfoil are the best blade forms. Airfoil blades must be
designed carefully to prevent material from getting inside and regular inspection of the fan blades is
mandatory.
Backward curved blades must be inclined enough to prevent the "hard" build-up on the front
surface and radial enough to prevent the "soft" build-up on the back-surface.
Fans should be designed for low gas and particle velocity at the fan inlet. This reduces the impact
energy of particles against the rotor and can be achieved by
1) Double inlet instead of single inlet fans
2) Larger diameter / lower speed fans
3) If possible, the peripheral speed at the rotor inlet opening should be limited to about 76 m/s,
and wheel inlet velocity should not exceed 38 m/s
4) The fan shaft should be oversized to reduce unbalance effects.
The design critical speed (considering a bearing oil film thickness and a build-up thickness of 25 mm
on all leading surfaces of the rotor blades) should be at least 1.25 times the operating speed of the fan.
Query:
Suppliers generally do not recommend to spray water directly onto a hot fan wheel, but in practice it
has been done over years with success. The rapid cooling effect removes build-up effectively,
however, the strength properties of the wheel material may be affected adversely if the injection rate is
too high.
Several different techniques are used to clean the fan, none with guarantied success however:
Sand blasting by addition of sand to the gas flow for short periods (Fig. 4.2)
Acoustic resonance (Fig. 4.3)
Compressed air injection (Fig. 4.4)
Steam injection (Fig. 4.4)
The following measures are performed below operational fan speed or even require a fan stop.
Knocking with pneumatic hammer
High pressure water spray (up to 300 bar)
H
2
O injection (Fig. 4.4) (rather delicate; it has to be carefully dealt with)
Fig. 4.2: Sand cleaning device
Fig. 4.3: Acoustic cleaning device
Fig. 4.4: Compressed air, H
2
O or steam Cleaning Devices
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.3 Erosion
4.3 Erosion
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.3 Erosion / 4.3.1 Erosion
types
4.3.1 Erosion types
It has been established that maximum erosion occurs when the angle of incidence between particle
and surface is between 20 and 40 degrees. This erosion, referred to as "ductile", is thought to be the
consequence of microscopic melting, which occurs when sharp-edged, hard particles scratch the
surface.
Particles striking at an angle of about 90 degrees to the surface erode according to another
mechanism. The kinetic energy of the particle creates a stress at the contact surface that can exceed
the elastic limit of the material, thus forming a surface crack. This type of erosion is called "fragile".
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.3 Erosion / 4.3.2 Improper
duct connection
4.3.2 Improper duct connection
Figure 4.5a shows a duct arrangement encountered on a raw mill system. Due to the uneven material
distribution one side of the double-inlet impeller wore out much faster.
Figure 4.5b shows the recommended modification.
Fig. 4.5a, Fig. 4.5b
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.3 Erosion / 4.3.3 Effects of
impeller speed and wheel inlet velocity
4.3.3 Effects of impeller speed and wheel inlet velocity
As mentioned earlier, erosion is proportional to the square of wheel inlet velocity and to the second to
third power of the relative gas velocity w1 at the rotor inlet. With a given rotor size this velocity is
proportional to rotor speed [rpm].
As a rough guideline we can expect that the erosion will vary with the speed to the power of 3. A large
fan will therefore resist erosion better then a smaller one, operating in the same conditions, due to
lower fan speed, larger surfaces.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.4 Wear protection
4.4 Wear protection
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.4 Wear protection / 4.4.1
Protection of parts subjected to abrasion
4.4.1 Protection of parts subjected to abrasion
Protection of parts subjected to abrasion / 4.4.1.1 Direct protection
4.4.1.1 Direct protection
Increased thickness of wear parts
This should only be done when abrasion is very light (ID behind electrostatic precipitators)
Direct hard surfacing on impeller by deposits by electrode or fusion projection
This process is very efficient if the deposits are well chosen and properly applied. However, the
thickness of the deposit is limited. The base structure of the impeller can be affected (dilution of
