Essentials

To the Student
In todays world, knowing science is important for thinking critically, solving problems, and making decision. However, understanding science sometimes can be a challenge. Mississippi Science Essentials provides an opportunity for you to prepare for the state science assessment. Each lesson is correlated to one or more of the standards on the Mississippi Science Framework for grade eight. In each lesson you will find: Before You Read sparks your interest in what youll learn and relates it to your world. Read to Learn describes important science concepts with words and graphics. Next to the text you can find a variety of study tips and ideas for organizing and learning information. The Study Coach offers tips for getting the main ideas out of the text. Foldables Study Organizers help you divide the information into smaller, easier-to-remember concepts. Reading Checks ask questions about key concepts. The questions are placed so you know whether you understand the material. Think It Over elements help you consider the material in-depth, giving you an opportunity to use your critical-thinking skills. Picture This questions specifically relate to the art and graphics used with the text. Youll find questions to get you actively involved in illustrating the concepts you read about. Applying Math reinforces the connection between math and science. Use After You Read to review key terms and answer questions about what you have learned. The Mini Glossary can assist you with science vocabulary. Review questions focus on the key concepts to help you evaluate your learning. Mississippi Science Essentials makes science easy to understand and enjoyable.
Copyright by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Permission is granted to reproduce the material contained herein on the condition that such materials be reproduced only for classroom use; be provided to students, teachers, and families without charge; and be used solely in conjunction with the Glencoe Science Level Blue program. Any other reproduction, for sale or other use, is expressly prohibited. Send all inquiries to: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill 8787 Orion Place Columbus, OH 43240-4027 ISBN: 978-0-07-890399-1 MHID: 0-07-890399-8 Printed in the United States of America. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 045 12 11 10 09
Photography Credits
Cover (bc)Robert Campbell/Superstock, (t)US Fish and Wildlife Service/Ryan Hagerty, (b)Panoramic Images/Getty; 2 (tl, tr, bl, br)KS Studios, (c)Photodisc; 3 Geoff Butler; 7 Aaron Haupt; 40 John Evans; 41 John Evans; 117 Amanita Pictures; 160 Peter Fakler/Alamy; 195 David R. Frazier Photolibrary/Alamy Images; 196 NOAA In Space Collection/NOAA Central Library; 197 Steve Cole/Getty Images; 233 (l)Stocktrek/age footstock, (c)NASA, (r)Local Group Galaxies Survey Team, NOAO, AURA, NSF; 237 Brand X Pictures/Punchstock; 250 NASA; 251 Brand X Pictures/Punchstock.
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Table of Contents
To the Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Real-World Applications of Mississippi Science Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Mississippi Curriculum Framework Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii Mississippi Science Content Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Lesson A Lesson B Lesson C Lesson D Lesson E Lesson F Lesson G Lesson H Lesson I Lesson J Lesson K Lesson L Lesson M Lesson N Lesson O Lesson P Lesson Q Lesson R Lesson S Lesson T Lesson U Lesson V iv What is science? (1.e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Doing Science (1.a1.d, 1.f1.h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Chemical Formulas and Equations (2.a, 2.b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Introduction to the Periodic Table (2.a, 2.b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Representative Elements (2.b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Transition Elements (2.b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Acidic and Basic Solutions (2.b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 What is motion? (2.c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 Acceleration (2.c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 Electric Circuits (2.d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 Electricity and Magnetism (2.d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 Light (2.e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 Newtons First Law (2.f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 Newtons Second Law (2.f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82 Newtons Third Law (2.f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89 Environmental Impact Over Time (3.a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 Cell Structure (3.b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97 Viruses (3.c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104 What are bacteria? (3.c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109 Bacteria in Your Life (3.c, 3.g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115 Traits and the Environment (3.d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121 Genetics (3.d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Copyright Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Lesson W Lesson X Lesson Y Lesson Z Lesson AA Lesson BB Lesson CC Lesson DD Lesson EE Lesson FF Lesson GG Lesson HH Lesson II Lesson JJ Lesson KK Lesson LL Lesson MM
Living Earth (3.e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 Interactions Within Communities (3.e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133 Matter and Energy (3.e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 Genetic Engineering (3.f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142 Photosynthesis and Respiration (3.h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147 How Your Body Works (3.h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153 Earths Interior (4.a, 4.b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159 Uplift of Earths Crust (4.a, 4.b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167 Earthquakes (4.b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173 Volcanoes (4.b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 Earths Weather (4.c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186 Weather Forecasts (4.c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194 Resources (4.d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201 Pollution (4.d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206 Conservation of Resources (4.d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213 Cycles in Nature (4.d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218 Time and Seasons (4.e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224 Stars (4.f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229 Galaxies and the Expanding Universe (4.f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234 Natural Products (4.g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239 Hurricanes (4.h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Lesson NN Lesson OO Lesson PP Lesson QQ
Real-World Connections of the
Oxford
Tupelo
Stoneville
Starkville
Canton
Jackson
Crystal Springs Laurel Ellisville Hattiesburg
State of Mississippi
State boundary County boundary State capital City Hancock County Pascagoula
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Mississippi Science Framework
ississippi science connections are research institutions, manufacturers, and industries located throughout the state to provide local examples of real-world applications embedded in Mississippi Science Framework. The numbered content below corresponds to the numbers on the map. This content provides further information on how the principles of the Mississippi Science Framework are used by various businesses and institutions.
The Nissan Assembly Plant in Canton, MS uses Newtons Laws of Motion to produce cars by using technologically advanced robots that will work alongside skilled employees. (6.2.f) Newtons Laws of Motion are also used by the Toyota car assembly plant in Tupelo, MS.The car manufacturer will put 150,000 cars into motion annually. (6.2.f) Researchers at Raspet Flight Research Laboratory, housed at Mississippi State University near Starkville, MS are beating inertia as they use Newtons Laws of Motion to become one of the premier flight research centers in the country. (6.2.f) A ship in motion is hard to stop. Ingalls Shipbuilding located in Pascagoula, MS is a leading supplier of ships for the U.S. Navy. (6.2.f) Jackson, MS knows about the 3 Rs.The Recycling and Solid Waste Reduction Program located there strives to increase the amount of recycling and composting in the state and educate the public on the importance of recycling and solid waste reduction. (7.4.g) A lot of bright ideas come from the Electrical Power Products Division of Howard Industries located in Laurel and Ellisville, MS. Howard Industries is a leading manufacturer of electrical distribution equipment used by electric utility companies and by commercial and industrial companies worldwide. (8.2.d) Kuhlman Electric Company in Crystal Springs, MS keeps Mississippi powered up by designing, manufacturing, and marketing a broad range of electrical transformers for use on the electric utility system. (8.2.d) Gregor Mendel has influenced the work at the Animal Functional Genomics Laboratory at Mississippi State University in Starkville, MS. Research is aimed at selective breeding and genetic engineering. (8.3.f) Cotton is a large industry in Mississippi and the Stoneville Pedigreed Seed Company in Stoneville, MS is dedicated to improving the crop yield one of Mississippis most important crops. (8.3.f) Stoneville, MS is also home to the Thad Cochran National Warm Water Aquaculture Center. Researchers here are focused on solving problems facing the catfish farming industry. (8.3.f) The University of Mississippi in Oxford,MS is hosts the Thad Cochran National Center for Natural Products Research.Scientists are constantly looking for new uses for natural products.They believe that there are many yet undiscovered ways that natural products can be used for new drugs,as well as in the farming industry. (8.4.g) The natural products industry receives assistance from the Jamie Whitten Delta States Research Center in Stoneville, MS through research in genetics and basic physiology, control of principal crops enemies, and safety and human health issues.(8.4.g) The Mississippi Polymer Institute located at the University of Southern Mississippi in Hattiesburg, MS conducts research in the development and marketing of products derived through polymer science. (8.4.g) Hurricanes can be problematic for the John C.Stennis Space Center in Hancock County.The center uses a variety of technologies to monitor and track hurricanes.(8.4.h)
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Mississippi Curriculum Framework Overview

On the following pages, you will find a listing of the Mississippi Science Framework, Grade 8 for Glencoe Science Level Blue. The competencies and objectives list the concepts you should learn and be able to do as you complete this science course. Read through the competencies and objectives with your parents or guardians to help you become successful in this course. Also, review the competencies and objectives from time to time to help reinforce your knowledge of the standards. The science framework is made from three content strands:

Physical Science Life Science Earth and Space Science
and five process strands:

Science as Inquiry Unifying Concepts and Processes Science and Technology Science in Personal and Social Perspectives History and Nature of Science
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Mississippi Curriculum Framework Overview

EIGHTH GRADE CONTENT STRANDS: Inquiry Physical Science Life Science Earth and Space Science Strands are comprised of Inquiry and three additional content strands and five process strands. The strands provide continuity to the teaching of K-12 science. Competencies are the part of the framework that is required to be taught to all students. Objectives indicate how competencies can be fulfilled through a progression of content and concepts at each grade level. Many of the objectives are interrelated rather than sequential. Depth of Knowledge (DOK) level is based on the work of Dr. Norman L. Webb. DOK levels help teachers and parents understand the objectives in terms of the complexity of what students are expected to know and do.
EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE COMPETENCIES 4. Describe the Earths System in terms of its position to objects in the universe, structure and composition, climate, and renewable and nonrenewable resources. OBJECTIVES a. Compare and contrast the lithosphere and asthenosphere. (DOK 1)
Composition, density, and location of continental crust and oceanic crust Physical nature of the lithosphere (brittle and rigid) with the asthenosphere (plastic and flowing) How the lithosphere responds to tectonic forces (faulting and folding)
Sub-Objectives are further clarifications of the intentions of the objectives.
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Mississippi Science Framework

CONTENT STRANDS:
INQUIRY 1. Draw conclusions from scientific investigations including controlled experiments. a. Design, conduct, and analyze conclusions from an investigation that includes using experimental controls. (DOK 3) b. Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative observations and make inferences based on observations. (DOK 3) c. Summarize data to show the cause and effect relationship between qualitative and quantitative observations (using standard, metric, and non-standard units of measurement). (DOK 3) Tools (e.g., English rulers [to the nearest one-sixteenth of an inch], metric rulers [to the nearest millimeter], thermometers, scales, hand lenses, microscopes, balances, clocks, calculators, anemometers, rain gauges, barometers, hygrometers, telescopes, compasses, spring scales, pH indicators, stopwatches, graduated cylinders, medicine droppers) Types of data (e.g., linear measures, mass, volume, temperature, area, perimeter) Resources (e.g., Internet, electronic encyclopedias, journals, community resources, etc.) d. Analyze evidence that is used to form explanations and draw conclusions. (DOK 3) e. Develop a logical argument defending conclusions of an experimental method. (DOK 3) f. Develop a logical argument to explain why perfectly designed solutions do not exist. (DOK 3)
Lesson
B B B
B A B
g. Justify a scientists need to revise conclusions after encountering new experimental evidence that does not match B existing explanations. (DOK 3) h. Analyze different ideas and recognize the skepticism of others as part of the scientific process in considering alternative B conclusions. (DOK 3) PHYSICAL SCIENCE 2. Apply concepts relating to an understanding of chemical and physical changes, interactions involving energy, and forces that affect motion of objects. a. Identify patterns found in chemical symbols, formulas, reactions, and equations that apply to the law of conservation C, D of mass. (DOK 1) Chemical symbols and chemical formulas of common substances such as NaCl (table salt), H20 (water), C6H12O6 (sugar), O2 (oxygen gas), CO2 (carbon dioxide), and N2 (nitrogen gas) Mass of reactants before a change and products after a change Balanced chemical equations such as photosynthesis and respiration b. Predict the properties and interactions of given elements using the periodic table of the elements. (DOK 2) C, D, E, F, G Metals and nonmetals Acids and bases Chemical changes in matter (e.g., rusting [slow oxidation], combustion [fast oxidation], food spoilage) c. Distinguish the motion of an object by its position, direction of motion, speed, and acceleration and represent resulting H, I data in graphic form in order to make a prediction. (DOK 2) d. Relate how electrical energy transfers through electric circuits, generators, and power grids, including the importance of J, K contributions from Mississippi companies. (DOK 2) The Electrical Power Products Division of Howard Industries, a leading manufacturer of electrical distribution equipment in such locations as Laurel and Ellisville, MS Kuhlman Electric Corporation, located in Crystal Springs, MS e. Contrast various components of the electromagnetic spectrum (e.g., infrared, visible light, ultraviolet) and predict their L impacts on living things. (DOK 2 f. Recognize Newtons Three Laws of Motion and identify situations that illustrate each law (e.g., inertia, acceleration, M, N, O action, reaction forces). (DOK 2)
LIFE SCIENCE 3. Compare and contrast the structure and functions of the cell, levels of organization of living things, basis of heredity, and adaptations that explain variations in populations. a. Analyze how adaptations to a particular environment (e.g., desert, aquatic, high altitude) can increase an organisms P survival and reproduction and relate organisms and their ecological niches to evolutionary change and extinction. (DOK 3) b. Compare and contrast the major components and functions of different types of cells. (DOK 2) Q Differences in plant and animal cells Structures (nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, mitochondrion, and nuclear membrane) Different types of cells and tissues (e.g., epithelial, nerve, bone, blood, muscle) c. Describe how viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites may infect the human body and interfere with normal body R, S, T functions. (DOK 1) d. Describe heredity as the passage of instructions from one generation to another and recognize that hereditary U, V information is contained in genes, located in the chromosomes of each cell. (DOK 2) How traits are passed from parents to offspring through pairs of genes Phenotypes and genotypes Hierarchy of DNA, genes, and chromosomes and their relationship to phenotype Punnett square calculations e. Explain energy flow in a specified ecosystem. (DOK 2) W, X, Y Populations, communities, and habitats Niches, ecosystems and biomes Producers, consumers and decomposers in an ecosystem f. Develop a logical argument for or against research conducted in selective breeding and genetic engineering, including Z (but not limited to) research conducted in Mississippi. Examples from Mississippi include the following: (DOK 3) The Animal Functional Genomics Laboratory at Mississippi State University The Stoneville Pedigreed Seed Company in Stoneville, MS Catfish Genetics Research Unit at the Thad Cochran National Warm Water Aquaculture Center in Stoneville, MS g. Research and draw conclusions about the use of single-celled organisms in industry, in the production of food, and T impacts on life. (DOK 3) h. Describe how an organism gets energy from oxidizing its food and releasing some of its energy as heat. (DOK 1) AA, BB
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EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE 4. Describe the Earths System in terms of its position to objects in the universe, structure and composition, climate, and renewable and nonrenewable resources. a. Compare and contrast the lithosphere and the asthenosphere. (DOK 1) CC, DD Composition, density, and location of continental crust and oceanic crust Physical nature of the lithosphere (brittle and rigid) with the asthenosphere (plastic and flowing) How the lithosphere responds to tectonic forces (faulting and folding) b. Describe the cause and effect relationship between the composition of and movement within the Earths CC, DD, EE, FF lithosphere. (DOK 1) Seismic wave velocities of earthquakes and volcanoes to lithospheric plate boundaries using seismic data Volcanoes formed at mid-ocean ridges, within intra-plate regions, at island arcs, and along some continental edges Modern distribution of continents to the movement of lithospheric plates since the formation of Pangaea c. Examine weather forecasting and describe how meteorologists use atmospheric features and technology to predict GG, HH the weather. (DOK 2) Temperature, precipitation, wind (speed/direction), dew point, relative humidity, and barometric pressure How the thermal energy transferred to the air results in vertical and horizontal movement of air masses, Coriolis effect Global wind patterns (e.g., trade winds, westerlies, jet streams) Satellites and computer modeling d. Research the importance of the conservation of renewable and nonrenewable resources, including (but not limited to) II, JJ, KK, LL Mississippi, and justify methods that might be useful in decreasing the human impact on global warming. (DOK 3) Greenhouse gases The effects of the human population Relationships of the cycles of water, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen e. Explain how the tilt of Earths axis and the position of the Earth in relation to the sun determine MM climatic zones, seasons, and length of the days. (DOK 2) f. Describe the hierarchical structure (stars, clusters, galaxies, galactic clusters) of the universe and examine the NN, OO expanding universe to include its age and history and the modern techniques (e.g., radio, infrared, ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy) used to measure objects and distances in the universe). (DOK 2) g. Justify the importance of continued research and use of new technology in the development and commercialization PP of potentially useful natural products, including, but not limited to research efforts in Mississippi. (DOK 3) The Thad Cochran National Center for Natural Products Research, housed at the University of Mississippi The Jamie Whitten Delta States Research Center in Stoneville, MS The Mississippi Polymer Institute, housed at the University of Southern Mississippi h. Justify why an imaginary hurricane might or might not hit a particular area, using important technological resources QQ including (but not limited to) the following: (DOK 2) John C. Stennis Space Center Applied Research and Technology Project Office in Hancock County National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) The National Weather Service
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Lesson
What is science?
A
Standard 1.e: Develop a logical argument defending conclusions of an experimental method. (DOK 3)
Before You Read

How do you nd answers to questions about what is happening around you?
What Youll Learn
how science is part of everyday life skills and tools used in science
Read to Learn
Science in Society
Study Coach
What do you think of when you hear the word science? Do you think only about your science class or your science book? Is there any connection between what you learn in science class and the rest of your life? Perhaps you have problems to solve or questions to answer. Science is a way or a process used to investigate what is happening around you. It can give you possible answers to your questions.
Ask Questions Read each subhead. Then work with a partner to write questions about the information in each subhead. Take turns asking and answering the questions. Use the questions as a study guide.
When did people rst use science?

People have always tried to nd answers to questions about what was happening around them. Early scientists tried to explain things based on what they observed using their sensessight, touch, smell, taste, and hearing. However, using only your senses can be misleading. How heavy is heavy? What is cold or hot? Today, scientists use numbers to describe observations. Tools such as thermometers, add numbers to descriptions. Like scientists, you can observe, investigate, and experiment to nd answers.
Describe Make a two-tab book, as shown below. Use the Foldable to describe tools scientists use and skills they develop.
Science Tools
Science Skills
Mississippi Science Essentials
Using Science Every Day

You use science in different ways. When you are doing research for your history class, for example, you are using science. In fact, you can use scientic thinking every day to make decisions. Think about the decisions that the people in the photos below have to make. How are these similar to the types of decisions that you have to make?
Picture This
1.
Identify three decisions

you have made in the past 24 hours.
What clues do scientists use?

When you have a project to do for history class, you have a problem to solve. You look for clues to nd the answers to the questions in your history project. You use several skills and tools to nd the clues.
Using Prior Knowledge

Scientists use prior experience to predict what will occur in investigations. They test their predictions. Scientists then form theories when their predictions have been well tested. A theory is an explanation that is supported by facts. Scientists also form laws. These are rules that describe a pattern in nature, like gravity.
2.
Explain What is a theory?
Using Science and Technology

To get information, you need a variety of resource materials. You can use the computer to nd books, magazines, newspapers, videos, and Web pages that have the necessary information.
Lesson A What is science?
What is technology?
Modern scientists use the computer to nd and analyze data. The computer is a kind of technology. Technology is the application of science to make products or tools that people can use.
What skills do scientists use?

Scientists use skills such as observing, classifying, and interpreting data. You use these skills when you solve problems or run experiments.
3.
Describe How do scientists use computers in their work?
Why are observation and measurement skills important?

Observing and measuring are important skills, particularly for scientists. Observation sometimes does not give a complete picture of what is happening. In addition to observation, it is important to take accurate measurements to be sure that your data are useful.
Communication in Science
After scientists get the results of their observations, experiments, and investigations, they use several methods to share their observations with others. Results and conclusions of experiments often are reported in the many scientic journals or magazines that are published each year.
What is the purpose of a science journal?

Keeping a science journal is another way of communicating scientic data and results. A journal can be used to record observations and the step-by-step procedures that were followed. The journal can be used to list the materials and equipment that were used. It can include the results of an investigation. Your journal, like the one to the right, should include mathematical measurements or formulas that were used to analyze the data. Include any problems that happened during the investigation. You might summarize the data in a paragraph or by using tables, charts, or graphs.
Picture This
4.
Explain one way you

might use a science journal.
After You Read

Mini Glossary
science: a way or a process used to investigate what is happening around you technology: the application of science to make products or tools that people can use
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that describes a way scientists use technology in their work.
2. Complete the diagram by listing the skills that scientists need to do their work.
Skills Scientists Need
3. How did asking and answering questions help you remember what you have learned about science?
End of Lesson
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about what science is.
Lesson A What is science?
Lesson
Doing Science
B
Standard 1.a: Design, conduct, and analyze conclusions from an investigation that includes using experimental controls. (DOK 3) Also covers: 1.b1.d, 1.f1.h
Before You Read

You need your science book to complete an assignment that is due tomorrow, but you left your book at school. How would you solve this problem?
What Youll Learn
the steps used to solve a problem in a scientic way how a well-designed investigation is developed
Read to Learn
Solving Problems
Identify the Main Idea

Underline the main idea in each paragraph. Review these ideas when you have nished reading the lesson.
You know there is more than one way to solve a problem. This also is true of scientic problems. Every day, scientists work to solve scientic problems. The types of problems are different and require different kinds of investigations. However, scientists use some steps in all investigations.
What is the rst step in an investigation?

The rst thing scientists do is identify the problem. They have to make sure that everyone working to solve the problem has a clear understanding of the problem. Sometimes one problem must be solved before another one can be addressed. For example, a scientist cannot nd a cure for a disease until the source of the disease is known. The rst problem, nding the source of the disease, must be answered before the second problem can be investigated. Dene Make a vocabulary
book as shown below. Use the Foldable to record the vocabulary words in this lesson and their denitions.
e riptiv Desc arch rese tal rimen Expe earch res
How can the problem be solved?

Scientic problems can be solved in different ways. Two ways are descriptive research and experimental research design. Descriptive research answers scientic questions through observation.
Experimental research design is used to answer scientic questions by testing a hypothesis through the use of a series of carefully controlled steps. Scientic methods are ways, or steps to follow, to try to solve problems. Different problems will require different scientic methods to solve them. The gure below shows one way to use scientic methods.
Picture This
1.
List What steps must be

completed before a scientist draws a conclusion?
Recognize the problem

a Form esis ! oth Hyp
Tes hyp t your oth esis
Analyze your data
Draw
co nc lu s
i on
Communicate your results
Descriptive Research
Scientists solve some problems by using descriptive research. Descriptive research is based mostly on observations. Scientists use this method when it would be impossible to run experiments. Descriptive research involves several steps. Research objective The rst step in descriptive research is stating the research objective. A research objective is what you want to nd out. Research design A research design does several things. It tells how the investigation will be carried out. It tells what steps will be used and how the data will be recorded and analyzed. An important part of any research design is safety.
2.
Explain one way that an

experiment can be biased.
Bias When scientists expect a certain result in an investigation, this is known as bias. A good investigation avoids bias. One way to avoid bias is by using careful numerical measurements for all data. Bias also can happen in surveys or groups that are chosen for investigation. To get an accurate result, you need to use a random sample.
Lesson B Doing Science
Equipment, Materials, and Models

When you use descriptive research, the equipment and materials you use are important.
How do scientists select their materials?

Scientists try to use the most up-to-date materials. You should use equipment such as balances, spring scales, microscopes, and metric measurements when performing investigations. Calculators and computers can be used to evaluate and display data. You do not need the latest or most expensive material to run successful investigations. Your investigations can be completed successfully and the data displayed with materials found in your home or classroom. Items such as paper, colored pencils, and markers can be used to create effective displays. Good organization of information, such as the display below, is important.
3.
Draw Conclusions
Why is up-to-date material important to scientists?
Why do scientists use models?

Sometimes models are used to carry out investigations. In science, a model represents things that happen too slowly, too quickly, or are too big or too small to observe directly. Models are also used when direct observation would be too dangerous or too expensive. Tables, graphs, and spreadsheets are examples of models. Computers can make three-dimensional models of things such as a bacterium. Models save time and money because they test ideas that might otherwise be too small, too large, or take too long to build.
4.
Identify two reasons

scientists use models.
What is scientic measurement?

Identify Make a three-tab
concept map book on notebook paper, as shown below. Write descriptions of three forms of scientic measurements.
SI Measurement
Scientists around the world use a system of measurement called the International System of Units, or SI, to make observations. By using the same system, they can understand each others research and compare results. The table below shows some common SI measurements.
Common SI Measurements Unit Symbol Equal to 1 millimeter mm 0.001 (1/1,000) m 1 centimeter cm 0.01 (1/100) m 1 meter m 100 cm 1 kilometer km 1,000 m 1 milliliter mL 0.001 L 1 liter L 1,000 mL 1 milligram mg 0.001 g 1 gram g 1,000 mg 1 kilogram kg 1,000 g 1 tonne t 1,000 kg 1 metric ton
Length
Volume
Mass
Measurement Length
Liquid volume Mass
Applying Math
5.
Calculate Use the table at the right to calculate the number of milligrams in three kilograms.
Observations and Inferences

When scientists are conducting their investigations, they collect data from two types of observations. They are qualitative and quantitative observations.
Qualitative Observations
Qualitative observations use words to describe what you see in your experiment. Qualitative observations are easy to make. For some investigations, qualitative data might be the only kind of data you can collect. Examples of qualitative observations are: The solution changed color from clear to pink. When two solutions were mixed, a solid was formed. The ower has white petals.
Quantitative Observations
Quantitative observations use numbers to describe what you see in your experiment. In most experiments, quantitative observations will provide you with greater precision in your data than qualitative observations. Examples of quantitative observations are: The temperature of the water is 25 C. The mass of the block is 150 grams. The container held 2.3 liters. After scientists have made their observations, they may draw conclusions based on what they observed. Scientists often make inferences based on their observations. An inference is an attempt to explain observations. An example of an inference is that you noticed the grass at school is wet in the morning. You then inferred that it rained overnight. An inference is not a fact, but a conclusion.
6.
Choose Is the following

statement a quantitative observation or a qualitative observation: After being watered, the plants mass increased by two grams.
Data
When you do scientic research, you have to collect and organize data. Organized data is easier to interpret and analyze.
How are data tables designed?

One way to record results is to use data tables. Most tables have a title that quickly shows you what the table is about. The table is divided into columns and rows. These are usually trials or characteristics to be compared. You can set up your data tables before beginning the experiment. Then you will have a place to record your data.
How do you analyze data?

Once you nish your investigation, you have to determine what your results mean. You have to review all of the recorded observations and measurements. Charts and graphs are excellent ways to organize data.
Draw Conclusions
After your data is organized, you are ready to draw a conclusion. You have to decide if the data answered your question and if your prediction was correct. Your experiment can still be successful even if it does not come out the way you originally predicted.
How are results communicated?

Analyzing data and drawing conclusions make up the end of an investigation. However, most scientists do not stop there. They usually share their results. They might share with other scientists, government agencies, or the public. They write reports that show how their experiments were run, the data they obtained, and the conclusions they drew. Scientists usually publish their most important ndings. You also have the chance to communicate the data you obtain from your investigations to members of your class. You can give an oral presentation, display the results on a bulletin board, or make a poster. You can share charts, tables, and graphs that show your data. Analyzing and sharing data are important parts of descriptive and experimental research.
7.
Conclude How can you

share the results of your investigations with your classmates?
Experimental Research Design

Another way to solve scientic problems is through experimentation. Experimental research design answers scientic questions by observing a controlled situation. The design includes several steps.
How do you form a hypothesis?

A hypothesis (hi PAH thuh sus) is a prediction, or statement, that can be tested. To form a hypothesis, you use your prior knowledge, new information, and any previous observations.
What are variables?

In a planned experiment, one factor, or variable, is changed at a time. This means that the variable is controlled. The variable that is changed is called the independent variable. Suppose an experiment is testing the effect of two different antibiotics on the growth of bacteria. The type of antibiotic is the independent variable. A dependent variable is the factor being measured. In this experiment, the dependent variable is the growth of bacteria. To test which antibiotic works best, you have to make sure that every variable is the same except for the type of antibiotic. The variables that stay the same are called constants. For example, you should not run the experiments at two different temperatures, for different lengths of time, or with different amounts of antibiotics.
8.
Explain What is the dependent variable in an experiment?
10
How are controls identied?

To have a valid experiment, you have to use controls. A control is a sample that is treated like the other experimental groups except that the independent variable is not applied to it. In the experiment with antibiotics, the control is a sample of bacteria that is not treated with either antibiotic. The control shows how bacteria grow when they are not treated by an antibiotic. After you have formed your hypothesis and planned your experiment, you must give a copy of it to your teacher. This is a good way to nd out if there are any problems with the setup of your experiment. Once you start the experiment, you have to carry it out as planned. If you change or skip steps in the middle of the experiment, you will have to start the experiment again. You should record your observations and nish your data tables in a timely manner to ensure accuracy.
9.
Identify What is a
control?
Should experiments be repeated?

To make sure that the results of the experiment are valid, you have to do the experiment several times. The more trials you do using the same methods, the more likely it is that your results will be reliable. How many trials you do will depend on how much time, space, and material you have to complete the experiment.
10.
Draw Conclusions
Why do you think that an experiment that is run several times is more reliable than one that is run only once?
How are results analyzed?

After you complete your experiment and get your data, you should analyze the results. You should see if your data support your hypothesis. Even if your data do not support your hypothesis, the experiment can still provide useful information. Maybe your hypothesis needs to be revised. Or maybe the experiment needs to be run in a different way. After you analyze the results, you can communicate them to your teacher and your class. By sharing your results, you might get new ideas from other students for improving your research. While discussing your results, some students might have different ideas as to what the data means. Other students may be unconvinced of your conclusions. When doing additional research, new data may not match your existing explanation. This new data might cause you to have to revise your conclusions.
11
After You Read

Mini Glossary
constant: variable that stays the same in an experiment control: a sample that is treated like the other experimental groups except that the independent variable is not applied to it dependent variable: the factor being measured in an experiment descriptive research: type of research design that answers scientic questions through observation experimental research design: type of research design used to answer scientic questions by testing a hypothesis through the use of a series of carefully controlled steps hypothesis: a prediction, or statement, that can be tested independent variable: the variable that is changed in an experiment inference: an attempt to explain observations model: a representation of things that happen too slowly, too quickly, or are too big or too small to observe directly scientic methods: steps to follow to try to solve problems
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that compares descriptive research and experimental research design.
2. Imagine that you want to nd out whether plants grow better in red or blue light. Decide how you will set up the experiment. Identify the constants. Identify the dependent variable, the independent variable, and the control. Present the information in a summary paragraph.
End of Lesson
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12
Lesson
Chemical Formulas and Equations

What Youll Learn
Standard 2.a: Identify patterns found in chemical symbols, formulas, reactions, and equations that apply to the law of conservation of mass. (DOK 1) Also covers: 2.b
Before You Read

What happens to wood when it burns? Describe the changes on the lines below.
identify a chemical reaction how to read a balanced chemical equation how reactions release or absorb energy the law of conservation of mass
Read to Learn
Physical or Chemical Change?
Have you ever seen smoke from a campre? Smoke is a clue that a chemical reaction is taking place. There are always clues when a chemical reaction is happening. Matter can change in two ways. It can have a physical change or a chemical change. Physical changes only affect physical properties. For example, the newspaper in the rst gure is folded. It is a different shape, but it is still a newspaper. This is a physical change. Chemical changes produce new substances. The newspaper in the second gure is burning. Burning is a chemical change because new substances are produced. The properties of the new substances are different from the properties of the original substances. A chemical reaction is a process that produces chemical change. Physical Change Chemical Change
Highlight Chemical Equations Highlight each

chemical equation in the lesson. Read the chemical equation two or three times to make sure you understand what is happening in the chemical reaction.
Organize Information
Make the following Foldable to help you organize information in this lesson. Write information about each topic in the Foldable.
Chemical Formulas and Equations Physical or Chemical Change? Chemical Equations Conservation of Mass Balancing Chemical Equations Energy in Chemical Equations
13
What are clues that a chemical reaction is happening?

You can use your senses to help you know if a chemical reaction is happening. When you watch a rey glow, you are watching a chemical reaction. Two chemicals combine in the reys body and give off light. Your senses of touch and smell help detect chemical reactions in a re. You smell the smoke and feel the heat. Have you ever tasted sour milk? If so, you have tasted the results of a chemical reaction. You can also hear a chemical reaction happening. The hissing sound of burning rewood is from a chemical reaction.
1.
Summarize What senses can you use to nd clues that a chemical reaction is happening?
Chemical Equations
How can you describe a chemical reaction? First, you need to know which substances are reacting. You also need to know which substances are formed in the reaction. The substances that react are called reactants (ree AK tunts). Reactants are the substances that exist before the reaction starts. Products are the substances that are formed in the reaction. Look at the gure below. A chemical reaction happens when you mix baking soda and vinegar. It bubbles and foams. The bubbles tell you that a chemical reaction happened. Baking soda and vinegar are the common names for the reactants in this reaction. They also have chemical names. Baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate (often called sodium bicarbonate). Vinegar is a solution of acetic (uh SEE tihk) acid in water. What are the products of the reaction? You can see that bubbles form. What else is happening? Chemical reaction with baking soda and vinegar
Picture This
2.
Describe what you can

see in the chemical reaction between vinegar and baking soda.
14
Lesson C Chemical Formulas and Equations
What is a chemical equation?

The bubbles from the baking soda and vinegar tell you a gas was produced. But, they do not tell you what kind of gas. Are bubbles of gas the only product? More happens in a chemical reaction than you can see with your eyes. Chemists try to nd out what reactants are used and what products are formed in a chemical reaction. Then they write a chemical equation. A chemical equation tells chemists the reactants, products, physical state, and amounts of each substance in the reaction. You will see how important this is later.
How do words describe a chemical reaction?

Words can be used in an equation to name the reactants and products in a chemical reaction. The reactants in the equation are listed on the left side of an arrow. The reactants have plus signs between them. The products are on the right side of the arrow and also have plus signs between them. The arrow stands for the changes that happen during the chemical reaction. The arrow means produces. You can begin to think of changes as chemical reactions even if you do not know the names of all the substances in the reaction. The table below shows word equations for chemical reactions you might see around your home.
3.
Explain What do chemists learn from chemical equations?
Reactions Around the Home Reactants Products Baking soda Vinegar Gas White solid Charcoal Oxygen Ash Gas Heat Iron Oxygen Water Rust Silver Hydrogen sulde Black tarnish Gas Gas (kitchen range) Oxygen Gas Heat Sliced apple Oxygen Apple turns brown
Picture This
4.
Apply Use words to write a chemical equation for what happens when you peel a banana but do not eat it right away.
When are chemical names used?

Chemical names are usually used in word equations instead of common names like baking soda and vinegar. In the baking soda and vinegar reaction, you already know that the chemical names are sodium hydrogen carbonate and acetic acid. The chemical names of the products are sodium acetate, water, and carbon dioxide. The word equation for the reaction is: Acetic acid Sodium hydrogen carbonate Sodium acetate Water Carbon dioxide
15
Why do chemists use chemical formulas?

The word equation for the reaction of baking soda and vinegar is long. Chemists replace the chemical names with chemical formulas in the equation. The chemical equation for the reaction between baking soda and vinegar is: CH3COOH Acetic acid (vinegar) NaHCO3 CH3COONa Sodium Sodium hydrogen acetate carbonate (baking soda) H2O CO2 Water Carbon dioxide
What are subscripts?

5.
Identify How many hydrogen atoms are there in sodium acetate? How many sodium atoms (Na) are there?
Look at the small numbers in the formula above. These numbers are called subscripts. They tell you the number of atoms of each element in that compound. For example, the subscript 2 in CO2 means each molecule of carbon dioxide has two oxygen atoms. If an atom has no subscript, then there is only one atom of that element in the compound. There is only one atom of carbon in carbon dioxide.
Conservation of Mass
What happens to the atoms in the reactants when they are changed into products? The law of conservation of mass says that the mass of the products has to be the same as the mass of the reactants. French chemist Antoine Lavoisier proved that nothing is lost or created in chemical reactions. Chemical equations are like math equations. In math equations, the right and left sides of the equation are equal. In chemical equations, the number and kind of atoms are equal on both sides. The gure shows that every atom that is on the reactant side of the equation is also on the product side.
Picture This
6.
Identify How many hydrogen atoms are in the reactants in the gure? How many hydrogen atoms are in the products?
Na H C O H H H C O C O O O H
3 5 5 1
C H O Na
3 5 5 1
C H O Na O C O
O H H H Na H C C H O O
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 Reactants
CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 Products
16
Balancing Chemical Equations

You need to follow the law of conservation of mass when you write a chemical equation. Look back at the gure on the previous page. Count the number of each type of atom on each side of the scale. There are equal numbers of each kind of atom on each side. This means the equation is balanced. So, the law of conservation of mass is followed. Not all chemical equations are balanced so easily. The following unbalanced equation shows what happens when silver tarnishes by reacting with sulfur compounds in air. Ag Silver H2S Ag2S Hydrogen Silver sulde sulde H2 Hydrogen
7.
Explain What law is followed when an equation is balanced?
How do you balance an equation?

Count the number of each type of atom in the reactants and products above. The reactants and products have the same numbers of hydrogen and sulfur atoms. Except there is one silver atom on the reactant side and two silver atoms are on the product side. This cannot be true. A chemical reaction cannot create a silver atom. This equation does not represent the reaction correctly. Place a 2 in front of the reactant Ag. Now see if the equation is balanced. Count the number of atoms of each type again.
2Ag
H2S Ag2S
H2
The equation is now balanced. There are equal numbers of silver atoms in the reactants and the products. To balance chemical equations, numbers are placed before the formulas. These numbers, called coefcients, show how many molecules of a compound there are. Never change the subscripts in a formula. This changes the identity of the compound. Practice balancing equations with the following: CH4 O2 CO2 H2O Count the number of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms on each side. There are 2 more hydrogen atoms in the reactants. Multiply H2O by 2 to give 4 hydrogen atoms. CH4 O2 CO2 2H2O Now there are 2 oxygen atoms in the reactants and 4 in the products. Multiply O2 by 2 to give 4 oxygen atoms. The balanced equation is: CH4 2O2 CO2 2H2O
Applying Math
8.
Apply Balance this equation: HCl Cu CuCl2 H2
17
Energy for Life

Think of all the energy that you use in a day. Where does this energy come from? It comes from the food you eat. Chemical energy is stored in food molecules. This chemical energy is changed inside cells into other forms of energy needed for life. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are examples of converting food into energy. These are biological reactions that can be represented by chemical equations.
What is photosynthesis?
How do plants get their food? Plants can convert light energy into chemical energy. The process they used is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis (foh toh SIHN thuh sus) is the process in which light energy from the Sun is changed into sugars. Plants need light, carbon dioxide, and water for photosynthesis. The balanced chemical equation is shown below. 6CO2 carbon dioxide 6H2O water light energy C6H12O6 6O2 glucose oxygen
chlorophyll
9.
Select What are the products of photosynthesis? a. glucose and oxygen b. carbon dioxide and water c. glucose and water d. carbon dioxide and oxygen
What is cellular respiration?

When you run, your muscle cells are using the oxygen for the process of respiration. Cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions that breaks down food molecules into simpler substances and releases stored energy. Cellular respiration converts oxygen and sugars to carbon dioxide, water, and energy. The balanced chemical equation for cellular respiration is shown below.
10.
Dene What is cellular

respiration?
C6H12O6 glucose
6O2 6CO2 oxygen carbon dioxide
6H2O water
energy
18
Energy in Chemical Reactions

Energy is often, released or absorbed in a chemical reaction. A welding torch burns hydrogen and oxygen to produce high temperatures. The energy for the torch is released when oxygen and hydrogen combine to form water. 2H2 O2 2H2O energy
11.
Where does released energy come from?

Think about the chemical bonds that break and form when atoms gain, lose, or share electrons. When a chemical reaction happens, bonds break in the reactants. New bonds form in the products. In reactions that release energy, the products are more stable. Their bonds have less energy than the bonds of the reactants. The extra energy is released. It can be released in forms like light, sound, and heat.
Describe a reaction
where energy is released as heat.
How is energy absorbed in a reaction?

In reactions where energy is absorbed, the reactants are more stable. Their bonds have less energy than the bonds in the products. 2H2O water energy 2H2 O2 Hydrogen Oxygen
12.
Identify Which is more stable in this reaction water or hydrogen?
In this reaction, electricity supplies the extra energy needed to break water into hydrogen and oxygen, as shown in the gure.
Hydrogen (H2) Oxygen (O 2)
Electrical energy from a battery
Picture This
13.
Determine Where does the electrical energy come from to break water into hydrogen and oxygen atoms?
Water (H2O)
Reactions can release or absorb many forms of energy, including electricity, light, heat, and sound. Special terms are used when heat energy is gained or lost in reactions. Endothermic (en doh THUR mihk) reactions absorb heat energy. Exothermic (ek soh THUR mihk) reactions release heat energy. Therm means heat, as in thermometers.
19
What is an example of an exothermic reaction?

You probably already know of reactions that release heat. Burning is an exothermic reaction. A substance combines with oxygen to produce heat. Light, carbon dioxide, and water are also produced. Sometimes energy is released quickly. For example, charcoal lighter uid combines with oxygen and produces enough heat to start a charcoal re within a few minutes. Other materials also combine with oxygen, but they release heat so slowly that you cannot see or feel it happen. This is what happens when iron combines with oxygen in the air to form rust.
14.
Identify What is released during an exothermic reaction?
What is an example of an endothermic reaction?

