340 PROPAGATION
We can generally predict the performance of a commu
basis of assumed typical characteristics for the propagati
venient to break the discussion of propagation effects into
represent the most significa phenomena that influence r:
tion in four broad frequency intervals. The first is extreny
frequency propagation involving frequencies below a fev
frequency range the wavelength A, is greater than 10° m. Th
very large and are of necessity close to the ground, or bu
The radio wave is reflected from the ionosphere, and
ionosphere waveguide exists that may be thought of as prov
for the ves as they propagate around the earth. This
particularly useful for frequencies below 1 kHz, Extremely
useful in communicating with submerged submarines. The
are attenuated very rapidly by the high conductivity of sea
The second range of frequencies is from [kHz up to
this frequency range the propagation is strongly influencec
the ground, Local communication over distances of a few
means of the surface wave. Standard AM broadcasting occ!
range.
The third frequency range is from a few megahertz up
this band, which includes international shortwave broadcas
is reflected from the ionosphere to provide communica
distances that may be thousands of miles in length, Over t]
free-space propagation conditions are approached, but tl
electron concentration with time of day, yearly variatio
considerable amount of fading as well as periods of tim
frequencies are usable
The fourth category involves frequencies above 50M
antennas are relatively small and may be placed a
wavelengths above the ground. The main propagation ef
ciated with interference between the signals propagal
line-of-sight path and those reflected from the ground. A342 PROPAGATION
directive antennas are used and h, is large, such as occurs
antenna is located on the ground and the receiving antenna i
high-flying aireraft. In this case very little power might be r:
ground; that is ,(6,)