hard surfacing and significant addition of energy) and the mechanical characteristics of the steel
can deteriorate, especially after several maintenance operations.
Query:
Glued-on ceramics
Their hardness is very high and they are very resistant to ductile abrasion
Temperature must be limited and the ceramics tend to come off at the blade end (high centrifugal
forces). Application on static parts is easier and more reliable.
Protection of parts subjected to abrasion / 4.4.1.2 Protection by wear plates
4.4.1.2 Protection by wear plates
Corners or mild steel plates (or steel of the same grade as the base structure) added on to the
blade and on the center plate. This protection is applicable only where abrasion is low. If the
protection area is not wide enough, the base plate can also be attacked.
Wear-plates in abrasion resistant steel. This process is applied particularly on flat-bladed impellers.
The wear-plates are fitted on with countersunk screws. Replacement is easy, but the solution can
be insufficient if abrasion is very high.
Mild steel wear plates with hard surfacing by electrode or hardsurface spray coating. This solution
has the double advantage of easy replacement and high resistance to abrasion when the type of
deposit is well chosen. Moreover, hard surfacing on site is easily carried out with no risk for the
base structure.
Deflection of abrasive particles
4.4.2 Deflection of abrasive particles
Deflection of abrasive particles / 4.4.2.1 Deflector plates on impeller (Fig. 4.6)
4.4.2.1 Deflector plates on impeller (Fig. 4.6)
Fig. 4.6a shows the fan inlet and the rotating impeller. A, B and C are flow lines for the gas and lines 1,
2 and 3 represent the trajectories for particles of varying size. Line 1 refers to a very small particle that
closely follows the gas flow line. With increasing particle size the trajectories 2 and 3 deviate from the
gas flow lines. The particles hit the back-plate of the impeller and erode it.
Fig. 4.6b depicts the passage of two different particle sizes between two blades. Line 1 is the
trajectory of a small particle, line 2 of a coarser one. Most particles will hit the blade during their
passage through the impeller.
With suitably located deflector plates (Fig. 4.6c), the particle trajectories can be altered so that no
particles will hit the blades. The location and direction of the deflectors depends on the particle size
distribution, density of gas and particle, and fan speed and size.
Fig. 4.6: Wear protection by particle deflection
Query:
Liner materials
4.4.3 Liner materials
Due to the need for ductility in the structural members of the wheel, the wheel itself is usually not
capable of high resistance to erosion. It is therefore necessary to install liners with a higher hardness
classification to provide sufficient protection against wear.
Material hardness is an indication of its resistance to erosion. A very good liner material is chromium
carbide with an average hardness of 600 Brinell.
Figure 4.7 shows erosion test results of nine different materials.
Fig. 4.7: Erosion Test on Fan (Solyvent-Ventec)
1) Alloy of tungsten and nickel-chromium. Flame spray coating.
2) Alloy of nickel, chromium and cobalt. Flame spray coating followed by fusion.
3) Alloy of tungsten, cobalt carbides and nickel-chromium. Flame spray coating followed by fusion.
4) Special chromium cast iron. Special electric arc welding.
5) Chromium cast iron with chromium carbides. Electric arc welding.
6) Chromium cast iron. Semi-automatic electric arc welding.
7) Ceramic powder containing basically aluminium oxide. Flame spray coating.
Query:
8) Same as 7, but of different hardness.
9) Ceramic tiles containing basically aluminium oxide. Glued to the blades.
Carbon steel sheets with a protective layer of chromium carbide are normally available in standard
sizes and various thicknesses. Cutting discs or cutting plasma can cut them to the necessary form and
size.
The liner fixation can be done by bolting or by welding the carbon steel base plate to the existing
structure of the wheel or casing.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 4. POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH FANS / 4.5 Bearings
4.5 Bearings
Bearing problems are usually caused by operating conditions and not by deficiencies in the bearings.
By following regular operating and maintenance procedures, many bearing problems will be avoided.
Most problems are due to hot bearings. For hints see section 5.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 5. FAN CAPACITY ADJUSTMENT