Sometimes heat energy must be added for a reaction to take place. The way a cold pack works is an example of an endothermic process. A cold pack is made of a thick plastic outer pouch lled with water. The pouch with water surrounds a thin plastic inner pouch lled with ammonium nitrate. When you squeeze the cold pack, the inner pouch breaks. The ammonium nitrate mixes with the water and dissolves. As the ammonium nitrate dissolves, it absorbs heat energy from its surroundings. So, the cold pack absorbs heat energy from your skin and your skin feels cold.
How is energy written in an equation?

15.
Describe In what type of equation is energy written with the reactants?
The word energy in equations can be either a reactant or a product. When it is written as a reactant, it is something needed for the reaction to happen. For example, electricity is needed to break water into hydrogen and oxygen. It is important to know that energy must be added for this to happen. In the equation for an exothermic reaction, energy often is written with the products. This tells you that energy is released. You include energy when you write the reaction that occurs between oxygen and methane in natural gas when you cook on a gas range. This heat energy is what cooks your food. CH4 Methane 2O2 CO2 Oxygen Carbon dioxide 2H2O Water energy
You dont have to write the word energy in an equation. But, if you do, it helps you remember that energy is an important part of the equation.
20
After You Read

Mini Glossary
cellular respiration: a series of chemical reactions that breaks down food molecules and releases stored energy chemical equation: a written form that tells the reactants, products, physical state, and amounts of each substance in the reaction chemical reaction: a process that produces chemical change endothermic (en doh THUR mihk) reaction: a reaction that absorbs heat energy exothermic (ek soh THUR mihk) reaction: a reaction that releases heat energy photosynthesis: the process in which light energy from the Sun is changed into sugars product: a substance that is formed in the reaction reactant (ree AK tunt): a substance that is there before the reaction starts
1. Read the key terms and denitions in the Mini Glossary above. In your own words, describe how a reactant and a product are related.
2. Balance each equation in the table.

Equation H2
Balanced Equation
O2 H2O Cl2 HCl Cu
H2 Al
CuCl2 AlCl3
3. How did highlighting the chemical equations in the section help you to understand chemical equations?
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about chemical formulas and equations.
End of Lesson
21
Lesson
Introduction to the Periodic Table
D
Standard 2.a: Identify patterns found in chemical symbols, formulas, reactions, and equations that apply to the law of conservation of mass. (DOK 1) Also covers: 2.b
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

Write what you think an element is on the lines below.
the history of the periodic table how to read an element key how the periodic table is organized
Identify Vocabulary
Highlight each vocabulary term you read in this lesson. Also, highlight the denition of each term. After you read the lesson, go back and read the vocabulary terms and their denitions again.
Read to Learn
Development of the Periodic Table
People who lived long ago knew about a few of the substances that are now called elements. They used gold and silver to make coins and jewelry. They used copper, tin, and iron to make tools. By 1830, scientists had found and named 55 different elements. The list of elements is still growing.
What was Mendeleevs table of elements?

Dmitri Mendeleev (men duh LAY uhf) was a Russian chemist. In 1869 he published his rst periodic table. Mendeleev arranged the elements according to increasing atomic mass. Elements with similar properties made groups. Not all of the elements were known. So, Mendeleev left three spaces for missing elements. He predicted what the missing elements were like. Within 15 years, all three elements were found. They were gallium, scandium, and germanium.
Compare and Contrast

Make the following Foldable to compare and contrast how Mendeleev and Moseley arranged the periodic table.
How did Moseley add to the periodic table?

In the early 1900s, the English physicist Henry Moseley rearranged Mendeleevs table. He arranged the elements according to atomic number instead of atomic mass. Moseley put the elements in order of increasing number of protons in the nucleus. With Moseleys table, it was easy to see how many elements still had not been discovered.
Mendeleev
Moseley
22
Lesson D Introduction to the Periodic Table
Todays Periodic Table

Today, the elements are still organized by increasing atomic number. Look at the periodic table at the back of your textbook. The periods, or rows, are labeled 17. A period is a row of elements whose properties change gradually. The periodic table has 18 columns. Each column has a group, or family, of elements. A group has elements that have similar physical or chemical properties.
How is the periodic table divided?

The periodic table can be divided into parts. Look at the figure below. The representative elements are the elements in Groups 1 and 2 and the elements in Groups 1318. They include metals, metalloids, and nonmetals. The transition elements are the elements in Groups 312. They are all metals. Some transition elements are placed below the main table. These inner transition elements are called the lanthanide and actinide series. One series follows the element lanthanum, element 57. The other series follows actinium, element 89.
1.
Representative elements Representative elements
Identify What are the elements in Groups 312 called?
Transition elements
Inner transition elements Lanthanide series Actinide series
Picture This
2.
Label Number the

groups of representative and transition elements from left to right. Start in the top row of the representative elements on the far left.
What are metals?

The periodic table is divided into metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Examples of a metal, a nonmetal, and a metalloid are shown in the gure near the top of the next page. All of the metals except for mercury are solids. Most metals have high melting points. A metal is an element that has luster, is a good conductor of heat and electricity, is malleable (MAL yuh bul), and is ductile (DUK tul).
23
Metal Properties Luster is the ability to reect light. A good conductor of heat and electricity lets heat and electricity pass through it easily. Something that is malleable can be shaped easily into objects or pounded into thin sheets. Something that is ductile can be stretched into wire.
Boron, a metalloid, has a slight luster and conducts electricity at high temperatures like a metal. But like a nonmetal, boron is brittle and does not conduct electricity well at low temperatures. Carbon is a nonmetal. In graphite, carbon is a soft, brittle solid. It is not reflective, ductile, or malleable.
Copper, a metal, is reflective, ductile, malleable, and a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Picture This
3.
What are nonmetals and metalloids?

Nonmetals are usually gases or brittle solids at room temperature. They do not conduct heat and electricity well. Brittle solids break apart easily. Carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus are nonmetals that are necessary for life. The elements between metals and nonmetals on the periodic table are metalloids (ME tuh loydz). A metalloid is an element that shares some properties with metals and some with nonmetals. They are also called semimetals.
Identify Which element

in the gure conducts heat well?
What does an element key show?

Each element on the Hydrogen Element periodic table has an element 1 Atomic number key. The key shows the name H Symbol of the element, its atomic 1.008 Atomic mass number, its symbol, and its average atomic mass. The State of matter gure shows the element key for hydrogen. Element keys also have symbols that show an elements state of matter at room temperature. Gases are marked with a balloon. Solids are marked with a cube. Liquids are marked with a drop. The elements that are not found naturally on Earth, or synthetic elements, are marked with a bulls-eye.
Draw and Label Use a

quarter-sheet of paper to make an element key for hydrogen. Label each part of the element key.
Hydrogen 1 H 1.008
24
What are element symbols?

The symbols for the elements are either one or two letters, often based on the elements name. For example, V is the symbol for vanadium and Sc is the symbol for scandium. Sometimes the symbols do not match the names. Ag is the symbol for silver and Na is the symbol for sodium. In those cases, the symbols might come from Greek or Latin names for the elements. Some elements are named for scientists such as Lise Meitner (meitnerium, Mt). Some are named for geographic locations such as France (francium, Fr). New Elements Newly discovered elements are given a temporary name and three-letter symbol. The symbol is related to the elements atomic number. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) started using this system in 1978. When the discovery of an element is conrmed, the discoverers can choose a name. The table shows where some element names and symbols come from.
Chemical Symbols and Their Origins
4.
Identify How many letters do element symbols in the periodic table have?
Name
Mendelevium
Symbol
Md Pb Th Po H Hg Au Uuu
Where the Name Comes From

for Dimitri Mendeleev The Latin name for lead is plumbum. The Norse god of thunder is Thor. for Poland, where Marie Curie, a famous scientist, was born from Greek words meaning water former Hydrargyrum means liquid silver in Greek. Aurum means shining dawn in Latin. named using the IUPAC naming system
Lead Thorium Polonium Hydrogen Mercury Gold Unununium
Picture This
5.
Explain Why is the symbol for gold Au instead of G?
25
After You Read

Mini Glossary
group: a collection of elements that have similar physical or chemical properties metal: an element that has luster, is a good conductor of heat and electricity, is malleable, and is ductile metalloid: an element that shares some properties with metals and some with nonmetals nonmetals: elements that are gases or brittle solids at room temperature and do not conduct heat and electricity well period: a row of elements whose properties change gradually representative elements: the elements in Groups 1 and 2 and the elements in Groups 1318 transition elements: the elements in Groups 312
1. Read the key terms and denitions in the Mini Glossary above. Write a sentence that tells how to locate a period and a group on the periodic table of elements.
2. In the Venn diagram, write properties of metals and nonmetals. In the middle, write the name of the group that has properties of both.
Metals Nonmetals
3. How would you explain to an elementary school student what the periodic table is?
End of Lesson
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26
Lesson
Representative Elements
E
Standard 2.b: Predict the properties and interactions of given elements using the periodic table of the elements. (DOK 2)
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

Look at the periodic table in the back of your textbook. Choose a representative element that you have heard of. Give an example of how that element is used.
the properties of representative elements uses for the representative elements to group elements based on similar properties
Identify Elements
Highlight each element that is mentioned in this lesson. Use another color to highlight examples of how it is used.
Read to Learn
Groups 1 and 2
Groups 1 and 2 are not found by themselves in nature. They are always combined with other elements. Groups 1 and 2 are called active metals because they easily make new substances with other elements. They are all metals except hydrogen. Hydrogen is the rst element in Group 1. Even though it is placed in Group 1, hydrogen shares properties with the elements in Group 1 and Group 17.
Lithium 3 Li
Sodium 11 Na Potassium 19 K Rubidium
What are alkali metals?

Make the following Foldable to help you organize information about each group of elements in the lesson.
Grou p1
p2 Grou 3 roup 1 G 14 Group 15 Group
6 Group 1 up 17 Gro 8 Group 1
The Group 1 elements are shown in the gure. 37 Rb They have a family namealkali metals. All the alkali metals are silvery solids with low densities Cesium and low melting points. As you move from top 55 Cs to bottom on the periodic table, alkali metals increase in reactivity. Reactivity is how easily an Francium element combines with other elements. 87 Alkali metals are found in many things. Lithium Fr batteries are used in cameras. Sodium chloride is common table salt. Sodium and potassium are elements you need in your diet. They are found in potatoes and bananas.
28
Lesson E Representative Elements
What are alkaline earth metals?

Next to the alkali metals are the Group 2 metals. They are called the alkaline earth metals. The Group 2 metals are shown in the gure to the right. Each alkaline earth metal is denser and harder and has a higher melting point than the alkali metal in the same period. Look at the periodic table in the back of your textbook. Calcium is denser and harder and has a higher melting point than potassium. Strontium is denser and harder and has a higher melting point than rubidium. Alkaline earth metals are reactive. But they are not as reactive as the alkali metals. Group 2 elements are found in many things. Beryllium is found in the gems emerald and aquamarine. Magnesium is found in chlorophyll, a chemical in green plants.
Beryllium 4 Be Magnesium 12 Mg Calcium 20 Ca Strontium 38 Sr Barium 39 Ba Radium 88 Ra
Picture This
1.
Describe How many elements are in Group 2?
Groups 13 through 18
The elements in Groups 1318 are not all solid metals like the elements in Groups 1 and 2. In fact, a single group can contain metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. A single group also can contain elements that are solid, liquids, and gases.
2.
Evaluate The elements

in Groups 1 and 2 and 1318 are all solid metals. Is this sentence true or false?
What elements are in the boron family?

The gure to the right shows the Group 13 elements. The elements in Group 13 are all metals except boron. Boron is a black metalloid that is brittle, or breaks easily. The Group 13 family of elements is used to make many different things. Pots and pans made with boron can be moved straight from the refrigerator to the oven without cracking. Aluminum is used to make soft drink cans, cookware, and baseball bats. It also is used to make siding for homes. Gallium is a solid metal. Its melting point is so low that it will melt in your hand. Gallium is used to make computer chips.
Boron 5 B Aluminum 13 Al Gallium 31 Ga Indium 49 In Thallium 81 Tl
3.
Infer Why do you think

the Group 13 elements are called the boron family?
29
What elements are in the carbon group?

The Group 14 elements, shown in the gure to the right, are called the carbon group. Carbon is a nonmetal. Silicon and germanium are metalloids. Tin and lead are metals. Carbon Carbon exists as an element in different forms. Two forms that you have probably heard of are diamond and graphite. Carbon also is found in all living things.
Carbon 6 C Silicon 14 Si Germanium 32 Ge
Picture This
4.
Determine What is the

last element in the carbon group?
Silicon and Germanium After carbon in the Tin periodic table is the metalloid silicon. Silicon is 50 an element in sand. Sand has ground-up Sn particles of minerals like quartz. Quartz is made Lead of silicon and oxygen. Glass is an important 82 product made from sand. Pb Germanium, another metalloid, is found below silicon in the periodic table. They both are used in electronics as semiconductors. A semiconductor is a material that does not conduct electricity as well as a metal. It does, however, conduct electricity better than a nonmetal. Silicon and small amounts of other elements are used for computer chips. Tin and Lead Tin and lead are the two heaviest elements in Group 14. Lead is used in aprons you wear when the dentist takes X rays of your teeth. It protects the rest of your body from the radiation from X rays. Lead also is used in car batteries and X-ray equipment. Tin is used in toothpaste and the coating on steel cans used for food.
What is the nitrogen group?

The Group 15 elements are shown in the gure to the right. At the top of Group 15 are the two nonmetalsnitrogen and phosphorus. Living things need nitrogen and phosphorus. Nitrogen Almost 80 percent of the air you breathe is nitrogen. You cannot get the nitrogen you need by breathing nitrogen gas. Bacteria in the soil must rst change nitrogen gas into things that can be absorbed by the roots of plants. When you eat the plants, you get the nitrogen you need.
Nitrogen 7 N Phosphorus 15 P Arsenic 33 As Antimony 51 Sb Bismuth 83 Bi
Picture This
5.
Use a Table What is the

symbol for antimony?
30
Nitrogen, along with hydrogen, is used to make ammonia. When ammonia is dissolved in water, it can be used as a cleaner. Liquid ammonia is used as a soil fertilizer. Ammonia also is used to freeze-dry food and to make nylon for parachutes. Phosphorus Phosphorus also is in Group 15. It comes in two formswhite and red. White phosphorous combines easily with other elements. When it comes into contact with oxygen in air, it will burst into ames. The heads of matches are red because they are made of the less-reactive red phosphorus. The phosphorus in a match makes a re from the heat made by friction when the match is struck. Phosphorus compounds are important for healthy teeth and bones. Plants also need phosphorous. It is used in most fertilizers.
6.
Evaluate Why arent matches made with white phosphorus?
What elements are in the oxygen family?

The Group 16 elements are shown in the gure. The rst two elements in Group 16 are oxygen and sulfur. They are necessary for life. The heavier elements in the group are tellurium and polonium. They are both metalloids. Oxygen About 20 percent of Earths atmosphere is oxygen. Your body needs oxygen to get energy from the foods you eat. Oxygen is in Earths rocks and minerals because it combines easily with other elements. Oxygen also is needed to burn things. Fireghters use foam to keep oxygen away from something that is burning. Ozone is a less common form of oxygen. It is made in the upper atmosphere by electricity during thunderstorms. Ozone is important. It protects living things from some harmful radiation from the Sun.
Oxygen 8 O Sulfur 16 S Selenium 34 Se Tellurium 52 Te Polonium 84 Po
Picture This
7.
Identify Which element has the symbol Te?
Sulfur Sulfur is a solid, yellow nonmetal. Large amounts of sulfur are used to make sulfuric acid. This is one of the most commonly used chemicals in the world. Sulfuric acid is a combination of sulfur, hydrogen, and oxygen. It is used to make paints, fertilizers, detergents, synthetic bers, and rubber. Selenium Selenium conducts electricity when it is in the light. Selenium is used in solar cells, light meters, and photographic materials. It is also used in copy machines. Small amounts of selenium also are needed for good health.
31
What elements are in the halogen group?

Applying Math
8.
Calculate What is the difference between the atomic number of bromine and the atomic number of chlorine?
The elements in Group 17 are called halogens. The word halogen means salt-former. All of the halogens make salts with sodium and with other alkali metals. Table salt is made from sodium and chlorine. All the elements in Group 17, shown in the gure to the right, are nonmetals except for astatine. Astatine is a radioactive metalloid. Fluorine is the most reactive of the halogens. Chlorine is less reactive than uorine. Chlorine is added to water to kill bacteria. Bromine is less reactive than chlorine. Iodine is the least reactive of the four nonmetals. Iodine is used by many systems of your body.
Fluorine 9 F Chlorine 17 Cl Bromine 35 Br Iodine 53 I Astatine 85 At
What elements are noble gases?

The Group 18 elements, shown in the gure to the right, are called noble gases. Noble gases are elements that do not often combine with other elements. They are found as uncombined elements in nature. Their reactivity is very low. Helium is less dense than air, so it is used in all kinds of balloons. Helium balloons lift instruments into the upper atmosphere to measure atmospheric conditions.
Helium 2 He Neon 10 Ne Argon 18 Ar Krypton
Picture This
9.
Identify Which Group 18 element has the largest atomic number?
How are noble gases used?
All of the noble gases, not just neon, are used 36 Kr in neon lights like those used for signs. The signs are made of glass tubes lled with noble Xenon gas. Electricity makes the noble gases in the glass 54 Xe tubes glow. Each noble gas makes a different color. Helium glows yellow, neon glows Radon red-orange, and argon glows bluish-violet. 86 Argon is the most common noble gas on Rn Earth. Argon, krypton, and xenon are used in lightbulbs. Krypton lights are used on airport runways. Xenon is used in strobe lights. Radon is a radioactive gas. It is made naturally from uranium that decays in rocks and soil. Radon can be harmful. When people breathe radon gas over a period of time, it can cause lung cancer.
32
After You Read

Mini Glossary
alkali metals: silvery solids with low densities and low melting points alkaline earth metals: metals that are denser and harder and have a higher melting point than the alkali metals in the same period halogens: elements in Group 17 that make salts noble gases: elements that do not often combine with other elements semiconductor: a material that does not conduct electricity as well as a metal, but does conduct electricity better than a nonmetal
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Describe how an alkali metal is different from an alkaline earth metal in the same period of the periodic table.
2. In the outline of the periodic table below, write the group number for each group of representative elements at the top of each column. Then, write the family name for each column.
transition elements
3. How did highlighting elements and their uses help you to learn about them?
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about representative elements.
End of Lesson
33
Lesson
Transition Elements
F
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

Name three things you use every day that are made from metals.
properties of some transition elements how to tell lanthanides from actinides
Study Coach
Make Flash Cards As you

read, make ash cards to help you learn the transition elements. On one side of the card, write the name of the element, its symbol, and its atomic number. On the other side of the card, write one important use of the element.
Read to Learn
The Metals in the Middle
Groups 312 are called the transition elements. All of them are metals. The properties of the transition elements change less as you move across a period than they do for the representative elements. Most transition elements are found combined with other elements in ores. An ore is a mineral that is found naturally on Earth. A few transition elements like gold and silver are found as pure elements.
What is the iron triad?

Make the following Foldable to help you organize information about the iron triad, transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides.
The Iron Triad
Transition Metals Lanthanides Actinides
Iron, cobalt, and nickel are in Iron Cobalt Nickel period 4 and are known as the 26 27 28 Fe Co Ni iron triad. They are shown in the gure. They have very similar properties. These elements and others have magnetic properties. Large magnets are made from a mixture of nickel, cobalt, and aluminum. The iron triad also has many other uses. Nickel is used in batteries along with cadmium. Iron is a necessary part of hemoglobin, the substance that moves oxygen in your blood. Iron is mixed with other metals and with carbon to create steels with different properties. Bridges and skyscrapers are built with steel because it is strong.
34
Lesson F Transition Elements
How are transition elements used?

Look at the gure below. The transition elements are in the middle of the periodic table. They are Groups 312. Most transition metals have higher melting points than the representative elements. The laments of lightbulbs are made with tungsten, element 74. Tungsten has the highest melting point of any metal (3,410C). Tungsten will not melt when a current passes through it.
Picture This
Transition Metals
1.
Identify How many

periods of transition elements are there in the periodic table?
Mercury Mercury has the lowest melting point of any metal (39C). It is used in thermometers and barometers. It is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature. Like many of the heavy metals, mercury is poisonous to living things. It must be handled carefully. Chromium The name chromium comes from the Greek word chroma. It means color. Chromium is a colorful element. Many other transition elements also combine to make colorful substances. Platinum Group Ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum are sometimes called the platinum group. They have similar properties. They do not combine easily with other elements. So, they can be used as catalysts.
What is a catalyst?
A catalyst is a substance that can make something happen faster. However, the catalyst is not changed. Other transition elements like nickel, zinc, and cobalt can be used as catalysts. Transition elements are used as catalysts to make electronics, plastics, and medicines.
2.
Describe Which group of elements can be used as catalysts?
35
Lanthanide Series Actinide Series
58 Ce 90 Th
59 Pr 91 Pa
60 Nd 92 U
61 Pm 93 Np
62 Sm 94 Pu
63 Eu 95 Am
64 Gd 96 Cm
65 Tb 97 Bk
66 Dy 98 Cf
67 Ho 99 Es
68 Er 100 Fm
69 Tm 101 Md
70 Yb 102 No
71 Lu 103 Lr
Applying Math
3.
Inner Transition Elements

There are two series of inner transition elements. The lanthanides is the name of the rst series of inner transition elements. The lanthanides go from cerium to lutetium. The lanthanides also are called the rare earths because at one time people thought they were not common. They are usually found combined with oxygen in Earths crust. The actinides is the name of the second series of inner transition elements. The actinides go from thorium to lawrencium. The gure above shows the lanthanides and the actinides.
Calculate How many

lanthanide and actinide elements are there altogether?
What are the lanthanides?

The lanthanides are soft metals. They can be cut with a knife. The lanthanides often are found in the same ore. They are so much alike that they are hard to separate when they are in the same ore. Lanthanides are not as rare as people once thought. Earths crust has more cerium than lead. Cerium makes up 50 percent of a mixture called misch (MIHSH) metal. Flints in lighters are made from misch metal. Lighters are used to start res. Lanthanum, iron, and neodymium also are in int. Lanthanides also are used in color TV screens. A blend of some lanthanide elements will give off a bright red light. Other compounds are used to make the other colors for a natural-looking picture on the screen.
4.
Explain Why are lanthanides in the same ore hard to separate?
What are the actinides?

All the actinides are radioactive. The nuclei of atoms of radioactive elements are unstable. They break down to make other elements. Thorium, protactinium, and uranium are the only actinides that now are found naturally on Earth. Uranium is found in Earths crust. All other actinides are synthetic elements. Synthetic elements are made in laboratories and in nuclear reactors. Synthetic elements have many uses. Plutonium is used as a fuel in nuclear power plants. Americium is used in home smoke detectors. Californium-252 is used to kill cancer cells.
36
How can scientists make synthetic elements?

Scientists can make synthetic elements by using a device called a particle accelerator. In the particle accelerator, the nuclei of atoms are made to crash into each other at high speeds. Some of the nuclei might stick together to make new, heavier elements. Some of the synthetic elements are very unstable. Synthetic elements may only last a fraction of a second before they break down into other elements.
What elements do dentists use?

For over 150 years, dentists have used a substance called amalgam to ll cavities in decayed teeth. Amalgam is a mixture of silver, copper, tin, and mercury. Some people are worried that amalgam is harmful because it contains mercury. Today, dentists can use things other than amalgam to ll cavities. New materials are used to x decayed, broken, or missing teeth. These new materials are strong. Body uids will not break them down. They can also be changed to match the natural color of the tooth. Some of the new materials have uoride in them. Fluoride protects teeth from more decay. Bonding Agents To use these new materials, dentists use new bonding agents. Bonding agents are like glue. They glue the materials to the natural tooth. The bonding agents must be strong and not be broken down by body uids. Braces Orthodontists, dentists who straighten teeth, use new nickel and titanium alloys for the wires on braces. These wires have shape memory. This means they will always try to keep their shape. The wires are heated to lock in their shapes. The wires are forced out of shape when they are put on crooked teeth. They will try to return to their original shape, straightening the teeth as they do.
5.
Explain What happens to synthetic elements when they break down?
6.
Analyze Why do you

think wires that hold their shape are useful for xing crooked teeth?
37
After You Read

Mini Glossary
actinides: the name of the second series of inner transition elements catalyst: a substance that can make something happen faster, but not change itself lanthanides: the name of the rst series of inner transition elements synthetic elements: elements made in laboratories and in nuclear reactors
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence describing why you would add a catalyst to something.
2. Complete the table. In the second column, write whether each element is a regular transition element, a lanthanide, or an actinide. Write a use for the element in the third column.
Element Plutonium
Element Group
Use
Cerium Tungsten Iron
3. You were asked to make ash cards of the transition elements. What is another method you could use to learn the transition elements?
End of Lesson
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38
Lesson
Acidic and Basic Solutions
G
Before You Read

Name some sour foods that you like.
What Youll Learn
about acids, bases, and their properties uses of acids and bases pH of acids and bases
Read to Learn
Acids
If you like sour foods like dill pickles and lemons, you like foods that have acids in them. An acid is a substance that releases positively charged hydrogen ions (H ) in water. When an acid mixes with water, it dissolves, releasing hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions then join with water molecules to form hydronium ions. A hydronium ion is a positively charged ion that has the formula H3O . The gure shows how a hydronium ion is made.
H H2O H3O
Study Coach
Outline Make an outline of

this lesson as you read. When you nish reading, look over your outline to make sure you understand what you have written down.
Hydrogen ion
Water molecule
Hydronium ion
What are the properties of acidic solutions?

Sour taste is one property of acidic solutions. Remember, you should never taste substances in the laboratory. Many acids can cause severe burns to body tissues. Acidic solutions also can conduct electricity. Hydronium ions are good carriers of electric charges in an electric current. This is why some batteries contain acids.

Make the following Foldable to show how acids and bases are alike and different.
Acid Properties
Base Properties
39
Many acids are corrosive. This means they can break down certain substances. Many acids can corrode fabric, skin, and paper. Some acids react strongly with metals. When these acids are put on metal, metal compounds and hydrogen gas form, leaving holes in the metal.
What are some uses of acids?

Vinegar contains acetic acid. It is used in salad dressings. Citrus fruits like lemons, limes, and oranges taste sour because they contain citric acid. Your body needs vitamin C, which is ascorbic acid. Ants that sting inject formic acid into their victims. The gure shows products that are made with acids.
Picture This
1.
List the products in the

gure that you have seen or used.
Sulfuric acid is used to make fertilizers, steel, paints, and plastics. It is also called battery acid because it is used in many batteries, such as car batteries. Hydrochloric acid is also called muriatic acid. It is used to remove impurities from the surfaces of metals. Hydrochloric acid also can be used to clean mortar from brick walls. Nitric acid is used to make fertilizers, dyes, and plastics.
Where are acids found in nature?

Caves form because of acids. Carbonic acid is made when carbon dioxide from soil dissolves in water. The carbonic acid solution dissolves limestone rock in the ground. Over many years, enough limestone dissolves to form a cave. Stalactites and stalagmites, hanging rocks and columns in caves, are also made when a carbonic acid solution drips from the ceiling of a cave. As the water evaporates, the solution becomes less acidic and the limestone comes out of solution. When fossil fuels burn, many compounds are released into the air. Some of these compounds form nitric acid and sulfuric acid. These strong acids mix with water vapor and fall back to Earth as rain, sleet, snow, or fog. The acid rain can corrode stone statues, damage forests, and make people sick.
2.
Name three acids found in nature.
40
Lesson G Acidic and Basic Solutions
Bases
Many window and oor cleaners contain an ammonia solution. Ammonia contains a base. A base is a substance that can accept hydrogen ions. When bases dissolve in water, they release a hydroxide ion (OH). For example, when sodium hydroxide (NaOH) dissolves in water, it separates into sodium ions (Na+) and hydroxide ions (OH). Ammonia (NH3) is different. When it dissolves in water, it pulls a hydrogen atom away from water. This leaves a hydroxide ion. Look at the gure below.
Picture This
3.
Draw and Label Circle

the hydroxide ion in this reaction.
What are the properties and uses of bases?

Properties Most soaps are bases. How does soap feel? Basic solutions, like soap, feel slippery. Bases are corrosive like acids. They can cause burns and damage body tissue. Thats why you should never touch, smell, or taste a substance to nd out if it is a base or an acid. Bases can conduct electricity like acids. They are not as corrosive to metals as acids. Uses Many uses for bases are shown in the gure below. Bases are used in plastics, soap, ammonia, and other cleaning products. Hydroxide ions can react with dirt and grease to wash them away. Calcium hydroxide, often called lime, is used to mark lines on athletic elds. It also can make soil less acidic. Sodium hydroxide is a base called lye. Lye is a strong base that can cause burns and other health problems. It is used to make soap, clean ovens, and unclog drains.
Use quarter-sheets of paper to help you organize and list information about pH.
PH PH scale
Picture This
4.
Circle the base in the

gure that is used in classrooms every day.
41
What is pH?
pH is a way to measure how acidic or basic a solution is. Perhaps youve seen someone check the pH of a swimming pool. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. Acids have a pH below 7. Bases have a pH above 7. Solutions with a pH of 7 are called neutral. They are neither acids nor bases. Strong acids, like hydrochloric acid, have a pH of 0. Strong bases have a pH of 14. The pH of a solution depends on its concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+) and hydroxide ions (OH). Acids have more hydronium ions than hydroxide ions. Neutral solutions have equal numbers of each ion. Basic solutions have more hydroxide ions than hydronium ions.
Applying Math
5.
Calculate Look at the pH scale. How many times more acidic is an acid with a pH of 2 than an acid with a pH of 5?
How does the pH scale work?

Each pH unit is a change in acidity that is multiple of 10. The lower the number, the more acidic a solution is. An acid with a pH of 2 is 10 times stronger than an acid with a pH of 3 and 100 times stronger than an acid with a pH of 4. A base with a pH of 13 is 10 times stronger than a base with a pH of 12 and 100 times stronger than a base with a pH of 11.
Egg white Milk Baking soda 8 9 10 Sodium hydroxide Ammonia 11 12 13 14
Vinegar Hydrochloric acid 0 1 Gastric contents
Soft drinks Tomatoes
Blood plasma
Milk of magnesia
What makes a strong acid or a strong base?
Picture This
6.
Label In the gure above,

write the labels Acids, Bases, and Neutral at the correct places.
Some acids give foods a sour taste, and some other acids are so strong that they can cause burns. Vinegar, or acetic acid, makes pickles sour, but you can eat pickles because the acid is weak. Hydrochloric acid, a strong acid, would dangerously burn your mouth. What makes these acids different? The ions of strong acids break apart in water more easily than the ions of weak acids. Strong acids form many more hydronium ions than weak acids. More hydronium ions give a lower pH, which is more acidic. Strong bases form many more hydroxide ions than weak bases. More hydroxide ions give a higher pH, which is more basic.
42
Indicators
Is there a safe way to nd out how acidic or basic a solution is? Yes, you can use an indicator. An indicator is a compound that turns a certain color in acidic or basic solutions, depending on the pH. An example of an indicator is litmus. This compound is soaked into paper strips. You place the paper strips in a solution and look at the color. Litmus paper turns red in acids and blue in bases.
Neutralization
Have you ever heard of heartburn? Someone with heartburn might take an antacid tablet. The prex antmeans opposite of. Heartburn is caused by having too much hydrochloric acid in the stomach. An antacid tablet neutralizes the extra acid. How does an antacid tablet work? An antacid is made from a base that neutralizes the extra acid in the stomach. Neutralization (new truh luh ZAY shun) is the reaction of an acid with a base. It is called this because properties of both the acid and the base are reduced, or neutralized. When a base and acid are mixed, they usually form water and a salt. Because of the reaction, there are fewer hydronium and hydroxide ions in the solution. This makes the pH of the solution more neutral. When a base such as magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, in an antacid reacts with hydrochloric acid in the stomach, some of the acid is neutralized. The gure shows the relative amounts of hydronium and hydroxide ions between pH 0 and pH 14.
pH 0 7 14
7.
Apply To neutralize a solution that contains lye, what would be added?
Picture This
8.
Compare At pH 7, how
does the amount of hydronium ions compare to the amount of hydroxide ions?
How does neutralization occur?

When a solution is neutralized, hydronium and hydroxide ions react with each other. During neutralization, equal numbers of hydronium ions and hydroxide ions react to produce water molecules. Pure water has a pH of 7, which means it is neutral.
43
After You Read

Mini Glossary
acid: a substance that releases positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) in water base: a substance that can accept hydrogen ions hydronium ion: a positively charged ion that has the formula H3O+ indicator: a compound that turns a certain color in acidic or basic solutions, depending on the pH neutralization: reaction of an acid with a base pH: a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write one or two sentences to explain the pH of pure water.
2. Label the location of pure water on the pH scale. Label the acidic side of the scale in red and the basic side in blue.
pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
3. How much stronger is a pH of 9 than a pH of 4?
4. Suppose you add water to solutions to make acids of different strengths. You add 100 mL of water to an acid to make an acid with pH of 6. How much water would you add to make an acid with pH of 5? Explain.
End of Lesson
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44
Lesson
What is motion?
H
Standard 2.c: Distinguish the motion of an object by its position, direction of motion, speed, and acceleration and represent resulting data in graphic form in order to make a prediction. (DOK 2)
Before You Read

When you move from place to place, how do you know you have moved? Write your thoughts on the lines below.
What Youll Learn
what distance, speed, and velocity are how to graph motion
Read to Learn
Matter and Motion
When you are sitting quietly in a chair, are you in motion? It may surprise you to know that all matter in the universe is always in motion. Think about it. In the chair, your heart beats and you breathe. Your blood circulates through your veins. Electrons move around the nuclei of every atom in your body. Underline As you read,
underline material you do not understand the rst time you read it. Reread the information until you understand it. Ask your teacher if you still do not understand it after rereading it.
Changing Position
How do you know if something is in motion? Something is in motion if it is changing position. Changing position means moving from one place to another. Imagine runners in a 100-meter race. They sprint from the start line to the nish line. Their positions change, so they are in motion.
What is relative motion?

To nd out if something changes position, you need a reference point to compare it to. An object changes position if it moves when compared to a reference point. Imagine you are competing in the 100-meter race. You begin just behind the start line. When you pass the nish line, you are 100 m from the start line. If you use the start line as your reference point, then your position has changed by 100 m when compared to the start line. You were in motion.
1.
Explain What do you

compare an object to when determining the objects motion?
45
50 m
30 m
40 m
Distance: 40 m Displacement: 40 m east
Distance: 70 m Displacement: 50 m northeast
Distance: 140 m Displacement: 0 m
Picture This
2.
What are distance and displacement?

Suppose you walk from your house to the park around the block. How far away is it? That depends on whether you are talking about distance or displacement. Distance is the length of the route you travel. Suppose you travel 200 m from your house to the park. How would you describe your location now? You could say you are 200 m from your house. But where you are depends on both the distance you travel and direction. To describe exactly where you are, you need to tell the direction from your house. Displacement includes the distance between your starting and ending points and the direction in which you travel. The gure above shows the difference between distance and displacement.
Explain Why is the

displacement in the third gure zero?
Speed
When you describe motion, you usually want to say how fast something is moving. The faster something is moving, the less time it takes to travel a certain distance. The slower something is moving, the more time it takes to travel a certain distance. Speed is the distance traveled divided by the time it takes to travel that distance. Speed can be calculated with this equation: speed (in meters/second)
Speed Distance Time
Make the following two-tab Foldable to help you organize information about how to describe and calculate speed. Write examples under the tabs.
distance (in meters) time (in seconds) d t
SI units m/s
In SI units, distance is measured in m and time is measured in s. The SI measurement for speed is meters per second (m/s). This is the SI distance unit divided by the SI time unit.
46
Lesson H What is motion?
What is average speed?

Suppose a sprinter ran the 100-m dash in 10 s. Did she run the whole race at a speed of 10 m/s? No, her speed could have been different at any instant during the race. You can describe her motion for the entire race by her average speed, 10 m/s. Average speed is the total distance traveled divided by the total time taken to travel the distance.
What is instantaneous speed?

Have you ever watched the speedometer when you are riding in a car? If the speedometer reads 50 km/h, the car is traveling at 50 km/h at that instant. Instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at one instant of time.
How do average and instantaneous speed differ?

If it takes two hours to travel 200 km in a car, the average speed would be 100 km/h. But the car probably was not moving at this speed the whole time. It might have gone faster on the freeway and stopped at stoplights. There your speed was 0 km/h. If the car were able to travel 100 km/h the whole time, you would have moved at a constant speed. For another example, see the diagram of the two balls below. Both balls have the same average speed because they both travel 3 m in 4 s. The top ball is moving at a constant speed. In each second, it moves the same distance. The bottom ball is moving at different speeds. Its instantaneous speed is fast between 0 s and 1 s, slower between 2 s and 3 s, and even slower between 3 s and 4 s.
3.
Identify What type of

speed does the speedometer in a car show?
Picture This
0m 1m 2m 3m
4.
Calculate What is the

average speed of both balls in the diagram? Show all your work.
0s
1s
2s
3s
4s
0m
1m
2m
3m
0s
1s
2s
3s
4s
47
Graphing Motion
You can show the motion of an object with a distance-time graph. In a distance-time graph, time is plotted on the horizontal axis. Distance is plotted on the vertical axis.
How do distance-time graphs compare speed?

The graph below is a distance-time graph that shows the motion of two students walking. According to the graph, after 1 s student A traveled 1 m. Her average speed is 1 m/1 s, or 1 m/s. Student B traveled only 0.5 m in 1 s. His average speed is 0.5 m/1 s, or 0.5 m/s. So student A traveled faster than student B. Now compare the steepness of the lines in the graph. The line for student A is steeper than the line for student B. A steeper line shows a faster speed. If the line is horizontal, no change in position happens. A horizontal line means a speed of zero.
Applying Math
5.
Distance v. Time
2.0 Distance (m) Student A 1.5 1.0 0.5
Calculate Look at the graph. How much farther has student A walked in 2 seconds than student B?
Student B
0.5
1.0 1.5 Time (s)
2.0
2.5
Velocity
Suppose you are hiking in the woods. You may want to know how fast you are hiking. But you also need to know the direction you are going or you might get lost. The velocity of an object is the speed of the object and the direction of its motion. Velocity has the same units as speed and includes the direction of motion, for example 20 km/h east. Velocity can change when speed changes, direction changes, or both change. If a car that is moving 60 km/h slows to 40 km/h, its velocity has changed. Suppose a car is traveling 40 km/h north. It then goes around a curve until it is heading east. All the time, the cars speed was 40 km/h. But the velocity changed. The velocity was 40 km/h north. Now it is 40 km/h east.
6.
Explain When the cars

motion changed from 40 km/h north to 40 km/h east, what changed?
48
Lesson H What is motion?
After You Read

Mini Glossary
average speed: equals the total distance traveled divided by the total time taken to travel the distance instantaneous speed: the speed of an object at one instant of time speed: equals the distance traveled divided by the time it takes to travel that distance velocity: the speed of an object and the direction of its motion
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Ramona divided the distance from her house to school by the time it took her to walk that distance. What quantity did Ramona nd? Explain your answer in a complete sentence.
2. The distance-time graph below is for a bicyclist in a bicycle race. a. What was the bicyclists average speed after two hours?
Distance (km) 160 140 120
b. What happened to her speed during the race?
100 80 60 40
c. How can you tell?
20 0 1 2 3 4 5 Time (hours) 6
d. What was her average speed for the entire race?
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End of Lesson
49
Lesson
Acceleration
I
Standard 2.c: Distinguish the motion of an object by its position, direction of motion, speed, and acceleration and represent resulting data in graphic form in order to make a prediction. (DOK 2)
What Youll Learn

Before You Read

Have you ever been in a foot race? What kinds of things are measured in a foot race?
what acceleration is to predict how acceleration affects motion
Study Coach
Read to Learn
Acceleration and Motion
Have you ever seen a rocket launch? When the rocket rst lifts off, it seems to move very slowly. But very soon the rocket is moving at a fast speed. How can you describe the change in the rockets motion? When an object changes its motion, it is accelerating. Acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time it takes for the change to happen.
Outline Create an outline of

this lesson as you read. Be sure to include main ideas, vocabulary terms, and other important information.
How is speeding up acceleration?

When you rst get on a bike, it is not moving. When you start pedaling, the bike moves faster and faster. This is acceleration. An object that is already moving can accelerate too. Imagine you are biking along a level path. When you start to pedal harder, your speed increases. When the speed of an object increases, the object is accelerating.
Classify Make the following three-tab Foldable to help you classify and understand the different types of acceleration.
Acceleration: Object Speeds Up Acceleration: Object Slows Down Acceleration: Object Turns, Changes Direction
How is slowing down acceleration?

Suppose you are biking at a speed of 4 m/s. If you brake, you will slow down. It might sound odd, but when you slow down you are accelerating. Any change in velocity is acceleration. Acceleration happens when an object speeds up or slows down. When an object is speeding up, its acceleration is in the same direction as its motion. When an object is slowing down, its acceleration is in the opposite direction of its motion.
50
Lesson I Acceleration
How is changing direction acceleration?

