Mathematics skills

Disclaimer: These notes are based on my opinion on how the questions should be tackled. Do take it with a pinch of salt, and practice to see how they are applied.

Miscellaneous
When the answer you need to show is an integer multiple of a o o = 3, To show that is a positive integer as well as 0 o + 0 o + {0} To show continued multiplication, division, addition or subtraction, use o o Note the + flanking the Add the units only to your final answer Dont forget to add to the end of a radian value
1 +1 1 +1

3 1

++
3 1

APGP

If the question points to a trend being AP/GP but did not explicitly say so, define it o ____ follows an arithmetic/ geometric progression with first term , common ratio Sub in and if known Also define , or is used o / is the term of the arithmetic/ geometric progression o is the sum of the first terms of the arithmetic/ geometric progression When converting AP to GP and vice versa, convert either the common ratio or difference into the other, and solve to get the common ratio/ difference When converting AP to GP and vice versa, take note of when the progression starts, so as to not double count when adding to past results. (See MSM qn 4ii) When finding sum of a non AP GP sequence, split the sequence into its AP GP components, and add them up. When showing the GP is convergent, need to show that || < 1, not just < 1 When dealing with percentages o it is better to write it as a decimal than a fraction o If the price, savings, quantity etc. is increasing by a percentage, it is better to calculate the final price than finding the change and adding it to the original 150(1.03) rather than 150 + 150(0.03) 3% = 0.03 instead of 100
3

Binominal expression

Done by Nickolas Teo Jia Ming

0.5 + 0.5 < 0 0.5 < < 0.5 To find the coefficient of , you need to find a trend in the coefficient of the , usually by referring to earlier workings to see how the coefficient is derived When asked to find in ascending powers of ,use the descending powers of method o (3 + )1 = 1 ( + 1)1 = 1 (1 +
3 3 2 4 1 (1)(2) 3 2 2!

When finding range for the expression to be valid, if x^2 is present, take the positive limit only, and use it as both the upper and lower limit o For example: 0.5 < 2 < 0.5 2 0.5 < 0 2 + 0.5 > 0

Mathematical induction
o

+)

When making conjecture, try to include the term number in the result obtained

Recurrence relation

When finding the limit of +1 = ? ? o Say IF the sequence converges, as , +1 , o You get the equation = ? ? Solve from here to get the exact answer To show that they have similar roots as the graph, make it like the equation given, then say Given that the roots of = ? ? are o Have a statement saying The sequence converges to When proving +1 > ,if > (or the other way round o From +1 = ? ? (the given equation) As , +1 , = ? ? o From > Convert to +1 by changing both sides From >

To prove by mathematical induction o Let be the statement of = (of given equation), + o Prove 1 is true When = 1 1 = 1 = = 1 o Assume is true for some k, + o Prove is true +1 is true When = + 1 +1 = +1 = = +1 Use equation o Since 1 is true, is true +1 is true, by mathematical induction, is true for all , + , 1

For example, 4 = 3 = 6, where in this case, the nominator is the term number.

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To ? ? > ? ? To +1 > When proving < +1 (or the other way around) o Write Considering +1 The on the left side is the same as the on the left side of the equation you want to prove o Replace +1 in terms of o Make it look like the graph equation (or the other equation given to you, else draw one) It can look similar in the sense that the equation obtain is a multiple or fraction of the graph equation Because when y is scaled, the intercept does not change If no graph is given, and the equation of the ideal graph is not known, draw = +1 (where is +1 whatever the equation given is) The x-intercept will be the value of when < +1 or > +1 o Write From the graph of = ? ? , when (not ) (the condition given) < < < > Etc. o The graph is > 0 or < 0 o Write Thus given , +1 < 0 +1 > 0 o Write Thus < +1 or > +1 To show strictly increasing or decreasing o Show > +1 or < +1 o Refer to above When needing to eliminate a possible answer, look at the stem of the question o Find any restrictions, like only positive numbers Important points for a sketch o Axial intercepts o Turning points o Asymptotes When describing the trend of recurrence relations o Strictly increasing/ decreasing o Converge to ___

Equations
Formulate equations based on info o Number of equations should equal number of variables Parametric equation o To find equation of tangent Find gradient