5. FAN CAPACITY ADJUSTMENT
Fan capacity adjustments in the field are practically limited to the speed adjustment and this within a
limited range: ~ 0 - 15 % for flow increase and ~ 0 - 30 % for flow reduction.
Other capacity adjustments require mainly dimensional modifications of the fan wheel, which have to
be carried out in the workshop. Those are more costly and critical to execute.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 5. FAN CAPACITY ADJUSTMENT / 5.1 Fan capacity too low
5.1 Fan capacity too low
Important variables that are hampered by insufficient gas flow are e.g.
kiln production
separator efficiency
mill performance (throughput, drying capacity, mill venting)
Possible remedies:
Design changes in the system (reduce false air, reduce pressure drop)
the fan consumes no additional energy!
reduce/rectify false air inleaks
reduce unnecessary pressure drops caused by e.g.
not fully open dampers
improper design of inlet/outlet connections
no turning vanes in bends (refer to section 8.3)
dust deposits in ducts and bends
too narrow ducts (appropriate air speed must however be maintained to avoid settling of dust)
Changes in fan design, speed
Query:
Speed increase
volume flow is directly proportional to fan speed
fan absorbed power rises with the third power of fan speed
fan works with lower than design efficiency
normally only possible with V-belt drives
sound emission rises with fifth power of speed
higher wear, if fan handles dust-laden gas
increased sensitivity to rotor imbalance caused by dust deposits on blades
speed increase is limited by mechanical strength of rotor
speed increase is limited by fan critical and resonant speed
Fan wheel diameter increase
practically limited to wheels where the blades do not extend to the full diameter of the rotor
sideplates (plates can then be welded-in to increase the effective fan wheel diameter)
volume flow rises with the third power of wheel diameter
fan absorbed power rises with the fifth power of wheel diameter
Replacement of rotor with inherent low efficiency by one designed for high efficiency
e.g. replacement of radial-blade wheel by backward-inclined or backward-curved blade
wheel.
limitations with regard to diameter, width (and speed, if wheel is directly coupled to motor
via flexible coupling) of the new wheel exist if fan housing and motor are to be kept.
New fan
Can be designed for optimum performance at the new operating point
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 5. FAN CAPACITY ADJUSTMENT / 5.2 Fan capacity too high
5.2 Fan capacity too high
May be due to e.g. oversized fan, decline in production, process changes
Possible remedies:
Flow reduction by damper
Widely used solution, but inefficient and expensive (fan energy consumption)
Flow reduction by inlet vane damper
More energy-efficient than damper, but can be recommended only for flow regulation purposes, not
for permanent use at lower capacity (expensive, may be difficult to fit into existing equipment)
Changes in fan design, speed
Lower speed
volume flow decreases proportional to fan speed
absorbed power decreases with third power of fan speed
lower sound emission
lower wear, if handling dust-laden gas
lower sensitivity to rotor imbalance caused by e.g. dust deposits on blades
Rotor width reduction
applicable if fan must deliver the same pressure as before, but at lower volume flow
Rotor diameter / width reduction
volume flow decreases with the third power of rotor diameter
volume flow decreases proportional to rotor width
Query:
fan delivery pressure decreases with the square of rotor diameter
absorbed power decreases with the fifth power of rotor diameter
absorbed power decreases proportional to width
lower sound emission
To maintain a good efficiency, it is not sufficient to decrease the diameter only, but also
to adapt the rotor width.
For a permanent capacity reduction this is a good solution
If the old transmission is kept, speed reduction is normally reversible, i.e. fan capacity can be
increased again if necessary, whereas a reduction in rotor diameter / width are not.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 6. TROUBLESHOOTING
6. TROUBLESHOOTING
Problem Check for
Noise 1. Squealing V-belts, due to misalignment or improper tensioning
2. Defective bearings, or bearing seal rubbing
3. Misalignment of bearing seal
4. Misaligned housing-shaft seal
5. Foreign matter in fan housing
6. Rubbing of shaft seal, wheel to inlet piece, or wheel to housing
7. Heat flinger is contacting guard
8. Coupling failure
9. Untreated expansion joints