Remember that acceleration is a change in velocity. A change in velocity can be a change in speed, direction, or both. So, when an object changes direction, it accelerates. Think of yourself on a bicycle. If you lean to one side and turn the handlebars that direction, you turn. The direction of the bikes motion changes, so the bike accelerates. The acceleration is in the direction the bike turns. Imagine throwing a ball straight up into the air. The ball starts out moving upward. After a while the ball stops moving upward and begins to come back down. The ball has changed its direction of motion. The ball is now accelerating downward.
1.
Explain how an object

accelerates when it changes direction.
Calculating Acceleration
If an object is moving in a straight line, its acceleration can be calculated with this equation. acceleration (m/s2) a nal speed (m/s) initial speed (m/s) time (seconds) (s f s i ) t
Applying Math
2.
In this equation, time is the length of time it takes for the motion to change. Initial speed is the starting speed. Acceleration has units of meters per second squared (m/s2).
Calculate A sports car accelerates from zero to 28 m/s in 4 seconds. What is its acceleration?
What are positive and negative acceleration?

Suppose you are riding your bike in a straight line. You speed up from 2 m/s to 8 m/s in 6 seconds. a (s f s i ) t (8 m/s 2 m/s) 6s
6 m/s 6s
1 m/s2
So your acceleration is 1 m/s2. Now suppose you slow down from 8 m/s to 2 m/s in 6 s. a (s f s i ) t (2 m/s 8 m/s) 6s 1 m/s2.
6 m/s 6s
1 m/s2
Your acceleration is
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What does negative acceleration mean?

When you speed up, your acceleration is positive. When you slow down, your acceleration is negative. That is because when you slow down, your nal speed is less than your initial speed. This gives you a negative value in the equation and a negative acceleration.
3.
Identify What type of acceleration do you have if you are slowing down?
How do you graph accelerated motion?

You can show the motion of an accelerating object on a graph. For this type of graph, speed is plotted on the vertical axis. Time is plotted on the horizontal axis. The graph below is an example. Positive Acceleration In section A of the graph, speed increases from 0 m/s to 10 m/s during the rst 2 seconds. Acceleration is 5 m/s2. An object that is speeding up will have a line that slopes up on a speed-time graph. Zero Acceleration In section B of the graph, the speed does not change. If speed does not change, the object is not accelerating. A horizontal line on a speed-time graph means zero acceleration. Negative Acceleration In section C of the graph, the object goes from 10 m/s to 4 m/s in 2 s. Acceleration is 3 m/s2. You can see that the line on the graph slopes downward as an object slows down.
Speed v. Time
12 10 Speed (m/s) 8 C 6 A 4 2 0 1 2 3 Time (s) 4 5 6 B
Picture This
4.
Interpret Data For

how many seconds does the object in the speedtime graph have an acceleration of zero?
52
Lesson I Acceleration
After You Read

Mini Glossary
acceleration: the change in velocity divided by the time it takes for the change to happen; occurs when an object speeds up, slows down, or turns 1. Review the term and its denition in the Mini Glossary. Describe the term acceleration in your own words.
2. Fill in the chart with the different ways an object can accelerate.
Acceleration
3. Why do you think that slowing down is sometimes called deceleration instead of acceleration?
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about acceleration.
End of Lesson
53
Lesson
Electric Circuits
J
Standard 2.d: Relate how electrical energy transfers through electric circuits, generators, and power grids, including the importance of contributions from Mississippi companies. (DOK 2)
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

You use circuits every day. Name some circuits you have used.
how voltage, current, and resistance are related about series and parallel circuits how to avoid dangerous electric shock
Study Coach
State the Main Ideas As

you read this lesson, stop after each paragraph and write down the main idea in your own words.
Read to Learn
Controlling the Current
Electric current ows through a circuit when you connect a conductor, like a wire, between the positive and negative terminals of a battery. The amount of current depends on the voltage of the battery and the resistance of the conductor. Imagine a bucket of water with a hose attached in the bottom of it. Look at the gure. If you raise the bucket, you increase the potential energy of the water in the bucket. This causes the water to ow out of the hose faster. This happens with electric current, too. If the amount of voltage increases, the amount of current owing through a circuit will increase.
Picture This
1.
Infer Circle the bucket

and hose that show greater resistance.
How do voltage and resistance affect current?

As the gure shows, the higher the bucket is raised, the more energy the water has. Increasing the voltage in a battery is like increasing the height of the water. The electric current in a circuit increases if the voltage increases. If the resistance in an electric circuit is greater, less current can ow through the circuit.
54
Lesson J Electric Circuits
What is Ohms law?

In the nineteenth century, a German scientist named Georg Simon Ohm measured how changing the voltage in a circuit affects the current. He found a relationship among voltage, current, and resistance in a circuit, know as Ohms law. Ohms law states that when voltage in a circuit increases, the current increases. The equation below shows this relationship. Voltage (in volts) V current (in amperes) IR resistance (in ohms)
2.
Applying Math
Calculate An iron is
plugged in a wall socket. The current in the iron is 5 A. The resistance is 20 . What is the voltage provided by the wall socket? Show your work.
If the voltage in a circuit stays the same, but the resistance changes, the current will change, too. If the resistance increases, the current in the circuit will decrease.
Series and Parallel Circuits

Circuits control the movement of electric current by providing paths for electrons to follow. In order for a current to ow, the circuit must be an unbroken path. Imagine a string of lights with tiny lightbulbs. In some strings of lights, if only one bulb is burned out, the whole string of lights wont work. This is an example of a series circuit. Some strings of lights will stay lit no matter how many bulbs burn out. This is an example of a parallel circuit.
Use two half-sheets of notebook paper to write information about parallel and series circuits.
Parallel Circuits
Series Circuits
What is a series circuit?

A series circuit is a circuit that has only one path for the electric current to follow. Look at the gure. If the path is broken, current cannot ow. The bulbs in the circuit will not light. The path could be broken if a wire comes off or if a bulb burns out. The lament in the lightbulb is also part of the circuit. So, if the lament breaks, then the ow of current stops. Series Circuit
Picture This
3.
Predict Look at the

gure. What would happen if you remove a wire from one of the lightbulbs?
Ba tte ry
55
What happens when resistance increases?

In a series circuit, electrical devices are connected along the same path. The current is the same through every device. However, if a new device is added to the circuit, the current will decrease throughout the circuit. Why? Each device has its own electrical resistance. In a series circuit, the total resistance increases as each new device is added. Ohms law tells us that if resistance increases and the voltage doesnt change, the current will decrease.
4.
Recognize Cause and Effect A series circuit has

two lightbulbs on it. What happens to the resistance if you add another lightbulb to the circuit?
What is branched wiring?

What would it be like if all the electrical devices in your house were on a series circuit? You would have to turn on all the appliances in your house just so you could watch TV. Parallel Circuits Your house, school, and other buildings are wired using parallel circuits. A parallel circuit is a circuit that has more than one path for the electric current to follow. The gure shows a parallel circuit. The circuit branches so that the electrons ow through each of the paths. If one of the paths is broken, electrons will still ow through the other paths. You can add or remove a device in one branch and the current will still ow.
Picture This
5.
Parallel Circuit
Predict Look at the

gure. What would happen to the lightbulb on the right if you remove the lightbulb on the left?
In a parallel circuit, the resistance in each branch can be different. The resistance in a parallel circuit depends on the devices in the branch. If the resistance in one branch is low, then more current will ow through it than in other branches. The current in each branch of a parallel circuit can be different.
56
Ba tte ry
Protecting Electric Circuits

In a parallel circuit, electric current that ows out of a battery or electric outlet increases as more devices are added to the circuit. As the current through the circuit increases, the wires heat up.
What are fuses and circuit breakers?

If wires get too hot, they can cause a re. To make sure that wires dont get too hot, the circuits in your house and other buildings have fuses or circuit breakers. Fuses and circuit breakers limit the amount of current in the wiring. If the current becomes greater than 15 A or 20 A, a piece of metal in the fuse melts or a switch in the circuit breaker opens, stopping the current. The device that caused the problem can be removed. Then the fuse can be replaced or the circuit breaker can be reset.
6.
Explain What do fuses

and circuit breakers do?
Electric Power
When you use a toaster or a hair dryer, electrical energy changes into other kinds of energy. The rate, or speed, at which electrical energy is changed into other kinds of energy is electric power. In any electric device or electric circuit, the electric power that is used can be found by using the equation below.
Applying Math
7.
Calculate A toaster is plugged into a wall outlet. The current in the toaster is 10 A. The voltage of the wall outlet is 110 V. How much power in watts does the toaster use? Show your work.
Power (in watts) P
current (in amperes) IV
voltage (in volts)
The electric power is equal to voltage provided to the electrical device multiplied by the current that ows into the device. The SI unit of power is the watt. The table lists the electric power used by some common devices.
Power Used by Common Devices Device Power (in watts) Computer 350 Color TV 200 Stereo 250 Refrigerator 450 Microwave 7001,500 Hair dryer 1,000
Applying Math
8.
Interpret Data How many more watts does a hair dryer use than a color TV?
57
How do electric companies measure power?

Power is the amount of energy that is used per second. When you use a hair dryer, the amount of electrical energy you use depends on the power of the hair dryer. It also depends on how long you use it. Suppose you used the hair dryer for 10 minutes today and 5 minutes yesterday. You used twice as much energy today than you did yesterday.
How much does electrical energy cost?

Electric companies make electrical energy and sell it in units of kilowatt-hours. One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is equal to using one kilowatt of power continuously for one hour. This is about the amount of energy needed to light ten 100-W lightbulbs for one hour or just one 100-W lightbulb for 10 hours. An electric company charges customers for the number of kilowatt-hours they use every month. An electric meter on the outside of each building measures the number of kilowatt-hours used in that building.
Electrical Safety
Electricity can be very dangerous. In 1997, electric shocks killed about 490 people in the United States. Here are some tips that will help prevent electrical accidents.
Picture This
9.
Infer Why should you not

use an electric device near water?
Preventing Electric Shock Never use a device with frayed or damaged electric cords. Unplug appliances before you work on them. For example, if a piece of toast gets stuck in a toaster, unplug the toaster before you take the toast out. Never use an electric device near water. Never touch power lines with anything, including a kite string or ladder. Always pay attention to warning signs and labels.
How do electric shocks happen?

If an electric current enters your body, you feel an electric shock. Your body is like a piece of insulated wire. The uids inside your body are good conductors of electric current. The electrical resistance of dry skin is much higher than the uids in your body. Skin insulates the body in the same way that plastic insulates a copper wire. Remember that electrons cannot move easily in an insulator like plastic. Your skin works in the same way.
10.
Identify Is skin a conductor or an insulator?
58
You actually become part of an electric circuit when current enters your body. The shock you feel can be mild or deadly, depending on the amount of current that ows into your body.
How much is too much?

The amount of current that can light a 60-W lightbulb is about 0.5 A. If this amount of current enters your body, it could be deadly. Even a current as low as 0.001 A can be painful. The table shows what you would feel when a certain amount of electric current ows through your body.
Currents Effects Amount of Current (in amperes) What You Feel 0.0005 A Tingle 0.001 A Pain 0.01 A Cant let go 0.025 A 0.05 A Difcult to breathe 0.10 A 0.25 A 0.50 A Heart failure 1.00 A
Picture This
11.
Interpret Data
Describe how you would feel if you were shocked by a current of 0.10 A.
How do you keep safe from lightning?

Electricity in lightning can be very dangerous. Lightning can harm people, plants, and animals. In the United States, more people are killed every year by lightning than by hurricanes or tornadoes. Most of these lightning deaths happened outdoors. If you are outside and can see lightning or hear thunder, you need to go indoors right away. If you cannot go indoors, you need to take the following steps: Stay away from open elds and high places Stay away from tall objects like trees, agpoles, or light towers Stay away from objects that conduct current such as water, metal fences, picnic shelters, and bleachers.
12.
Explain Why should you stay away from metal fences when you see lightning or hear thunder?
59
After You Read

Mini Glossary
electric power: the rate, or speed, at which electrical energy is changed into other kinds of energy Ohms law: the relationship among voltage, current, and resistance; when the voltage in a circuit increases, the current increases parallel circuit: a circuit that has more than one path for the electric current to follow series circuit: a circuit that has only one path for the electric current to follow
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Explain why it is better to have a parallel circuit in your home than a series circuit.
2. Explain the main ideas of Ohms law in the cause-and-effect map below. Write increases or decreases in the blanks.
Ohms Law Cause Voltage increases Electric current Effect
Cause Resistance increases Electric current
Effect
3. You were asked to write the main idea of each paragraph as you read this lesson. How did you decide which is the main idea for each paragraph?
End of Lesson
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about electric circuits.
60
Lesson
Electricity and Magnetism
K
Standard 2.d: Relate how electrical energy transfers through electric circuits, generators, and power grids, including the importance of contributions from Mississippi companies. (DOK 2)
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

Electricity makes your radio and other things work. Where does electricity come from?
how electricity can make motion how motion can make electricity
Identify Main Ideas

Highlight the main idea of each paragraph in this lesson.
Read to Learn
Current Can Make a Magnet
Magnetic elds are produced by moving electric charges. Electrons moving around the nuclei of atoms make magnetic elds. This motion causes some materials, like iron, to be magnetic. Electric charges move in a wire when it has electric current owing through it. A wire that has electric current owing is surrounded by a magnetic eld, too.
What is an electromagnet?
An electromagnet is a wire with current owing through it that is wrapped around an iron core. Look at the gure. There is a magnetic eld around each coil of wire. The magnetic elds add together to make a stronger magnetic eld inside the coil. When the coils are wrapped around an iron core, the magnetic eld of the coils makes the iron core magnetic. This makes the magnetic eld inside the coils even When a wire is wrapped in a coil, the field inside the coil is made stronger. stronger.
Picture This
1.
Draw a line that shows the

magnetic eld inside the coils.
62
Lesson K Electricity and Magnetism
How do electromagnets work?

When an electric current is turned on, the magnetic eld of an electromagnet is turned on. When the electric current is turned off, the magnetic eld turns off, too. By changing the current, the strength and direction of the magnetic eld of an electromagnet can be changed. This makes electromagnets useful. Identify Terms Use quartersheets of paper to write examples of electromagnets and key terms from the chapter.
Electromagnets Key Terms
How are electromagnets used?

The gure shows a doorbell that uses an electromagnet. When a button is pressed, a switch in a circuit that includes an electromagnet is closed. The magnet attracts an iron bar. There is a hammer attached to the iron bar. The hammer hits the bell. When it hits the bell, it has moved far enough to open the circuit again. The electromagnet loses its magnetic eld. A spring pulls the iron bar and hammer back into place. This closes the circuit. This happens again and again as long as the button is pushed.
When the hammer strikes the bell, the circuit is open, and the electromagnet is turned off.
Pressing the button closes the circuit.
A spring pulls the hammer back, closing the circuit and starting the cycle over.
Picture This
2.
Identify Circle the electromagnet in the gure.
Bell Power source When the circuit is closed, an electromagnet is turned on. The electromagnet attracts the hammer that strikes the bell.
Magnets Push and Pull Currents

Think of an electric device that produces motion, like a fan. How does the electric energy going into the fan change into kinetic energy? Remember that wires with electric current owing through them produce a magnetic eld. This magnetic eld acts the same way as a magnetic eld made by a magnet. Two wires that are carrying current in the same direction can attract each other as if they were two magnets.
Make the following Foldable to help you organize information about how electricity can produce motion and how motion can produce electricity.
Electricity Motion Can Produce Can Produce Motion Electricity
63
What is an electric motor?

Make the following Foldable to help you compare and contrast motors, generators, and transformers.
Motor
Generator
Transformer
Two magnets exert a force on each other. So do two wires that have current owing through them. The magnetic eld around a wire that has current owing through it causes it to be pushed or pulled by a magnet. Look at the rst part of the gure below. The magnetic eld will be pushed or pulled, depending on the direction the current is owing through the wire. A magnetic eld like the one shown will push a current-carrying wire upward. Some of the electric energy carried by a current is changed into kinetic energy of the moving wire. Any machine that changes electric energy into kinetic energy is a motor.
Electron flow +
Picture This
3.
Electron flow
Battery
Analyze Look at the

gure on the right. What would happen to the loop if there were no current running through it?
How does a motor keep running?

The wire that has current owing through it is made into a loop so the magnetic eld can make the wire spin all the time. In the second part of the gure, the magnetic eld exerts a force on the wire loop. This causes the loop to spin as long as current ows in the loop.
How do charged particles from the Sun and Earths magnetosphere interact?
The Sun gives off charged particles. These particles ow through the solar system like a huge electric current. Earths magnetic eld pushes and pulls on the electric current made by the Sun. This is just like how a magnetic eld pushes and pulls on a wire that is carrying current. This pushing and pulling causes most of the charged particles from the Sun to be repelled. The charged particles do not hit Earth. This protects living things on Earth from damage that might be caused by the charged particles. The solar current also pushes on Earths magnetosphere. It stretches the magnetosphere away from the Sun.
64
What is the aurora?

Sometimes the Sun gives off a great number of charged particles all at once. Earths magnetosphere repels most of these charges. Some of the particles from the Sun produce other charged particles in Earths outer atmosphere. These charged particles move along Earths magnetic eld lines. They move toward Earths magnetic poles. At the poles, they crash into atoms in the atmosphere. These crashes cause the atoms to give off light. The light given off from the Suns charged particles crashing into atoms in Earths atmosphere is the aurora (uh ROR uh). In northern parts of the world, the aurora is called the northern lights. Explain Would there be an aurora if Earths magnetosphere repelled all of the electric charges from the Sun? Why or why not?
4.
Using Magnets to Create Current

In an electric motor, a magnetic eld turns electricity into motion. A machine that uses a magnetic eld to turn motion into electricity is a generator. In a motor, electric energy is changed into kinetic energy. In a generator, kinetic energy is changed into electric energy. The gures below show how current can be produced in a wire that moves in a magnetic eld. As the wire moves, the electrons in the wire also move in the same direction. If a wire is pulled downward through a magnetic eld, the electrons in the wire also move downward. This is shown in the gure on the left. The magnetic eld exerts a force on the moving electrons. This force pushes the electrons along the wire in the gure on the right. This produces an electric current.
Picture This
Electron flow
5.
Highlight Arrows In the gure on the right, highlight the arrows that show the direction of electric current ow in the wire.
65
How does an electric generator work?

To produce electric current, the wire is made into a loop. Look at the gure below. A power source provides the kinetic energy to spin the wire loop. Every time the loop makes a half turn, the current in the loop changes direction. This makes the current change from positive to negative. A current that changes direction is an alternating current (AC). To alternate means to switch back and forth. In the United States, electric currents change from positive to negative to positive 60 times each second.
Picture This
6.
Electric Generator
Power source turns loop
Analyze Will the

lightbulb be on or off if the wire loop is not spinning?
Current
Refer to page vi for the locations of Howard Industries and Kuhlman Electric Companies.
What is a direct current?

A battery produces direct current instead of alternating current. In a direct current (DC), electrons ow in only one direction. In an alternating current, electrons change the direction they are moving many times each second. Some generators are built to produce direct current instead of alternating current.
Where does Mississippis electricity come from?

The electricity that you use in Mississippi comes from many different resources. The three largest resources used for electricity production are coal, natural gas, and nuclear power. Mississippi does not produce enough electricity to meet its residents needs. Mississippi imports electricity from neighboring states. Many companies in Mississippi contribute to electricity production. These companies sell equipment, such as transformers, to electric utility companies.
66
What is a power grid?

When electric companies send electricity to your house, it is sent through a power grid. A power grid is a system of power lines, transformers, and equipment used in distributing electricity over an area. The power grid is composed of three parts: generating plant, transmission lines, and distribution facilities. A generating plant produces electricity. The transmission lines carry the electricity. A distribution facility lowers the voltage and sends the electricity to houses and businesses. A power grid can cover a small geographic region or a large region that has many states.
Changing Voltage
A machine that changes the voltage of an alternating current without losing much energy is a transformer. Some transformers increase the voltage before sending out an electric current through the power lines. Other transformers decrease the voltage so the energy can be used in homes and businesses. A transformer usually has two coils of wire wrapped around an iron core. One wire coil is connected to an alternating current source. The current produces a magnetic eld in the iron core, just like in an electromagnet. The magnetic eld it produces switches direction because the current is alternating. This alternating magnetic eld causes an alternating current in the other wire coil.
7.
Explain Why are transformers needed to decrease the voltage of electricity before it gets to homes and businesses?
How does a transformer change voltage?

A transformer increases or decreases the input voltage depending on the number of coils it has on each side. The number of coils on the output side divided by the number of coils on the input side equals the output voltage divided by the input voltage. Look at the gure of a transformer. There are three coils Input on the input side. There are nine coils on the output side. 9 3 3. Output The answer 3 can be used to nd the output voltage of the transformer. If the voltage going into the transformer is 60 V, the output would be found by multiplying 60 3. The output voltage would be 180 V. If the input side has more coils, the transformer decreases the voltage. If the output side has more coils, the transformer increases the voltage.
Picture This
8.
Analyze Is the
transformer in the gure increasing or decreasing voltage?
67
After You Read

Mini Glossary
alternating current: a current that changes direction direct current: a current in which electrons ow in only one direction electromagnet: a wire with current owing through it that is wrapped around an iron core generator: a machine that uses a magnetic eld to turn motion into electricity motor: any machine that changes electric energy into kinetic energy power grid: a system of power lines, transformers, and equipment used in distributing electricity over a geographical area transformer: a machine that changes the voltage of an alternating current without losing much energy
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Describe how a generator and a motor can be used together to make kinetic energy from a magnetic eld.
2. Match each machine with the description of what the machine does. Write the letter of each machine in Column 2 on the line in front of the description in Column 1. Column 1 1. turns motion into electricity 2. a system used to distribute electricity over a geographic area 3. moves electricity without making heat 4. speeds up subatomic particles 5. changes the voltage of an alternating current 6. makes kinetic energy Column 2 a. particle accelerator
b. generator c. motor d. power grid e. transformer f. superconductor
3. You were asked to highlight the main idea of each paragraph. How did you decide what the main ideas were?
End of Lesson
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68
Lesson
Light
L
Standard 2.e: Contrast various components of the electromagnetic spectrum (e.g., infrared, visible light, ultraviolet) and predict their impacts on living things. (DOK 2)
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

What would life be like without light? On the lines below, describe two things for which you need light.
the properties of light waves about the electromagnetic spectrum how humans see
Read to Learn
Restate the Main Point
Highlight the main point in each paragraph. Restate the main point in your own words.
Waves in Empty Space

You see the Moon when you look up in the sky because of light waves. Like sound waves and waves in water, light waves can travel through matter. Also, light waves can do something these other waves cant. Light waves can travel through space that contains almost no matter. You can see the light from the Moon because light waves are electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves are waves that can travel through matter and through empty space.
How fast can light travel?

Have you ever seen a movie where spaceships travel faster than the speed of light? That is impossible, because nothing travels faster than the speed of light. In empty space, light travels at about 300,000 km/s. That means that light from the Sun can travel 150 million km to reach Earth in only eight and a half minutes. Light travels fastest through empty space and slowest through solids. This is because matter has particles in it that slow down light.
1.
Explain Why does light travel slowest through solids?
How long is a wavelength of light?

Wavelengths of light are usually measured in a unit called the nanometer (nm). One nanometer is very small. It is one billionth of a meter.
70
Lesson L Light
Wavelength Magnetic field
Picture This
2.
Interpret Scientic Illustrations On the

gure, highlight and label a wavelength other than the one shown.
Electric field
Direction of travel
Properties of Light Waves

Light waves, and all electromagnetic waves, are transverse waves. Remember the transverse wave on a rope? The transverse wave made the rope move at right angles to the direction the wave moved. Electromagnetic waves also make matter move at right angles to the direction the wave is moving. An electromagnetic wave has an electric part and a magnetic part. Both parts are called elds. They are shown in the diagram of a light wave in the gure above. Both elds vibrate at right angles to the direction the wave moves. The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is the number of times the electric and magnetic elds vibrate in one second. The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is the distance between the crests or troughs of the vibrating electric or magnetic parts.
How is the intensity of a light wave measured?

The intensity of waves is a measure of the amount of energy that the waves carry. The intensity of light waves tells how bright a light is. A dim light has lower intensity. Its waves carry less energy. A bright light has higher intensity. Its waves carry more energy. As you move away from a light source, the energy spreads out and the intensity decreases.
3.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

There are many kinds of electromagnetic waves. Together, all these waves make up what is called the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is made of all the frequencies and wavelengths of electromagnetic waves.
Determine Why does a bright light have a high intensity?
71
Picture This
4.
List Name three types of

waves in the electromagnetic spectrum.
How is the electromagnetic spectrum organized?

At one end of the spectrum are the waves that have the lowest frequency. They also have the lowest energy and the longest wavelength. At the other end of the spectrum are the waves that have the highest frequency. They also have the highest energy and the shortest wavelength. All of the waves are the same kind of waves. They only have different frequencies, wavelengths, and energy.
INCREASING WAVELENGTH
Radio waves
Infrared waves
Ultraviolet waves
Gamma rays
Microwaves
Visible light
X rays
INCREASING FREQUENCY
How are radio waves and microwaves used?

Radio waves have the lowest frequency on the electromagnetic spectrum. They are on the left side of the electromagnetic spectrum in the gure above. They carry television and radio signals into your home. These waves have the longest wavelength. The wavelength of radio waves can range from 0.3 meters to thousands of meters long. The shortest radio waves are called microwaves. Microwaves have a wavelength of between 0.3 meters and 0.001 meters. Microwaves are used to cook food in microwave ovens. They also carry information to and from cell phones.
Make the following Foldable to help you organize the information you learn about electromagnetic waves.
aves & Radio W aves Microw Infrared ght Visible Lior and Col Ultraviolet Waves X Rays & ys Gamma Ra netic Electromag m Waves fro the Sun
How are infrared waves used?

You use infrared waves when you use a remote control to change the channel on your television. Infrared waves carry information from the remote control to the television. Infrared waves have wavelengths between 0.001 meters and 700 billionths of a meter. All warm bodies give off infrared waves. There are special night goggles that pick up infrared waves. They can be used to see people in the dark.
72
Lesson L Light
Can people see electromagnetic waves?

There is part of the electromagnetic spectrum that people can see called visible light. Visible light has wavelengths between 700 and 400 billionths of a meter. Find visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum on the previous page. Color The color of the light you see depends on the wavelength of the light wave. Violet light has the shortest wavelength. Red light has the longest wavelength. The light from the Sun or from a ashlight is white light. White light is a combination of different colors. You can see this if you shine white light into a prism. When the light passes through the prism, each different wavelength bends a different amount. You see this as a rainbow of colors coming out of the prism.
What are ultraviolet waves?

The next type of wave in the electromagnetic spectrum is ultraviolet waves. Ultraviolet waves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths between 400 billionths and 10 billionths of a meter. Ultraviolet waves are shorter and carry more energy than visible light waves. There are ultraviolet waves in sunlight. Some exposure to ultraviolet waves is good for you. Ultraviolet waves help your body make vitamin D. You need vitamin D to keep your teeth and bones healthy. Ultraviolet waves can give you a sunburn if you stay out in the sunlight too long. Too much sunlight can damage your skin and even cause skin cancer. Infer Name one way that ultraviolet light is helpful and one way it is harmful.
5.
How are X-rays and gamma rays used?

X-rays and gamma rays have the highest energy, highest frequency, and shortest wavelengths of all the waves in the electromagnetic spectrum.
What kind of electromagnetic waves come from the Sun?

Most of the energy from the Sun is in the form of ultraviolet, visible, and infrared waves. These waves spread out over our entire solar system. Only a small part of them reach Earth. Earths atmosphere keeps most of the ultraviolet waves from reaching Earths surface. That means almost all the energy from the Sun that reaches Earth is carried by infrared and visible electromagnetic waves.
6.
Analyze What protects

you from most of the ultraviolet rays from the Sun?
73
The Eye and Seeing Light

Objects you see either reect light or give off light. When this light reaches your eye, you see the object. The gure below shows what happens to light that enters your eye. First, light waves pass through a clear layer called the cornea (KOR nee uh). Then, the light goes through the lens, which is also clear. From the lens, the light shines on the back part of your eye called the retina.
Picture This
7.
Think Critically Why

does the light in the diagram bend when it enters the eye?
Retina Lens Pupil
Cornea
Why do some objects have color?

8.
Infer What color light

does a yellow shirt reect?
When visible light waves hit an object, some of the waves are reected. The wavelengths of the light waves that are reected determine the objects color. For example, a red rose reects light waves that have the wavelengths in the red part of visible light. A green leaf reects the wavelengths that make green light. Some objects give off light. The color of objects that give off light is determined by the wavelengths they give off. For example, a neon sign looks red because it gives off red light waves. X-Rays Doctors use X-rays to see broken bones. X-rays have enough energy to go right through your skin. But, they cannot pass through dense objects, such as bones. This allows X-rays to produce an image of the inside of your body. Gamma Rays Gamma rays have even more energy than X-rays. Gamma rays are used on some foods to kill bacteria that make food spoil quickly.
74
Lesson L Light
How does the eye focus on objects?

The cornea and the lens help focus the light waves that come into your eye. This lets you see a clear picture instead of a blurry one. The lens of the eye is exible. It changes shape to let you focus on objects that are nearby and far away, as shown in the gure below.
Lens
Lens
The lens becomes atter when you focus on a distant object.
The lens becomes more curved when you focus on an object nearby.
Sometimes people need to wear glasses to correct their vision. Many people are nearsighted or farsighted. A person that is nearsighted can see nearby objects clearly. Objects that are far away are blurry. Nearsightedness results if the eyeball is too long. A farsighted person can see objects that are far away clearly. They cannot, however, focus on nearby objects. Farsightedness results if the eyeball is too short.
Picture This
9.
Describe What happens to the lens of your eye when you focus on an object that is far away?
What happens when light reaches the retina?

When the light reaches the retina, special cells there send signals to your brain and you see the object. How? The retina has millions of special cells called rods and cones. Rods help you see when there is not much light. Cones help you see colors. There are three types of cones. One type helps you see red and yellow light. Another type helps you see green and yellow light. The third type helps you see blue and violet light. Together, the cone cells help you see all the colors in an object.
10.
Identify What kind of cells help you see color?
75
After You Read

Mini Glossary
electromagnetic spectrum: made of all the frequencies and wavelengths of electromagnetic waves electromagnetic waves: waves that can travel through matter and through empty space infrared waves: electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths between 0.001 meters and 700 billionths of a meter ultraviolet waves: electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths between 400 billionths and 10 billionths of a meter
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that tells how the electromagnetic spectrum and electromagnetic waves are related.
2. Complete the diagram with the information you learned from reading this lesson.
Radio waves Use: Use:
Electromagnetic spectrum
Visible light
Use: Gamma rays Use: to kill bacteria on food
3. You highlighted the main idea of each paragraph as you read this lesson. How did you decide what to highlight each time?
End of Lesson
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76
Lesson L Light
Lesson
Newtons First Law
M
Standard 2.f: Recognize Newtons Three Laws of Motion and identify situations that illustrate each law (e.g., inertia, acceleration, action, reaction forces). (DOK 2)
Before You Read

What do you have to do to move an object like a shopping cart? What causes motion?
What Youll Learn
the difference between balanced and net forces Newtons rst law of motion how friction affects motion
Read to Learn
Force
To make a soccer ball move, you kick it. You can pick up a book from your desk. If you hold the book in the air and then let it go, gravity pulls it to the oor. The motion of the soccer ball and the book was changed by something pushing or pulling on each of them. A force is a push or a pull. When you throw a ball, your hand exerts, or puts, a force on the ball. Then, gravity puts another force on the ball. Gravity pulls it to the ground. When the ball hits the ground, the ground exerts a force on the ball to stop it from moving. Forces can act on objects in different ways. For example, you can pick up a paper clip with a magnet. The magnet puts a force on the paper clip. Or, you can put a force on the paper clip with your hand to pick it up. If you let go of the paper clip, Earths gravity exerts a force on the paper clip and it falls to the ground.
Study Coach
Make Flash Cards As you read, write main ideas and vocabulary terms on note cards. When you nish reading, use your ash cards to make sure you understand the main ideas and terms.

Make the following two-tab Foldable to organize important information about balanced and unbalanced forces.
How can forces be combined?

More than one force can act on an object at the same time. Imagine holding a paper clip near a magnet. You, the magnet, and Earths gravity are all putting forces on the paper clip. The net force is the combination of all forces acting on an object.
Balanced Forces
Unbalanced Forces
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How does net force determine motion?

When more than one force is acting on an object, the net force determines the motion of the object. If a paper clip near a magnet is not moving, then the net force on the paper clip is zero. How do forces combine to form the net force? If the forces are in the same direction, they add together. If two forces are in opposite directions, the net force is the difference between the two forces. If one of the forces is greater than the other, the motion of the object is in the direction of the greater force.
What are balanced forces?

1.
Infer Imagine two people

pushing on a door. One person pushes the door to close it. The other person pushes on the other side of the door to open it. If both people are pushing with the same force, what will happen to the door?
Suppose you and a friend push on opposite ends of a wagon. You both push with the same force, and the wagon does not move. Your forces cancel each other because they are equal and in opposite directions. Balanced forces are two or more forces acting on an object that cancel each other and do not change the objects motion. The net force is zero if the forces acting on an object are balanced. The gure below shows balanced forces.
No motion
Balanced
What are unbalanced forces?

Unbalanced forces are forces that dont cancel each other. When unbalanced forces act on an object, the net force is not zero. The net force causes the motion of the object to change. The gure below shows how unbalanced forces change the motion of an object.
Motion
Picture This
2.
Identify Look at the box with unbalanced forces. In which direction is the strongest forceto the right or to the left? In which direction is the box moving?
Unbalanced
78
Lesson M Newtons First Law
Newtons First Law of Motion

When you stand on a skateboard, you dont move. If someone gives you a push, you and the skateboard move. You and the skateboard were objects at rest until someone pushed you. An object at rest stays at rest unless an unbalanced force acts on it and causes it to move. If someone pushes you on a skateboard, do you keep going? You probably would roll for a while, even after the person stops pushing you. An object can be moving without a net force acting on it. One of the rst to understand that objects could be moving without a force acting on them was Galileo Galilei. He was an Italian scientist who lived from 1564 to 1642. Galileos ideas helped Isaac Newton understand motion better. Newton was able to explain the motion of objects in three rules. These rules are called Newtons laws of motion. Newtons rst law of motion describes how an object moves when the net force acting on it is zero. Newtons rst law of motion states that if the net force acting on an object is zero, the object stays at rest or, if the object is already moving, it continues to move in a straight line with the same, or constant, speed. Classify Make the following table Foldable to help you organize Newtons laws of motion with examples from your own life. Write about Newtons rst law as you read this lesson. You can complete your Foldable as you read Lessons N and O.
Force Example in Your Life
First Law
Friction
Galileo knew that the motion of an object doesnt change unless an unbalanced force acts on it. Why does a book stop sliding across a desktop just after you push it? There is a force acting on the sliding book. Friction is the force that resists sliding motion between two touching surfaces. Friction also acts on objects moving through air or water. If two objects are touching each other, friction always will try to keep them from sliding past each other. Friction always will slow an object down.
What is static friction?

Have you ever tried to push something heavy, like a refrigerator or a sofa? At rst heavy objects dont move. As you push harder and harder, the object will start to move. When you rst push, the friction between the object and the oor is opposite to the force you are putting on it. The net force is zero. The object does not move. Static friction is the type of friction that prevents an object from moving when a force is applied.
3.
Infer Think about

Newtons rst law. What would happen to a moving object if there were no friction?
79
What causes static friction?

Static friction is caused by the attraction between the atoms of two surfaces that are touching each other. This makes the two surfaces stick together. The force of static friction is greater when the object is heavy or if the surfaces are rough.
What is sliding friction?

Static friction keeps an object at rest. Sliding friction slows down an object that slides. If you push a box across a oor, you have to keep pushing to overcome the force of sliding friction. Sliding friction is caused by the roughness of the surfaces that are sliding. A force must be applied to move the rough areas of one surface past the rough areas of the other. Sliding friction slows down the sliding baseball player in the gure.
Picture This
4.
Identify Draw an arrow

below the sliding baseball player to show the direction of the force due to friction.
What is rolling friction?

Rolling friction is what makes a wheel turn. There is rolling friction between the ground and the part of the wheel touching the ground. Rolling friction keeps the wheel from slipping on the ground. If a wheel is rolling forward, rolling friction exerts a force on the wheel that pushes the wheel forward. It is usually easier to pull a load on a wagon that has wheels than it is to drag the load along the ground. This is because the rolling friction between the wheels and the ground is less than the sliding friction between the load and the ground.
5.
Explain If a wheel is rolling forward, what type of friction pushes the wheel forward?
80
Lesson M Newtons First Law
After You Read

Mini Glossary
balanced forces: two or more forces acting on an object that cancel each other and do not change the motion of the object force: a push or a pull friction: the force that resists sliding motion between two touching surfaces net force: the combination of all forces acting on an object Newtons rst law of motion: if the net force acting on an object is zero, the object stays at rest; or, if the object is already moving, it continues to move in a straight line with constant speed unbalanced forces: forces that dont cancel each other
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. When you push a skateboard on a at surface, why does it stop after a while? Use at least one term in your answer.
2. Complete the table below to show how Newtons rst law of motion affects objects at rest and objects that are moving. Name the types of friction that could affect objects at rest and moving objects.
How is the object affected by Newtons rst law? Object at rest
Which type or types of friction affect it?
Object in motion
3. At the beginning of the lesson, you were asked to make ash cards. Did your ash cards help you learn about Newtons rst law of motion? Why or why not?
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about Newtons rst law of motion.
End of Lesson
81
Lesson
Newtons Second Law
N
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

If someone told you that a car was accelerating, what would that mean to you?
Newtons second law of motion why the direction of force is important
Underline As you read,

underline the main ideas under each heading. After you nish reading, review the main ideas that you have underlined.
Read to Learn
Force and Acceleration
You know that it takes force to make a heavy shopping cart go faster. You must push harder and harder to make the cart speed up. When the heavy cart is moving, what do you have to do to slow it down? You have to use force to pull on the cart to make it slow down or stop. You also have to use force to turn a cart that is already moving. When the motion of an object changes, the object is accelerating. Speeding up, slowing down, and changing directions are all examples of acceleration. Newtons second law of motion states that when a force acts on an object, the object accelerates in the direction of the force. You can calculate acceleration by using the equation below. acceleration (in meters/second2) a net force (in newtons) mass (in kilograms) Fnet m
Classify As you read this

lesson, use your table Foldable to write about Newtons second law.
First Law Second Law
In this equation, a is acceleration, m is the mass of the object, and Fnet is the net force. You can multiply both sides of the equation by the mass, and write the equation this way: Fnet ma
82
Lesson N Newtons Second Law
What are the units of force?

Force is measured in newtons (N). The newton is an SI measurement. If you are calculating force, the mass must be measured in kilograms (kg). The acceleration must be measured in meters per second squared (m/s2). One N is equal to 1 kg m/s2.
1.
Gravity
One force that you may already know about is gravity. Gravity is the force that pulls you downward when you jump into a pool or coast down a hill on a bike. Gravity also keeps Earth in orbit around the Sun and the Moon in orbit around Earth.
Explain What units are used when force is measured?
What is gravity?
Gravity is a force that exists between any two objects that have mass. It pulls two objects toward each other. Gravity depends on the mass of the objects and the distance between them. The force of gravity becomes weaker as objects move away from each other or as the mass of objects gets smaller. Large objects like Earth and the Sun have great gravitational forces. Objects with less mass like you or a pencil have weak gravitational forces. There is a gravitational force between you and the Sun. There is also a gravitational force between you and Earth. Why doesnt the Suns gravity pull you off of Earth? The gravitational force between you and the Sun is very weak because the Sun is so far away. Only Earth is close enough and massive enough to exert a noticeable gravitational force on you. Earths gravitational force on you is 1,650 times greater than the Suns gravitational force on you.
What is weight?
Earths gravity causes all objects to fall toward Earth with an acceleration of 9.8 m/s2. You can use the equation of Newtons second law to nd the force of Earths gravity on any object near Earths surface: F ma m (9.8 m/s2) Weight is the amount of gravitational force on an object. Your weight on another planet would be different from your weight on Earth. Thats because the gravitational force on other planets is different. Other planets have masses different from Earths. So, your weight would be different on other planets.
Applying Math
2.
Calculate Jamie has a mass of 35 kg. What is her weight on Earth, in newtons? Use the formula for gravitational force. Show your work.
83
How do weight and mass differ?