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Sub in the value for Use known point to craft equation = ( ) is the given -coordinate, is the given -coordinate To find where the tangent/ normal cuts the graph again Sub in the parametric equation into equation of tangent/ normal

Inequalities
When solving a fraction inequality, o Dont try to bring the denominator up, instead bring the other sides equation over, and add it to the fraction o Use the number line method First factorize the numerator and denominator, until you can get roots Sketch the graph using the roots 2 + has not roots, 2 has roots Use the method taught in graphing techniques, Graph pass though, or bounce off Graph is negative or positive when is large Sometimes, to change an equation into another, you need to sub in other values If cannot use number line, use = o
1

o Convert x 3 + x 2 to x 3 x 2 When the inequality involves a trigonometry function, account for both limbs/ sides of the If trying to use GC to solve a polynomial, make sure the largest power is positive graph (e.g. sin 4 = 0.253 2.89 o o Use the graph to find the two points Also include the lower/ upper limit if the range of y is restricted (e.g. 0.253 2.89 ) o Reject answers that are out of the amplitude of the trigonometry curve (e.g. sin > 1) When an inequality involves a constant to the power of (e.g. 5 ), and a multiple of (e.g. 2) o Solve by drawing graph on GC When doing a compound interest question, separate the interest rate and use sum of GP to solve o 4000 + 4000 (1.05) + 4000(1.05)2 + + 4000 (1.05) = 4000 (1 + 1.05 + 1.052 + + 1.05 ) = 4000(
1(1.05 1) 1.051

Like 2
1 1

24 2

Graph transformation
Statements

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o o o

Graph sketching

For () o Turning points become -intercept o Keep vertical asymptotes o Horizontal asymptotes become = 0 o Oblique asymptote become horizontal line, = is the gradient of the oblique asymptote o Point of inflection becomes turning point o For easier drawing, mark out the graph at the ends first Ends at asymptotes Turning point When is large For ()
1

Translation of ___ (number) units in the direction of the ___ (positive or negative) ___ ( or )-axis Scaling of factor ___ (number) parallel to the ___ ( or )-axis Reflection in the ___ ( or )-axis

o Vertical asymptotes become x-intercept with open circle o Value of horizontal asymptote become inversed o -intercept becomes vertical asymptotes o Oblique asymptotes no longer relevant o Small value becomes big, big value becomes small For |()| o All negative values are reflected about the x-axis For (||) o All positive -values are reflected about the y-axis o All negative -values no longer relevant To state the changes made to graph, o Step 1: , Step 2: o ___ followed by ___ To find if the graph has roots when it has a turning point o Use the determinants on the equation 2 4 0 If there are points on the graph labeled A, B etc. o You need to show the points on the new graph

Functions, inverse and composite

To show that a turning point exists o Find () o Determinants of () 0 2 4 0 To show composite exists or not Done by Nickolas Teo Jia Ming

Permutation and Combination

E.g. 2 2 + = 0 ( 1)2 + 1 = 0 = 1 1 For answering in set notation o {: , } Note that in certain cases, , + or should be used instead. To show ( ) () o Show that for the range of () and () is 1-1 To find () from () o Use 1 () o

o Use the or the strike out version of it (i.e. not subset) ) = 12 () = 14 1 () To find range of composite function gf o Sketch graph of g with domain = o Use GC if equation is known When trying to find the equation of the inverse function, and there is a quadratic function o Use complete the square over determinants, as it is better ( for seeing which sign to reject)
13 (

Unless the question explicitly states that the minimum number of ___ (object) each person can have is ___ (number), work on the assumption that they can have 0 ___(object) When two elements are to be separated o Use the slotting-in method o Use the 1 together method When any element can be repeated any number of times o Use ( ) , taking into account restrictions When doing circular permutation, and one elements cannot have another element next to it, o Slot in method Take the spots next to the element away, Do the table permutation (i.e. (n-1)!), Slot in possible choices at the spots removed (i.e. 2 ) Remember to permutate the choices. (i.e. They swap spots) To combat double count o Divide by the permutation When separating 10 objects into 3 groups of 3,3,4, o Divide by 2 because the first two groups of 3 will have double count For example, ABC and DEF go into identical white pouches o If they are put into unique locations, like 3 friends, permutate them as if they are unique, as the double count has been accounted for! o If there is a restriction, where you have to force choose the contents of a group, like all 3 red objects in a group, apply the double count correction, but permutate the choice you have where you exert your power to distribute the unique white pouches