Poor
performance
1. Incorrect fan rotation
2. Wheel is off-center, poor inlet piece fit-up allows recirculation of air
3. Fan speed too low/high
4. Poor duct design, installation of elbow or turning vanes could
remedy problem
5. Inlet damper installed backwards (counter-rotation)
6. System resistance is excessive compared to design requirements
(partially closed damper may be the cause)
7. Density may be different from design density
Query:
Problem Check for
High bearing
temperature
1. Defective bearings caused by electrical arc due to improper
grounding of nearby welding
2. Over-lubrication
3. Improper lubrication or contaminated lubricant
4. Lack of lubrication, cooling fluid, or circulation
5. High ambient temperatures or direct exposure to sunlight
6. Misalignment
7. Excessive thrust loading
8. High vibration
9. Inadvertently exchanged bearing caps (mismatched)
10. Bearing race turning inside housing
11 Moisture in bearing
12. V-belts too tight
13. Improper location ; not enough room for free axial movement of
floating bearing in its housing at elevated temperatures)
14. Heat flinger missing
Excessive
starting time
1. Motor improperly sized for fan wheel WR
2
2. Inlet dampers not closed during start-up
3. Properly selected time-delay starter/fusing required (many
industrial fans take up to 20 - 25 seconds to reach operating
speed)
4. Temperature at inlet is excessively low (high density)
5. Low voltage at motor terminals
6. Inadequate system resistance
Query:
Vibrations 1. Loose bolts in bearings and pedestals, or improper mounting
2. Defective bearings
3. Improper alignment of bearings or couplings
4. Out-of-balance fan wheel
5. Loose set-screws holding wheel to shaft
6. Weld cracking
7. Improper fan wheel clearance to inlet piece(s)
8. Material build-up and/or wear on wheel
9. Ensure expansion joints in ductwork are not fully compressed
10. Misalignment or loose V-belts
11. Improper wheel rotation
12. Operation near system critical speed
13. Shaft bent or distorted during high-temperature shutdown
14. Defective motor
15. Resonant frequencies of structural steel mounting
16. Beat frequency with other fans on common base
17. Loose hub-to-shaft fit
Duct pulsation 1. Control volume with a radial inlet damper
2. Install speed variation
3. Change to a special "surgeless" blower design
High motor
temperature
1. Improper ventilation of cooling air to motor (may be blocked by dirt)
2. Input power problems (especially low voltage)
3. High amperage
4. High ambient temperature
Component Problem Probable cause, remedies
Bearings Noise 1. Imperfection in bearing elements
2. Improper clearance
3. Internal wear of bearing parts
Freezing water jacket 1. When stopping water flow in freezing
weather, blow out lower portion of bearing
housing water cavity
Fan Wheel Erosion 1. Reduce dust loading
2. Reduce rpm
3. Redesign inlet ductwork
4. Damper setting
5. Damper design
6. Better liner material
7. Alternate blade design
Query:
Component Problem Probable cause, remedies
Buildup 1. Reduce dust loading
2. May be affected by system temperature
change
3. Blade form
4. Alternate wheel material, apply "slippery"
material
Vibration 1. Rectify build-up
2. Rectify erosion
3. Tighten foundation bolts
4. Correct misalignments
5. Improve supporting structure
6. Check effects of ductwork thermal
expansion
7. Shaft bow due to "thermal set"
8. Special considerations, refer to factory
Shaft Cracks at section
change
- Get new shaft that is machined to eliminate
stress raisers
Natural frequency too
close to running value
- Redesign shaft
Out of round at bearing - Replace shaft
Bowing and torsion
problems
- Refer to factory
Shaft dropped or
damaged during transit
or installation
- Get new shaft
Hubs Loose fit on shaft - Tighten interference fit
Insufficient stiffness - Redesign
Cracks in casting - Change to weldment
Erosion - Build up or replace
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 7. START-UP OF FANS
7. START-UP OF FANS
Before starting the fan for the first time, complete the following list:
1) Uncouple motor from fan and check motor (fan) for proper rotation.
2) Shut off power by disconnecting motor main breaker.
3) Check and tighten hold-down bolts.
4) Check and tighten rotor set-screws.
Query:
5) Check couplings and bearing for proper alignment.
6) Move rotor to see if it is rotating freely and maintains proper inlet piece/rotor clearance.
7) Check that fan wheel is balanced.
8) Check fan and ducts for any foreign material or dirt build-up.