Weight and mass are different. Weight is the amount of gravitational force on an object. Your bathroom scale measures how much Earths gravity pulls you down. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. Gravity doesnt affect the amount of matter in an object. Mass is always the same, even on different planets. A person with a mass of 60 kg has a mass of 60 kg on Earth or on Mars. However, the weight of the person on Earth and Mars would be different, as shown in the table. Thats because the force of gravity on each planet is different.
3.
Use Denitions If you

were on Mars instead of on Earth, which would be differentyour weight or your mass?
Weight of 60-kg Person on Different Planets
Place Applying Math

4.
Weight in Newtons If Your Mass Were 60 kg

223 588 1,388 4
Percent of Your Weight on Earth

38 100 236 0.7
Explain By what number

do you multiply 588 to get your weight in newtons on Pluto?
Mars Earth Jupiter Pluto
Using Newtons Second Law

Newtons second law tells how to calculate the acceleration of an object. You must know the objects mass and the forces acting on the object. Remember that velocity is how fast an object is moving and in what direction. Acceleration tells how velocity changes.
How is speeding up acceleration?

When an object speeds up, it accelerates. Think about a soccer ball sitting on the ground. If you kick the ball, it starts moving. You exert a force on the ball. The ball accelerates only while your foot is in contact with the ball. While something is speeding up, something is pushing or pulling the object in the direction it is moving. The direction of the push or pull is the direction of the force. It is also the direction of the acceleration.
84
How is slowing down acceleration?

Slowing down also is acceleration. If you wanted to slow down an object, you would have to push or pull it against the direction it is moving. Suppose you push a book across a tabletop. When you start pushing, the book speeds up. Sliding friction also acts on the book. After you stop pushing, sliding friction makes the book slow down and stop. In the gure, the boy is slowing down because the force exerted by his feet is in the opposite direction of his motion.
Picture This
5.
Label In the gure, label

one arrow Force due to friction and the other arrow Direction of motion.
How do you calculate acceleration?

Calculate acceleration using the equation from Newtons second law of motion. For example, suppose you pull a 10-kg sled with a net force of 5 N. You can nd the acceleration as follows: a Fnet m 5N 10 kg 0.5 m/s2
6.
Applying Math
Calculate Suppose you kick a 2-kg ball with a force of 14 N. What is the acceleration of the ball? Show your work.
The sled keeps accelerating as long as you keep pulling on it. The acceleration does not depend on how fast the sled is moving. It depends only on the net force and the mass of the sled.
85
How do objects turn?

7.
Draw Imagine that you

throw a basketball and it goes through a basketball hoop. In the space below, sketch the path that the ball would follow.
Forces and motion dont always happen in a straight line. If a net force acts at an angle to the direction an object is moving, the object will follow a curved path. Imagine shooting a basketball. When the ball leaves your hands, it doesnt continue to move in a straight line. Instead, it starts to curve downward due to gravity. The curved path of the ball is a combination of its original motion and the downward motion caused by gravity.
Circular Motion
You move in a circle when you ride on a merry-go-round. This motion is called circular motion. In circular motion, your direction of motion is constantly changing. This means you are constantly accelerating. There is a force acting on you the whole time. Thats why you have to hold on tightlyto keep the force from causing you to fall off. Imagine a ball on a string moving in a circle. The string pulls on the ball and keeps it moving in a circle. The force exerted by the string is called centripetal (cen TRIP eh tal) force. The centripetal force points to the center Motion of the circle. Centripetal ce r force is always l fo Ball ta pe perpendicular to the n tri io n at Ce motion. The gure ler ce shows the direction of Ac motion, centripetal force, String and acceleration of a ball traveling in a circle on a string.
Picture This
8.
Evaluate Look at the

gure. Suppose the ball was traveling in the opposite direction around the circle. What would be the direction of the centripetal force? Why?
How do satellites stay in orbit?

Satellites are objects that orbit Earth. They go around Earth in nearly circular orbits. The centripetal force acting on a satellite is gravity. Why doesnt a satellite fall to Earth like a baseball? Actually, satellites do fall toward Earth. When you throw a baseball, its path curves until it hits Earth. If you throw the baseball faster, it goes a little farther before it hits Earth. If you could throw the ball fast enough, its curved path would follow the curve of Earths surface. The baseball would never hit the ground. It would keep traveling around Earth.
86
How fast must a satellite travel?

The speed at which a satellite must travel to stay in orbit near Earths surface is 8 km/s, or about 29,000 km/h. To place satellites into orbit, rockets carry satellites to the proper height. Then the rockets give the satellites a push in a forward direction to get them moving fast enough to orbit around the Earth.
9.
Infer Imagine that you

could throw a baseball at a speed of 29,000 km/h. What would happen to the ball if you threw it that fast?
Air Resistance
Have you ever run against the wind? If so, you have felt the force of air resistance. When an object moves through air, there is friction between the object and the air. This friction, or air resistance, slows down the object. Air resistance is a force that gets larger as an object moves faster. Air resistance also depends on the shape of an object. Think about two pieces of paper. One piece is crumpled into a ball and the other piece is at. The paper that is crumpled into a ball will fall faster than the at piece of paper falls. When an object falls it speeds up as gravity pulls it downward. At the same time, the force of air resistance pushing up on the object is increasing as the object moves faster. Finally, the upward force of air resistance becomes large enough to equal the downward force of gravity. When the air resistance force equals the weight of an object, the net force on the object is zero. Newtons second law explains that the objects acceleration then is zero. Its speed no longer increases. When air resistance balances the force of gravity, the object falls at a constant speed. This constant speed is called the terminal velocity.
Center of Mass
Imagine throwing a stick. The stick spins while it ies through the air. Even though the stick spins, there is one point on the stick, the center of mass, that moves in a smooth path. The center of mass is the point in an object that moves as if all the objects mass was concentrated at that point. For a symmetrical object, such as a ball, the center of mass is the center of the object.
10.
Identify Where is the center of mass of a ball?
87
After You Read

Mini Glossary
center of mass: the point in an object that moves as if all the objects mass was concentrated at that point Newtons second law of motion: when a force acts on an object, the object accelerates in the direction of the force weight: the amount of gravitational force on an object
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. What are three ways an object can accelerate? Answer in complete sentences.
2. Look at the gures below. For each object, draw and label an arrow to show the direction of the motion. Then draw and label an arrow to show the direction of acceleration.
3. You were asked to underline the main ideas as you read this section, then review what you underlined. Why do you think you were asked to review what you underlined?
End of Lesson
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88
Lesson
Newtons Third Law
O
Before You Read

Imagine stepping out of a canoe onto the shore of a lake. What happens to the canoe when you step out?
What Youll Learn
about forces that objects exert on each other
Read to Learn
Action and Reaction
Newtons rst two laws of motion explain how the motion of one object changes. You have learned that if balanced forces act on an object, the object will remain at rest or stay in motion with constant velocity. If the forces are unbalanced, the object will accelerate in the direction of the net force. Another of Newtons laws describes something else that happens when one object exerts a force on another object. When you push on a wall, did you know that the wall also pushes on you? Newtons third law of motion states that forces always act in equal but opposite pairs. When you push on a wall, you apply a force to the wall. However, the wall also applies a force equal in strength to you. When one object applies a force on another object, the second object exerts the same size force on the rst object.
Study Coach
Outline As you read the

lesson, create an outline using each heading from the text. Under each heading, write the main points or ideas that you read.
Why dont action and reaction forces cancel?

The forces that two objects put on each other are called an action-reaction force pair. The forces in a force pair are equal in strength, but opposite in direction. The forces in a force pair dont cancel each other out because they act on different objects. Forces can cancel each other only if they act on the same object.
Classify As you read this lesson, use your table Foldable to write about Newtons third law.
First Law Second Law Third Law
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Action and Reaction Forces Imagine a bowling ball hitting a bowling pin. The action force from the bowling ball acts on the pin. The pin ies in the direction of the force. The reaction force from the pin acts on the ball. It causes the ball to slow down.
How do action-reaction force pairs work on large and small objects?

When you walk forward, your shoe pushes Earth backward. Earth pushes your shoe forward. So why do you move when Earth does not? Earth has so much mass compared to you that it does not appear to move when you push on it. If you step on a skateboard, the force from your shoe makes the skateboard roll backward. This is because you have more mass than the skateboard.
1.
Describe Why doesnt Earth appear to move when you push down on it with your foot?
How do rockets take off?

The launching of a space shuttle is a good example of Newtons third law. When the fuel in the shuttles engines is ignited, a hot gas is produced. The gas molecules collide with the inside walls of the engines. The walls exert an action force that pushes the gas out of the bottom of the engine. The gas molecules put reaction forces on the walls of the engine. These reaction forces are what push the engine and the rocket forward. The force of the rocket engines is called thrust.
Weightlessness
You may have seen pictures of astronauts oating inside a space shuttle. The astronauts are said to be weightlessas if Earths gravity were not pulling on them. But, Earths gravity is what keeps a shuttle in orbit. Newtons laws of motion can explain why the astronauts oat as if there werent any forces acting on them.
2.
Explain When you stand on a scale, which force balances the downward pull of gravity on you?
How is weight measured?

Think about how you measure your weight. When you stand on a bathroom scale, your weight pushes down on the scale. This causes the scale pointer to show your weight. Newtons third law tells you that the scale pushes back up on you with a force equal to your weight. This force balances the downward pull of gravity on you, as shown in the gure on the left on the next page.
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Lesson O Newtons Third Law
How does free fall cause weightlessness?

Imagine standing on a scale in an elevator that is falling, as shown in the gure on the right below. An object is in free fall when the only force acting on it is gravity. The elevator, you, and the scale are all in free fall. In free fall, the scale doesnt push back up on you. Thats because the only force acting on you is gravity. According to Newtons third law, you are also not pushing down on the scale. So, the scale pointer stays at zero. You seem to be weightless. However, you are not really weightless. Earths gravity is still pulling down on you. But, because nothing is pushing up on you, you have no sensation of weight.
3.
Explain Why isnt an object in free fall really weightless?
Picture This
4.
Describe Look at the gure. What is the only force acting on the girl in the elevator on the right?
Force exerted by scale Weight of student

Weight of student
Why are spacecraft in orbit weightless?

Remember that an object will orbit Earth when its path follows the curve of Earths surface. Gravity keeps pulling the object down. But, the forward motion keeps it from falling straight downward. Objects that orbit Earth, like satellites and the space shuttle, are in free fall. Objects inside the shuttle are also in free fall. This makes the shuttle and everything inside it seem weightless, even though gravity is acting on them. Suppose an astronaut in the shuttle is holding a ball. When she lets go of the ball, it will not move unless she pushes it. The ball does not move because the ball, the astronaut, and the shuttle are all falling at the same speed. If the astronaut pushes the ball forward, it accelerates to a speed that is faster than the shuttle and astronaut. The ball moves forward inside the shuttle.
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After You Read

Mini Glossary
Newtons third law of motion: forces always act in equal but opposite pairs 1. Review the term and its denition in the Mini Glossary. What are the action and reaction forces that make a rocket move forward? Answer in complete sentences.
2. On the gure below, draw arrows and label the action and reaction forces that are on the objects as the bat hits the baseball.
3. How could you use a skateboard to show Newtons third law of motion to a group of elementary school students?
End of Lesson
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Lesson O Newtons Third Law
Lesson
Environmental Impact Over Time
P
Standard 3.a: Analyze how adaptations to a particular environment (e.g., desert, aquatic, high altitude) can increase an organisms survival and reproduction and relate organisms and their ecological niches to evolutionary change and extinction. (DOK 3)
Before You Read

On the lines below, list some kinds of plants or animals that could not live in very cold environments, such as on top of a mountain.
What Youll Learn
how environmental factors impact evolution how natural selection occurs in a species the differences between selective breeding and natural selection
Read to Learn
Survival and the Environment
Study Coach
The environment inuences which organisms can live in an area. You are not likely to see cacti in an area where it rains a lot. You would not see a large evergreen tree growing in a desert.
Create a Quiz Write a quiz question for each heading in this lesson. Be sure to answer the questions.
What nonliving factors inuence the survival of a species?

Temperature and rainfall inuence the survival of a species. Pollution limits where a species can survive. Fire, height of mountains, volcanic eruptions, and ooding of rivers can inuence the animals and plants in an area. The chaparral shrub land of California and forests of Yellowstone National Park require occasional res to survive. Some plant species need re for their seeds to germinate. Aspen trees can sprout from underground roots when re has burned away other plants in the area. As you travel up a mountain, the environment gradually changes. Temperature decreases and wind usually increases. The types of plants and animals vary at different elevations on a mountain.
Identify Make a two-tab book, as shown below. Identify the living and nonliving factors that inuence the survival of species.
Living factors Nonliving factors
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What living factors inuence the survival of a species?

Predators limit the number of animals that live in an area. Other factors include competition for food or territory. When humans change the land, for example, by logging or building, the other species in that area must adjust to the changes, leave the area, or die.
Species and the Environment

Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace were biologists in the 1800s who studied why there is a large variety of living things on Earth. They hypothesized that different, long-term, environmental inuences on populations produced the variety of species.
1.
Explain According to Darwin and Wallace, why is there a large variety of species on Earth?
What is the theory of evolution through natural selection?

Darwin and Wallace concluded that changes happen from generation to generation that result in adaptations to the environment. This process is called evolution. Evolution is the change in the genetics of a species over time. Darwin and Wallace questioned how evolution happens. They proposed that organisms that are better adapted to an environment survive and reproduce at a greater rate than organisms that are not. They called this natural selection, because the adapted organisms are selected naturally to survive and increase in number. Natural selection can produce new organisms or new species.
How does mutation affect species?

Recall that different forms of alleles produce differences in traits. Mutation (myew TAY shun) is the process in which changes to DNA result in new alleles. Some mutations prevent an organism from surviving and reproducing. Others help an organism survive and reproduce. Helpful mutations may be inherited by offspring and can lead to the evolution of a new species.
Compare Make a three-tab

book, as shown below. Use the Venn diagram to compare selective breeding and natural selection.
Natural selection Selective breeding
Does selective breeding occur in nature?

Charles Darwin knew that humans could selectively breed animals that possess desirable traits to produce new breeds of animals. He inferred that the same thing might happen naturally in different environments.
Both
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Lesson P Environmental Impact Over Time
How can many species develop from one ancestral species?

When nature favors more than one variation of a trait, two or more new species can develop from one ancestral species. Adaptive radiation is the production of several species from one ancestral species. Darwin visited the Galpagos Islands. He observed many species of nches on the islands. Because they were isolated geographically from the same species on the mainland, they adapted to the various conditions on the islands. Over time, each ancestral species produced several different species. Each adapted to the different environments on each island.
How does extinction occur?

Extinction occurs when the last individual of a species dies. Millions of species have become extinct. Fossils provide evidence of these species. As you can see in the chart below, the rate at which species become extinct today is much faster than at any time in the recent past. Species Extinctions Since 1800
60,000 50,000
2.
Dene What is adaptive

radiation?
Extinctions
Picture This
3.
40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000
Interpret Data
According to the graph, how many species might be extinct by the yeat 2010?
0 1800
1830
1860
1890
1920 1950 Date
1980
2010
2040
Why does extinction occur?

Extinction can occur for many reasons. It can happen when habitats are destroyed. Extinction also can occur when a new species is introduced to an area. The introduced species might produce many offspring and crowd out existing species. Introduced species may prey on existing species that do not have defenses against them.
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After You Read

Mini Glossary
adaptive radiation: production of several species from one ancestral species evolution: change in the genetics of a species over time extinction: occurs when the last member of a species dies out mutation (myew TAY shun): process in which changes to DNA result in new alleles natural selection: process in which organisms that are better adapted to an environment survive and reproduce at a greater rate than organisms that are not
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write one or two sentences that explain the difference between evolution and extinction.
2. Complete the concept web below to show the kinds of nonliving and living environmental inuences that affect the survival of species.
Nonliving Living
Environmental Inuences on Species Survival
End of Lesson
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Lesson P Environmental Impact Over Time
Lesson
Cell Structure
Q
Standard 3.b: Compare and contrast the major components and functions of different types of cells. (DOK 2)
Before You Read

Think about the different jobs people have in a restaurant. List three of those jobs on the lines below. Then explain how these people work together to provide food to customers.
What Youll Learn
the names and functions of cell parts the importance of a nucleus in a cell about tissues, organs, and organ systems
Read to Learn
Common Cell Traits
Identify Important Words As you read the lesson,

circle all the words you do not understand. Highlight the part of the text that helps you dene those words.
Living cells have many things in common. A cell is the smallest unit that can perform life functions. All cells have an outer covering called a cell membrane. Inside every cell is a gelatinlike material called cytoplasm (SI tuh pla zum). Cytoplasm contains hereditary material that controls the life of the cell.
How do cells differ?

Cells come in different sizes and shapes. A cells shape might tell you something about its function. A nerve cell has many branches that send and receive messages to and from other cells. A nerve cell in your leg could be a meter long. A human egg cell is no bigger than the dot on this i. A human blood cell is much smaller than the egg cell. A bacterium is even smaller8,000 of the smallest bacteria can t inside one red blood cell. A nerve cell cannot change its shape. Muscle cells and some blood cells can change shape. Some cells in plant stems are long and hollow and have openings at their ends. These cells carry food and water throughout the plant.
1.
Infer Why are cells in

plant stems hollow with openings at both ends?
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Picture This
2.
What types of cells are there?

Scientists separate cells into two groups, as shown in the gure below. A prokaryotic (proh KAYR ee yah tihk) cell does not have membrane-bound structures inside the cell. A cell with membrane-bound structures inside the cell is called a eukaryotic (yew KAYR ee yah tihk) cell. Eukaryotic
Cell wall Cell membrane Cell membrane Nucleolus Nucleus with hereditary material
Identify Circle the

features that are the same in both types of cells.
Prokaryotic
Gel-like capsule
Flagellum Hereditary material Ribosomes Organelles Ribosomes
Cell Organization
Just as restaurant workers have specic jobs, each cell in your body has a certain job to do. Cells take in nutrients, release and store chemicals, and break down substances 24 hours a day.
What protects a cell and gives it shape?

A cell wall is a tough, rigid outer covering that protects the cell and gives it shape. The cells of plants, algae, fungi, and most bacteria are enclosed in a cell wall. A plant cell wall is mostly made up of a substance called cellulose. The long, threadlike bers of cellulose form a thick mesh. The mesh allows water and dissolved materials to pass through the cell wall. Cell walls may contain pectin, which is used to thicken jams and jellies. Cell walls also contain lignin. Lignin is a compound that makes cell walls rigid. Plant cells responsible for support have large amounts of lignin in their walls.
3.
List three things found in

the cell wall of a plant.
98
Lesson Q Cell Structure
What is the function of the cell membrane?

The protective layer around all cells is the cell membrane. If a cell has a cell wall, the cell membrane is inside the cell wall. The cell membrane controls what happens between a cell and its environment. Water and some food particles move freely into and out of a cell through the cell membrane. Waste products leave through the cell membrane.
What is cytoplasm?
Cytoplasm is a gelatin-like material in the cell. Many important chemical reactions occur within the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm has a framework called the cytoskeleton, which helps the cell keep or change its shape. The cytoskeleton helps some cells to move. The cytoskeleton is made up of thin, hollow tubes of protein and thin, solid protein bers.
What are the functions of organelles?

Most of a cells life processes happen in the cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells are structures called organelles. Some organelles process energy. Others make materials needed by the cell or other cells. Some organelles move materials. Others store materials. Most organelles are surrounded by membranes.
4.
Describe What is the cytoskeleton?
Why is the nucleus important?

The nucleus (NEW klee us) directs all cell activities. The nucleus usually is the largest organelle in a cell. It is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Materials enter and leave the nucleus through openings in the membrane. The nucleus contains DNA. DNA is the chemical that contains the code for the cells structure and activities.
Which organelles process energy?

Cells need energy to do their work. In plant cells, food is made in green organelles called chloroplasts (KLOR uh plasts). Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll (KLOR uh hl), which captures light energy that is used to make a sugar called glucose. Animal cells and some other cells do not have chloroplasts. Animals must get food from their environment. The energy in food is stored until it is released by organelles called mitochondria (mi tuh KAHN dree uh). Mitochondria release energy by breaking down food into carbon dioxide and water. Some types of cells, such as muscle cells, are more active than other types of cells. These cells have large numbers of mitochondria.
5.
Explain the function of

the nucleus.
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What organelle makes proteins?

Protein takes part is almost every cell activity. Cells make their own proteins on structures called ribosomes, which are shown below. Ribosomes are considered organelles, even though they are not membrane bound. Hereditary material in the nucleus tells ribosomes how, when, and in what order to make proteins. Ribosomes are made in the nucleolus (new klee OHL us) and move out into the cytoplasm. Some ribosomes are free-oating in the cytoplasm and some attach to the endoplasmic reticulum. Animal Cell
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) Ribosome Nucleus Nucleolus Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
6.
Identify Where are ribosomes made?
Cell membrane
Mitochondrion Cytoskeleton Free ribosome Lysosome

Golgi bodies
Picture This
7.
Compare Circle the

organelles that direct cell activities in each cell. Highlight the organelle that contains chlorophyll.
Chloroplast Free ribosome Cell wall of adjacent cell Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
Plant Cell
Central vacuole
Nucleus Nucleolus Ribosome Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Mitochondrion Cell wall Cell membrane
Golgi bodies
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What is the endoplasmic reticulum?

The endoplasmic reticulum (en duh PLAZ mihk rih TIHK yuh lum), or ER, is a series of folded membranes in which materials can be processed and moved around inside the cell. Smooth ER processes materials such as lipids that store energy. Rough ER has ribosomes that make proteins. The proteins are used within the cell or moved out of the cell.
What types of organelles transport or store materials?

The Golgi (GAWL jee) bodies sort proteins and other cellular materials and put them into structures called vesicles. Vesicles deliver the cellular materials to areas inside the cell and to the cell membrane where they are released. Cells have membrane-bound spaces called vacuoles. Vacuoles store cellular materials, such as water, wastes, and food. Describe Make a three-tab Foldable, as shown below. Use the Foldable to describe how cells are organized to work together.
Tissue
From Cell to Organism

The gure below shows how a many-celled organism is organized. A cell in a many-celled organism performs its own work and depends on other cells in the organism. Similar cells grouped together to do one job form a tissue. For example, bone tissue is made up of bone cells. Nerve tissue is made up of nerve cells. Blood, a liquid tissue, includes different types of blood cells. Each cell works to keep the tissue alive. Tissues are organized into organs. An organ is made up of two or more different types of tissue that work together. For example, your heart is an organ that is made up of cardiac tissue, nerve tissue, and blood tissues. An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform a function. Your cardiovascular system is made up of your heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. Organ systems work together to keep an organism alive.
Cell Tissue Organ Organ system
Organ
Organ System
Picture This
8.
Organism
Sequence Write a number from 1 to 5 beside each label on the diagram. A 1 is the simplest level of organization and a 5 is the most complex level of organization.
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After You Read

Mini Glossary
cell membrane: the protective layer around a cell, which controls what happens between a cell and its environment cell wall: a tough, rigid outer covering that protects the cell and gives it shape chloroplast (KLOR uh plast): a green organelle that makes food in plant cells cytoplasm (SI tuh pla zum): gelatin-like material inside every cell where hereditary material is contained endoplasmic reticulum: a series of folded membranes in which materials can be processed and moved around inside the cell Golgi (GAWL jee) bodies: organelles that sort proteins and other cellular materials and put them into structures called vesicles mitochondria: organelles that release energy by breaking down food into carbon dioxide and water nucleus (NEW klee us): directs all cell activities organ: a structure made up of two or more different types of tissues that work together organelle: a structure within a eukaryotic cell; some process energy and others make substances needed by the cell or other cells ribosome: a small structure where a cell makes its own protein tissue: a group of similar cells that work together to do one job
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one term that describes a cell structure and write a sentence to explain its function.
2. Complete the diagram below to show the organization of a many-celled organism.
Tissue
Organism
3. Beside each organelle listed below, write Plant, Animal, or Both to show where the organelle is found. a. Nucleus b. Chloroplast c. Golgi bodies
End of Lesson
d. Ribosome e. Lysosome f. Mitochondrion

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Lesson
Viruses
R
Standard 3.c: Describe how viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites may infect the human body and interfere with normal body functions. (DOK 1)
What Youll Learn

Before You Read

Think about the vaccinations you have had when at the doctors ofce or at a health clinic. On the lines below, list the kinds of diseases these shots will help prevent.
how a virus copies itself how vaccines help people some uses of viruses
Study Coach
Create a Quiz Write a

question about the main idea under each heading. Exchange quizzes with another student. Together discuss the answers to the quizzes.
Read to Learn
What are viruses?
Cold sores, measles, chicken pox, colds, the u, and AIDS are some diseases caused by nonliving particles called viruses. A virus is a strand of hereditary material surrounded by a protein coating.
What are characteristics of viruses?

Viruses dont have a nucleus or other organelles. They also lack a cell membrane. Viruses have a variety of shapes. A virus is so small it can be seen only by an electron microscope. Before the electron microscope was invented, scientists only hypothesized about viruses. Identify Make quarter sheets of notebook paper, as shown below. On the rst sheet, answer the question What are viruses?. On the second sheet, answer the question How do viruses multiply?.
What are viruses? How do viruses multiply?
How do viruses multiply?

The only way a virus can reproduce is by making copies of itself. A virus, however, must have the help of a living cell called a host cell. Crystalized forms of some viruses can be stored for years. Then, if they enter an organism, they can multiply quickly. Once a virus enters a host cell, the virus can act in two ways. It can be either active or latent, which is an inactive stage.
104
Lesson R Viruses
What happens when a virus is active?

When a virus enters a cell and is active, it causes the host cell to make new viruses. This process destroys the host cell. Follow the steps in the gure below to see one way that an active virus works inside a cell.
New viruses are released as the host cell bursts open and is destroyed.
The virus attaches to a specific host cell. Host cell Virus
Picture This
1.
Sequence Circle the step that shows the viruss hereditary material entering the host cell. Highlight the step that shows new viruses forming inside a host cell.
Nucleus Viral hereditary material The viruss hereditary material enters the host cell.
New viruses form inside of the host cell.
Viral proteins The hereditary material of the virus causes the cell to make viral hereditary material and proteins.
What happens when a virus is latent?

When a latent, or inactive, virus enters a host cell, its hereditary material can become part of the cells hereditary material. It does not immediately make new viruses or destroy the cell. As the host cell reproduces, the viruss DNA is copied. A virus can be latent for many years. Then, certain conditions either inside or outside the body can cause the latent virus to become an active virus. If you have a cold sore on your lip, a latent virus in your body has become active. The cold sore is a sign that the virus is active and destroying cells in your lip. When the cold sore goes away, the virus has become latent again. The virus is still in your bodys cells, but it is hiding and doing no harm.
2.
Describe what happens

to a latent viruss DNA when a host cell reproduces.
105
How do viruses affect organisms?

Viruses attack animals, plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria. Some viruses can infect only certain kinds of cells. For example, the potato leafroll virus infects only potato crops. A few viruses can infect many kinds of cells. The rabies virus can infect humans and many other animal hosts.
How does a virus reach a host cell?

A virus cannot move by itself. There are several ways it can reach a cell host. For example, a virus can be carried to a host cell by the wind or by being inhaled. When a virus infects an organism, the virus rst attaches to the surface of the host cell. The virus and the place where it attaches on the host cell must t together exactly, as shown below. This is why most viruses attack only one kind of host cell.
Picture This
3.
Cell membrane Virus
Identify Circle each of the places that the virus is attached to the cell.
What are bacteriophages?

Viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophages (bak TIHR ee uh fay jihz). They differ from other kinds of viruses in the way that they enter bacteria. Bacteriophages attach to a bacterium and inject their hereditary material. The entire cycle takes about 20 minutes. Each virus-infected cell releases an average of 100 viruses.
4.
Dene the term vaccine.
Fighting Viruses
A vaccine is a kind of medicine used to prevent a disease. It is made from weakened virus materials that cannot cause disease anymore. Vaccines have been made to prevent many diseases, including chicken pox, measles, and mumps.
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Lesson R Viruses
How was the rst vaccine developed?

Edward Jenner developed the rst vaccine in 1796. The vaccine was for smallpox. Jenner noticed that people who got cowpox did not get smallpox. He made a vaccine from the sores of people who had cowpox. He injected the cowpox vaccine into healthy people. The cowpox vaccine protected them from smallpox.
How are viral diseases treated?

One way your body can ght viral infections is by making interferons. Interferons are proteins that are made quickly by virus-infected cells and move to noninfected cells in the host. Interferons cause the noninfected cells to make protective materials. Antiviral drugs can be given to an infected patient to help ght a virus. A few drugs are helpful against viruses. Some of these drugs are not used widely because they have harmful side effects.
5.
Identify Who developed the rst vaccine?
How can viral diseases be prevented?

There are many ways to prevent viral diseases. People can get vaccinated against diseases. Sanitary conditions can be improved. People who have viral diseases can be kept away from healthy people. Animals, such as mosquitoes, that spread disease can be kept under control.
6.
Describe one way viral

diseases can be prevented.
Research with Viruses

Scientists are discovering helpful uses for some viruses. One use, called gene therapy, substitutes normal hereditary material for a cells awed hereditary material. Normal hereditary material is placed into viruses. These altered viruses then are used to infect those cells that contain awed hereditary material. The normal hereditary material in the altered viruses enters the cells and replaces the awed hereditary material. Using gene therapy, scientists hope to help people with genetic disorders and nd a cure for cancer.
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After You Read

Mini Glossary
host cell: a living cell that a virus enters virus: a strand of hereditary material surrounded by a protein coating that can infect and multiply in a host cell
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that describes the relationship between a virus and a host cell.
2. Choose one of the question headings in the Read to Learn section. Write the question in the space below. Then write your answer to that question on the lines that follow.
Write your question here.
3. Complete the diagram below to identify two ways viruses can act inside host cells.
Viruses enter host cells and become
or
End of Lesson
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Lesson R Viruses
Lesson
What are bacteria?
S
Standard 3.c: Describe how viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites may infect the human body and interfere with normal body functions. (DOK 1)
Before You Read

What do you think an antibacterial soap does? Why do people use antibacterial products? Write your answer below.
What Youll Learn
the characteristics of bacterial cells the difference between aerobic and anaerobic organisms
Read to Learn
Characteristics of Bacteria
Study Coach
Take notes as you read. Organize notes into two columns. On the left, list a main idea about the material in each subhead. On the right, list the details that support the main idea.
In the l600s, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch merchant, observed scrapings from his teeth under his microscope. He did not know it, but the organisms he was observing were bacteria. A hundred years later, bacteria were proven to be living cells.
Where do bacteria live?

Bacteria (singular, bacterium) live in the air, in foods, and on the surfaces of things you touch. They are found underground and deep underwater. Bacteria live on your skin and in your body. Some kinds of bacteria live in extremely hot and extremely cold environments. Very few other organisms can survive these conditions.
Describe Make a three-tab

book to describe and show the three shapes of bacteria.
What are the shapes of bacterial cells?

Bacteria are found in three different shapesspheres, rods, and spirals. Bacteria that are shaped like a sphere are called cocci (KAHK si) (singular, coccus). Rod-shaped bacteria are called bacilli (buh SIH li) (singular, bacillus). Spiral-shaped bacteria are called spirilla (spi RIH luh) (singular, spirillum). Bacteria are one-celled organisms that live alone or in chains or groups.
Cocci
Bacilli
Spirilla
109
What do bacterial cells look like?

The gure below shows you what a bacterial cell looks like. A bacterial cell contains cytoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane and a cell wall. A bacterial cell is classied as prokaryotic (pro KAYR ee yah tihk) because its nucleus is not surrounded by a cell membrane. A bacterial cells genetic material is in its one chromosome, found in the cytoplasm. A bacterial cells cytoplasm also contains ribosomes. Ribosomes make proteins that every cell needs to survive.
Picture This
1.
Ribosome Cytoplasm
Identify Underline the names of the parts of the cell that are inside the cells membrane.
Chromosome
Flagellum
Cell membrane Gelatinlike capsule Cell wall

What special features do bacteria have?

Some bacteria, such as the one in the gure above, have a thick, gelatin-like capsule around the cell wall. The capsule protects the bacterium from other cells that might destroy it. The capsule and the hair-like structures found on many bacteria help them stick to surfaces. Some bacteria also have an outer coating called a slime layer. The slime layer helps a bacterium stick to a surface and reduces water loss. Many bacteria that live in moist places have tails called agella (singular, agellum) that help them move.
2.
Explain What results

from ssion in bacteria?
What is ssion?
Bacteria usually reproduce by ssion. Fission produces two new cells that have genetic material identical to each other and to that of the original cell. Fission is the simplest form of asexual reproduction.
110
Lesson S What are bacteria?
Do bacteria reproduce sexually?

Some bacteria reproduce through a process similar to sexual reproduction. In this process, two bacteria line up beside each other and exchange DNA through a thin tube. The cells then have different combinations of genetic material than they had before the exchange. The new combinations may improve the bacterias chances for survival.
How do producers and consumers differ?

Some bacteria make their own food. These bacteria are called producers. Bacteria that contain chlorophyll make their food using light energy. Other bacteria use energy from chemical reactions to make food. Most bacteria do not make their own food. They get their food from the environment. These bacteria are called consumers. Some consumers break down dead organisms to obtain energy. Others live in or on other living organisms and get food from their hosts.
What are aerobes and anaerobes?

Most organisms need oxygen for the breakdown of food that releases energy. An organism that uses oxygen when breaking down food is called an aerobe (AY rohb). Humans and most bacteria are aerobic organisms. An organism that lives without oxygen is called an anaerobe (AN uh rohb). Several kinds of anaerobic bacteria live in human intestines. Some bacteria cannot survive in places with oxygen.
3.
Identify What is the difference between producer bacteria and consumer bacteria?
Eubacteria
Bacteria are classied into two kingdomseubacteria (yew bak TIHR ee uh) and archaebacteria (ar kee bak TIHR ee uh). Most eubacteria are grouped by the following characteristics: the shape and structure of the cell how they get food the kind of food they consume the wastes they produce how they move whether they are aerobic or anaerobic
4.
Determine Into what two kingdoms are bacteria classied?
111
What bacteria live in intestines of humans?

Many different kinds of bacteria can live in the intestines of humans and other animals. The gure below identies bacteria based on the foods they use and the wastes they produce.
Picture This
5.
Identify Which bacteria

do not use lactose as a food?
No
Can they use lactose as a food? Yes Can they use citric acid as their only carbon source? No Escherichia Yes Do they produce acetoin as a waste? No Citrobacter Yes Enterobacter
Can they use citric acid as their only carbon source? No Shigella Yes Salmonella
What are cyanobacteria?

6.
Explain Why are cyanobacteria producers?
An important group of producer eubacteria is the cyanobacteria (si an oh bak TIHR ee uh). Cyanobacteria live in water and use carbon dioxide, water, and energy from sunlight to make their own food. They produce oxygen as waste. Cyanobacteria have chlorophyll and a blue pigment, or coloring.
Why are cyanobacteria important?

Some cyanobacteria live together in long chains. They are covered with a gelatin-like substance that helps them live in groups called colonies. Cyanobacteria are food for some organisms that live in ponds, lakes, and oceans. Other water organisms use the oxygen that cyanobacteria produce. However, cyanobacteria can harm water organisms. When a pond has large amounts of nutrients, the number of cyanobacteria increases. When the cyanobacteria population gets large enough, a mat of bubbly green slime appears on the surface of the water. This slime is called a bloom. The cyanobacteria use up the nutrients in the water and they die. Then other bacteria that are aerobic consumers feed on the dead cyanobacteria and use up the oxygen in the water. Because there is less oxygen in the water, sh and other organisms die.
112
How are consumer eubacteria categorized?

There are two categories of consumer eubacteria. The categories are based on the result of the Grams stain. Gram-positive cells stain purple because they have thicker cell walls. Gram-negative cells stain pink because their cell walls are thinner. Doctors and veterinarians use antibiotics (an ti bi AH tihks) to treat infections caused by bacteria. Some gram-positive bacteria are harder to treat with antibiotics than gram-negative bacteria. One group of eubacteria does not have cell walls. Because they dont have cell walls, their shapes change. They cant be described as coccus, bacillus, or spirillum. The bacteria that cause pneumonia in humans do not have cell walls.
7.
Infer Why do you think

some antibiotics are more effective against the gram-negative bacteria than the gram-positive bacteria?
Archaebacteria
Kingdom Archaebacteria contains certain kinds of bacteria that live in extreme conditions, such as hot springs. The conditions in which some archaebacteria live today are similar to conditions found during Earths early history. Archaebacteria is grouped according to where the bacteria live or how they get energy.
Where do archaebacteria live?

One group lives in salty environments, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah. Other groups live in environments that are acidic or hot, such as in hot springs. The temperature of the water in hot springs is more than 100C.
8.
Explain how scientists

classify archaebacteria.
How do archaebacteria get energy?

Some archaebacteria use the energy holding carbon dioxide molecules together. They give off methane gas as a waste. Methane producers are anaerobic. They live in swamps, in the intestines of cattle, and in humans. These archaebacteria are used in sewage treatment. The bacteria break down the waste material that has been ltered from sewage water.
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After You Read

Mini Glossary
aerobe (AY rohb): an organism that uses oxygen for respiration anaerobe (AN uh rohb): an organism that is adapted to live without oxygen ssion: a reproductive process that produces two new cells with genetic material identical to each other and that of the original cell agella: whiplike tails that help bacteria move
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains the difference between aerobes and anaerobes.
2. Select one of the question headings and write it below. Then write an answer to the question on the lines that follow.
3. You made an outline as you read this section. How did it help you understand bacteria?
End of Lesson
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114
Lesson
Bacteria in Your Life
T
Standard 3.c: Describe how viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites may infect the human body and interfere with normal body functions. (DOK 1) Also covers: 3.g
Before You Read

Doctors sometimes prescribe antibiotics for their patients. What is the purpose of the antibiotics? Write your answer on the lines below.
What Youll Learn
how some bacteria are helpful why nitrogen-xing bacteria are important how some bacteria cause human disease
Read to Learn
Benecial Bacteria
Only a few bacteria cause diseases. Most bacteria are more important because of the benets they provide.
Identify Key Words As you read this section, circle the ways bacteria are helpful. Underline the ways bacteria are harmful.
What kinds of bacteria help you?

Bacteria are important for keeping you healthy. Large numbers of bacteria are found in the large intestine of your digestive system. They are generally harmless and help you stay healthy. For example, some bacteria in your intestine produce vitamin K, which you need for blood clotting. Some bacteria produce antibiotics. Antibiotics are chemicals that slow or stop the growth of other bacteria. Many bacterial diseases in humans and animals can be treated with antibiotics.
How do bacteria help the environment?

Consumer bacteria help keep balance in nature. Without bacteria, there would be layers of dead material all over Earth. A saprophyte (SAP ruh te) is any organism that uses dead organisms for food and energy. Saprophytes help recycle nutrients that other organisms can use. Most sewage-treatment plants use saprophytes. They break down wastes into carbon dioxide and water. Describe Make a two-tab
book, as shown below. Describe helpful and harmful bacteria.
Helpful bacteria
Harmful bacteria
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How do plants and animals obtain nitrogen?

1.
Infer Why are nitrogenxing bacteria important to humans?
Plants and animals must use nitrogen to make proteins and nucleic acids. Animals can eat plants or other animals that contain nitrogen. Plants have to take in nitrogen from the soil or air. Although the air is about 78 percent nitrogen, plants and animals cannot use it directly. Nitrogen-xing bacteria change the nitrogen from the air into forms that plants and animals can use. The roots of some plants such as peanuts and peas develop structures that contain nitrogen-xing bacteria.
What is bioremediation?
Bioremediation uses organisms to clean up or remove pollutants from the environment. One kind of bioremediation uses bacteria to break down wastes into harmless compounds. Other bacteria use pollutants as food. Bioremediation has been used to clean up oil spills.
Harmful Bacteria
2.
Determine How can

bacterial pathogens enter the body?
Some bacteria, known as pathogens, are harmful. A pathogen is any organism that causes disease. One bacterial pathogen, for example, causes strep throat.
How do pathogens make you sick?

Bacterial pathogens cause illness and disease in several ways. They can enter your body when you breathe. They also can enter through a cut in the skin. Once these pathogens are inside the body, they can multiply, damage cells, and cause illness and disease.
What are toxins?

Toxins are poisonous substances produced by some pathogens. Botulism is a type of food poisoning caused by a toxin-producing bacteria. Botulism is able to grow and produce toxins inside sealed cans of food. Some bacteria, like the one that causes botulism, can survive unfavorable conditions by making thick-walled structures called endospores. Endospores can exist for hundreds of years before they start growing again. If botulism endospores are in canned food, they can develop into regular bacterial cells and make toxins again. Canned foods that you buy in the store go through a process that uses steam under high pressure, which kills bacteria and most endospores.
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Lesson T Bacteria in Your Life
What is pasteurization?
All food contains bacteria. You can kill the bacteria by sterilizing it with heat. Heating food to high temperatures can change the taste of the food. Pasteurization is a way of heating food to a temperature that kills most harmful bacteria but causes little change in the foods taste. The photo below shows some of the foods that are pasteurized. Identify Use a half sheet of
notebook paper, as shown below, to identify important facts about pasteurization.
Pasteurization
How are bacterial diseases treated?