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Probability

When showing that two event ( and ) are independent or not o Check to see if (|||) = () or (|||) = () If not, they are not independent If they are independent, ( ) = (). () If the event (or combined events) take up all possibilities (e.g () = 1), they are considered exhaustive

Vectors
If the question says produced, the new point is extended out of the line, and cannot be within it To find area of triangle 1 o
2

o Base Height To find point of intersection between lines o Sub the vector equation of one line into the other To find line of intersection between planes o From parametric equations Sub the parametric equation of one plane into the other Use GC to solve the 4 unknowns using 3 equations, in terms of the 4fourth variable Constant represents the position vector Coefficient of fourth variable is the direction vector o From cartesian or scalar product equations Convert into Cartesian equation Use GC to solve to get the answer in terms of the third variable (3 ) Constant represents the position vector Coefficient of third variable is the direction vector o Manually from scalar product equation Get direction vector of line from cross product of normal Get position vector of line Fix one coordinate variable (e.g. ) Get two equations by subbing the vector (e.g. ()) into the scalar 0 product form of the two planes Solve to find position vector To find foot of perpendicular from point (line to line) o Let foot of perpendicular be , get from the line equation o Find

1 2

The arrow above OB is removed as you multiply by length of base

sin

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To find foot of perpendicular from point (line to plane) o Let foot of perpendicular be , get equation of line CN Direction vector of line is the normal of the plane Position vector of line is o o

Use . = 0 to solve for

Find intersection of line and plane Sub the vector equation of line into the scalar product equation of plane To find distance between two parallel planes o Decide if the planes are on the same side of the origin same side (. or for both have same sign (+ or )means that they are on the )
1 2 (. or for both ) 1 2 + 12 1.2

1 . (2 . ) 1 . + (2 . )

have different sign means that they are on different

side

Direction of must be same when used for both equations To find angle between two lines To find angle between line and plane o Get point of intersection between line and plane, point Sub the vector equation of line into the scalar product equation of plane o Get another point on the line, point o Get vector o Get angle between line and plane To find angle between two planes o
1 2 1 .2

cos =

To show relation between two lines o Check if parallel 1 = 2 , where o

cos =

cos(90 ) =
.

If not, the two lines intersect Check if same line Sub the vector equation of one line into the other If equal for all , , etc., they are the same If not, they are skew lines To show relation between line and plane o Check if parallel Done by Nickolas Teo Jia Ming

. = 0? If not, the line only intersects o Check if contained within plane . = ? Where p is the scalar product If not, the line is parallel but not contained within the plane If yes, the line is parallel and contained within the plane To show relation between three planes o Find if the planes are parallel Parallel planes have the same simplified normal If all three planes are parallel, they will not intersect If two planes are parallel, there would be two lines of intersection If no planes are parallel, they will form a triangle with three lines of intersection Always try to simplify the directional vector o Divide all by highest common fraction o Make the majority of the signs positive To find possible values when 3 planes do not have a common point, consider the cases, show how they are possible/ not possible, to get the values o A triangle is formed o 1 pair of parallel planes When taking the absolute value (modulus) the dot or cross product, dont try to flip (multiply by -1) the values given.