9) Check that physical position of damper corresponds to indication at actuator and control panel.
10) Secure all access doors.
11) Check lubrication of bearings, couplings, drive unit etc.
12) Couple the motor again to fan and secure and check safety guards for clearance.
13) Close dampers for adequate system resistance to prevent drive unit from overloading.
14) Supply water to water-cooled bearings and start lubrication pump.
15) Make sure that all persons are away from fan and out of any other equipment of the system to
which the fan is connected.
16) Connect electric motor by closing main circuit breaker of the motor. Start equipment according to
recommendations of drive unit and starting equipment supplier.
17) Allow fan to reach full speed, then shut down. Make immediate corrections if any vibrations or
unusual sounds have been detected.
18) During a run-in period make observations of bearings at least once an hour. Higher bearing
temperatures may occur if bearings are over-lubricated.
19) Refer to trouble-shooting guide for any unusual occurrences encountered during the run-in period.
Only after any vibrations, misalignments, etc. have been corrected, may the fan be restarted.
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 8. FAN IMPELLER ARRANGEMENT AND CONNECTIONS
8. FAN IMPELLER ARRANGEMENT AND CONNECTIONS
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 8. FAN IMPELLER ARRANGEMENT AND CONNECTIONS / 8.1
Assembly
8.1 Assembly
Assembly / 8.1.1 Overhung assembly (Fig. 8.1)
8.1.1 Overhung assembly (Fig. 8.1)
This is possible if the fan operates in an environment with little risk of clogging and associated
imbalance and the impeller diameter is not too large (less than approx. 2.7m).
Advantages:
lower purchase and installation costs than centre hung assembly
connection of upstream duct directly to fan inlet is possible (no inlet box)
Fig. 8.1: Fan arrangement - overhung arrangement
Query:
Assembly / 8.1.2 Center hung assembly (Fig. 8.2)
8.1.2 Center hung assembly (Fig. 8.2)
This assembly is more robust and absorbs the dynamic effects of rotor imbalance better than the
above solution.
Its use is recommended if
the dust load is high with a risk of clogging or wear of the impeller, causing rotor imbalance
when the size and weight of the impeller makes overhung assembly delicate
Fig. 8.2: Fan arrangement - arrangement between bearings
Figure 8.3 indicates the application range for the two arrangements.
Fig. 8.3
Query:
Foundations
8.2 Foundations
Fig. 8.4
1) Directly onto concrete with separate motor-bearing base-plate (this is the most economical solution
and most widely used).
2) Onto concrete with common base plate with centerline axis support maintaining the
rotor-bearing-motor alignment with the stator (more expensive solution, but easy to install onto the
foundations).
Used for hot gas fans where thermal expansion must be taken into account.
3) Common base-plate with centerline axis support resting on anti-vibration mounts (this chassis must
be perfectly rigid and is thus very expensive).
Used only in very special cases (fans mounted on steel structures).
4) With spring-supported concrete block resting on anti-vibration mounts and supporting the fan (a
spring supported block is less expensive than a common base-plate with centerline support and
allows for remarkable vibration absorption. Its weight, between 10 - 60 tons must be included in
design calculations).
Used only in very special cases.
Query:
Connections
8.3 Connections
Connections / 8.3.1 Inlet connections
8.3.1 Inlet connections
Connections / 8.3.2 Outlet connections
8.3.2 Outlet connections
Query:
Process Technology / B05 - PT II / C10 - Main Fans / Main Fans / 9. INFORMATION SOURCES
9. INFORMATION SOURCES
Robinson Industries, Inc., Zelienople, PA, USA
TLT-Babcock, Inc., Akron, Ohio, USA
Venti Oelde, Oelde, Germany
Solyvent-Ventec, Chalon-Sur-Sane, Cedex, France
Balance Dynamics Corporation, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA, Fax # 313 994 3690

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"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 6/23/2001 - 4:33:29 PM Page 1

m Radius Channel stical Characteri N Momentum Axial

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

loss on ignition of raw

If CO is present the following, general formula applies:

Note that e.g. the CO

The gas flow V [Nm

Laboratory tests have been executed for the primary volatility

all calculated on L.o.I. free basis!

=average temperature (K)

= Grashof number (-)

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