Antibiotics are used to treat many bacterial diseases. Penicillin is an antibiotic that works by preventing bacteria from making cell walls. Some kinds of bacteria cannot survive without cell walls. Vaccines are produced to treat many bacterial diseases. A vaccine can be made from damaged particles taken from bacterial cell walls or from killed bacteria. When the body is injected with a vaccine, white blood cells in the blood recognize that kind of bacteria. If the same kind of bacteria enters the body at a later time, the white blood cells attack them.
3.
Identify From what is a vaccine made?
Microorganisms that cause diseases

Many diseases are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists, and parasites. Recall that viruses are a tiny piece of genetic material that infects the host cells and multiplies inside them. Viruses destroy tissues or interrupt important body activities. Bacteria can slow the normal growth and activities of body cells and tissues. Other Pathogens Protists can destroy tissues and blood cells. They also can interfere with normal body functions. Fungus infections work in similar way and can cause athletes foot, nonhealing wounds, and chronic lung disease. Parasites are organisms that live in or on another organism. Malaria and ringworm are caused by parasites.
117
Foods and Medicines

4.
Describe ways that bacteria are benecial.
Think about what you have eaten in the last few days. Have you had pizza? How about a cheeseburger? Cheese, yogurt, buttermilk, and pickles, as well as other foods, are made with the aid of bacteria. Bacteria are even used in the production of chocolate. Bacteria are not found in the chocolate products you eat. They are used to break down the covering of the cocoa beans during the production of chocolate. Bacteria are also used in the commercial production of vitamins, such as vitamin B12 and riboavin. Bacteria also are important in the elds of medicine and research. Although some bacteria cause disease, others are useful in ghting disease. Streptomycin and tetracycline are commonly prescribed antibiotics that were originally made by bacteria.
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Lesson T Bacteria in Your Life
After You Read

Mini Glossary
endospores: thick-walled structures produced by a pathogen when conditions are not favorable for survival nitrogen-xing bacteria: bacteria that change nitrogen from the air into forms that plants and animals can use parasites: organisms that live in or on another organism pathogen: any organism that causes disease saprophyte: any organism that uses dead organisms for food and energy toxins: poisonous substances produced by some pathogens vaccine: a treatment for some kinds of bacterial diseases, made from damaged particles taken from bacterial cell walls or from killed bacteria
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one term that refers to harmful bacteria and write a sentence describing how it is helpful.
2. In the chart below, list the ways bacteria are harmful to humans and the environment.
Harmful Roles of Bacteria
To humans
To the environment
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End of Lesson
119
Lesson
Traits and the Environment
U
Standard 3.d: Describe heredity as the passage of instructions from one generation to another and recognize that hereditary information is contained in genes, located in the chromosomes of each cell. (DOK 2)
Before You Read

Describe what happens to your hair and skin if you are exposed to the Sun for a long period of time.
What Youll Learn
the differences between phenotype and genotype effects the environment has on traits how traits are formed
Read to Learn
What are traits?
All the features that an organism inherits are its traits. Two of your traits are your eye color and ear shape.
Study Coach
Review Concepts Read a

paragraph to yourself, and then take turns with a partner telling what you have learned. Continue your discussion until you and your partner understand the paragraph. Then repeat the process with the remaining paragraphs in the lesson.
How do humans use observable traits?

People observed the inheritance of traits long before scientists understood how inheritance works. Many breeds of animals and crops were developed using these observations. For example, over thousands of years, Native Americans developed maize (MAYZ) from a wild grass. By carefully selecting and breeding maize plants with desired traits, modern corn was developed.
What are genotypes?

You have thousands of traits. Each trait results from the coded information in the hereditary material called DNA. DNA is found in every cell and contains the information needed to produce a living organism. In cells that have a nucleus, DNA is found in chromosomes (KROH muh sohmz) within the nucleus. A gene is a part of the DNA code on a chromosome. The genes an organism has are called its genotype (JEE nuh tipe), or genetic makeup. The gure on the next page shows the DNA structure.
Describe Use quarter sheets of notebook paper, as shown below, to describe traits, genes, genotype, and phenotype.
Traits Gene
Genotype
Phenotype
121
Picture This
1.
DNA Structure
Gene DNA
Describe the relationship

you observe between DNA and genes.
What are phenotypes?

When you look at an organism, you see the organisms phenotype (FEE nuh tipe). A phenotype is the combination of genetic makeup and the environments effect on that makeup. Hair color in humans is the result of both genetic makeup and the effects of the environment. For example, you may notice that your hair color gets lighter when you are in the Sun for many hours.
Effects of the Environment

How much the environment affects phenotypes varies from organism to organism. The environment doesnt have much effect on some phenotypes, such as the color of your eyes. Other phenotypes are mostly due to the environment. For example, the soil conditions affect the color of a big-leaf hydrangea plants owers. The owers vary from blue to pink.
What are external and internal inuences?

Inuences of the environment on phenotypes can be external or internal. One external inuence would be the amount of light an organism receives. For example, tree leaves that grow in full sunlight are thicker than those that grow in shadier areas. Another external inuence might be the temperature in which an organism lives. Other environmental inuences are internal. For example, human brain cells will not grow normally unless they are acted upon by a thyroid hormone during their development. The hormone is a part of the bodys internal environment.
2.
List two external

inuences on phenotypes.
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Lesson U Traits and the Environment
How can the environment affect growth?

Trees grow differently in a forest than they would in an area where they are all alone. A tree planted away from other trees and plants will grow faster than a tree planted near existing trees. The single tree does not have to compete with other trees for light, water, soil minerals, and other environmental factors.
How does the environment affect appearance?

As you can see in the gure below, the leaves of a water buttercup differ depending on where it grows. Leaves that grow in water are threadlike. Leaves that grow above the water are broad.
Picture This
3.
Identify Circle the leaves growing beneath the water. Highlight one of the leaves growing above the water.
The arctic fox is another species whose phenotype changes according to environmental conditions. Its fur changes color with the seasons. During the winter the arctic fox does not produce pigment that colors fur, so the foxs fur is white. As a result, the fox blends with its background helping it avoid predators. In warmer months, the arctic fox produces fur pigment, so the fur is brown. This color helps the fox blend into the tundra.
4.
How can the environment affect the sex of an organism?

Most living things are born male or female and remain that way for life. However, some species of sh are born with the ability to change sex. This allows the species to maintain a desired number of males and females in a population.
Summarize What are some ways the environment affects organisms?
123
After You Read

Mini Glossary
gene: a part of the DNA code on a chromosome genotype (JEE nuh tipe): genes that an organism has; genetic makeup phenotype (FEE nuh tipe): the combination of genetic makeup and the environments effect on that makeup trait: feature that an organism inherits
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains the relationship of DNA and a gene.
2. Complete the diagram below to identify the inuences of the environment on phenotypes.
1.
2.
Inuences of the Environment
3.
4.
3. How does taking turns reviewing paragraphs with a partner help you understand what you have read?
End of Lesson
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124
Lesson U Traits and the Environment
Lesson
Genetics
V
Standard 3.d: Describe heredity as the passage of instructions from one generation to another and recognize that hereditary information is contained in genes, located in the chromosomes of each cell. (DOK 2)
Before You Read

Think of a parent and a child that you know. On the lines below, list two ways the child looks like the parent.
What Youll Learn
the difference between genetics and heredity the results of Mendels pea plant experiments the results shown by a Punnett square
Read to Learn
Identify the Main Ideas
Science of Genetics
Heredity is the passing of traits from parents to offspring. One early idea about heredity proposed that the male contributed all of the traits and that the female only supplied food for the new organism. Others proposed that parents traits blended to form the traits of the offspring.
Highlight the main idea of each paragraph. Underline the details that support this idea.
What is genetics?
Over time, the study of heredity developed into a science called genetics (juh NE tihks). The study of genetics explains how species can change through generations.
Beginning with Mendel

Only within the past 200 years have scientists begun to understand how organisms inherit traits. Gregor Mendel was the rst researcher to use numbers to describe the results of genetics experiments. Mendel developed principles of genetics in the 1860s by experimenting with thousands of pea plants. Explain Make a trifold book, as shown below. Write notes to explain the principles and law that Mendel identied.
Principle of dominance
What determines traits?

Mendel explained that each trait of an individual is determined by at least two factors. Today, Mendels factors are called genes. The different forms of a gene are each called an allele (uh LEEL).
Principle of segregation
Law of independent assortment
125
What are dominant and recessive alleles?

Mendel developed the principle of dominance which explains why only one form of a trait is shown even when both alleles are present. Dominant (DAH muh nunt) alleles will show their effect on the phenotype whenever they are present in the genotype. Recessive (rih SE sihv) alleles will show their effect on the phenotype only when two of them are present in the genotype. Understanding how dominant and recessive alleles show their effects has helped scientists gure out how some genetic diseases are passed down through families.
1.
Determine Which type

of allele always shows its effect on genotype?
Why do children have different traits than their parents?

Mendel also concluded that each parent passes only one of the alleles for a trait to its offspring. This is known as the principle of segregation. It explains why variation exists among the offspring of parents. For example, suppose a parent has three pairs of chromosomes with a different trait on each pair. The traits can be called A, B, and C. Each trait has two different allelesA and a, B and b, and C and c. The dominant trait is represented by the capital letter. The gure below shows the eight possible combinations for these three traits. Humans have 46 chromosomes, so more than 8 million combinations are possible every time an egg or sperm forms in the parent.
Picture This
2.
Parent reproductive cell
Identify Highlight the dominant traits in each possible sex cell.
AaBbCc
ABC
ABc
AbC
Abc
Possible sex cells
aBC
aBc
abC
abc
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Lesson V Genetics
What did Mendel learn?

Mendel examined the inheritance of traits in pea plants. He found that when two plants with different alleles for a trait are crossed, three fourths of the offspring will show the dominant trait. One fourth will show the recessive trait. Mendel also discovered that the alleles for one trait have no effect on how alleles for another trait are inherited. This led to his law of independent assortment. Mendel studied two traits at the same time. His law of independent assortmentalleles for one trait are inherited independent of the alleles for another traithelped him understand how traits from both parents can appear in future generations.
3.
State Mendels law of

independent assortment.
Predicting Genetic Outcomes

Reginald C. Punnett developed a chart called a Punnett square to make genetic predictions. A Punnett square is a model that is used to predict the possible offspring of crosses between different organisms of known genotypes. The gure below is a Punnett square used to predict whether an offspring will be male or female.
Female (XX)
X X Male (XY) Y XY XX
Picture This
XX
4.
XY
Identify Highlight the square or squares that indicate the offspring will be male.
What are the results?

When you use a Punnett square to predict the sex of one offspring, the results are one-half male and one-half female. Suppose a woman has already given birth to three sons and is expecting a fourth child. What are the chances that it will be a girl? There is still only a 50 percent chance that the baby will be a girl. Each result is independent of the others that came before it or that come after it.
127
After You Read

Mini Glossary
allele (uh LEEL): each gene of a gene pair dominant (DAH muh nunt): trait that will show its effect on the phenotype whenever it is present genetics (juh NE tihks): the study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring Punnett square: a chart that is used to predict the possible offspring of crosses between different organisms of known genotype recessive (ree SE sihv): trait that will show its effect on the phenotype only when two of them for a trait are present in a genotype
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that compares dominant and recessive traits.
2. Complete the table below to explain the principles and laws that Gregor Mendel developed as a result of his experiments with pea plants.
Principle or Law Explanation
End of Lesson
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128
Lesson V Genetics
Lesson
Living Earth
W
Standard 3.e: Explain energy ow in a specied ecosystem. (DOK 2)
Before You Read

On the lines below, list the living things that are part of your neighborhood.
What Youll Learn
places where life is found on Earth what ecology is how the environment inuences life
Read to Learn
The Biosphere
Study Coach
Two-Column Notes
Organize notes into two columns. On the left, list a main idea about the material in each subheading. On the right, list the details that support the main idea.
Earth has many living organisms. The part of Earth that supports life is the biosphere (BI uh shr). The biosphere includes the top part of Earths crust, the waters that cover Earths surface, and the atmosphere that surrounds Earth. The biosphere is made up of different environments. Different kinds of organisms live in each environment. For example, a desert environment gets little rain. Organisms that live in a desert environment include cactus plants, coyotes, and lizards. Tropical rain forest environments get a lot of rain and warm weather. Parrots, monkeys, and tens of thousands of other organisms live in tropical rain forests.
Ecosystems
An ecosystem is all the organisms living in an area and the nonliving parts of that environment. In a prairie ecosystem, the living organisms include bison, grass, and birds. Water, sunlight, and soil are nonliving parts of the ecosystem. Ecology is the study of interactions that occur among organisms and their environments. Scientists who study these interactions are ecologists.
1.
Identify two living

organisms that are found in a prairie ecosystem.
129
Biomes Scientists divide Earth into different biomes (BI ohmz). A biome is a large geographic area with similar climate and ecosystem. A biome is made up of the plants and animals that have adapted to the soil and climate of the region. Many different ecosystems are found in a biome.
Populations
Organize Make a two-tab
concept map Foldable, as shown below. List facts about the living factors and the nonliving factors that help an organism survive in its habitat.
Organisms Ability to Survive in Its Habitat
Living Factors
Nonliving Factors
A population is all organisms of the same species that live in an area at the same time. For example, all the bison in a prairie ecosystem make up one population. Ecologists often study how populations in an ecosystem interact. For example, they might study a prairie ecosystem. How does grazing by bison affect prairie grasses and the insects that live in the grass? By studying the interactions of organisms in a place, ecologists are studying a community. A community is all the populations of all species living in an ecosystem, as shown in the gure below.
organism
population
Picture This
2.
community
Identify the two different

populations shown in the community in the gure.
ecosystem
Habitats
The place in which an organism lives is called its habitat. In a forest ecosystem, trees are the habitat of the woodpecker. The forest oor is the habitat of the salamander. An organisms habitat provides the food, shelter, temperature, and the amount of moisture the organism needs to survive.
130
Lesson W Living Earth
After You Read

Mini Glossary
biome: a large geographic area with similar climates and ecosystems biosphere (BI uh shr): the part of Earth that supports life community: the populations of all species living in an ecosystem ecology: the study of interactions that occur among organisms and their environments ecosystem: all the organisms living in an area and the nonliving parts of that environment habitat: the place in which an organism lives population: all organisms of the same species that live in an area at the same time
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains how a community is different from an ecosystem.
2. Complete the illustration below to help you understand how scientists organize the living organisms on Earth.
Biosphere 3.
2. 1.
Organism
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End of Lesson
131
Lesson
Interactions Within Communities

What Youll Learn
Before You Read

How do you get the energy you need to do the things you want to do?
how organisms get energy for life how organisms interact that every organism occupies a niche
Read to Learn
Obtaining Energy
Dening Important Words Read the headings in

this lesson and circle any word you cannot dene. At the end of each section, review the circled words and underline the part of the text that helps you dene the words.
Living organisms need a constant supply of energy. The Sun provides the energy for most of life on Earth. Some organisms use this energy to make energy-rich molecules through photosynthesis. The energy-rich molecules are food for the organism. They are made up of different combinations of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Chemical bonds hold the atoms of these molecules together. Energy is stored in the chemical bonds. During digestion, the molecules break apart and release energy. The organism uses the energy to grow, develop, and stay alive.
What are producers?

Organisms that use an outside energy source like the Sun to make energy-rich molecules are called producers. Most producers have chlorophyll (KLOR uh hl). Chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis. Green plants are producers. Not all producers have chlorophyll or use energy from the Sun. Some use chemosynthesis (kee moh SIHN thuh sus) to make energy-rich molecules. These organisms live near volcanic vents on the ocean oor. Inorganic molecules in the water provide the energy for chemosynthesis. Organize Make Foldables, as
shown below, to organize information as you read. Take notes to dene the two types of living organisms.
Producers Consumers
133
What are consumers?

1.
Draw Conclusions To
which consumer group do humans belong? Why?
Organisms that get energy by eating other organisms are called consumers. There are four kinds of consumers. Herbivores, such as rabbits, eat plants. Carnivores, such as frogs, eat other animals. Omnivores, such as pigs, eat both plants and animals. Decomposers, such as earthworms, consume wastes and dead organisms. Decomposers help recycle once-living matter.
What are food chains?

Ecology includes the study of how organisms depend on each other for food. A food chain is a simple model of the feeding relationships and energy ow in an ecosystem. For example, shrubs are food for deer. Deer are food for mountain lions, as shown in the gure below.
Picture This
2.
Identify Beneath the gure, write the food chain in words, using arrows to show relationships.
Symbiotic Relationships
Organisms may share food and other resources. Any close relationship between species is called symbiosis.
What is mutualism?
A symbiotic relationship in which both species benet is called mutualism (MYEW chuh wuh lih zum). Ants and acacia trees illustrate mutualism. The ants protect the tree by attacking any animal that tries to feed on it. The tree provides food and a home for ants.
Contrast Make a three-tab Foldable, as shown below. Use the Foldable to describe the three kinds of symbiosis.
Mutualism
What is commensalism?
A symbiotic relationship in which one organism benets and the other one is not affected is called commensalism (kuh MEN suh lih zum). For example, a sea anemone has tentacles that have a mild poison. The clown sh is not harmed by the poison. It swims among the tentacles and is protected from predators. The clown sh benets, but the sea anemone is not helped or hurt.
Commensalism
Parasitism
134
Lesson X Interactions Within Communities
What is parasitism?
A symbiotic relationship in which one organism benets and one is harmed is called parasitism (PER uh suh tih zum). An example of this relationship is a pet dog and roundworms. A roundworm sometimes attaches itself to the inside of the dogs intestine. It feeds on the nutrients in the dogs blood. The dog may have abdominal pain and diarrhea. Sometimes the dog may die. In this relationship, the roundworm benets, but the dog is harmed.
Niches
Hundreds of species might live in one habitat. For example, a rotting log is home to many species. Spiders, ants, termites, and worms are some species that live on or under the rotting log. Although many species use the log as their habitat, the species do not compete for resources. This is because each species needs different things to survive. So, each species has its own niche (NICH). An organisms niche is its role in its environmenthow it obtains food and shelter, nds a mate, cares for its young, and avoids danger. Special adaptations that improve survival are often part of an organisms niche. For example, a poison in milkweed plants stops many insects from eating them. Monarch buttery caterpillars have an adaptation that lets them eat milkweed. When they eat milkweed, the caterpillars become slightly poisonous. Birds avoid eating these caterpillars because they know that the caterpillars and adult butteries have an awful taste and can make them sick.
3.
Explain What is a niche?
How do predator and prey t in a niche?

An organisms niche includes how it avoids being eaten and how it gets its food. Predators are consumers that capture and eat other consumers. The prey is the organism that is captured by the predator. Having predators in an ecosystem usually increases the number of species that can live in the ecosystem. Predators limit the size of the prey population. So, food and other resources are less likely to become difcult to nd. Competition between species is reduced.
4.
Explain How do predators increase the number of different species that can live in an ecosystem?
How do species in a niche cooperate?

Individual organisms often cooperate, or work together, in ways that improve survival. For example, a white-tailed deer that detects the presence of a wolf will warn other deer in the herd. These cooperative actions are part of the species niche.
135
After You Read

Mini Glossary
commensalism (kuh MEN suh lih zum): a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benets and the other is not affected consumer: an organism that gets energy by eating other organisms mutualism (MYEW chuh wuh lih zum): a symbiotic relationship in which both species benet niche (NICH): an organisms role in its environment parasitism (PER uh suh tih zum): a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benets but the other is harmed producer: an organism that uses an outside energy source like the Sun to make energy-rich molecules symbiosis: any close relationship between species
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains the difference between consumers and producers.
End of Lesson
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136
Lesson X Interactions Within Communities
Lesson
Matter and Energy
Y
Before You Read

What does the word recycling mean to you?
What Youll Learn
the difference between a food chain and a food web how energy ows through ecosystems how materials such as water, carbon, and nitrogen are recycled
Read to Learn
Energy Flow Through Ecosystems
Organisms interact with members of their own species and members of other species. Most of the interactions among members of different species occur when one organism feeds on another. When one organism is food for another organism, some of the energy in the rst organism (the food) is transferred to the second organism (the eater). Producers are organisms that take in and use energy from the Sun or some other source to produce food. Plants are examples of producers. Consumers are organisms that take in energy when they feed on producers or other consumers. When organisms die, other organisms called decomposers take in energy as they break down the remains of organisms. The movement of energy through a community can be shown as a food chain or a food web.
Study Coach
Summarize As you read,

make an outline to summarize the information in the lesson. Use the main headings in the lesson as the main headings in the outline. Complete the outline with the information under each heading in the lesson.
What are food chains?

A food chain is a model, a simple way of showing how energy passes from one organism to another. In the drawing of a food chain, arrows show the direction of energy transfer. For example, a pond food chain looks like the following:
Aquatic plants Insects Bluegill Bass Humans
Describe Create a four-tab Foldable, as shown below, to describe food chains. Write the specic species in a food chain as you read.
Plant
137
What happens as energy is transferred?

Food chains usually have only three or four links. This is because the amount of available energy is less at each link in the chain. At each transfer of energy, part of the energy is lost as heat due to the activities of the organisms. The amount of energy left for the last link is only a small portion of the energy in the rst link.
What are food webs?

Compare Create a three-tab
Foldable, as shown below, to compare food chains and food webs.
Food Chain
Both
Food Web
A food web is a series of overlapping food chains that exist in an ecosystem. It shows a more complete model of the way energy moves through an ecosystem. Food webs show that organisms are part of more than one food chain in an ecosystem. Humans are a part of several food chains. Most people eat foods from several different levels of a food chain.
What are ecological pyramids?

When an herbivore, a plant-eating organism, eats a plant, some of the energy in the plant passes to the herbivore. Most of the energy is given off into the atmosphere as heat. The same thing happens when a carnivore, a meat-eating organism, eats an herbivore. An ecological pyramid, such as the one below, models the number of organisms at each level of a food chain. The bottom of an ecological pyramid is made up of the producers of an ecosystem. The rest of the levels are made up of consumers.
Picture This
1.
Fox (1) Birds (25) Grasshoppers (250) Grasses (3000)
Distinguish Circle the

producer on the pyramid. Highlight the consumers.
What are energy pyramids?

An energy pyramid shows the ow of energy from one organism to another. The pyramid compares the energy available at each level of the food chain in an ecosystem. An energy pyramid usually has three or four levels. Only about ten percent of the energy at each level of the pyramid is available to the next level.
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Lesson Y Matter and Energy
The Cycles of Matter

Matter on Earth is never lost or gained. It is used over and over again, or recycled. Materials such as water, carbon, and nitrogen cycle through the environment.
What is the water cycle?

Water molecules on Earth constantly rise into the atmosphere, fall to Earth, and soak into the ground or ow into rivers and oceans. The water cycle involves the processes of evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. The heat from the Sun causes water on Earths surface to evaporate, or change from a liquid to a gas. The water rises into the atmosphere as water vapor, which is a gas. As the vapor rises, it hits colder air. The molecules of water vapor then change back into tiny droplets of water. They condense, or change from a gas to a liquid. These droplets form clouds. When the droplets become large and heavy enough, they fall back to Earth as rain or other precipitation.
2.
List What are the three

main parts of the water cycle?
What other cycles exist in nature?

All organisms contain carbon. Earths atmosphere contains a small percentage of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide gas. The movement of carbon through Earths biosphere is called the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is shown in the gure below.
Plants use carbon dioxide from the air to make carbohydrates.
After the carbon is returned to the atmosphere, the cycle begins again.
Picture This
3.
Identify Circle the object in the gure that removes carbon dioxide from the air.
The carbohydrates are eaten.
Respiration, combustion, and decay return carbon to the atmosphere.
Nitrogen is found in proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen cycles through the atmosphere to producers then to consumers. The matter that organisms need to live is constantly recycled in the biosphere.
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After You Read

Mini Glossary
food chain: a model that shows how energy, in the form of food, passes from one organism to another food web: a series of overlapping food chains that exist in an ecosystem water cycle: the processes of evaporation, condensation, and precipitation
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains why a food web gives a more complete picture of an ecosystem than a food chain does.
End of Lesson
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Lesson Y Matter and Energy
Lesson
Genetic Engineering
Z
Standard 3.f: Develop a logical argument for or against research conducted in selective breeding and genetic engineering, including (but not limited to) research conducted in Mississippi. (DOK 3)
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

Describe on the lines below what you have heard or read about recent advances in medical research.
the importance of advances in genetics the steps in making genetically engineered organisms
Identify Main Points

Highlight the main idea in each paragraph. Underline the details that support the main idea.
Read to Learn
Why is genetics important?
New developments in genetic research are happening all the time. The principles of heredity are being used to change the world.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is the use of biological and chemical methods to change the arrangement of DNA that makes up a gene. One use for genetic engineering is to produce large amounts of different medicines. Genes also can be inserted into cells to change how those cells perform their normal functions. Genetic engineering researchers are also looking for new ways to improve crop production and quality. Describe Make a three-tab
book, as shown below. Use the Foldable to describe genetic engineering, recombinant DNA, and gene therapy.
Genetic Recombinant engineering DNA Gene Transfer
How is recombinant DNA made?

Making recombinant DNA is one method of genetic engineering. Recombinant DNA is made by inserting a useful section of DNA from one organism into a bacterium. This process is used to make large amounts of insulin, which is used to treat diabetes. Other uses include the production of a growth hormone to treat dwarsm and chemicals used to treat cancer.
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Lesson Z Genetic Engineering
How does gene transfer work?

Another application of genetic-engineering is gene transfer. A goal of this experimental procedure is to replace abnormal genetic material with normal genetic material. First, normal DNA or RNA is placed in a virus. Then the virus delivers the normal DNA or RNA to target cells, as shown in the gure below. Gene transfer, also known as gene therapy, might help correct genetic disorders such as cystic brosis. It also is being studied as a possible treatment for cancer, heart disease, and certain infectious diseases.
Normal gene
+
1.
Identify What is replaced in gene transfer?
Cold virus
Normal gene inserted into cold virus
Nucleus
Nasal cell Normal gene
Picture This
2.
Lung
Explain Use the gure to explain to a partner how gene transfer works.
How are plants genetically engineered?

Before people knew about genotypes, they selected plants with the most desired traits to breed for the next generation. This process is called selective breeding. Today people also use genetic engineering to improve crop plants. One method is to nd the genes that produce the desired traits in one plant and then insert those genes into a different plant. Scientists in Stoneville, Mississippi research and develop new cotton seed for growers. With the modied cotton seed, cotton can be grown in more areas of the United States. They have also modied cotton seeds to produce more cotton. The long-term health effects of using genetically engineered plants are not known.
Refer to page vi for the location of Stoneville Pedigreed Seed Company.
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Can bioengineering increase the food supply?

3.
Identify What is
agricultural biotechnology?
Refer to page vi for the locations of Thad Cochran National Warm Water Aquacultural Center and Animal Functional Genomics Laboratory.
Can technology stop world hunger? Not everyone in the world has enough food. Hunger is a worldwide problem, but technology can help. Technology can affect the food supply. Researchers at Mississippi State University are investigating ways to improve food production. Agricultural biotechnology are scientic techniques used to create or improve plants or animals. For example, changing the DNA of a plant, such as corn, can change its nutritional value or produce a larger crop. Controversy Bioengineering has potential benets and potential dangers. Some people argue that humans shouldnt change a species genes or that changed species may harm the natural world. New kinds of crops may create new kinds of poisons and allergies. Some people think that more food is not needed to feed the world population. They argue that enough food is now being produced, but the food is not distributed equally throughout the world. Technology which may not always be the answer to human problems, is not always easy. There are many obstacles and issues involved.
Selective Breeding
4. Conclude How does
selective breeding inuence the frequency of desired traits in a population?
Humans were involved with genetic engineering long before they knew what genes were. When farmers bred the calves of the best milk-producing cow, they were using selective breeding. Selective breeding is the process by which desired traits of certain plants and animals are selected and passed onto future generations. Selective breeding takes time. Several generations of offspring need to be bred before the desired trait becomes common in the population. Selective breeding increases the frequency of desired traits in a population. An example of successful selective breeding is found in dairy cows. Today, the average dairy cow produces three times more milk than the average dairy cow did 50 years ago. This means that fewer than half the number of cows are needed to produce the same amount of milk.
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Lesson Z Genetic Engineering
After You Read

Mini Glossary
agricultural biotechnology: a group of scientic techniques that are used to create or improve plants or animals genetic engineering: biological and chemical methods to change the arrangement of DNA that makes up a gene selective breeding: the process by which desired traits of certain plants and animals are selected and passed onto future generations
1. Review the term and its denition in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains how genetic engineering can improve crop plants.
2. Complete the concept web below to show three kinds of genetic engineering and the methods used to carry them out.
Genetic Engineering
Method
Method
Method
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End of Lesson
145
Lesson
Photosynthesis and Respiration
AA
Standard 3.h: Describe how an organism gets energy from oxidizing its food and releasing some of its energy as heat. (DOK 1)
Before You Read

Name the parts of a plant that you have seen recently. For one of the parts, describe its function.
What Youll Learn
how plants take in and give off gases the differences and similarities between photosynthesis and respiration why photosynthesis and respiration are important
Read to Learn
Taking in Raw Materials
Study Coach
Summarize Main Ideas

Read the lesson. Recall and write down the main ideas. Go back and check the main ideas to make sure they are accurate. Then use your notes to summarize the main ideas of this lesson.
Plants make their own food using the raw materials water, carbon dioxide, and inorganic chemicals in the soil. Plants also produce wastes.
Which plant structures move water into the plant?

The gure below shows the plant structures that take in raw materials. Most of the water used by plants is taken in through the roots and moves through the plant to where it is used.
Picture This
1.
Identify Circle the raw materials that a plant takes in.
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What is the function of a leaf?

Gas is exchanged in the leaves. Most of the water taken in by the roots of a plant exits the plant through its leaves. Carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water vapor enter and exit the plant through openings in the leaves.
What is the structure of a leaf?

A leaf is made up of many different layers. The outer layer of the leaf is called the epidermis. The epidermis is nearly transparent and allows sunlight, which is used to make food, to reach the cells inside the leaf. The epidermis has many small openings called stomata (stoh MAH tuh) (singular, stoma). Raw materials such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, and waste gases enter and exit the leaf through the stomata. Many plants have stomata on their stems. Guard cells surround each stoma to control how much water enters and exits the plant. Stomata close when a plant is losing too much water. As you can see in the gure below, the inside of a leaf is made up of a spongy layer and a palisade layer. Carbon dioxide and water vapor ll the spaces of the spongy layer. Most of the plants food is made in the palisade layer.
Picture This
2.
Identify Circle the part

of the leaf where most of the plants food is made.
Upper epidermis Palisade layer Spongy layer Lower epidermis
Cuticle
Guard cells
Why are chloroplasts important?

Some cells of a leaf contain small green structures called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are green because they contain a green pigment, or coloring, called chlorophyll (KLOR uh hl). Chlorophyll is important to plants because the light energy that it absorbs is used to make food. This food-making process, photosynthesis (foh toh SIHN thuh suhs), happens in the chloroplasts.
3.
Describe What happens in the chloroplasts?
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Lesson AA Photosynthesis and Respiration
The Food-Making Process

Photosynthesis is the process during which a plants chlorophyll traps light energy and sugars are produced. In plants, photosynthesis occurs only in cells with chloroplasts. For example, photosynthesis occurs only in a carrot plants green leaves. The carrots root cells do not have chlorophyll, so they cannot perform photosynthesis. But excess sugar produced in the leaves is stored in the root. The familiar orange carrot you eat is the root of the carrot plant. When you eat a carrot, you benet from the energy stored as sugar in the plants root. Plants need light, carbon dioxide, and water for photosynthesis. The chemical equation for photosynthesis is shown below.
chlorophyll
Describe Use two quarter-sheets of notebook paper, as shown below, to take notes about photosynthesis.
Light-dependent reactions Light-independent reactions
6CO2
carbon dioxide
6H2O
water
light energy
C6H12O6
glucose
6O2
oxygen
What are light-dependent reactions?

Chemical reactions that occur during photosynthesis that need light are called the light-dependent reactions. During light-dependent reactions, chlorophyll and other pigments trap light energy that will be stored in sugar molecules. Light energy causes water molecules, which were taken up by the roots, to split into oxygen and hydrogen. The oxygen exits the plant through the stomata. This is the oxygen that you breathe. The hydrogen produced when water is split is used in light-independent reactions.
What are light-independent reactions?

Chemical reactions that occur during photosynthesis that do not need light are called light-independent reactions. The light energy trapped during the light-dependent reactions is used to combine carbon dioxide and hydrogen to make sugars, such as glucose. The chemical bonds that hold glucose and other sugars together are stored energy.
What happens to the oxygen and glucose that are made during photosynthesis?
Most of the oxygen produced during photosynthesis is a waste product and is released through the stomata. Glucose is the main form of food for plant cells. A plant usually produces more glucose than it can use. The extra glucose is stored in plants as other sugars and starches. When you eat carrots or potatoes, you are eating the stored product of photosynthesis.
4.
List two other foods that

are stored products of photosynthesis.
149
How does a plant use glucose?

Glucose also is the basis of a plants structure. Plants grow larger by taking in carbon dioxide gas and changing it to glucose. Cellulose, an important part of plant cell walls, is made from glucose. Leaves, stems, and roots are made of cellulose and other materials produced using glucose.
Why is photosynthesis important?

5.
Determine What does

photosynthesis add to Earths atmosphere?
Photosynthesis produces food. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and releases oxygen. This removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and adds oxygen to it. Most organisms need oxygen to live. About 90 percent of the oxygen in the atmosphere today is a result of photosynthesis.
The Breakdown of Food

Cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions that breaks down food molecules and releases energy. Cellular respiration uses oxygen and breaks down food chemically. The overall chemical equation for cellular respiration is shown below. C6H12O6
glucose
6O2
oxygen
6CO2
carbon dioxide
6H2O
water
energy
Where does cellular respiration occur?

Picture This
6.
Identify Circle the part of the cell where cellular respiration occurs. Highlight the waste products of cellular respiration.
Before cellular respiration begins, glucose molecules in the cytoplasm are broken down into two smaller molecules. These molecules enter a mitochondrion, where cellular respiration takes place. Oxygen is used and molecules break down into water and carbon dioxide and energy is released. The gure below shows cellular respiration in a plant cell.
Mitochondrion C6H12O6 Small molecules Oxygen is used in the mitochondrion to break down these two molecules. O2 H2O In the cytoplasm, each glucose molecule is broken down into two smaller molecules. Water and carbon dioxide are waste products of cellular respiration. CO2
150
Why is cellular respiration important?

Food contains energy. But it is not in a form that can be used by cells. Cellular respiration changes food energy into a form that cells can use. This energy drives the life processes of almost all organisms on Earth. Plants use energy produced by cellular respiration to transport sugars, to open and close stomata, and to produce chlorophyll. When seeds sprout, they use energy from the respiration of stored food in the seed. The gure below shows some uses of energy in plants.
Plant structure and function Production of chlorophyll Sprouting of seeds
Picture This
7.
List two uses of energy

produced by cellular respiration in plants.
The waste product carbon dioxide also is important. Cellular respiration returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, where plants and some other organisms use it for photosynthesis.
Comparison of Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is almost the reverse of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis combines carbon dioxide and water by using light energy. The end products are glucose (food) and oxygen. Cellular respiration combines oxygen and food to release the energy in the chemical bonds of the food. The end products of cellular respiration are energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Look at the table below to compare the differences between photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Comparing Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration Energy stored released Raw materials water and carbon dioxide glucose and oxygen End products glucose and oxygen water and carbon dioxide Where cells with chlorophyll cells with mitochondria
Picture This
8.
Compare and Contrast Highlight water

and carbon dioxide for each process in one color and glucose and oxygen in another color.
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After You Read

Mini Glossary
cellular respiration: a series of chemical reactions that breaks down food molecules and releases energy chlorophyll (KLOR uh hl): a green pigment found in chloroplasts photosynthesis (foh toh SIHN thuh suhs): the process during which a plants chlorophyll traps light energy and sugars are produced stomata (stoh MAH tah): small openings in the leaf epidermis, which act as doorways for raw materials to enter and exit the leaf
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write one or two sentences that explain the difference between photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
3. How did your notes help you summarize what you read in this section?
End of Lesson
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152
Lesson
How Your Body Works
BB
Standard 3.h: Describe how an organism gets energy from oxidizing its food and releasing some of its energy as heat. (DOK 1)
Before You Read

On the lines below, describe how your body responds to exercise.
What Youll Learn
how body systems work together how negative feedback mechanisms help the body maintain homeostasis differences between negative and positive feedback mechanisms
Read to Learn
Body System Connections
Study Coach
Organ systems in your body are interdependent. The organ systems depend on each other and work together to carry out important life processes.
Make Flash Cards Write each vocabulary word or term on one side of the ash card and the denition on the other side. Keep quizzing yourself until you know the meanings of all the terms.
Feeding Cells
The foods you eat are lled with the chemicals that your body needs to grow strong and healthy. Organ systems help distribute these chemicals throughout your body for energy, growth, repair, and other important functions.
What is the digestive system?

Digestion is the breakdown of the foods that you eat into smaller and simpler molecules to be used by the cells in your body. In the gure on the next page, you can see that the digestive system is basically a long tube that runs through your body. Food is taken into the body through the mouth. Your teeth chew the food and break it down into smaller pieces. As the food passes through the digestion tube, it is broken down even more. During digestion, glucose, salt, vitamins, and water can be absorbed immediately into the bloodstream. All other foods must be broken down rst. Explain Make a half book Foldable using notebook paper, as shown below. As you read the lesson, write notes that explain how your body systems work together.
How Body Systems Work Together
153
Tongue
Stomach
Gallbladder
Picture This
1.
Identify Highlight the two structures where food is absorbed into the blood.
Pancreas Small intestine Large intestine Protein Fats Carbohydrates Vitamins and minerals Water Enzymes
Appendix
Anus
Absorption into blood
How does the brain help the digestive system?

Your brain tells certain cells in your mouth to make saliva when you see, smell, or taste food. Saliva makes food soft and wet and contains an enzyme that helps with digestion. An enzyme (EN zime) is a protein that helps the body carry out chemical reactions. When food reaches other parts of the digestive tract, the brain tells the body to make other enzymes that help break down the food even more.
2.
Describe How does saliva help with digestion?
What happens in the small intestine?

The small intestine is an important connection between the digestive system and the circulatory system. Your small intestine is lined with tiny ngerlike projections called villi. Villi contain many blood vessels. By the time food reaches the small intestine, it is broken down into molecules that are small enough to pass through the walls of the villi.
154
Lesson BB How Your Body Works
How do nutrients get to body cells?

After the molecules pass through the walls of the villi, they enter the bloodstream. This process is called absorption. The bloodstream carries nutrients to cells throughout the body.
3.
Explain What structures

in the small intestine absorb food into the bloodstream?
Energy for the Body

Cellular respiration is a series of chemical processes in which oxygen combines with food molecules and energy is released. This occurs in the mitochondria of every cell. A cell uses this released energy to perform all of its jobs. For cellular respiration to occur, there must be a constant supply of nutrients and oxygen. When not enough oxygen is available, the cycle cannot be completed. If not enough oxygen is available, lactic acid forms. As lactic acid increases, muscles get tired and breathing gets faster.
How do the respiratory and circulatory systems work together?

Oxygen absorption occurs in the lungs, where the respiratory and circulatory systems work together. Look at the gure below. At the lower end of the trachea are two short branches called bronchi, which carry air into the lungs. Within the lungs, the bronchi branch out into smaller passageways. At the end of these passageways are groups of tiny, thin-walled sacs called alveoli (al VEE uh li). Lungs are made up of millions of alveoli. Each group of alveoli are surrounded by a network of blood vessels called capillaries. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs between the alveoli and the capillaries.
Picture This
4.
Identify Highlight the structures in the gure that are used to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Alveolus O2 CO2 Blood vessel Capillary Red blood cell
Nasal cavity Oral cavity Tongue Bronchioles
Pharynx Epiglottis Larynx Trachea Bronchi
Capillary network Alveolar sac Alveoli
Rib cage Diaphragm
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How does your body get rid of wastes?

The removal of waste products, or excretion, is a necessary process in all organisms. The circulatory, respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems make up the excretory system. The excretory system works to remove wastes from your body.
What does the urinary system do?

The main organs of the urinary system are the two kidneys. All of your blood passes through the kidneys many times each day. The kidneys remove cell wastes and help control the amount of water in the blood. Each kidney is made up of millions of tiny units called nephrons, which lter the blood. Water, sugar, and salt are returned to the blood. Anything left behind is waste. This liquid waste is called urine. Urine eventually is removed from the body.
5.
Identify What is the function of the kidneys?
Interdependence of Body Systems

Your body makes changes in body functions in response to changes in its environment. The process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment is called homeostasis.
How does your body respond to exercise?

Your heart rate and breathing increase as you exercise. During exercise, your muscle cells use more and more oxygen and produce lots of carbon dioxide waste. As a result, your brain tells your heart and lungs to work harder. This delivers oxygen to your muscle cells and gets rid of carbon dioxide much faster. When your body becomes overheated, your brain tells the body to make changes that will keep it from becoming too hot. Sweating is one way the body responds to an increase in temperature. As sweat evaporates, it cools the skin. Another way the body responds when overheated is to widen the blood vessels in the skin to release body heat.
What is negative feedback?