Binominal and Poisson distribution

When asked to find the mean for a Poisson distribution, use the formula in MF 15 Always apply continuity correction when youre approximating to normal o Always simplify first when dealing with multiples of the same distribution o Always apply continuity correction before converting to standard normal
1 +
1 2

For cases when youre adding or subtracting two distributions, and , after approximating to normal, only need to do continuity correction once o o ( > ) = > + 2
1

( < ) = < + 2 = <

(3 > ) = > 3 = > 3 + 2

1

If there are multiplies of a distribution when youre adding or subtracting two distributions, reduce to simplest form first (This seldom comes out) (6 3 > ) = 2 > 3 = 2 > 3 + 2
1

If asked for the condition for a Poisson distribution to be valid o < 5 o The occurrences of the event happen randomly o The number of occurrences in time/ distance etc. is independent of the number of occurrences in others

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E.g. The number of rainbows seen in a month by the kid is independent of the number of rainbows seen in other months o The average number of occurrences is a constant in every time/ distance etc. interval E.g. The average number of rainbows sighted by the kid per month is a constant every month o The expected number of occurrences is proportional to the size of the interval of time/ distance etc. E.g. The expected number of rainbows seen by the kid is proportional to the number of months When asked to find the probability that the mean number of occurrences () is between and o If it is not stated to approximate ( ) = ( ) ( 1) Watch out for whether the inequality is has an equal to portion o If asked to approximate (or if you prefer this method) Use the central limit theorem Since is large, by the central limit theorem, is approximately normal.

Normal distribution
To find the number of trials, you can use the graph/ table function, by keying in the equation into the GC When taking two or more normal distributions into consideration, need to state that they are independent o o + o Etc. When handling A differ from B by at most/least X, convert to (| | ) first, then ( ) Remember to do continuity correction when approximating CLT can be applied to both sample mean and sample sum If the question asks to find the mean number of anything (e.g. number of passes for an exam), always use o Use the Central Limit Theorem if needed For question that ask if a normal distribution is valid o Consider if the distribution will be bi-modal Have two peak o Check the probability that a negative value will be given, to see if its significant For question where a negative result is not possible

Hypothesis testing
To test hypothesis

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Calculate unbiased estimate of population mean and variance, if not given Use GC if raw data is given Define 0 , 1 and level of significance Define sample mean Let , where is the number of samples =1 State assumption or use Central Limit Theorem Assuming is normally distributed Test statistic:

o o o

= 1 ( 2

( )2

T-test if is small, and variance is unknown, even if is normal Add the word approximately if Central Limit Theorem is used o Test with the assumption that 0 is true Assuming 0 is true, = ? ? Calculate or Calculate p-value o Conclude Since p-value > level of significant, there is insufficient evidence at ?% level of significance to reject 0 . Thus, Since p-value < level of significant, there is sufficient evidence at ?% level of significance to reject 0 . Thus, Usually the value will not equal the critical value, but if it does, can either reject or accept. To backtrack to find level or significance, sample mean, variance, original mean o Determine borderline or value (critical value) Inverse norm on the p-value p-value of a one-tail test is the level of significance p-value of a two-tail test is half the level of significance p-value is near the start (like 0.05) for a lower tail test p-value is near the end (like 0.95) for a upper tail test o Determine range of test or value If 0 is rejected, test or magnitude is greater the borderline or magnitude Test value less than borderline value when lower tail test Test value more than borderline value when upper tail test If 0 is not rejected, test or magnitude is less the borderline or magnitude Test value more than borderline value when lower tail test Test value less than borderline value when upper tail test o Find the unknown by subbing in known values

Since is large, by the Central Limit Theorem, is approximately normally Define test statistic

~ (0,1) 1

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Usually level of significance will not equal p-value. To obtain minimum level of significance, it will differ from the obtained p-value by the smallest unit in the answer o Like 0.01 for 2 d.p. Converting 1 tail to 2 tail, your 1 tail p-value is half that of the 2-tail p-value (aka you time 2 your 1 tail p-value to get your 2-tail one) o This is because your z-cal for 1 tail or 2 tail remains the same. o Thus the area of the curve great than z-cal (or less than negative z-cal) remains the same. o Hence your area is multiplied by 2 for conversion from 1 to 2 tail, as you are now taking both ends. If asked to define symbols used o 0 is the null hypothesis o 1 is the alternative hypothesis o is the population mean time/length for ____ o 2 is the population variance for ____ To join two samples together o Find the and 2 of both samples = o o Join them both to find the overall and 2 Use the combined value to find the unbiased estimate of population mean and variance = ( 2
1 ( )2

