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340 PROPAGATION We can generally predict the performance of a commu basis of assumed typical characteristics for the propagati venient to break the discussion of propagation effects into represent the most significa phenomena that influence r: tion in four broad frequency intervals. The first is extreny frequency propagation involving frequencies below a fev frequency range the wavelength A, is greater than 10° m. Th very large and are of necessity close to the ground, or bu The radio wave is reflected from the ionosphere, and ionosphere waveguide exists that may be thought of as prov for the ves as they propagate around the earth. This particularly useful for frequencies below 1 kHz, Extremely useful in communicating with submerged submarines. The are attenuated very rapidly by the high conductivity of sea The second range of frequencies is from [kHz up to this frequency range the propagation is strongly influencec the ground, Local communication over distances of a few means of the surface wave. Standard AM broadcasting occ! range. The third frequency range is from a few megahertz up this band, which includes international shortwave broadcas is reflected from the ionosphere to provide communica distances that may be thousands of miles in length, Over t] free-space propagation conditions are approached, but tl electron concentration with time of day, yearly variatio considerable amount of fading as well as periods of tim frequencies are usable The fourth category involves frequencies above 50M antennas are relatively small and may be placed a wavelengths above the ground. The main propagation ef ciated with interference between the signals propagal line-of-sight path and those reflected from the ground. A 342 PROPAGATION directive antennas are used and h, is large, such as occurs antenna is located on the ground and the receiving antenna i high-flying aireraft. In this case very little power might be r: ground; that is ,(6,)

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