Compare Make a three-tab
Foldable, as shown below. Use a Venn diagram to compare negative and positive feedback mechanisms.
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
Positive Feedback Mechanisms
Both
In a negative feedback mechanism, the body changes an internal condition back to its normal state. The responses your body makes to exercise and to being overheated are examples of negative feedback. Blood pressure also is controlled by a negative feedback system. If blood pressure rises, special cells send a message to the brain. The brain responds by sending a message to the heart to slow down. Slowing the heart causes blood pressure to decrease.
156
How does the body keep its chemical balance?

The body uses negative feedback to keep chemicals, such as blood sugar levels, in balance. When you eat, the amount of glucose in your blood rises above normal. Glucose is a type of sugar. When glucose levels are too high, a hormone called insulin is produced by the pancreas. Insulin stimulates the cells to absorb glucose and helps the liver turn glucose into glycogen. Glycogen is a sugar that can be stored in the liver and muscle cells. As glucose levels decrease, less insulin is made by the pancreas.
6.
Analyze What triggers

the release of insulin by your pancreas?
When does the body use positive feedback?

A healthy body rarely uses positive feedback. Positive feedback does not bring the body back to a normal state. Instead, it causes an even greater change. For example, during childbirth the uterus contracts as shown in the gure. The contractions push the baby against the opening of the birth canal. When this happens, the brain signals the uterus to increase the contractions. The positive feedback mechanism goes on until the baby passes through the birth canal.
Contraction of uterus increases
The hormone oxytocin is released, which stimulates the uterus
Picture This
7.
Baby is pushed against opening of birth canal
Identify What type of feedback mechanism is shown in the gure?
How does a blood clot form?

The body also uses positive feedback in blood clotting. When a blood vessel is cut or torn, the vessel constricts and chemicals are released. The walls of the blood vessel become sticky and adhere to each other. Platelets attach to the walls of the blood vessel. This causes more chemicals to be released, which causes more platelets to stick to each other. A blood clot forms and the cut or tear is plugged, which stops the process. The clot becomes hard, white blood cells destroy bacteria, and skin cells begin to repair the cut or tear.
157
After You Read

Mini Glossary
absorption: the process of digested food passing though the walls of the villi into the bloodstream alveoli (al VEE uh li): clusters of tiny, thin-walled sacs at the end of bronchi digestion: the breakdown of foods into smaller and simpler molecules that can be used by cells in the body enzyme (EN zime): a protein that helps the body carry out chemical reactions excretion: the removal of waste products homeostasis: the process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment negative feedback: the body changes an internal condition back to its normal state villi: tiny ngerlike projections in the small intestine
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Select a term and write a sentence that explains to which organ system the term belongs.
2. Describe negative and positive feedback mechanisms in the Venn diagram below. Then write what both have in common in the overlapping area.
Negative Feedback Mechanism
Positive Feedback Mechanism
End of Lesson
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158
Lesson
Earths Interior
CC
Standard 4.a: Compare and contrast the lithosphere and the asthenosphere. (DOK 1) Also covers: 4.b
Before You Read

Think of a time you saw or dug a very deep hole in the ground. Describe what the soil was like as the hole went deeper into the ground.
What Youll Learn
about Earths interior layers how and why Earths plates move
Read to Learn
Clues to Earths Interior
If someone gives you a wrapped present, how can you gure out what it is? You might hold it and shake it gently to nd some clues. Even though you cant see whats inside, these clues can help you gure out what it might be. The observations you make are called indirect observations. Scientists do the same thing when they try to learn about Earths interior. Since it is not possible to directly observe what is deep inside Earth, scientists gather clues from earthquakes and rocks on the surface of Earth. These clues are indirect evidence about Earths interior.
Study Coach
Sticky-note Discussion
As you read, use sticky notes to mark pages you nd interesting or have a question about. Share the interesting fact or question with another student in your class or your teacher.
What do rocks tell about Earths interior?

Certain rocks are found in different places on Earths surface. The material in these rocks is similar to the material scientists think exists deep inside Earth. The rock formed far below the surface. Forces inside Earth pushed the rocks near the surface. There they were exposed by erosion. The rock clues and the clues from seismic waves suggest that the Earth is made up of layers of different kinds of materials.
159
Earths Layers
Based on evidence from seismic waves and exposed rocks, scientists have made a model of Earths interior. The model shows that Earths interior has four different layers. These layers include the inner core, the outer core, the mantle, and the crust. In some ways, Earths structure is similar to a peach, as shown in the gure. A peach has a thin skin covering the thick, juicy part that you eat. Under that is a large pit that surrounds a seed in the center.
Picture This
1.
Identify The peach pit has a seed inside. Color the center of the pit red to show where the seed lies. This is similar to where Earths inner core is located.
What is the inner core?

The pit and the seed are like the two parts of Earths core. One part of Earths core is liquid and one part is solid. The inner core is the solid, innermost layer of Earths interior. It is the hottest part of Earth and has the greatest amount of pressure. This part of the core is made up mostly of solid iron. When seismic waves reach the inner core, they speed up. This clue tells scientists that the inner core is solid. The temperature is extreme in the inner core. Its temperature is about 5,000C, making it the hottest part of Earth. The core is under a great amount of pressure. This is because of the weight of the rock surrounding it. Pressure increases the deeper you go beneath Earths surface. More material pushes towards Earths center because of gravity. This is why the inner core has the greatest amount of pressure.
2.
Recall What is the inner

core made of?
160
Lesson CC Earths Interior
What is the outer core?

The outer core is the layer of Earth that lies above the inner core and is thought to be made up mostly of molten metal. Since the outer core slows down some seismic waves and stops others, scientists concluded that the outer core is a liquid. The location of the outer core is similar to the location of the pit in the peach example. Even the wrinkled surface of the pit is like the uneven boundary between the outer core and the mantle, which lies above it.
3.
Explain How did scientists determine that Earths outer core is liquid?
What are Earths mantle and crust like?

The layer in Earths interior just above the outer core is the mantle. In the model of the peach, the mantle would be the large, juicy, inside part that you eat. The mantle is the largest layer of Earths interior. Even though the mantle is solid, it can move and ow slowly. Earths outermost layer is the crust. In the peach model, this layer would be the fuzzy skin of the peach. The crust is thinnest under the oceans and thickest through the continents. All the features of Earths surfacemountains, rivers, and canyonsare part of Earths crust. The gure below shows Earths four layers: inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust.
Earths Four Layers

Crust Mantle
Outer core
Picture This
Inner core
4.
Interpret and Label

Which of Earths layers is thinnest? Mark it with an X.
161
Earths Structure
Earths structure is made up of four layers. It can also be divided into other layers. These layers are based on physical properties that change with depth beneath the surface. Density, temperature, and pressure are three properties that change as depth changes. These three properties are lowest in the crust and greatest in the core. Earth has two types of crustscontinental crust and oceanic crust. The continental crust is composed of granite rock, which has a density of 2.8 g/cm3. The oceanic crust is composed of basaltic (buh SAWL tihk) rock, which has a density of 2.9 g/cm3.
5.
Identify Name the three properties that change as you go deeper inside Earth.
Earths Plates
Even though the crust is separated from the mantle, the rigid uppermost part of the mantle moves with the crust. The rigid upper part of Earths mantle and the crust is called the lithosphere. The lithosphere is broken into about 30 sections, called plates. A plate is a section of Earths lithosphere that moves around slowly on another part of the mantle, called the asthenosphere. Plates can move because the asthenosphere below them is liquid and plasticlike. The gure below shows the lithosphere which is composed of crust and the uppermost part of the mantle. The asthenosphere, a plastic-like layer, is also shown.
Oceanic crust
Continental crust Lithosphere
Picture This
6.
Identify Outline the

lithosphere in red. Color the asthenosphere blue.
Asthenosphere
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How do Earths plates move?

Earths plates move very slowly. Sometimes it takes more than a year for a plate to move only a few centimeters. A plate might only move 2 centimeters per year, but over thousands of years, it can move a long distance. Over time, the plates have changed shape, size, and location. Antarctica now covers the south pole, but it used to be near the equator. At one time, North America was joined with Africa and Europe. Today, tools such as lasers and satellites help scientists measure small plate movements. The map below shows where Earths plates are now located. The arrows show how the different plates are moving. Organize Information
Construct a half-book Foldable as shown to record information about why plates move.
Why do plates move?
NORTH AMERICAN PLATE JUAN DE FUCA PLATE COCOS PLATE

EURASIAN PLATE ARABIAN PLATE
NORTH AMERICAN PLATE
CARIBBEAN PLATE
PACIFIC PLATE PHILIPPINE PLATE AUSTRALIANINDIAN PLATE
PACIFIC PLATE
NAZCA PLATE
AFRICAN PLATE SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE
SCOTIA PLATE ANTARCTIC PLATE
Plate Boundaries
The places where the edges of different plates meet are called plate boundaries. The constant movement of plates creates forces that affect Earths surface at the boundaries of the plates. At some boundaries, the forces are strong enough to cause mountains to form. At other boundaries, rift valleys and volcanoes form. At a third type of boundary, faults form. A fault is a large break in rocks along which movement occurs. The movement can cause earthquakes.
Picture This
7.
Locate and Label On the map, circle a place where two plates are moving apart. Draw a box around a place where two plates are moving together.
163
What happens when plates move apart?

Construct a three-tab Foldable to help organize information about how Earths plates move.
Plates that Collide Plates that Move Apart Plates that Slide Past
Sometimes two plates move away from each other because of pulling forces that act in opposite directions on each plate. This pulling force is called tension. If tension continues to pull two plates apart, large slabs of rock may sink. This forms an area called a rift valley. Another result of plates separating is the formation of new crust. New crust forms in gaps where the plates pull apart. As tension continues along these boundaries, new gaps form. Then the gaps are lled in by magma that is pushed up from Earths mantle. Over time, the magma in the gaps cools to become new crust. This process of plates separating and new crust forming takes place under the oceans at places called mid-ocean ridges.
What happens when plates collide?

When plates move toward each other, they collide. The result of the collision depends on the density of the two plates that collide. The crust that forms ocean oors is denser than the crust that forms continents. If two continental plates collide, they have a similar density. They are both less dense than the mantle under them. As a result, the collision causes the crust to pile up. When rocks come together like this, the force is called compression. Compression causes the rock layers on both plates to crumble and fold. Imagine putting a piece of cloth on your desk. If you push the edges of the cloth toward each other, the cloth will crumble and fold over on itself. This is similar to what occurs when plates crash into each other, causing mountains to form. Flat rock layers are pushed up into folds. Sometimes the folding is so severe that rock layers bend completely over on themselves, turning upside down. As rock layers fold, they pile up and form mountains.
8.
Identify What is the

force that causes rock layers to crumble and fold?
What is plate subduction?

When one oceanic plate collides with another oceanic plate or with a continental plate, the plate that is more dense goes under the other one. As a result, a deep trench forms. Subduction is a type of plate movement that occurs when one plate sinks beneath another. When a plate subducts, it sinks into the mantle. Earths crust does not grow larger. As new crust material is formed, older crust material subducts into, or sinks below, the mantle.
164
What happens when plates slide past each other?

You have learned that plates move toward each other and away from each other. Plates can also slide past one another. The boundary where these plates meet is called a transform boundary. As the plates move past each other in opposite directions, the edges grind and scrape. When a force pushes two plates in opposite directions, it is called shearing. Shearing causes the area between the plates to form faults and have many earthquakes.
Why do plates move?

Earths plates are large. It takes a massive amount of energy to move them. Scientists are not sure where this energy comes from, but they have many theories. Most of these theories suggest that gravity is the force that provides the energy. Gravity pulls things toward the center of the Earth. But plates move sideways across the globe. How does gravity make something move across the surface of Earth? One theory to explain plate movement is convection of the mantle. As the gure on the right shows, rock in the mantle is heated by the core. The hotter rock rises towards Earths surface. Then it cools and sinks deep into the mantle. After it sinks into the mantle, it is heated again. This cycle causes rock material to circulate. The convection theory suggests that plates move as material in the mantle circulates.
Picture This
9.
Identify Color the parts

of the arrows red that show hot rock rising. Color the parts of the arrows blue that show cooled rock sinking.
What other factors cause plates to move?

At mid-ocean ridges, plates may move because of ridge-push. Mid-ocean ridges are higher than the ocean oor around them. Because of gravity, the plate that is higher moves down the slope. This is called ridge-push. Slab-pull occurs as plates move away from a mid-ocean ridge. They become cooler which makes them denser. A plate can get so dense that it sinks when it collides with another plate. If a dense plate sinks, it is easier for it to move across Earths surface.
10.
Determine When plates become cooler, do they become more dense or less dense?
165
After You Read

Mini Glossary
crust: Earths outermost layer that is thinnest under the oceans and thickest through the continents fault: large breaks in rocks along which movement occurs inner core: solid, innermost layer of Earths interior that is the hottest part of Earth and has the greatest amount of pressure lithosphere: rigid layer of Earth made up of the crust and the upper part of the mantle mantle: largest layer of Earths interior that lies above the outer core outer core: layer of Earth that lies above the inner core and is thought to be made up mostly of molten metal plate: section of Earths lithosphere that moves around slowly on the asthenosphere subduction: type of plate movement that occurs when one plate sinks beneath another one
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary above. Write a sentence explaining how each of the following pairs of words is related. a. crust and fault
b. subduction and plate
2. Label Earths layers in the gure below.
3. You used sticky-notes to mark pages that had interesting or difcult information. Did this strategy help you learn about Earths layers and plates? Explain why or why not.
End of Lesson
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about Earths moving plates.
166
Lesson
Uplift of Earths Crust
DD
Standard 4.a: Compare and contrast the lithosphere and the asthenosphere. (DOK 1) Also covers: 4.b
Before You Read

Picture a mountain range you have seen either in person or in a picture. How do you think these mountains formed? Write your ideas about how mountains may form.
What Youll Learn
how different types of mountains form forces that shape Earths mountains
Read to Learn
Building Mountains
Study Coach
Two-Column Notes As you

read, organize your notes in two columns. In the left-hand column, write the main idea of each paragraph. Next to it, in the right-hand column, write details about the main idea.
Mountains tower over the surrounding land, offering spectacular views from their tops or from the areas around them. The highest mountain peak in the world is Mount Everest in the Himalaya in Asia. It is more than 8,800 m above sea level. In the United States, the highest mountain is more than 6,000 m high. There are four main types of mountainsfault-block, folded, upwarped, and volcanic. Since they form in different ways, these mountains have different looks and sizes.
How old are different mountains?

Some mountains are tall and jagged with snow covered peaks. Other mountains are rounded and have gentle slopes. This difference depends on whether or not the mountains are still forming. The Himalaya, which are forming at the rate of several centimeters per year, are jagged and steep. Mountain ranges that formed millions of years ago have had time to erode. The Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas stopped forming millions of years ago. They have large, gently rolling hills.
Make a Foldable as shown to help organize information on each kind of mountain.
fault-block mountain folded mountain
unwarped mountain
volcanic mountain
167
Picture This
1.
Identify Use a marker to

highlight the sharp peaks that are formed by tension forces.
How do fault-block mountains form?

Sometimes, tension forces pull Earths plates in opposite directions. As a result, surface features such as rift valleys and faults are formed. Fault-block mountains also form from these pulling forces. Fault-block mountains are sharp, jagged mountains made of huge, tilted blocks of rock that are separated from surrounding rocks by faults. As the gure above shows, tension forces pull the level layers of rock from opposite directions. Large blocks slide downward forming peaks and valleys. If you hold a candy bar between your hands and pull it apart, cracks may form. When rocks are pulled apart, faults form. Unlike rocks deep inside Earth, rocks at Earths surface are hard and break easily. When they are pulled apart, large blocks of rock can move along the faults. The Sierra Nevada in California and the Teton Range in Wyoming have sharp, jagged peaks that are typical of fault-block mountains.
How do folded mountains form?

Imagine holding a at piece of clay between your hands and then pushing your hands together. What happens? As you push your hands together, the clay begins to bend and fold over itself. If you travel through the Appalachian Mountains, you can see rock layers that have been folded just like the clay was when it was squeezed or compressed. When two of Earths plates moved together, compression forces squeezed the rock layers from opposite sides. This caused the rock layers to buckle and fold, forming folded mountains. Folded mountains are mountains formed by the folding of rock layers caused by compression. The Appalachian Mountains are folded mountains that formed millions of years ago. At one time, they were high, steep mountains, even higher than the Rocky Mountains. But they have been weathered and eroded over time, so now they are small compared to other mountain ranges.
2.
Recall What kind of force

causes folded mountains to form?
168
Lesson DD Uplift of Earths Crust
How do upwarped mountains form?

The Adirondack Mountains in New York, the southern Rocky Mountains in Colorado and New Mexico, and the Black Hills in South Dakota are all examples of upwarped mountains. Upwarped mountains form when forces inside Earth push up the crust. Over time, the sedimentary rock layers on top erode. Then the metamorphic and igneous rocks underneath are exposed. These can erode further to form peaks and ridges.
3.
Identify What type of mountains form when forces inside Earth push up the crust?
How do volcanic mountains form?

At times, magma from inside Earth reaches the surface. Magma that ows out onto Earths surface is called lava. When lava ows onto the surface, volcanic mountains can form. Layer upon layer of lava piles up and cools until a cone-shaped feature called a volcanic mountain forms. Some volcanic mountains form at plate boundaries, where one plate subducts into the mantle. As the plate sinks into the mantle, it melts. This melted material, or magma, is less dense, so it rises to the surface over time. If it reaches the surface, it can erupt as lava and ash. Layers of lava and ash pile up over time to form a new volcanic mountain. The gure below shows a volcanic mountain and the path magma follows as it rises to Earths surface and erupts as lava.
Picture This
4.
Use Scientic Illustrations Trace the

path magma follows when the volcano erupts.
Vent As magma flows up the pipe, it reaches the surface at an opening called the vent.
Crater This bowl-shaped part of the volcano surrounds the vent. Lava often collects here before it flows down the slope.
Pipe Magma flows through this nearly vertical crack in the rock called the pipe. Magma Chamber Magma that has been forced upward forms and fills a large pocket under the volcano. This pocket is called the magma chamber.
Magma The hot, molten mixture of rock material and gases is called magma.
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Lava Vent Ocean Underwater volcano Magma Ocean Lava layers Volcano Ocean
Vent Volcanic island
Picture This
5.
How do underwater volcanic mountains form?

You know that volcanic mountains form on land. Did you know that volcanic mountains also form on the ocean oor? The gure above shows this process. Underwater eruptions form mountains under the sea. Magma rises up and then ows out as lava. Over time, as the layers of lava build up, mountains rise above sea level. This is how the Hawaiian Islands formed. Volcanic mountains like the Hawaiian Islands are different from volcanic mountains that form when one plate subducts into the mantle. The Hawaiian Islands didnt form at a plate boundary. They formed over a hot spot. Hot rock that is forced up through Earths mantle melts to form a hot spot in Earths crust. When plates move over the hot spot, a series of volcanoes form. The Hawaiian Islands are a series of volcanic mountains that formed as lava erupted onto the ocean oor. There are some differences between hot spot volcanoes and subduction volcanoes. Magma from subduction volcanoes forms closer to Earths surface. Hot spot volcanoes are much larger and have more gently sloping sides than subduction volcanoes.
Identify Circle the point

at which magma becomes lava.
Other Types of Uplift

If you place wooden blocks of different thicknesses in a bucket of water, you will notice that different blocks of wood oat in the water at different heights. Thicker blocks of wood oat higher than thinner blocks do. The buoyant force of the water balances the force of gravity. This is like a process called isostasy (i SAHS tuh see) that occurs in Earth. Isostasy is the principle that Earths lithosphere oats on a plasticlike upper part of the mantle called the asthenosphere.
6.
Recall What principle

states that Earths lithosphere oats on the asthenosphere?
170
How does isostasy affect Earths crust?

The effects of isostasy were rst noticed near large mountain ranges. Earths crust is thicker under mountains than in other places. If mountains keep getting uplifted, the crust under the mountains becomes thicker and extends farther down into the mantle. This is like the oating wooden blocks. If you pile another wooden block on a block that is already oating, you will see that the new, larger block will sink farther into the water. The new block will also oat higher than it did before.
7.
Determine Is Earths crust thicker or thinner under mountains?
How does gravity affect uplifted crust?

As mountains grow larger, they sink farther into the mantle, just as larger wooden blocks sink farther into water. When mountains stop forming, erosion lowers them. As a result, the crust rises again because weight has been removed. If this process continues, the thicker crust under the mountains will be reduced to the thickness of the crust where there are no mountains. This is similar to the way icebergs behave, as shown in the gure below. The iceberg is largest when it rst breaks off of a glacier. As the iceberg oats, it melts and loses mass. As a result, it rises in the water. Over time, the iceberg will get smaller and smaller and wont extend as deeply into the water.
Picture This
8.
Observe Is the larger amount of ice in the icebergs above or below the water?
171
After You Read

Mini Glossary
fault-block mountain: sharp, jagged mountains made of huge, tilted blocks of rock that are separated from surrounding rocks by faults and that form because of pulling forces folded mountain: mountains formed by the folding of rock layers caused by compression isostasy (i SAHS tuh see): principle that Earths lithosphere oats on a plasticlike upper part of the mantle called the asthenosphere upwarped mountain: mountains that form when forces inside Earth push up the crust volcanic mountain: mountain that forms when magma is forced upward and ows onto Earths surface
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. In your own words, explain the principle of isostasy.
2. Complete the chart to show what type of mountain is formed from each type of force.
Forces that form mountains Compression forces Tension forces Subduction Forces inside Earth push up the crust
3. In this lesson you used two-column notes to help you learn the information. Was this a helpful strategy? Would you use it again? Explain why or why not.
End of Lesson
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about how mountains form.
172
Lesson
Earthquakes
EE
Standard 4.b: Describe the cause and effect relationship between the composition of and movement within the Earth's lithosphere. (DOK 1)
Before You Read

Have you ever experienced an earthquake or perhaps seen an earthquake in a movie or on TV? On the lines below, describe an earthquake.
What Youll Learn
how energy from an earthquake reaches points on Earths surface about primary, secondary, and surface waves produced by earthquakes how to recognize earthquake hazards and prepare for them
Read to Learn
What causes earthquakes?
Underline As you read this

lesson, underline the key terms and main ideas in each paragraph to help you understand new information.
Have you ever bent a stick? If so, you probably noticed that it changes shape while you are bending it and springs back when you stop. But if you dont stop bending the stick, it changes permanently. If its elastic limit is passed, the stick may break. As it breaks, you can feel vibrations in the stick.
What is elastic rebound?

Rocks are like other solid materials. If enough force pulls or pushes on them, they will change shape. They may even break. After breaking, the ends of the broken pieces may snap back. This snapping back is called elastic rebound. Inside Earth, pushing and pulling forces cause rocks to change shape slowly over time. As they are strained, potential energy builds up in them. This energy is released suddenly when the rocks nally break or move. The breaking and the movement that follows causes vibrations that move through rock. If they are strong enough, the vibrations are felt as earthquakes. An earthquake is a movement of the ground that occurs when rocks inside Earth pass their elastic limit, break suddenly, and experience elastic rebound.
Construct a three-tab Foldable as shown. Under the tabs, write information about faults.
Normal Faults
Reverse Faults
Strike-Slip Faults
173
Types of Faults
Normal fault
Reverse fault
Strike-slip fault
Picture This
1.
What is a fault?
When part of a rock breaks, rocks on either side move as a result of elastic rebound. The surface where rocks break and move is called a fault. Rocks can break in different ways, depending on the forces that cause the break. The gures above show three different faults, a normal fault, a reverse fault, and a strike-slip fault.
Determine Trace over

the arrows in each gure. What do the arrows show?
What are the types of faults?

Sometimes rocks are pulled apart because of tension forces. This is what occurs in a normal fault, as shown in the normal fault gure. Normal faults form where tension forces pull rocks apart, and the rock above the fault moves down. Sometimes rocks are pushed together, or compressed. Reverse faults are caused by compression. This is shown in the reverse fault gure. When the two rocks push together, rock above the fault is pushed up. Sometimes sections of rock move past one another in opposite directions along Earths surface as shown in the strike-slip fault gure. This is called shearing. Strike-slip faults are caused by shear forces.
174
Lesson EE Earthquakes
What are seismic waves?

What happens if you throw a rock into a pond? Waves travel out in all directions from the spot where the rock hit the water. These waves carry some of the rocks energy away. The same thing happens when an earthquake occurs. Earthquakes also release energy in waves. Earthquake waves move through material inside Earth and along Earths surface. Waves from an earthquake are called seismic waves. Seismic waves travel at different speeds through different materials. Waves travel faster in solid rock than in liquid. By looking at the speed of the waves and the paths that they take, scientists can get clues about how the planet is put together.
2.
Identify What are waves from an earthquake called?
How does energy from an earthquake reach Earths surface?

Movement along a fault releases energy causing vibrations. When this energy is released, it moves away from the fault in the form of seismic waves. The point deep inside Earth where energy is released causing an earthquake is a focus. Some of the energy from the earthquake travels straight up to Earths surface where it can be felt. The epicenter is the point on Earths surface directly above the earthquake focus. This release of energy can be seen in the gure below.
Picture This
3.
Label Add the labels

epicenter and seismic wave to the gure.
1.
Fault
Focus 2.
175
How do seismic waves travel?

When seismic waves leave the focus of an earthquake, some travel through Earths interior, and others travel along the surface. Primary Waves The seismic waves that travel fastest through rock material are primary waves, or P-waves. Primary waves cause the material to move from side to side, in the same direction that the wave is moving. Secondary waves Other seismic waves that travel through Earths interior are called secondary waves. Secondary waves, or S-waves, do not move as fast as P-waves. As they move through rock material, they cause the material to vibrate at right angles to the direction of the wave. Surface waves Seismic waves that travel along Earths surface are called surface waves. They are the largest and slowest type of seismic wave. They cause more damage than other types of seismic waves. Surface waves move in different ways. When some surface waves travel over Earths surface, they may move the rock and soil in a backward rolling motion. They move across land like waves of water. Some surface waves shake or sway the rock and soil from side to side.
4.
Determine What two

types of seismic waves travel through Earths interior?
Learning from Earthquakes

On your way to lunch, suppose you walk twice as fast as your friend does. What would happen to the distance between the two of you? The distance between you would become greater the farther you walk, and you would arrive rst. When scientists study seismic waves, they apply the same principle. Scientists look at the different speeds of seismic waves and at the different arrival times to gure out the exact location of an earthquakes epicenter.
How are earthquakes measured?

Scientists who study earthquakes are called seismologists. They use instruments called seismographs to record seismic waves. One type of seismograph has a drum that holds a roll of paper on a frame. A pendulum with an attached pen hangs over the frame. When seismic waves reach the station, the drum vibrates. The pen on the pendulum traces a record of the vibration. The height of the lines traced on the paper measures the magnitude of the earthquake. Magnitude is the measure of energy released by an earthquake.
5.
Describe What do seismologists do?
176
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Picture This
6.
First S wave
e rv cu
Interpret Look at the

seismograph reading. How far away was the earthquake epicenter from this location? How many minutes apart did the waves arrive?
Travel time (min)
5 min
ve wa S- First P wave
ve cur ave P-w
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 Distance to epicenter (km)
How is an epicenter located?

The epicenter of an earthquake is the point on the surface of Earth directly above the focus. Far away from the epicenter, the P-waves and S-waves arrive at different times. But close to the epicenter, the waves arrive at almost the same time. This difference in arrival time is shown in the graph above. Once scientists know the P-wave and S-wave arrival times for at least three seismograph stations, they can gure out the location of an earthquakes epicenter. They draw circles on a map. Each circle shows the distance from a seismograph station to the earthquake. The point where three or more circles intersect is the location of the epicenter. Look at the map below. The three seismographic stations are in Tokyo, Berkeley, and Anchorage. The epicenter is the point where the three circles intersect.
Picture This
7.
Interpret On the map, which seismograph station is closest to the epicenter of the earthquake?
Anchorage Tokyo EPICENTER Berkeley
177
How strong are earthquakes?

Some earthquakes are not felt on the surface of Earth. People do not even know these small earthquakes are happening. Larger earthquakes, on the other hand, can cause major damage.
What is the Richter scale?

Applying Math
8.
Calculate How much more energy is released from an earthquake with a magnitude of 8 than from an earthquake with a magnitude of 6? Show your work in the box.
Richter (RIHK tur) magnitude is based on the measurements of heights of seismic waves as they are recorded on seismographs. Scientists use this information to determine the Richter magnitude of an earthquake. Richter magnitude describes how much energy an earthquake releases. Very weak earthquakes have low magnitudes like 1.0 on the Richter scale. Strong earthquakes have high magnitudes in the range of 6 to 7. For every increase of 1.0 on the Richter scale, an earthquake actually releases 32 times more energy. This means that an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.5 releases 32 times more energy than an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.5.
How is earthquake intensity measured?

Another way to measure earthquakes is by the modied Mercalli intensity scale. This scale measures the intensity of an earthquake. Intensity is a measure of the amount of damage to structures and to rocks and soil in a specic area. The amount of damage depends on how strong the earthquake is, kinds of structures in an area, distance from the earthquakes epicenter, and the nature of the surface material. The Mercalli scale uses Roman numerals I through XII. An earthquake with an intensity of I would be felt by few people. An intensity-VI earthquake would be felt by everyone. An intensity-XII earthquake would cause major damage to Earths surface and to human-built structures.
What are tsunamis?

When an earthquake occurs on the ocean oor, powerful waves are produced. These waves travel outward from the earthquake in all directions. A powerful seismic sea wave is called a tsunami. Tsunamis traveling in open ocean water are low and fast moving. But tsunamis change as they approach land. The speed of the tsunami slows and the height of the wave increases. Huge tsunami waves can be up to 30 m high. These huge waves can cause large amounts of damage along coastal areas.
9.
Identify What are powerful seismic sea waves called?
178
Earthquake Safety
You have read about the destruction earthquakes can cause. If the area you are in has had earthquakes before, chances are it will again. You can prepare for that.
What measures can you take to be safer?

There are things you can do to make your home safe. Put heavy things on lower shelves so they wont fall on you. Make sure your gas hot-water heater and appliances are well secured. There are now sensors that can be placed on gas lines. The sensors shut off the gas when the vibrations of an earthquake are felt. This helps prevent res. During an earthquake, stay away from windows and anything that could fall on you. Sometimes the safest thing is to get outside. But then you must watch for fallen power lines and re hazards.
10.
Explain What is one thing you can do to make your home safer during an earthquake?
How do people build seismic-safe structures?

Seismic-safe structures are buildings that can stand up against the vibrations caused by most earthquakes. It is not possible to prevent earthquakes, but structures can be built that withstand them. California has many regulations for making sure that buildings are seismic-safe. Many high-rise ofce buildings now stand on huge steel-and-rubber supports. This can help buildings to ride out the vibrations of an earthquake. Underground water and gas pipes are replaced with pipes that will bend during an earthquake. This can help prevent broken gas lines and therefore prevent damage from res. Highways and bridges are built with spiral rods in the concrete columns. These spiral rods reinforce the structure, and keep it from collapsing.
Can earthquakes be predicted?

Right now, it is impossible to predict the exact time and place an earthquake will occur. However, scientists do know which locations are more likely to have earthquakes. In these places, they monitor the movement along faults to see when an earthquake might occur. They also watch the groundwater levels and electrical properties in rocks. It is possible to predict that an earthquake of a certain magnitude will probably occur in a certain location within the next 30 to 100 years. But it is difcult to predict an earthquake more exactly than that.
11.
Describe one thing that

can be done to make buildings and structures more seismic-safe.
179
After You Read

Mini Glossary
earthquake: movement of the ground that occurs when rocks inside Earth pass their elastic limit, break suddenly, and experience rebound epicenter: point on Earths surface directly above the earthquakes focus fault: fracture that occurs where rocks break which results in movement of opposing sides focus: point deep inside Earth where energy is released, causing an earthquake magnitude: measure of energy released by an earthquake seismic-safe: describes the ability of structures to stand up against vibrations caused by an earthquake seismic waves: earthquake waves including primary waves, secondary waves, and surface waves seismograph: instrument used to record seismic waves tsunami: powerful seismic sea wave that begins over an ocean-oor earthquake
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write two sentences explaining how earthquakes are measured. Use at least three glossary words.
2. Fill in the boxes with the correct terms.

____________________________ waves
___________________ waves P-waves Travel fastest through rock
___________________ waves S-waves Travel slower through rock
___________________ waves Slowest waves Largest waves Cause most destruction Travel on Earths surface
3. You underlined key terms and main ideas in each paragraph in this lesson. Did this strategy help you learn more about earthquakes? Would you use it again?
End of Lesson
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about earthquakes.
180
Lesson
Volcanoes
FF
Standard 4.b: Describe the cause and effect relationship between the composition of and movement within the Earths lithosphere. (DOK 1)
Before You Read

What do you think of when you hear the word volcano? On the lines below, write words that describe volcanoes.
What Youll Learn

how volcanoes form how volcanoes affect humans about three types of volcanoes ways that volcanoes add material to Earths surface
Read to Learn
How do volcanoes form?
Study Coach
Flash Cards As you read the

lesson, write important words on ash cards. On the back of each ash card, write an explanation in your own words. Use the ash cards to review this lesson.
Inside Earth is a layer of hot, liquid rock material called magma. Most of the time magma remains deep inside Earth. Sometimes, however, it is forced to the surface. Rising magma can lead to an eruptionan event where magma, solids, and gas spew onto Earths surface. A volcano is a cone-shaped hill or mountain formed when hot magma, solids, and gas erupt onto Earths surface. When magma ows to Earths surface, it is called lava. Volcanoes have circular holes called craters. Lava can ow gently or explode violently out of the crater. Some violent eruptions throw lava and rock thousands of meters into the air.
What occurs when plates collide?

Earths upper mantle and crust are made up of large plates that move around on a layer of magma. When these plates collide, volcanoes can form. When two plates collide, the denser plate sinks below the less dense plate. As the denser plate sinks, it melts and forms chambers of magma. This magma is the source of volcanic eruptions that formed the Caribbean Islands.
181
Picture This
1.
Label where magma and

lava in the gure would be found.
Forms of Volcanoes
The gure above shows a view inside a volcano forming where a denser plate sinks under a less dense plate. The magma is rising toward Earths surface. Volcanoes can cause great destruction. But they also can add new material to Earths surface. The way volcanoes add this new material to Earths surface varies greatly. Different types of eruptions produce different types of volcanoes.
What determines how a volcano erupts?

All volcanoes are a result of magma rising to Earths surface. But some volcanic eruptions are violent, while others are quiet. Different factors affect volcanic eruptions. The composition of the magma and the amount of pressure in the magma determine how a volcano erupts.
How does magma composition affect eruptions?

Lava contains many different compounds, including silica. Silica is made of silicon and oxygen. Lava that contains more silica tends to be thicker and does not ow easily. Lava containing more iron and magnesium and less silica tends to ow more easily.
2.
Describe What is lava

like that contains more silica?
How does magma pressure affect eruptions?

The amount of pressure built up in the magma also affects the type of eruption. When you shake a bottle of carbonated soft drink before opening it, the pressure from the gas builds up and is released suddenly when the container is opened. In the same way, steam builds pressure in magma. Lava containing more silica is thicker, so it tends to trap more water vapor and other gases. This creates tremendous pressure.
182
Lesson FF Volcanoes
How does water vapor affect eruptions?

Water can be carried from the surface of Earth to the mantle when one plate sinks beneath another. The magma produced when plates melt tends to contain more silica than the magma produced deep inside Earth. This silica traps more water, which turns to steam. Steam produces tremendous pressure in thick, silica-rich magma. When enough pressure builds up, an eruption occurs.
How are shield volcanoes formed?

Basaltic lava contains more iron and magnesium than silica, so it ows in broad, at layers. The buildup of basaltic layers forms a large, broad volcano with gently sloping sides called a shield volcano. A shield volcano is shown on the left in the gure below. They are the largest type of volcano. Shield volcanoes occur where plates are separating, or in other places where magma can be forced up from deep inside Earth.
Picture This
3.
Explain How does lava ow from the shield volcano?
Crater Sea level 9 km 0.3 km
50 km
0.5 km
Shield volcano
Cinder cone volcano
How do cinder cone volcanoes form?

Gases build up in magma as it rises to Earths surface. When the gas builds up enough pressure, the volcano erupts. The eruption throws ash, cinders, and lava into the air. The lava cools quickly and particles of solid lava, ash, and cinders fall to the surface. These particles of solid lava, ash, and cinders, called tephra, form a small cone of volcanic material. A cinder cone volcano is a relatively small volcano formed by moderate to explosive eruptions of tephra. This type of volcano is shown on the right in the gure above. Cinder cone volcanoes erupt violently because the eruption is powered by the high gas content. However, the eruptions usually do not last very long. After the gas is released, the force behind the eruption is gone.
Construct a four-tab Foldable as shown to record information about volcanoes.
Shield volcanoes Cinder cone volcanoes Composite volcanoes Fissure eruptions
183
What is a composite volcano?

Composite volcanoes are steep-sided volcanoes formed by alternating layers of tephra and lava. This volcano is shown in the gure below. Sometimes composite volcanoes erupt violently as in a cinder cone volcano and spew out tephra. At other times, lava ows out gently as in a shield volcano. Composite volcanoes form where one plate sinks under another plate. They are intermediate in size and shape compared to shield volcanoes and cinder cone volcanoes. Composite volcano
4.
Infer Why do composite

volcanoes have steep sides?
3 km
Crater
6 km
What is a ssure eruption?

Magma that is highly uid can ooze through cracks or fissures in Earths surface. This type of magma is usually linked to ssure eruptions. The lava ows freely across the land to form ood basalts. When ood basalts are exposed to erosion over time, they can become large, at landforms called lava plateaus. The Columbia River Plateau in the northwestern United States was formed millions of years ago. Several ssures erupted and lava ows built up layer by layer. The map below shows the location of the Columbia River Basalts.
Picture This
5.
WASHINGTON
Range
Use Models Outline the

Columbia River Basalts on the map.
Pacific Ocean
Cascade
Columbia River Basalts
IDAHO
OREGON
100 km
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Lesson FF Volcanoes
After You Read

Mini Glossary
cinder cone volcano: relatively small volcano formed by moderate to explosive eruptions of tephra composite volcano: steep-sided volcano formed with alternating layers of violent eruptions of tephra and quieter eruptions of lava lava: molten rock owing onto Earths surface shield volcano: large, broad volcano with gently sloping sides that is formed by the buildup of basaltic layers volcano: cone-shaped hill or mountain formed when hot magma, solids, and gases erupt onto Earths surface through a vent
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write two to three sentences using at least two terms to describe different volcanic eruptions.
2. Compare shield volcanoes to cinder cone volcanoes, using this Venn diagram. In the middle, write things that the two types of volcanoes have in common. On each side, write things that are different.
Cinder cone volcanoes
Shield volcanoes Both
3. In this lesson you made ash cards. How did the ash cards help you to learn about volcanoes?
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about volcanoes.
End of Lesson
185
Lesson
Earths Weather
GG
Standard 4.c: Examine weather forecasting and describe how meteorologists use atmospheric features and technology to predict the weather. (DOK 2)
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

Hot, cold, windy, snowy, sunny, cloudythese are all ways to describe weather. What is your favorite kind of weather? Describe it.
how clouds form what causes precipitation what causes wind
Study Coach
Read to Learn
Weather
A weather bulletin has been issued for your area. Heavy snow is expected during the night. Will the schools be closed? Will people be able to get to work? How might this weather affect your family? Weather describes the current condition of the atmosphere, including temperature, cloud cover, wind speed, wind direction, humidity, and air pressure. A meteorologist (mee tee uh RAH luh jist) uses this information to forecast, or predict, the weather.
Mapping Denitions As
you read, make a denition map to describe and dene vocabulary words. Your map should include questions about each word, such as, What is it? and What are some examples?
Make the following Foldable to help you organize information about Earths weather.
temperature
What is temperature?
Recall that the Suns energy powers the water cycle. In fact, the Sun is the source of almost all of the energy on Earth. When the Suns rays reach Earth, energy is absorbed. As gas molecules absorb more energy, they move faster and farther apart. Temperature is a measure of how fast air molecules are moving. The faster the molecules move, the higher the temperature. Temperature is measured with a thermometer. A thermometer has a scale divided into degrees. The two scales commonly used to measure temperature are the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
clouds
precipitation
wind
186
Lesson GG Earths Weather
How does energy move through the atmosphere?

Fast-moving molecules transfer energy to slower-moving molecules when they bump into each other. This transfer of energy is called conduction. Conduction transfers heat from Earths surface to nearby molecules in the air. The heated air rises. As it rises, it starts to cool. When the rising air becomes cooler than the air around it, it sinks again. The process of warm air rising and cool air sinking is called convection. Convection is the main way heat is moved throughout the atmosphere. How conduction and convection transfer heat on Earth is shown in the illustration below.
Cool air pushes warm air upward, creating a convection current.
Picture This
1.
Interpret Scientic Illustrations Highlight

the processes of conduction and convection on the diagram.
A few centimeters of air near the surface are heated by conduction.
Energy from the Sun warms the surface.
How is temperature related to air pressure?

The weight of air exerts pressure. Air pressure decreases as altitude increases. As you go higher, the weight of the atmosphere above you is less. Temperature and air pressure are related. When air is heated, its molecules move faster, and the air expands. This makes the air less dense so it exerts less pressure on anything below it. The lighter, warmer air moves upward. Cooled air becomes more dense and sinks as the molecules slow down and move closer together. Sinking air produces more pressure. So, rising air usually means lower pressure and sinking air means higher pressure. Air pressure varies over Earths surface.
2.
Infer Is air pressure likely

to be greater at the top or the base of a mountain? Why?
187
What is humidity?
As air warms up, it can cause water that is touching it to evaporate and form water vapor. Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Warm air causes evaporation to occur more quickly. Warm air also can hold more moisture. When air is holding as much water vapor as it can, it is said to be saturated and condensation may occur. The dew point is the temperature at which air becomes saturated and condensation can occur. Youve probably seen water droplets form on the outside of a can of cold soda. The cold can cooled the air around it to its dew point. The water vapor in the air condensed, forming water droplets on the soda can. Something similar occurs when you see dew. Air near the ground cools to its dew point, and then water vapor condenses and forms dew. If temperatures are near 0C, frost may form.
3.
Describe When is air

saturated?
What is relative humidity?

Suppose a mass of air is chilled. The amount of water vapor in the air does not change unless condensation occurs. However, less moisture can be evaporated into the chilled air. Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor in the air compared to the amount that could be held at that temperature. As air cools, relative humidity increases if the amount of water vapor in the air doesnt change. When the air holds all the water vapor it can hold at that temperature, the relative humidity is 100 percent. Local TV weather reports sometimes give the dew point on summer days. If the dew point is close to the air temperature, relative humidity is high. If the dew point is much lower than the air temperature, relative humidity is low.
Clouds
4.
Describe What are clouds made of?
One of the best signs that Earths atmosphere is in motion is the presence of clouds. A cloud forms when air rises, cools to its dew point, and becomes saturated. Water vapor then condenses onto small particles in the air. If the temperature is warm, the clouds are made up of small drops of water. If the temperature is cold, the clouds are made up of small ice crystals. Clouds are classied according to the height above Earths surface at which they form. The most common classication method separates clouds into low, middle, or high groups.
188
What are low clouds?

Clouds in the low-cloud group form at altitudes of 2,000 m or less. These include puffy cumulus (KYEW myuh lus) clouds that form when air currents rise, carrying moisture with them. Sometimes cumulus clouds are signs of fair weather. Other cumulus clouds can produce thunder, lightning, and heavy rain. Stratus and Nimbostratus Clouds Another type of low cloud is layered stratus (STRA tus) clouds. Stratus clouds form as dull, gray sheets that can cover the entire sky. Nimbostratus (nihm boh STRA tus) clouds form low, dark, thick layers that block the Sun. Stratus and nimbostratus clouds produce precipitation.
What are middle clouds?

Clouds that form between about 2,000 m and 8,000 m are known as the middle-cloud group. Most of these clouds are of the layered variety. Their names often have the prex alto- in front of them, such as altocumulus and altostratus. These clouds can hold enough moisture to produce light rain or snow. Sometimes they are made up of a mixture of liquid water and ice crystals.
How do high clouds form?

Some clouds form so high in the atmosphere that they are made up entirely of ice crystals. These are known as the high-cloud group. They include the high, wispy cirrus (SIHR us) clouds. They also include cirrostratus clouds, which are high, layered clouds that can cover the entire sky. Some clouds extend from low levels to high levels of the atmosphere. These are clouds of vertical development. The most common type is cumulonimbus (kyew myuh loh NIHM bus) clouds. The term nimbus usually means the cloud creates precipitation. Cumulonimbus clouds produce the heaviest rains of all. Known as thunderstorm clouds, they start to form at heights of less than 1,000 m but can build to more than 16,000 m high.
5.
Draw Conclusions
Which of these clouds means that a thunderstorm is on the way? a. b. c. d. altocumulus altostratus cirrus cumulonimbus
189
Precipitation
Compare and contrast
Make a four-tab Foldable as shown. As you read, take notes on how the four forms of precipitation are similar and different.
Rain
Rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, and hail are all forms of precipitation. Precipitation forms when drops of water or crystals of ice become too large to be suspended in a cloud and fall to Earth. The type of precipitation that falls depends on temperature. For example, rain falls when the air temperature is above freezing. However, if the air at high altitudes is above freezing while the air near Earths surface is below freezing, the result might be freezing rain.
Hail
Why are some raindrops bigger than others?

You have probably noticed that some raindrops are bigger than others. One reason for this size difference is the strength of updrafts in a cloud. If strong updrafts of wind keep drops in the air longer, they can combine with other drops. As a result, they grow larger.
Sleet
Snow
How does temperature affect precipitation?

Air temperature determines what kind of precipitation will fallrain, snow, sleet, or hail. How air temperature affects precipitation is shown in the gures below. When the air temperature is above freezing, water falls as rain. If the air temperature is so cold that water vapor changes to a solid, it snows. Sleet forms if raindrops fall through a layer of freezing air near Earths surface, forming ice pellets. During thunderstorms, hail forms in cumulonimbus clouds. Hailstones form when water freezes around tiny centers of ice. Hailstones get larger as theyre tossed up and down by rising and falling air. Most hailstones are small, but sometimes they can get larger than softballs. Of all forms of precipitation, hail causes the most damage.
Picture This
6.
Identify In the gures, circle the name of each type of precipitation.
Cloud droplets Warm Raindrops Warm
Ice crystals Cloud droplets Cold Warm Snowflakes
Cloud droplets
Ice crystal Cloud droplet Partial melting
Ice Cold Cold
Hail Warm
Rain
Snow
Sleet
Hail
190
Wind
Warmer air is less dense and moves upward. This causes regions of low air pressure. When cooled, the molecules in air move closer together. The air becomes more dense and sinks. This forms regions of high air pressure. Air moves from areas of high pressure to low pressure. This movement is called wind. The greater the difference in temperature or pressure between two areas, the stronger the wind.
7.
Infer If the wind is

blowing from west to east, where is the area of high air pressure?
What tools are used to measure wind?

Some instruments measure wind direction and others measure speed. A wind vane, sometimes seen on houses or barns, has an arrow that points in the direction from which the wind is blowing. A wind sock, another tool that shows wind direction, has an open end to catch the wind. The wind sock lls and points in the direction toward which the wind is blowing. An anemometer (a nuh MAH muh tur) is an instrument that measures wind speed. Anemometers have four open cups that catch the wind and cause the anemometer to spin. The faster the wind blows, the faster the anemometer spins.
How does air circulate?

Look at the gure. North pole You can see that the Suns rays strike Earth at a higher angle near Sun's rays Equator the equator than near the poles. This is why tropical areas heat up more than polar South pole regions do. Warm air ows toward the poles from the tropics. Cold air ows from the poles toward the equator. But the moving air doesnt ow in a straight line. Because Earth rotates, winds are pushed to their right in the northern hemisphere and to their left in the southern hemisphere. This is known as the Coriolis (kor ee OH lus) effect.
Picture This
8.
Compare and Contrast Do areas near

the equator heat up more or less than other regions? What about areas near the poles?
191
What are surface winds?

9.
Infer The tropical

easterlies are called the trade winds. Why do you think they were given this name?
Air at the equator is heated by the rays of the Sun. This air expands, becomes less dense, and gets pushed upward. At about 30 latitude, the air is somewhat cooler. This air sinks and then ows toward the equator. As this air ows, it is turned by the Coriolis effect. The result is steady winds that blow from east to west. These steady winds are called the trade winds. Trade winds are also called tropical easterlies.
What are westerlies and easterlies?

Between 30 and 60 latitude north and south of the equator, winds usually blow from the west. These winds form between the cold air from the poles and warmer air closer to the equator. These winds are called the prevailing westerlies. These regions are known for frequent storms. Similar winds near the poles blow from the east and are known as the polar easterlies. The gure below shows Earths major surface winds.
Picture This
10.
Wind belts Sinking air Rising air Surface winds High 60 N 30 N Low 0 Equator High 30 S 60 S Low High Low Polar easterlies
Interpret Scientic Illustrations The city of

Buenos Aires, Argentina is at about 34 latitude south of the equator. What type of winds affect the citys weather?
High
Prevailing westerlies Trade winds Trade winds Prevailing westerlies Polar easterlies
What are jet streams?

Jet streams are bands of strong winds that develop at higher altitudes within the zone of the prevailing westerlies. Jet streams are like giant rivers of air. They are important because weather systems move along their paths.
192
After You Read

Mini Glossary
Coriolis (kor ee OH lus) effect: winds are pushed to their right in the northern hemisphere and to their left in the southern hemisphere dew point: the temperature at which air is saturated and condensation can occur humidity: the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere precipitation: occurs when drops of water or crystals of ice become too large to be suspended in a cloud and fall to Earth; rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail trade winds: steady winds that blow from east to west weather: the current condition of the atmosphere, including cloud cover, temperature, wind speed and direction, humidity, and air pressure
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose a term and write a sentence in which you provide an example of that term.
2. Complete the concept map to show factors that affect Earths weather.
air pressure
_______________________
Earths Weather
_______________________
_______________________
wind
3. As you read this lesson, you made denition maps for the vocabulary words you learned. How did the mapping strategy help you? What is another strategy you could use to help you learn new vocabulary?
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about Earths weather.
End of Lesson
193
Lesson
Weather Forecasts
HH
Standard 4.c: Examine weather forecasting and describe how meteorologists use atmospheric features and technology to predict the weather. (DOK 2)
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

How good are you at predicting the weather? On the lines below, list things you consider when youre deciding what the days weather might be like.
how data are collected for weather maps and forecasts what symbols are used on a weather map
Study Coach
Sticky Notes As you read

this lesson, mark the pages you nd interesting or where you have a question. Share these pages with another student or with the teacher.
Read to Learn
Weather Observations
By looking at the thermometer or at clouds in the sky, you can tell things about the weather. Certain things about weather you know just from where you live. For example, if you live in Florida, you know that it will probably be warm and sunny.
What does a meteorologist do?

A meteorologist (mee tee uh RAH luh jist) studies the weather. A meteorologist gathers information about temperature, air pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation. By using tools like computers, Doppler radar, satellites, and weather balloons, a meteorologist makes weather maps and forecasts the weather.
Collecting Weather Data

Meteorologists use various technology tools to collect weather data. There are many surface and upper-level observations sites across the United States. However, data from these sites cannot be used to locate exactly where precipitation falls without the additional help of data from weather radars and weather satellites.
194
Lesson HH Weather Forecasts
Weather Radar A weather radar system detects specic locations of precipitation. Weather radar does not track the location of clouds. From collected data, meteorologists can determine the distance to precipitation and its location. The Doppler Effect Have you listened to an ambulance siren as the ambulance sped toward you, then passed you? The pitch gets higher as the ambulance moves toward you. It gets lower as the ambulance moves away from you. The Doppler effect is the change in frequency or pitch of a sound wave when the source of a sound moves compared to the listener. The National Weather Service uses Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler, which is based on the Doppler effect of moving waves. Norman, Oklahoma, was the site of the rst Doppler radar installation, which is shown below. Analysis of Doppler radar can be used to determine the speed at which precipitation moves toward or away from the radar station. Doppler radar can also provide a good estimation of the wind speeds associated with precipitation areas, such as thunderstorms or tornados.
1.
Dene What is the

Doppler effect?
195
Weather Satellites
In addition to communications, one of the main uses of satellites orbiting Earth is to observe weather. Cameras mounted aboard a weather satellite take photos of Earth at regular intervals. A weather satellite can use infrared, visible-light, or water-vapor imagery to observe the atmosphere. Infrared Imagery Some weather satellites use infrared imagery to make observations at night. Using this imagery, meteorologists can determine a cloud's temperature, its type, and its altitude. Infrared imagery can be used to establish a storms potential to produce severe weather. Visible-light Imagery Some satellites use cameras that require visible light to photograph Earth. Unlike weather radar, satellites track clouds but not necessarily track precipitation. By using weather radar and visible-light imagery, meteorologists can determine where both clouds and precipitation are occurring. Water-vapor Imagery Another type of satellite used for weather forecasting is called water-vapor imagery. Water vapor is an invisible gas and cannot be photographed directly. Water vapors can absorb and emit infrared radiation at certain wavelengths. Many weather satellites have sensors that are able to measure the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere. Water-vapor imagery is a valuable tool for meteorologists. It shows moisture in the atmosphere, not just cloud patterns.
3.
2.
Identify Which imagery is used to determine a clouds temperature? a. Water-vapor imagery b. Visible-light imagery c. Infrared imagery
Name What type of radiation does water vapor emit?
196
Forecasting Weather
Meteorologists gather information and make predictions about weather in the future. Because storms can be dangerous, it is important to know if a storm is coming. The National Weather Service uses two sources to predict the weather. They collect information, or data, from the upper atmosphere. They also collect data from Earths surface. Organize Make a Foldable
like the one shown below to help you learn about weather forecasts.
Meteorologist Weather Symbols
Barometric Pressure
Air pressure is the pressure that a column of air exerts on the air below it. Atmospheric pressure decreases with height. Therefore, air pressure is higher close to Earths surface than at high altitudes. Typical barometers, like the one shown below, measures air pressure in millibars (mb). This pressure is referred to as barometric pressure in a weather forecast. Barometric pressure is measuring air pressure in millibars. Knowing the barometric pressure of different areas helps meteorologists predict the weather.
4.
Weather Map
Weather Instruments
Explain What happens to air pressure as altitude increases?
Computer Modeling
Computers have been used to help meteorologists look at the weather over a long period of time. The rst computer weather model was in 1954. With advances in computer technology, computer weather modeling has improved. Computer models can describe the changes in the weather by using mathematical equations.
197
Station Models Meteorologists gather data from Earths surface. Then this data is recorded on a map. A station model shows weather conditions at a specic location using symbols on a map. Information coming from station models and from instruments in Earths atmosphere is put into computers and helps forecast weather.
5.
Describe What does a station model show?
How do maps show temperature and pressure?

Weather maps have lines that connect locations with the same temperature or the same pressure. An isotherm (I suh thurm) is a line that connects places with the same temperature. Iso means same. Therm means temperature. You may have seen isotherms on weather maps on TV. Weather maps, like the one below, also have isobars. An isobar is a line that connects two places with the same atmospheric pressure. Isobars show how fast wind is blowing in an area. When isobars are drawn close together, there is a big difference in air pressure. This means a strong wind is blowing. When isobars are drawn farther apart, there is little difference in pressure. Winds in this area are gentler. Isobars also show locations of high- and low-pressure areas. On the weather map below, the pressure areas are drawn as circles with the word High or Low in the middle of the circle. Fronts are drawn as lines and symbols. This information helps meteorologists forecast the weather.
1016 1024 1032 HIGH
41 269 Duluth 16 35
Picture This
6.
Locate Find the low

pressure area by Portland and trace over the circle.
s sss
1000 1008
sss ss
1000
1008
1008
HIGH 1032
1024
LOW 75 130 67 4 Portland
1016
s
Legend Cold front Warm front Occluded front Stationary front Isobar Precipitation 1016
ss sss sss ss
1024
1008 1000 LOW 074 Springfield 54 26

58
172 4 Tucson
Dallas 68 LOW
1016
LOW
101 6
1024
198
sssssssss sss s
San Diego 76 194 70 89 2 HIGH 28
79 125 20 84 134 64 227 76 Columbia Little Rock Nashville 5 8 7 10 54 71 217
HIGH
ss
Miami 1024
4 85 24 4 75
100 8 LOW
s
s sss
Denver 76 183 57 0 1024 HIGH

s
6 101
4 102
HIGH
After You Read

Mini Glossary
barometric pressure: measuring air pressure in millibars Doppler effect: the change in frequency or pitch of a sound wave when the source of a sound moves compared to the listener isobar: line drawn on a weather map that connects two places with the same atmospheric pressure isotherm: line drawn on a weather map that connects locations with the same temperature meteorologist: person who studies the weather and uses information from Doppler radar, weather satellites, computers, and other instruments to make weather maps and provide forecasts station model: indicates weather conditions at a specic location by using symbols on a map
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write a sentence explaining the difference between an isobar and an isotherm.
2. Arrange the following events in order to show how a meteorologist studies weather and uses information.
A meteorologist: forecasts weather gathers data on weather conditions makes weather maps First
Second
Third
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about weather forecasts.
End of Lesson
199
Lesson
Resources
II
Standard 4.d: Research the importance of the conservation of renewable and nonrenewable resources, including (but not limited to) Mississippi, and justify methods that might be useful in decreasing the human impact on global warming. (DOK 3)
Before You Read

Identify two objects in the room you are in. What products from the environment were used to make them?
What Youll Learn
the difference between renewable and nonrenewable resources how fossil fuels are used alternatives to using fossil fuels
Read to Learn
Natural Resources
An earthworm eats decaying plant material. A robin catches the worm and ies to a tree. The leaves of the tree use sunlight during photosynthesis. Leaves fall to the ground and decay. What do these living things have in common? They rely on Earths natural resources. Natural resources are the parts of the environment that are useful or necessary for the survival of living organisms. Like other organisms, humans need food, air, and water. Humans also use resources to make everything from clothes to cars.
Study Coach
Identify the Main Idea As you read this lesson, organize notes into two columns. On the left, list a main idea about the material in each subhead. On the right, list the details that support the main idea.
What are renewable resources?

A renewable resource is any natural resource that is recycled or replaced constantly by nature. For example, the Sun provides a constant supply of heat and light. Plants add oxygen to the air when they carry out photosynthesis. Rain lls lakes and streams with water. Identify Make a vocabulary book using notebook paper. As you read the section, add each boldface underlined term. Write the denitions under the tabs.
ral Natu rce u reso
Why are some resources in short supply?

Although renewable resources are recycled or replaced, they are sometimes in short supply. Sometimes there may not be enough rain or water provided from melting snow to supply water to people, plants, and animals. In desert regions, water and other resources are often scarce.
201
What are nonrenewable resources?

Natural resources that are used up more quickly than they can be replaced by natural processes are nonrenewable resources. Earths supply of nonrenewable resources is limited. For example, plastics and gasoline are made from a nonrenewable resource called petroleum, or oil. Petroleum is formed mostly from the remains of microscopic marine organisms buried in Earths crust. Petroleum is nonrenewable because it takes hundreds of millions of years for it to form.
1.
Explain why petroleum is

a nonrenewable resource.
Fossil Fuels
Coal, oil, and natural gas are nonrenewable resources that supply energy. Most of the energy you use comes from these fossil fuels, as you can see in the gure below. Fossil fuels are fuels formed in Earths crust over hundreds of millions of years. Cars are powered by gasoline, which is made from oil. Many power plants use coal to produce electricity. Natural gas is used for heating and cooking.
Picture This
2.
Sources of Energy in the United States

Nuclear power 8% Oil Natural 39% gas 23% Coal 22% Renewable energy 8%
Identify On the circle graph, outline the sections that represent fossil fuels. On the line below, write the percentage of U.S. energy that comes from sources other than fossil fuels.
Why should fossil fuels be conserved?

People all over the world use fossil fuels every day. Earths supply of these fuels is limited. In the future, fossil fuels may become more expensive and harder to get. The use of fossil fuels can cause environmental problems. Layers of soil and rock are often stripped away when mining for coal. This destroys ecosystems. Another problem with fossil fuels is that they have to be burned to release energy. The burning results in waste gases that cause air pollution. Two forms of air pollution are smog and acid rain. To reduce the problems caused by fossil fuels, many people suggest using fossil fuels less and nding other sources of energy.
Explain Make a two-tab book using notebook paper, as shown below. Make notes about the effects of fossil fuels and alternatives to fossil fuels.
Alternatives to fossil fuels
Fossil fuels
202
Lesson II Resources
Reducing the Use of Fossil Fuels You can turn off the television when you are not watching it. This will reduce the use of electricity. You can ride in a car pool or use public transportation to reduce the use of gasoline. Walking or riding a bicycle also can reduce the use of fossil fuels.
Alternatives to Fossil Fuels

Another way of reducing the use of fossil fuels is to nd other sources of energy. Power plants use fossil fuels to power the turbines that produce electricity. Alternative energy sources such as water, wind, and nuclear energy can be used instead of the fossil fuels to turn the turbines. Another alternative is solar cells that use only sunlight to produce electricity.
How can water generate electricity?

Water is a renewable resource that can be used to produce electricity. Hydroelectric power is electricity that is made when the energy of falling water is used to turn the turbines of an electric generator. Hydroelectric power does not burn fuel, so it does not cause air pollution. However, this type of power can cause environmental problems. To build a hydroelectric plant, usually a dam needs to be constructed across a river. The dam raises the water level to produce the energy that is needed to make electricity. Many acres of land behind the dam are ooded, destroying land habitats and turning part of the river into a lake.
3.
Identify one advantage

and one disadvantage of hydroelectric power.
How can wind be used to produce energy?

Wind power is another renewable energy source that can be used to make electricity. Wind turns the blades of a turbine, which powers an electric generator. Wind power does not cause air pollution. However, electricity can be produced only when the wind is blowing.
Where does geothermal energy come from?

The hot, molten rock that lies beneath Earths surface is another energy source. You can see the effects of this energy when a volcano erupts. Geothermal energy is the heat energy contained in Earths crust. Geothermal power plants use this energy to produce steam to produce electricity. Geothermal energy is available only where there are natural geysers or volcanoes. Iceland, an island nation, was formed by volcanoes. Geothermal energy supplies most of Icelands power.
4.
Explain the source of

geothermal energy.
203
What is nuclear power?

Another alternative to fossil fuels is nuclear energy. Nuclear energy is released when billions of atomic nuclei from uranium, a radioactive element, are split apart in a nuclear ssion reaction as shown below. This energy is used to make the steam that turns the turbines of an electric generator. Nuclear power does not cause air pollution, but it does cause other problems. Mining uranium can harm ecosystems. Nuclear power plants produce radioactive wastes that can harm living organisms. Disposing of these wastes can be a problem. Accidents also are a danger.
Picture This
5.
Uranium atom
Describe Use the gure

to explain to a partner how heat is produced from uranium.
Radiation
The collision splits the atom, releasing more neutrons, which collide with other atoms. This produces heat.
A fast-moving neutron from the nucleus of a uranium atom crashes into another atom.
Neutron
What is solar energy?

Solar energy is another alternative to fossil fuels. Solar energy comes from the Sun. It is an inexhaustible source of energyit cannot be used up. One use of solar energy is to heat buildings. During winter in the northern hemisphere, the parts of a building that face south receive the most sunlight. Large windows on the south side of the building let in warm sunshine during the day. The oors and walls of solar-heated buildings are made of materials that absorb heat during the day. At night, the heat is slowly released, keeping the building warm.
6.
Determine What do PV
cells use to produce electricity?
What are solar cells?

A solar-powered calculator uses photovoltaic (foh toh vohl TAY ihk) cells to turn sunlight into electric current. Photovoltaic (PV) cells, also known as solar cells, are small and easy to use. But they can produce electricity only in sunlight. Batteries are needed to store electricity for use at night or on cloudy days. PV cells are considered too expensive to use to make large amounts of electricity.
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Lesson II Resources
After You Read

Mini Glossary
fossil fuel: fuel formed in Earths crust over hundreds of millions of years geothermal energy: heat energy within Earths crust that is available only where geysers and volcanoes are found hydroelectric power: electricity produced when the energy of falling water turns the blades of a turbine that generates electricity natural resource: part of the environment that is useful or necessary for the survival of living organisms nonrenewable resource: natural resource that is used up more quickly than it can be replaced by natural processes nuclear energy: energy released when billions of uranium nuclei are split apart in a nuclear ssion reaction petroleum: nonrenewable resource formed from the remains of microscopic marine organisms buried in Earths crust renewable resource: natural resource that is recycled or replaced constantly by nature
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains the difference between renewable and nonrenewable resources.
2. Complete the chart below to compare the advantages and disadvantages of using each of the following forms of energy.
Energy Source
Advantages
Disadvantages
fossil fuels
hydroelectric power
wind power
nuclear power
geothermal power
solar power
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about resources.
End of Lesson
205
Lesson
Pollution
JJ
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

What do you think are the major causes of pollution in your community?
the types of air pollution the causes of water pollution how erosion can be prevented
Study Coach
Make Flash Cards to help

you learn more about the lesson. Write a quiz question for each paragraph on one side of the ash card and the answer on the other side. Keep quizzing yourself until you know all of the answers.
Read to Learn
Keeping the Environment Healthy
More than six billion people live on Earth. This puts a strain on the environment. You can help protect the environment by paying attention to how your use of natural resources affects air, water, and land.
Air Pollution
On a still, sunny day in most large cities, you might see a dark haze in the air. The haze comes from pollutants that form when wood or fuels are burned. A pollutant is a substance that contaminates the environment. Air pollution is likely wherever there are cars, airplanes, factories, homes, and power plants. Volcanic eruptions and forest res also can cause air pollution.
Describe Make a trifold book using notebook paper, as shown below. Use the Foldable to describe the three types of pollution.
Air pollution
What is smog?
Smog is a form of pollution that is created when sunlight reacts with pollutants produced by burning fuels. Smog can irritate the eyes and make it difcult for people who have lung diseases to breathe. Smog can be reduced if more people take buses or trains instead of driving. Other vehicles, such as electric cars, that produce fewer pollutants also can help reduce smog.
Water pollution
Soil loss and pollution
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Lesson JJ Pollution
Acid Precipitation
Water vapor condenses on dust particles in the air to form droplets. The droplets create clouds. Eventually, the droplets become large enough to fall as precipitationmist, rain, snow, sleet, or hail. Air pollutants from the burning of fossil fuels can react with water in the atmosphere to form strong acids. Acidity is measured by a value called pH. Acid precipitation has a pH below 5.6, as shown in the gure below.
Acid rain Pure water 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1.
Explain the causes of acid

precipitation.
More acidic
Neutral
More basic
Picture This
2.
What are the effects of acid rain?

Acid precipitation, or acid rain, washes nutrients from the soil. This can cause trees and plants to die. Acid rain runs off into lakes and ponds, lowering the pH of the water. If the water is too acidic, it can kill the algae and microscopic organisms in the water. This means that sh and other organisms that depend on them for food also die.
Identify You measure

the pH of rainwater several times. For each reading below, use the scale to determine if it is acid precipitation. Write Yes or No beside each measurement. pH of 3.2 pH of 8.5 pH of 6.0
How can acid rain be prevented?

When factories burn coal, sulfur is released into the air. Vehicle exhaust contains nitrogen oxide. Sulfur and nitrogen oxide are the main pollutants that cause acid rain. Using low-sulfur fuels, such as low-sulfur coal or natural gas, can reduce acid rain. However, these fuels are more expensive than high-sulfur coal. Smokestacks that remove sulfur dioxide before it enters the air can also help reduce acid rain. Reducing automobile use or using electric cars can help reduce acid rain caused by nitrogen oxide pollution.
Greenhouse Effect
When sunlight reaches Earths surface, some of it is reected back into space. The rest is trapped by atmospheric gases. This heat-trapping feature of the atmosphere is the greenhouse effect. Without it, temperatures on Earth would probably be too cold to support life.
207
What are greenhouse gases?

The gases in the atmosphere that trap heat are called greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the most important greenhouse gases. CO2 is a normal part of the atmosphere. It is also a by-product of burning fossil fuels. Over the past century, more fossil fuels have been burned than ever before. This is increasing the percentage of Carbon Dioxide Levels CO2 in the atmosphere, as 370 you can see in the graph above. 360 The atmosphere might be trapping more of the Suns heat, 350 making Earth warmer. A rise in 340 Earths average temperature, 330 possibly caused by an increase 320 75 80 85 90 95 00 in greenhouse gases, is known Year as global warming.
Picture This
3.
Describe the trend

shown on this graph.
Is Earths average temperature changing?

Between 1895 and 1995, Earths average temperature increased 1C. No one is certain whether the rise in temperature was caused by human activities or is a natural part of Earths weather cycle. Global warming might have several effects. It might cause a change in rainfall patterns, which can affect ecosystems. The rate of plant growth and the plants that can be grown in different parts of the world may change. The number of storms might increase. The polar ice caps might begin to melt, raising sea levels and ooding coastal areas. Many people think that the possibility of global warming is a good reason to reduce the use of fossil fuels.
4.
Parts per million
Identify What are two possible effects of global warming?
Ozone Depletion
Ozone (OH zohn) is a form of oxygen in the atmosphere. Ozone molecules are made of three oxygen atoms. They are formed in a chemical reaction between sunlight and oxygen. The oxygen you breathe has two oxygen atoms in each molecule. The ozone layer is found about 20 km above Earths surface, as shown in the gure at the top of the next page. The ozone layer in Earths atmosphere absorbs some of the Suns harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This radiation can damage living cells.
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Lesson JJ Pollution
CFCs The ozone layer becomes thinner over each polar region during the spring. This thinning of the ozone layer is called ozone depletion. It is caused by pollutant gases, especially chlorouorocarbons (klor oh FLOR oh kar bunz) (CFCs). These gases are sometimes used in the cooling systems of refrigerators and air conditioners. When CFCs leak into the air, they rise in the atmosphere until they reach the ozone layer. CFCs react chemically with ozone, breaking apart the ozone molecules.
Mesosphere Ozone layer Stratosphere
Troposphere Earth
Why is ozone depletion a problem?

Because of ozone depletion, the amount of UV radiation that reaches Earth could be increasing. This radiation may be causing an increase in the number of skin cancer cases in humans. The ozone layer is important to the survival of life on Earth. For this reason, many countries and industries have agreed to stop making and using CFCs. The ozone that is high in the atmosphere protects life on Earth. However, ozone that is near Earths surface can be harmful. Ozone is produced when fossil fuels are burned. This ozone stays lower in the atmosphere and pollutes the air. Ozone damages lungs and other tissues of animals and plants.
Picture This
5.
Identify Add the approximate height at which the ozone layer can be found to the gure.
Indoor Air Pollution

Air pollution also can occur indoors. Buildings today are better insulated to conserve energy. The insulation reduces the ow of air into and out of a building, so air pollutants can build up indoors. Burning cigarettes release hazardous particles and gases into the air. Even people who do not smoke can be affected by this secondhand cigarette smoke. For this reason, smoking is not allowed in many buildings. Other dangerous gases in buildings are released by paints, carpets, and photocopiers.
What is carbon monoxide?

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a poisonous gas. It is produced when fuels such as charcoal and natural gas are burned. CO is colorless and odorless, so it is difcult to detect. CO poisoning can cause illness or even death. Today, fuelburning stoves and heaters have to be designed to prevent CO from building up indoors. Many buildings today have alarms that warn of buildups of CO.
6.
Explain why carbon

monoxide is hard to detect.
209
What is radon?
Radon is a naturally occurring, radioactive gas that is given off by some types of rock and soil. It has no color or odor. It can seep into basements and lower oors in buildings. Radon exposure is the second leading cause of lung cancer in the United States. Radon detectors sound an alarm if the levels of radon in a building are too high. If radon is present, increasing a buildings ventilation can eliminate any damaging effects.
Water Pollution
Pollutants enter water, too. Air pollutants can drift into water or be washed out of the sky by rain. Wastewater from factories and sewage-treatment plants is often released into waterways. Pollution also occurs when people dump litter and waste into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
7.
Identify What are two causes of water pollution?
What happens when surface water is polluted?

Some water pollutants can poison sh and other animals. People who swim in or drink the polluted water can be harmed. Pesticides used on farms can wash into lakes and streams. The chemicals can harm the insects that sh eat. The sh may die from a lack of food. Another effect of water pollution is algal blooms. Fertilizers and raw sewage contain large amounts of nitrogen. If they are washed into a lake or pond, they can cause algae to grow quickly. When the algae die, bacteria decompose them. The bacteria use up much of the oxygen in the water during this process. Fish and other organisms can die from a lack of oxygen in the water.
How is ocean water polluted?

8.
Explain how a polluted

river will eventually affect an ocean.
Rivers and streams ow into oceans, bringing their pollutants along. Ocean water can be polluted by the wastewater from factories and sewage-treatment plants along the coast. Oil spills also cause pollution. About 4 billion kg of oil are spilled into ocean waters every year.
How is groundwater polluted?

Groundwater comes from precipitation and runoff that soaks into the soil. This water moves slowly through layers of rock called aquifers. If the water comes in contact with pollutants as it moves through the soil, the aquifer could become polluted. Polluted groundwater is difcult to clean.
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Lesson JJ Pollution
Soil Loss
Most plants need fertile topsoil in order to grow. New topsoil takes hundreds or thousands of years to form. Topsoil can be blown away by wind and washed away by rain. The movement of soil from one place to another is called erosion (ih ROH zhun). Eroded soil that washes into a river or stream can block sunlight and slow photosynthesis. It also can harm sh and other organisms. Erosion happens naturally, but human activities increase the rate of erosion. For example, when a farmer plows a eld, soil is left bare. Bare soil is more easily carried away by rain and wind. Some methods of farming can help reduce soil erosion.
9.
Soil Pollution
Soil becomes polluted when air pollutants fall to the ground or when water leaves pollutants behind as it ows through the soil. Soil also becomes polluted when people throw litter on the ground or dump trash in landlls.
Identify What is erosion?
What happens to solid wastes?

Most of the trash that people throw away every week is dumped in landlls. Most landlls are designed to seal out air and water to keep pollutants from seeping into surrounding soil. However, this also slows normal decay processes. Food scraps and paper, which usually break down quickly, can last for many years in landlls. By reducing the amount of trash that people produce, the need for new landlls can also be reduced.
What happens to hazardous wastes?

Waste materials that are harmful to human health or poisonous to living organisms are hazardous wastes. Pesticides and oil are hazardous wastes. Many household items such as leftover paint and batteries also are hazardous wastes. Hazardous wastes should be treated separately from regular trash to prevent them from polluting the environment.
10.
Explain why hazardous

wastes should not be dumped into landlls.
211
After You Read

Mini Glossary
acid precipitation: precipitation that has a pH below 5.6 erosion: the movement of soil from one place to another greenhouse effect: the heat-trapping feature of the atmophere that keeps Earth warm enough to support life hazardous waste: waste materials that are harmful to human health or poisonous to living organisms ozone depletion: the thinning of the ozone layer pollutant: a substance that contaminates the environment
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Choose one of the terms and write a sentence explaining how it can harm the environment.
3. How do ash cards help you remember what you have read?
End of Lesson
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Lesson JJ Pollution
Lesson
Conservation of Resources
KK
Before You Read

In what ways do you and your family help to conserve natural resources?
What Youll Learn
how use of natural resources can be reduced how resources can be reused that many materials can be recycled
Read to Learn
Conservation
Identify Main Ideas

Highlight the main idea of each paragraph. Then underline the details that support the main idea.
Conserving resources can help prevent shortages of natural resources. It also can slow the growth of landlls and lower levels of pollution. You can conserve resources in several ways. The three Rs of conservation are reduce, reuse, and recycle.
Reduce
You help conserve natural resources when you reduce your use of them. For example, you use less fossil fuel when you walk instead of ride in a car. You also can reduce your use of natural resources by buying only the things that you need. You can buy products that use less packaging or that use packaging made from recycled materials.
Reuse
Another way to conserve natural resources is to use items more than once. Reusing an item means that it can be used again without changing it or reprocessing it. Bring reusable canvas bags to the grocery store to carry home your purchases. Donate outgrown clothes to charity so that others can reuse them.
Describe Make a layered-look Foldable using notebook paper, as shown below. Make notes describing the three Rs of conservation.
The Three Rs of Conservation Reduce Reuse Recycle
213
Recycle
If you cannot avoid using an item, and if you cannot reuse it, then you may be able to recycle it. Recycling is a form of reuse that requires changing or reprocessing an item or natural resource. Many communities have a curbside recycling program. Items that can be recycled include glass, paper, and plastics. The gure below shows the rates at which some household items are recycled in the United States. Recycling Rates of Key Household Items
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1990 1995 2000
Picture This
1.
Identify Circle the

products on the chart that show increasing recycling rates. Place an X through products that show declining recycling rates.
Percent
Aluminum cans
Yard waste
Old newsprint
Steel cans
Plastic soda Glass bottles containers
Source: U.S. EPA, 2003
What makes plastic difcult to recycle?

Plastic is more difcult to recycle than other items because there are several types of plastic. Every plastic container is marked with a code that tells the type of plastic it is made of. Plastic soft-drink bottles are the type of plastic easiest to recycle. Some types of plastics cannot be recycled at all because they are made of a mixture of different plastics. Before plastic can be recycled, it has to be separated carefully. One piece of a different type of plastic can ruin an entire batch.
Identify Make a folded table using notebook paper, as shown below. For each material listed in the rst column, identify a recycled product that is made from it. Write the product in the second column.
Material plastic metals glass paper compost Recycled Products
How are metals recycled?

About one quarter of steel used in cans, appliances, and automobiles is recycled steel. Using recycled steel saves iron ore and coal, the resources needed to make steel. Metals such as iron, copper, and aluminum also can be recycled. You can conserve metals by recycling food cans, which are mostly steel, and aluminum cans. It takes less energy to make a can from recycled aluminum than from raw materials. Also, a can that is recycled is not taking up space in landlls.
214
Lesson KK Conservation of Resources
How is glass recycled?

Glass bottles and jars can be sterilized and then reused. They also can be melted and made into new bottles. Glass can be recycled again and again. Most glass bottles today already contain at least 25 percent recycled glass. Recycling glass saves the mineral resources needed to make glass. Recycling glass requires less energy than making new glass.
What are some uses of recycled paper?

Used paper can be recycled to make paper towels, newsprint, and cardboard. Ranchers and farmers sometimes use shredded paper instead of straw for bedding in barns and stables. Used paper can be made into compost. Recycling one metric ton of paper saves 17 trees. It also saves water, oil, and electric energy. You can help by recycling newspapers, notebook paper, and junk mail.
Why is composting useful?

When grass clippings, leaves, and fruit and vegetable scraps are dumped in landlls, they stay there for many years without breaking down. Instead, these items can be turned into compost, which can help to enrich the soil. Many communities distribute compost bins to encourage residents to recycle fruit and vegetable scraps and yard waste.
2.
Explain In addition to trees, what resources are saved when paper is recycled?
Mississippis Recycling Program

Mississippi has a recycling program called The Recycling and Solid Waste Reduction Program. The program goes into communities, schools, businesses, hospitals, and the general public. The recycling program has four goals: increase recycling and composting; educate the public about recycling and solid waste reduction; increase awareness about water pollution prevention; increase awareness of buying products made from recycled materials. Educational resources are available on many topics, such as junk mail reduction, household hazardous waste, and composting materials. Community programs can be found in Jackson, Biloxi, Gulfport, and Tupelo.
3.
State Name two goals of The Recycling and Solid Waste Reduction Program.
Refer to page vi for the locations of Mississippis Recycling Program.
215
After You Read

Mini Glossary
recycling: a form of reuse that requires changing or reprocessing an item or natural resource 1. Review the term and its denition in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence explaining how you can participate in recycling.
2. Use the web diagram below to explain the three Rs of conservation. In the ovals, identify the three Rs and include an example of each.
Three Rs of Conservation
End of Lesson
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Lesson KK Conservation of Resources
Lesson
Cycles in Nature
LL
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

What happens when you boil water in a covered pot? What do you see on the lid of the pot when you remove it?
why Earths water cycle is important about the carbon cycle how nitrogen affects life on Earth
Study Coach
Outline As you read, make an

outline to summarize the information in the lesson. Use the main headings in the lesson as the main headings in the outline. Complete the outline with the information under each heading in the lesson.
Read to Learn
The Cycles of Matter
Imagine an aquarium with water, sh, snails, plants, algae, and bacteria. The tank is sealed so that only light can enter. How can the organisms survive without adding food, water, and air? The plants and algae produce their own food through photosynthesis. They also supply oxygen to the tank. The sh and snails eat the plants and algae and take in the oxygen. The wastes from the sh and snails fertilize the plants and algae. Bacteria decompose those organisms that die. The organisms in this closed environment can survive because the materials are recycled. The environment in the aquarium is similar to Earths biosphere. Earth only has a certain amount of water, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and other materials needed for life. These materials are constantly being recycled.
Picture This
1.
Explain to a partner how

the sh in the tank survive without anyone adding food, water, and air.
218
Lesson LL Cycles in Nature
The Water Cycle

When you leave a glass of water on a sunny windowsill, the water evaporates. Evaporation takes place when liquid water changes into a gas, called water vapor, and enters the atmosphere. Water evaporates from the surfaces of lakes, streams, and oceans. It enters the atmosphere from plants in a process known as transpiration (trans puh RAY shun). Animals release water vapor as they exhale. Water is returned to the environment from animal wastes. As the gure below shows, the water cycle is a model that describes how water moves from the surface of Earth to the atmosphere and back to the surface again. Describe Make a three-tab book Foldable, as shown below. Use the Foldable to describe the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles.
water
carbon
nitrogen
How do humans affect the water cycle?

Humans take water from reservoirs, rivers, and lakes to use in their homes, businesses, and farms. Using this water can reduce the amount of water that evaporates into the atmosphere. Humans also inuence how much water returns to the atmosphere by limiting the amount of water available to plants and animals.
Picture This
2.
Identify Complete the gure by labeling the missing steps in the water cycle.
Transpiration
Condensation
Groundwater
219
Picture This
3.
The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is important to all living things. It is a necessary part of proteins. Proteins are needed for the life processes that take place in the cells of all organisms. Nitrogen is the most plentiful gas in the atmosphere. However, most organisms cannot use nitrogen directly from the air. The transfer of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the soil, to living organisms, and back to the atmosphere is called the nitrogen cycle. The nitrogen cycle is shown in the gure below.
Discuss What is one role

animals play in the nitrogen cycle?
How do human activities affect soil nitrogen?

Humans can affect the part of the nitrogen cycle that takes place in the soil. After crops are harvested, farmers often remove the rest of the plant material. The plants are not left in the eld to decay and return their nitrogen compounds to the soil. If the nitrogen compounds are not replaced, the soil could become infertile. Fertilizers can be used to replace soil nitrogen. Compost and animal manure also contain nitrogen compounds that plants can use. They can be added to soil to make it more fertile.
4.
Identify two ways to add

nitrogen to soil.
Nitrogen gas is changed into usable compounds by lightning or by nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live on the roots of certain plants.
Plants use nitrogen compounds to build cells.
Animals eat plants. Animal wastes return some nitrogen compounds to the soil.
Animals and plants die and decompose, releasing nitrogen compounds back into the soil.
220
The Carbon Cycle

Carbon atoms are found in the molecules of living organisms. Carbon is part of soil humus and is found in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide gas (CO2). The carbon cycle describes how carbon molecules move between the living and nonliving world. The cycle begins when producers take CO2 from the air during photosynthesis. They use CO2, water, and sunlight to make energy-rich sugar molecules. Energy is released from these molecules during respirationthe chemical process that provides energy for cells. Respiration uses oxygen and releases CO2. Photosynthesis uses CO2 and releases oxygen. The two processes help recycle carbon on Earth. Human activities also release CO2 into the atmosphere. For example, when fossil fuels are burned, CO2 is released into the atmosphere as a waste product. People also use wood for building and for fuel. Trees that are cut down for these purposes cannot remove CO2 from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. The amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is increasing. The extra CO2 could trap more heat from the Sun and cause average temperatures on Earth to rise.
5.
Explain What two

processes recycle carbon on Earth?
How do humans affect the carbon cycle?

Humans have affected the carbon cycle by their combustion of fuels. When fuels such as coal or oil are burned, one by-product of this burning is carbon dioxide. Once released, the carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere and continues in the carbon cycle. When Earths climate changes, the amount of carbon dioxide that recycles among the atmosphere, oceans, and land may also change. Some people hypothesize that if Earths climate gets warmer, the oceans and land will absorb more carbon dioxide. Scientists continue to collect data to study changes in the carbon cycle.
6.
Describe How do humans affect the carbon cycle?
221
After You Read

Mini Glossary
carbon cycle: a model that describes how carbon molecules move between the living and nonliving world nitrogen cycle: the transfer of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the soil, to living organisms, and back to the atmosphere water cycle: a model that describes how water moves from the surface of Earth to the atmosphere and back to the surface again
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that explains how water moves in a cycle.
2. In the chart, list the steps in the nitrogen cycle.

Steps in the Nitrogen Cycle 1.
2.
3.
4.
End of Lesson
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222
Lesson
Time and Seasons
MM
Standard 4.e: Explain how the tilt of Earths axis and the position of the Earth in relation to the sun determine climatic zones, seasons, and length of the days. (DOK 2)
What Youll Learn
Before You Read

Have you ever had or heard of jet lag? Jet lag occurs when people get tired after ying long distances to different time zones. Why do you think people get jet lag?
how to calculate time and dates in different time zones how to distinguish rotation and revolution what causes seasons
Study Coach
Summarize As you read

each part of this lesson, write a short summary of its main points.
Read to Learn
Measuring Time on Earth
The position of the Sun in the sky can help you determine the approximate time of day. When the Sun reaches its highest point in the sky overhead, it is around noon. People have long used the movements of Earth, the Moon, and the Sun to measure time. Around 3,000 B.C., the Babylonians developed a time-keeping method. They saw that the Sun seemed to take a circular path around Earth. So, based on their number system of 60, they divided this circle into 360 parts. The parts are called degrees ( is the degree symbol).
How does Earths turning affect time measurement?

Ask Questions Make the
following Foldable to help you organize the information about how Earths movements affect time and the seasons.
Time
Seasons
224
Lesson MM Time and Seasons
Earth makes one complete turn on its axis in about 24 h. This movement is used to keep track of time. The turning Earth makes the Sun appear to move from east to west across the sky. The time from noon one day until noon the next day is 24 h. Because Earth spins 360 in 24 h, it spins 15 every hour. This led people to set up time zones. A time zone is a 15-wide area of Earth where the time is the same. Ideally, time zones should all be equal in size. However, in places around cities or country borders, the time zone line is adjusted for convenience.
What is the date line?

There is one problem with dropping back one hour for each time zone. Eventually, you would come around to your starting point and it would be 24 h earlier. It cannot be two different days at the same spot. To solve this problem, a day is added to the time at a place called the International Date Line. If it is Monday to the east of the line, then it is Tuesday to the west. For convenience, the International Date Line is drawn through a largely empty region of the Pacic Ocean, but directly opposite the Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian is the imaginary line that passes through Greenwich, England. Time based on these lines is called Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). In some areas, time is modied in summer to have more hours of evening sunlight. This modication of time is called Daylight Savings Time.
1.
Infer If it is Saturday west

of the International Date Line, what day is it east of the line?
How is Earths rotation used to measure days?

Earths turning on its axis allows people to measure the hours of the day. Rotation is the spinning of Earth on its axis, which is an imaginary line drawn through Earth from its rotational north pole to its rotational south pole, as shown in the gure below. As Earth rotates, the Sun appears to rise in the east and set in the west.
Axis
Picture This
2.
Rot atio n
Draw and Label Draw

a vertical axis through Earth. Label the angular difference between Earths current axis and the vertical axis.
The rotation of Earth causes this apparent movement of the Sun. The period from noon one day until noon the next day is called a solar day. A solar day is a bit longer than the time it takes Earth to rotate on its axis. This difference is due to Earths changing orbit around the Sun, which makes the Sun appear to move slightly east each day. If, instead of using the Sun, you measured a day by the time a certain star rises above the horizon until it rises again, the day would be a bit shorter. This is called a sidereal day. It is a more accurate measure of the time it takes Earth to rotate on its axis.
225
How does Earths revolution measure years?

The motion of Earth around the Sun allows people to measure years. Revolution is the motion of Earth in its orbit around the Sun. As Earth revolves around the Sun, the Sun appears to move through the sky compared with the seemingly xed position of the stars. The time it takes the Sun to make one complete trip through the sky in relation to the stars is the same amount of time it takes Earth to complete one trip around the Sun, or one sidereal year. The apparent path of the Sun during this year is called the ecliptic. Actually, the ecliptic is the plane of Earths orbit around the Sun. The 12 constellations (star patterns) through which we see the Sun moving through this year is called the zodiac.
3.
Identify By what motion of Earth do people measure years?
Why do seasons change?

Recall that Earths orbit around the Sun is an ellipse. Because of this, Earth is closer to the Sun at one time than it is at other times. However, the seasons on Earth are not caused just by the shape of Earths path around the Sun. Seasonal changes are caused by three factors. These factors are Earths rotation, its revolution, and the tilt of its axis. Seasons change because the number of daylight hours varies and because sunlight strikes Earths surface at different angles at different times of the year. Earths axis is tilted 23.5 from a line drawn perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, or ecliptic. Because of this tilt, Earths north geographic pole points toward Polaris (the North Star) throughout the year. This tilt helps cause Earths seasons.
4.
Predict How might

Earths seasons be different if Earths axis were not tilted 23.5 from vertical?
Earths Climatic Zones

Some areas of the world experience extreme seasonal changes but other parts of the world do not. The tropics are near the equator. As a result, they get a fairly constant amount of solar radiation all year long. The tropics do not experience seasonal changes in temperature. High latitudes near the north and south poles experience huge changes in temperature and in the number of daylight hours. Temperatures in middle latitudes get different amounts of solar radiation during different parts of the year. When a temperate area is tilted toward the Sun, it is summer. When it is tilted away from the Sun, it experiences winter.
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Tro pic of Tro pic of
Arc tic Circ N le Can cer
Picture This
More intense covers less area High angle
5.
Analyze Which part of

Earth consistently gets relatively intense and direct sunlight?
Equ ato r
Cap rico rn Ant arc tic Circ le S
Less intense covers more area Low angle
Why are summer days longer?

During the summer, the Sun is above the horizon for more hours each day than at other times of year. As the year progresses, the Sun is above the horizon for fewer hours. Around December 21 in the northern hemisphere, the Sun is above the horizon for the fewest hours. In the northern hemisphere, the Sun is above the horizon for the most hours around June 21. Summers, then, are warmer than winters because in summer the sunlight is more intense and the days are longer.
What are equinoxes and solstices?

Because Earths axis is tilted, the Suns position relative to the equator constantly changes. For most of the year, the Sun is north or south of the equator. But twice a year the Sun is directly over the equator. This is called an equinox. An equinox occurs when the Sun is directly over the equator and the number of daylight hours equals the number of nighttime hours. During an equinox, neither the northern nor southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun. In the northern hemisphere, the spring equinox is on March 20 or 21, and the fall equinox is on September 22 or 23. The opposite is true for the southern hemisphere. A solstice is the point at which the Sun reaches its greatest distance north or south of the equator. In the northern hemisphere, the summer solstice occurs on June 21 or 22 and the winter solstice is on December 21 or 22. In the southern hemisphere, the solstices are reversed. At summer solstice, there are more hours of daylight than during any other day of the year. During the winter solstice, there are more nighttime hours than during any other day of the year.
6.
Identify What is an
equinox?
227
After You Read

Mini Glossary
ecliptic: the yearly path of Earth around the Sun equinox: occurs when the Sun is directly over the equator and the number of daylight hours equals the number of nighttime hours revolution: the motion of Earth in its orbit around the Sun rotation: the spinning of Earth on its axis, which is an imaginary line drawn through Earth from its rotational north pole to its rotational south pole solstice: the point at which the Sun reaches its greatest distance north or south of the equator time zone: a 15-wide area of Earth where the time is the same
1. Explain how the tilt of Earths axis affects the equinox and the solstice.
2. Fill in the blanks to complete the diagram.

One rotation equals _______
Earths tilted axis One revolution equals _______
Unequal heating of surface by Sun causes ________ More intense heating during the _________
Day and night are equal during the __________
3. You summarized the parts of this lesson. How did summarizing help you understand the information in this lesson?
End of Lesson
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228
Lesson
Stars
NN
Standard 4.f: Describe the hierarchical structure (stars, clusters, galaxies, galactic clusters) of the universe and examine the expanding universe to include its age and history and the modern techniques (e.g., radio, infrared, ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy) used to measure objects and distances in the universe). (DOK 2)
Before You Read

Describe the sky on a cloudless, moonless night. What do you see? Can you name any of the stars you see overhead?
What Youll Learn

classifying stars determining star position and distance understand star temperature and brightness
Read to Learn
Classifying Stars
When you look at the night sky, all stars may appear to look the same. However, each star is unique. Stars vary in age and size. They burn at different temperatures with variable brightness. Astronomers classify stars based on their composition, temperature, and brightness. Astronomers use a variety of tools to study stars. A spectroscope can be used to determine what a star is made of. The spectroscope separates light into a band of colors which include dark lines. This pattern is unique for each star and can be used to infer the composition of the star. By comparing the spectra of different gases in a laboratory, astronomers can determine the composition of a star, as shown in the illustration below.
H
Study Coach
Identify What You Know

Create a K-W-L chart for this chapter. Write what you already know about stars, what you want to know, and what you learn as you read this lesson.
Record Data For this lesson, create a Foldable to record important facts, notes, and new vocabulary about stars.
Stars
Hg
Picture This
1.
Ne 400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm
Identify What do the dark lines in the band of colors produced by a spectroscope represent?
229
Star Position and Distance

Astronomers use a technique known as parallax (PER uh laks) to determine star position and distance from Earth. Parallax is the apparent shift in star position due to the changing perspective of an observer. Try this: stretch your arm straight out in front of you, close one eye, and look at your thumb. Now open that eye and close the other eye and look at your thumb again. Your thumb appears as if it has moved, even though it has not. What has changed is the perspective, or your angle of observation. This same phenomenon relates to star position. As Earth moves from one side of its orbit to the other, a nearby star appears to be shifting back and forth in the night sky.
2.
Dene What is parallax?
Parallax
Astronomers measure the parallax of a nearby star to determine the distance between Earth and the star. Astronomers observe the star at two different times during the year. The star appears to shift back and forth in the sky. They can use the angle of the parallax and the size of Earths orbit to calculate the distance to the star, as shown in the illustration below. The closer the star is to Earth, the greater the parallax.
3.
Determine Which would

have a greater parallaxan object close to you or one that is far away? Star A has a small parallax A Star B has a large parallax B Lines of sight from Earth to star A Lines of sight from Earth to star B Background of distant stars
Earth in January
Earth in July
230
Lesson NN Stars
Our universe is enormous. Astronomers use a unit called a light-year to measure distance in space. Distances between stars and galaxies and even the distance between Earth and the Sun can be measured in light-years. A light-year is the distance light travels in one year. Light travels 300,000 km/s through space. The distance light travels in one year is equal to 9.461 1012 km. The closest star to Earth, other than the Sun, is Proxima Centauri, located 4.2 light-years away, a distance equal to 3.974 1013 km.
Applying Math
4.
Calculate the distance

between Earth and the Sun if light travels this distance in 8.3 minutes.
Star Color
The color of a star indicates its temperature. For example, the hottest stars are a blue-white color. Stars that have medium temperatures, like the Sun, are yellow. The coolest stars are orange or red. You can compare the color of a star to the parts of a ame in a campre. The hottest part of the ame is often blue, while the coolest part furthest from the heat source is red. Star color can be used to classify and name a star.
5.
Explain How does a stars color provide information about its temperature?
Star Temperature and Brightness

Stars are classied based on their surface temperature and brightness. Stars were originally classied based on composition, but further examination of spectra made it possible for astronomers to estimate temperature. In the early 1900s, two astronomers named Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Russell observed that hotter stars burn brighter. They described the brightness of a star according to the stars absolute magnitude. The absolute magnitude is the actual brightness of a star if it was placed at a given distance from Earth. Hertzsprung and Russell created a graph to illustrate the relationship between the surface temperature of stars and their absolute magnitude. Stars are classied in spectral classes O, B, A, F, G, K, and M. Brightness is plotted against temperature in degrees Kelvin. This graph is called the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, or an H-R diagram.
231
Picture This
6.
Identify Which spectral

class of stars has the hottest temperatures? a. B b. F c. M d. O
Supergiants Giants
Increasing brightness
Main sequence
White dwarfs 20, 000 15,000
Sun
Spectral O class
3,000 6,000 10,000 Temperature (K) B A F G K M
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
Notice that most stars seem to follow a trend where the hottest stars are also the brightest stars and the coolest stars are less bright, with White Dwarfs, Supergiants, and Giants as the only exceptions to this trend. This trend is called the main sequence. About 90 percent of all stars are main sequence stars. Our Sun is a main sequence star with a surface temperature equal to 5800 K and intermediate brightness. Other stars are very bright, but they are not hot. These large stars are called giants, or red giants because they are usually red in color. Supergiants are also red and can be hundreds of times larger and brighter than the Sun. In contrast, some stars are hot but not very bright. Theses small stars are called white dwarfs, although they are usually blue in color.
232
Lesson NN Stars
After You Read

Mini Glossary
absolute magnitude: the actual brightness of a star if it was placed at a given distance from Earth light-year: the distance light travels in one year parallax: the apparent shift in star position due to the changing perspective of an observer spectroscope: separates light into a band of colors which include dark lines
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence to explain how a spectroscope can be used to determine the composition of stars.
2. Complete the diagram to explain what you learned about stars.

Stars
Absolute magnitude describes a stars _______.

The hottest stars are blue-white. Cooler stars are ________. The distance between stars is measured in ________.
3. Look back at the K-W-L chart you made as you read this lesson. Did you add to what you already knew? Did you learn what you wanted to know? Did the K-W-L chart help you to understand what you read?
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End of Lesson
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Lesson
OO
Galaxies and the Expanding Universe

Before You Read
Imagine that someone on the other side of the universe wanted to send you a letter. How might you give someone an address for Earth?
Standard 4.f: Describe the hierarchical structure (stars, clusters, galaxies, galactic clusters) of the universe and examine the expanding universe to include its age and history and the modern techniques (e.g., radio, infrared, ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy) used to measure objects and distances in the universe). (DOK 2)
What Youll Learn
describe the hierarchical structure of the universe understand the expanding universe describe the technology used to measure an objects distance
Highlight the main point in

each paragraph. Use a different color to highlight a detail or example that helps explain the main point.
Read to Learn
The Milky Way Galaxy
How can you describe the location of Earth? Earth is part of our solar system made up of eight planets, a dwarf planet, moons, comets, asteroids, and the Sun. This is collectively called our solar system. The solar system is part of a larger group of celestial objects called the Milky Way Galaxy. A galaxy is a large group of stars, gas, dust, planets, and other objects held together by gravity. Astronomers estimate that the Milky Way Galaxy is one of hundreds of billions of galaxies in our universe. Stars that are grouped together as part of a galaxy are called clusters. Galaxies are classied in larger groups called galactic clusters. The Milky Way is one galaxy in a cluster known as the Local Group. The Local Group includes approximately 50 neighboring galaxies. These galaxies vary in size and shape and can be classied into three major types.
Summarize Create a three-tab Foldable to summarize the main ideas from the lesson.
Stars
Galaxies
Universe
234
Lesson OO Galaxies and the Expanding Universe
Three Major Galaxies

Astronomers classify galaxies into three major types: spiral, elliptical, and irregular galaxies. Spiral galaxies have bent arms that radiate outward from the center. The arms include bright stars, gas, and interstellar dust. The Milky Way is an example of a spiral galaxy, shown in the illustration below. Elliptical (ih LIHP tih kul) galaxies are shaped like large, three-dimensional ellipses, or ovals. Irregular galaxies include galaxies of all other shapes and sizes.
Spiral Elliptical Irregular
Origin of the Universe

Over the years, astronomers have proposed many different explanations for how the universe began. The most widely accepted explanation is called the Big Bang Theory. This theory proposes that the universe began with a big bang and has been expanding ever since.
Expansion of the Universe

Have you ever noticed that the pitch of an ambulance siren changes as the ambulance zips past you? As the ambulance approaches, the pitch is much higher than when the ambulance travels away from you. The change in sound that you hear occurs because as the ambulance comes toward you the sound waves compress, or shorten. This creates a higher frequency, higher pitched sound. As the ambulance moves away from you, the sound waves stretch out and produce a lower frequency, low pitched sound. This change is often referred to as the Doppler (DAH plur) effect.
1.
Dene What is the

Doppler effect?
235
The Doppler Effect

2.
Apply You hear a train at

the railroad crossing. If the trains whistle pitch is getting lower, is the train moving toward you or away from you?
The Doppler effect relates to not only sound, but also light. Like sound, light energy travels in waves. All of the light energy produced by objects in our universe is called the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light, X-rays, and gamma rays. You are probably most familiar with the range of visible light, which includes the colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Electromagnetic radiation is classied according to wavelength. Wavelength is equal to the distance between two consecutive crests of a wave. Radio waves have the longest wavelengths. Gamma rays have the shortest wavelengths. Red light has a longer wavelength than blue or violet light.
Red Shift, Blue Shift

Recall that astronomers study the temperature and composition of stars using tools like spectroscopes and telescopes. Telescopes allow astronomers to observe wavelengths of energy beyond the visible spectrum of light. These tools helped astronomers to observe that as a star moves toward Earth, it produces light waves that are compressed or shortened. Blue light waves are shorter than red light waves. As stars move away from Earth, they produce light waves that are stretched out. Red light waves are longer than blue light waves. When light waves shift toward longer wavelengths, it is called a red shift. When light waves shift toward shorter wavelengths, this is called a blue shift. In 1929, Edwin Hubble observed a red shift in the light from galaxies outside the Local Group. This meant that these galaxies were moving away from Earth. If other galaxies are moving away from Earth, then the entire universe must be expanding.
The Big Bang Theory

3.
Explain Why do you

think the leading theory about the formation of the universe is called the Big Bang Theory?
The Big Bang Theory is the widely accepted theory for the formation of the universe. According the theory, the universe began to form between 12 and 14 billion years ago. At the time, all matter and energy in the universe was thought to have been condensed into a hot and tiny area the size of a pinpoint. A huge explosion sent this matter and energy radiating outward in all directions from this single tiny source. Astronomers believe, based on evidence from radiation and the red shift in stars, that the universe is continuing to expand today.
236
Astronomy Today
As technology improves over time, astronomers have developed more accurate models for the formation and development of our solar system, the Milky Way Galaxy, and the universe. Land- and space-based telescopes collect electromagnetic energy and convert this energy into visual images of celestial objects using computers. Spacecraft have been launched to study different areas of the solar system, like the Cassini spacecraft sent to Saturn to study Saturns many moons and rings. NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) recently celebrated the fth anniversary of the deployment of the Mars Exploration rovers Spirit and Opportunity launched January 24, 2004. The Mars rovers were sent to search for evidence of water and the possibility of life on Mars. Human spaceight continues with the NASA space shuttle program, which will end in 2010. The shuttles have been used to deploy and service satellites, such as the Hubble Space Telescope and Chandra X-Ray Telescope. Missions have also led astronauts to the International Space Station, shown below. Spaceights will continue with the Orion spacecraft. The Orion spacecraft will be used to carry humans to the International Space Station and to the Moon.
4.
Identify several of the recent technologies used to explore our solar system, the Milky Way, and the universe.
237
After You Read

Mini Glossary
clusters: groups of stars galactic clusters: groups of galaxies galaxy: a large group of stars, gas, dust, planets, and other objects held together by gravity wavelength: equal to the distance between two consecutive crests of a wave
1. Review the terms and their denitions. In your own words, explain the difference between galaxy and galactic cluster.
2. Complete the diagram to show the hierarchical structure of the universe

Stars
Stars that are grouped together are called ________.
Large group of stars, planets, and other objects are called ________.
Large group of galaxies are called ________.
End of Lesson
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238
Lesson
Natural Products
PP
Standard 4.g: Justify the importance of continued research and use of new technology in the development and commercialization of potentially useful natural products, including, but not limited to research efforts in Mississippi. (DOK 3)
Before You Read

Have you heard about natural products? Give an example of a natural product.
What Youll Learn

explain natural products understand how natural products are commercialized give examples of natural products
Read to Learn
What are natural products?
Study Coach
Two-Column Notes As you

read, organize your notes into two columns. In the left column, write the main idea. Next to it, in the right column, write details about it.
You have probably heard the words natural and product before, but do you know what they mean when they are used together? A natural product is anything that is produced by a living organism. Natural products are used in countless ways. For example, one drug commonly used to treat cancer is called Taxol. Taxol comes from the Yew tree. Without this natural product, some cancer treatments would not be as effective. What is this book made of? Paper comes from trees, another natural product. Natural products are all around us.
1.
Dene What are natural

products?
Natural Products in Mississippi

Natural products do not have to be synthesized, or created in the lab. Instead, scientists can work with compounds that already exist, and create new uses for them. Examples of natural products found in Mississippi are corn, cotton seed, peanuts, and kudzu, a plant. In the early 1900s, kudzu was used to control soil erosion. Now it is considered to be a fast-growing weed.
Refer to page vi for the location where natural products are being researched.
239
Refer to page vi for the locations of Thad Cochran National Center for Natural Products Research, Jamie Whitten Delta States Research Center, and The Mississippi Polymer Institute.
Thad Cochran National Center for Natural Products Research

Centers like the Thad Cochran National Center for Natural Products Research (NCNPR) at the University of Mississippi are constantly looking for new uses for natural products. Scientists here believe that there are many yet undiscovered ways that natural products can be used for new drugs, as well as in the farming industry. At NCNPR, they are researching specic natural products as a way to treat malaria, a potentially deadly disease spread by mosquitoes.
2.
Explain What is an advantage to using biological pest control?
Jamie Whitten Delta States Research Center

At the Jamie Whitten Delta States Research Center in Stoneville, Mississippi, scientists are working on a number of projects using natural products, including investigating ways to biologically control pests. By using biological pest control products, farmers can reduce or eliminate their use of chemicals to control pests. Scientists at the Delta States Research Center are also researching catsh genetics. Why do you think it would be important to understand catsh genes? Scientists want to nd the catsh that will breed the most successfully in captivity. This could lead to an increase in the production of farm-raised catsh.
3.
Describe Why is it important to farmers that scientists understand catsh genetics?
The Mississippi Polymer Institute

Have you ever heard of something called a polymer? A polymer is something that is made of many molecules that are strung together to form a long chain. Polymers come in many forms. Some polymers that you might be familiar with are polystyrene, which is used to make plastic foam cups and polyethylene, a plastic used to make grocery bags. At the Mississippi Polymer Institute, scientists work with polymers to investigate how changing the strings of molecules might create new products. The long chains that give polymers their name can come in many forms and with different molecules. A simple change in one of these molecules, or in how the chain is formed, could result in a brand new inventionsomething that might help us in our everyday lives.
240
Lesson PP Natural Products
Renewable Resources
Natural products are also used as energy sources. Natural products may be either renewable or non-renewable resources. A renewable resource is any natural resource that is recycled or constantly replaced by nature. Examples of renewable resources are corn, wind, solar energy, and water. These are all sources that can be renewed at the same rate, or faster, than they are used.
Non-renewable Resources
Petroleum products, such as gasoline, are considered non-renewable resources. Non-renewable resources are used up more quickly than they can be replaced. Petroleum takes millions of years to renew. We use petroleum products at a much faster rate than they can be renewed. Much of the electricity we use today comes from non-renewable resources. Most of our automobiles run on non-renewable resources. We now know that renewable resources can be used instead. For instance solar energy can be captured using solar cells to power many things we use every day. Wind can be used to turn turbines and create energy.
4.
Renewable Energy Sources in Mississippi

One renewable resource of which Mississippi has an abundance, is biomass. Biomass is a fuel derived from living things such as wood, eld crops, and fecal materials. Mississippi is part of the Southern States Energy Board, an organization that supports people who use and research biomass fuels. On a smaller scale, buildings like Mississippi State Universitys landscape and architecture building are outtted with solar panels that can produce enough power to run the whole building. Sometimes, they can even produce extra power that can go back to the power plant.
Compare and contrast renewable and

non-renewable resources.
241
After You Read

Mini Glossary
biomass: a fuel derived from living things such as wood, eld crops, and fecal materials natural product: anything that is produced by a living organism renewable resource: is any natural resource that is recycled or constantly replaced by nature
1. Review the terms and their denitions. Write a sentence to explain how biomass and natural products are related. 2. Write the letter of the denition next to the correct term. looking for new uses for natural products investigating ways to biologically control pests researching molecules to create new products A. Jamie Whitten Delta States Research Center B. Mississippi Polymer Institute C. Thad Cochran National Center
3. You organized your notes in two columns, one for main ideas and one for details. How did this strategy help you learn the information?
End of Lesson
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242
Lesson PP Natural Products
Lesson
Hurricanes
QQ
Standard 4.h: Justify why an imaginary hurricane might or might not hit a particular area, using important technological resources including (but not limited to) the following: (DOK 2)
Before You Read

Have you ever heard your local weather forecaster describe an upcoming storm? What information does the weather forecaster give?
What Youll Learn
how hurricanes are formed where hurricanes will land how technology is used to track hurricanes
Read to Learn
Key Terms Highlight the key
Weather Changes
Sometimes when you leave school in the afternoon, the weather is different from what it was earlier in the morning. Weather constantly changes.
terms and their meanings as you read this lesson.
What are air masses?

An air mass is a large body of air that has the same temperature and moisture content as the area over which it formed. For example, an air mass that develops over land is drier than one that develops over water. An air mass that develops in the tropics is warmer than one that develops over northern regions. When weather changes from one day to the next, it is because of the movement of air masses.
How does air pressure affect the weather?

Pressure in the atmosphere varies over Earths surface. You may have heard a weather forecaster talk about high- and low-pressure systems. Low-pressure systems are masses of rising air. When air rises and cools, clouds form. Thats why areas of low pressure usually have cloudy weather. But high-pressure air masses have a sinking motion. As a result, its hard for air to rise and for clouds to form. So, high pressure usually means nice weather.
Classify Make a four-tab Foldable as shown. As you read, take notes on the four different fronts.
warm fronts cold fronts occluded fronts stationary fronts
243
What are cyclones and anticyclones?

Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. In the northern hemisphere, when wind blows into a low-pressure area, Earths rotation causes the wind to swirl in a counterclockwise direction. These large, swirling areas of low pressure are called cyclones. Cyclones are associated with stormy weather. Winds blow away from an area of high pressure. In the northern hemisphere, Earths rotation causes these winds to swirl in a clockwise direction. High-pressure areas are associated with fair weather and are called anticyclones.
1.
Describe What type of weather are cyclones associated with?
Fronts
A boundary between two air masses that have different temperature, density, or moisture is called a front. There are four main types of fronts, including cold, warm, occluded, and stationary.
What is a cold front?

A cold front occurs when cold air moves toward warm air, as shown on the left in the gure below. The cold air goes under the warm air and lifts it. As the warm air is lifted, it cools and water vapor condenses, forming clouds. If there is a large difference in temperature between the cold air and the warm air, thunderstorms and tornadoes may form.
Picture This
2.
Identify Color the arrow showing cold air movement in the cold front blue. Color the arrow showing warm air movement in the warm front red.
What is a warm front?

Warm fronts form when lighter, warmer air moves over heavier, colder air, as shown on the right in the gure below. In a warm front, wet weather may last for days.
Warm air
Cold air
Warm air
Cold air
Cold Front
Warm Front
244
Lesson QQ Hurricanes
What is an occluded front?

Most fronts involve two air masses. But occluded fronts involve three air massescold air, cool air, and warm air. An occluded front, as shown in the gure below, may form when a cold air mass moves toward cool air with warm air in between. The cold air forces the warm air up. The warm air is then closed off from the surface. The term occlusion means closure.
Picture This
3.
Warm air
Interpret Color the arrows red that show where the warm air is closed off from the surface in the occluded front.
Cool air Cold air
Occluded Front
What is a stationary front?

A stationary front occurs when a boundary between air masses stops moving, as shown in the gure below. Stationary fronts can stay in the same place for several days. Often there is light wind and precipitation at the stationary front.
Picture This
4.
Identify Circle the area in the stationary front where neither the cold air nor warm air is moving.
Warm air Cold air
Stationary Front
Severe Weather
You usually can do your daily activities regardless of the weather. However, some weather conditions, like blizzards, tornadoes, and hurricanes, can force you to change your plans.
245
What causes thunderstorms?

During thunderstorms, heavy rain falls, lightning ashes, and thunder rumbles. Hail might fall. What causes these weather conditions? Thunderstorms occur in warm, moist air masses and along fronts. Warm, moist air is forced up. It cools and condensation begins, forming cumulonimbus clouds. When rising air cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice crystals. Smaller droplets collide and form larger ones. The larger, heavier droplets fall through the cloud toward Earths surface. The falling droplets collide with more droplets and get bigger. Raindrops cool the air around them. The cool, dense air sinks. Sinking, rain-cooled air and strong updrafts of warmer air cause the strong winds that often come during thunderstorms. Hail may form as ice crystals fall.
5.
Explain How do water droplets falling out of a thundercloud get bigger as they fall toward Earths surface?
What damage do thunderstorms cause?

Sometimes thunderstorms stall in one area, causing heavy rains. When streams can no longer hold all the water running into them, ash oods occur. Because they occur with little warning, ash oods are dangerous. Thunderstorms often bring strong winds that can cause damage. If a thunderstorm has winds over 89 km/h, it is called a severe thunderstorm. Hail from thunderstorms can dent cars, break windows, and atten crops.
What causes lightning?

Inside a storm cloud, warm air is lifted rapidly as cooler air sinks. This movement of air can cause different parts of a cloud to have opposite charges. When an electrical current runs between areas with opposite charges, lightning ashes. Lightning can occur between two clouds, inside one cloud, or between a cloud and the ground.
6.
Determine What causes

different parts of a cloud to have opposite charges?
What causes thunder?

Thunder comes from the rapid heating of air around a bolt of lightning. Lightning can reach temperatures of about 30,000 C. Thats ve times hotter than the surface of the Sun. This heat causes air around the lightning to expand rapidly. Then the air cools quickly and shrinks. Because of the sudden expanding and shrinking, molecules in the air move more rapidly. The rapid movement of molecules creates sound waves. Thunder is the sound waves you hear.
246
What are tornadoes?

Some severe thunderstorms produce tornadoes. A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that touches the ground. Severe thunderstorms produce wind at different heights which blow at different speeds and in different directions. This difference in wind speed and direction is called wind shear. Wind shear creates a rotating column parallel to the ground. Updrafts in a thunderstorm can tilt the rotating column upward, creating a funnel cloud. If the funnel cloud touches the ground, it is called a tornado. The gure below shows a diagram of a tornado. Notice the different levels of winds and the rotating updraft. The strong updraft usually forms at the base of a type of cumulonimbus cloud called a wall cloud.
7.
Identify What is a violently rotating column of air that touches the ground called?
Upper-level winds
Rotating updraft
Mid-level winds
Wall cloud
Picture This
Dust envelope Main inflow
8.
Identify Find the updraft and trace over it with your pencil.
How much damage can a tornado do?

Winds from tornadoes can rip apart buildings and tear trees from the ground. If the winds of a tornado blow through a house, they can lift off the roof and blow out the walls. It can look as though the building exploded. In the center of a tornado is a powerful updraft. The updraft can lift animals, cars, and even houses into the air. Tornados do not last long, but they are very destructive. In May of 1999, thunderstorms produced more than 70 tornadoes in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. These tornadoes caused 40 deaths, 100 injuries, and more than $1.2 billion in damage.
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How are tornadoes ranked?

As you have read, winds from tornadoes can cause severe damage. Theodore Fujita, a tornado expert, created a scale to describe and rank tornadoes. The scale, named the Fujita Scale after him, is shown below. The Fujita Scale ranks tornadoes based on how much damage they cause. Tornadoes range from F0 which cause only light damage to F5 which cause incredible damage. Luckily, only about one percent of all tornadoes are in the category of F4 and F5.
Picture This
9.
The Fujita Scale

Rank F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Wind speed (km/h) <116 116180 181253 254332 333419 420512 Damage Light: broken branches and chimneys Moderate: roofs damaged, mobile homes upturned Considerable: roofs torn off homes, large trees uprooted Severe: trains overturned, roofs and walls torn off Devastating: houses completely destroyed, cars picked up and carried elsewhere Incredible: total demolition
Determine Circle the

category that describes severe damage.
What is a hurricane?
The most powerful storm is a hurricane. A hurricane is a large, low-pressure system that forms over the warm Atlantic Ocean and has winds of at least 119 km/h. It is like a machine that turns heat energy from the ocean into wind. Similar storms are called typhoons in the Pacic Ocean and cyclones in the Indian Ocean. Hurricanes are similar to low-pressure systems over landonly stronger. In the Atlantic and Pacic Oceans, low-pressure systems sometimes develop near the equator. In the northern hemisphere, winds around this low pressure rotate counterclockwise. As the storms move across the ocean, they gain strength from the heat and moisture of warm ocean water.
10.
Identify What are two storms similar to hurricanes?
What happens when a hurricane reaches land?

Hurricanes can strike land with great force. The high winds sometimes produce tornadoes. Heavy rains and high waves cause large amounts of damage. Sometimes oods follow the heavy rains and cause additional damage. Hurricanes can destroy crops, tear down buildings, and kill humans and animals.
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What happens to the hurricane on land?

As long as the hurricane remains over water, it gets energy from the warm moist air rising from the ocean. In the gure below, small rising arrows show the movement of warm air from the water below. Cool air goes down through the eye, or center, of the hurricane. The storm needs this energy from the ocean water. When a hurricane reaches land, it loses its energy supply and the storm loses its power.
Outflow
Descending air Warm moist air
Picture This
11.
Identify Highlight
all the arrows moving counterclockwise.
Eye
Spiral rain bands
Where do hurricanes happen?

Hurricanes begin as tropical depressions over warm waters in the Atlantic Ocean. These low-pressure systems form off the west coast of Africa. Fueled by heat energy, they travel westward across the Atlantic. Warm waters create the perfect conditions for hurricanes to form between June and November in the northern hemisphere. This time of year has therefore earned the title of hurricane season. When wind speeds in the storm exceed 119 km/h a tropical storm becomes a hurricane. Hurricanes rotate counterclockwise across the Atlantic toward the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. Islands in between Africa and Central and North America are often the rst to feel the effects of a hurricane. A hurricane generally follows a straight path until it makes landfall in the Caribbean, at which point the storm may move north and west toward the Gulf of Mexico or north along the east coast of the United States.
12.
Describe When hurricanes cross the Atlantic toward the Caribbean, which way does the hurricane rotate?
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Hurricane History
Following Hurricane Andrew, which struck South Florida on August 24th, 1992, NASA launched three satellites to help improve hurricane forecasting. Hurricane Andrew caused over 25 billion dollars in damage and 65 deaths. It packed twice the punch of an average hurricane because after making landfall in Florida, it gained moisture and momentum in the Gulf of Mexico and then made landfall in Louisiana. The three satellites NASA launched after Andrew include TRMM to measure rainfall intensity, QuikSCAT to monitor wind speed and direction, and Aqua, which measures sea surface temperatures and moisture. Using data collected from these satellites, in addition to Doppler radar and 3-D models, meteorologists are able to forecast hurricanes with greater accuracy today. The image on the left shows a false-color image of cloud cover and precipitation associated with Hurricane Andrew as it approached the Louisiana coast in 1992.
13.
Explain Why are meteorologists able to forecast hurricanes with greater accuracy?
14.
Name Based on the Safr-Simpson scale, which hurricane category causes minimal damage?
In an average year, six hurricanes make landfall in the United States. In 2005, 27 storms including 15 hurricanes struck U.S. coastlines. Hurricanes are classied based on wind intensity and damage using the Safr-Simpson Scale. The scale begins at a Category 1, with wind speeds of more than 119 km/h and minimal damage. A Category 5 storm has wind speeds of greater than 250 km/h and results in catastrophic damage. In 2005, three Category 5 hurricanes made landfall in the U.S. The most memorable of these three storms was Hurricane Katrina, which struck the Mississippi and Louisiana coasts on August 29, 2005. Hurricane Katrina was one of the most expensive and destructive natural disasters in U.S. history. Hurricane Emily and Hurricane Rita, also Category 5 storms, did not cause nearly the amount of damage that Katrina did, but were equally as strong.
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Forecasting Hurricanes in the Future

Imagine that you are a hurricane forecaster working for the National Weather Service (NWS). It is September 2009, and you are in the middle of hurricane season. You receive data from NASAs John C. Stennis Space Center and NOAA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which show that a tropical depression has formed off the west coast of Africa. What types of resources can you use to determine where this hurricane may make landfall? Meteorologists forecast hurricanes and their projected paths using data from hurricanes that have happened in the past. Data collected include storm and surface wind speeds, sea surface temperatures, rainfall area and intensity, cloud cover and moisture content, temperature, pressure, and humidity. Using this data, meteorologists create 3-D models of the hurricane and its possible path, as shown in the image on the right. Using the image below, can you predict where this hurricane is likely to make landfall?
Refer to page vi for the location of the John C. Stennis Space Center.
How can you stay safe during severe storms?

When severe weather approaches, the National Weather Service issues a watch or a warning. A watch tells you that even though the weather isnt dangerous yet, it may become dangerous soon. During a watch, stay tuned to a radio or television station that is reporting the weather. When a warning is given, the weather is already severe. During a severe thunderstorm or tornado warning, go to a basement or to a room in the middle of the house away from windows. When a hurricane or ood watch is given, be prepared to leave home.
15.
Explain What does a weather watch tell you?
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After You Read

Mini Glossary
air mass: large body of air that has the same characteristics of temperature and moisture content as the area where it formed front: boundary between two air masses with different temperature, density, or moisture hurricane: large, severe storm that forms over tropical oceans and has winds of at least 119 km/h tornado: violently rotating column of air in contact with the ground
1. Review the terms and their denitions in the Mini Glossary. Then write a sentence explaining how hurricanes get and keep their strength.
2. Write the name of the correct weather front above each description.
warm front, stationary front, occluded front, cold front
Cold air goes under warm air. Warm air is lifted.
Three air masses: cold, cool, warm Warm air closed off from Earth.
Neither warm nor cold air is moving.
Lighter, warmer air moves over cold air.
3. Did highlighting key terms and their meanings help you learn the information about weather patterns? Would you use this study strategy again?
End of Lesson
Visit glencoe.com to access your textbook, interactive games, and projects to help you learn more about weather patterns.
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Using Science Every Day

Identify three decisions

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Using Prior Knowledge

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Using Science and Technology

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Describe How do scientists use computers in their work?

Why are observation and measurement skills important?

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After You Read

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Lesson A What is science?

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What Youll Learn

Identify the Main Idea

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How can the problem be solved?

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List What steps must be

Recognize the problem

Tes hyp t your oth esis

Analyze your data

Communicate your results

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Equipment, Materials, and Models

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Identify two reasons

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What is scientic measurement?

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Observations and Inferences

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How do you analyze data?

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