Correlation and regression

To explain why the or in = + is different from or , like ln o The points correspond to a ___ graph, thus the model ____ ( = + ) is suitable, as by plotting ___ against ___, the graph will be linear To find a missing value from a regression line, sub in and Validity of prediction o Linearity holds Scatter diagram shows a linear relationship Magnitude of r-value close to 1 o Given value to predict from is within range of given data value (Interpolation) If not, it is an extrapolation, and there is no evidence that the linear trend continues at ___ (Value given) Identification of regression line to use o Cases One variable is independent, without experimental error Regression of <dependent> on <independent> Both variables have experimental error, and do not depend on each other Regression of <variable to find> on <other variable> When asking to find the line of regression and make an estimation o Working for the line of regression for the estimation is to 5 d.p (or s.f.)

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As in sub in the given vales into the equation with 5 d.p (or s.f.) o Answer for the line of regression and estimation is in 3 s.f To explain why a liner model is not appropriate o The magnitude of the product moment correlation coefficient is not close to 1 Which shows that there is a weak positive/negative linear correlation between ___ and ___ If it is, say although the product moment correlation coefficient is close to 1, which shows a strong positive/negative linear correlation between ___ and ___ o The scatter diagram shows a curvilinear relationship between and Because y is increasing/ decreasing at an increasing/ decreasing rate.

Complex Numbers
Manipulating trigonometry o Sine sin() = sin sin = sin (180 ) sin = cos(90 ) o Cosine cos() = cos cos = cos (180 ) cos = sin(90 ) o Tangent tan() = tan tan = tan (180 ) tan = cot(90 ) o Conversion table 0 2 4 2 0 = 0 1 2 3 2 1 3 6

Sin Cosine Tangent

2 2 2 2 1

3 2 1 2 3

4 2 0 2

Important relationships o o o o o o

+ = + = 2 cos = 2 () = = 2 sin = 2 () 0 = = = = ||2

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When finding the root of ( + )2 = ( + )2 o + = + o = + o = 1

1

To simplify 1, take out 2 from the top and bottom 2 + 2 = 2 cos 2

To solve simultaneous equations of and o Let and by + and + respectively o Compare real and imaginary coefficients to get 4 equations o Use GC to solve When dividing two complex number, like o Rationalize the denominator
3+ 3 3 1+

2 2 = 2 sin 2

2 2

To solve a quadratic equation of o Try using GC (set mode to imaginary) If youre lucky, you may be able to identify the exact coefficient o o E.g. 1.732050 is likely to be 3 Use completing the square method Use =
24 2

3+1+31 4

3+

1+

When asked to show that tan = , where is anything, and is a given angle o Try to use arg , where z is the complex number equation To find points whereby a line and circle intersect o Find their equations and equate them Circle : ( )2 + ( )2 = 2 Line: = + To find the value of | |from given values of ||, ||, | + | o Find ||2 = o Find ||2 = o Find ( + ) | + |2 = ( + )( + ) o Expand | |2 | |2 = ( )( ) Sub in found values to get answer To simplify 5 + 5 2 (the constant and r must be the same) o 5 ( + ) o 5 [2 cos()] + = 2 () Done by Nickolas Teo Jia Ming

When finding the power of a complex number, o = (2) For drawing on an argand diagram o Note that 1 , 1 etc. are representing fixed complex points, and are like | | = is a circle with center , radius arg( ) = is a half-line, with open dot at , with angle If the angle is negative, label it as negative on the argand diagram | | = | | is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining and o If the inequality > or < is used, a dotted line should be drawn for all three cases o If the answer is an area, label it the locus of o If the answer is a line, draw that line portion with a different coloured ink and label it locus of o Even if youre drawing more than one complex number (e.g. and ), its okay to label the axis as () and (). and alone works as well When drawing an argand diagram after finding the complex roots of an equation, o Draw a dotted circle, which all the roots lie on o Label the radius of the circle The magnitude/ modulus portion of the answer o Label the angle of the roots o Label the roots as = To find maximum and minimum value of ||, after a circle locus is drawn o Take the distance to the center, plus radius for maximum, minus radius for minimum To find when is real o sin() = 0 = , + To find when is imaginary
R

Because is odd To find when is positive o cos() < 0 = 2 + Because is even, and is an integer To find when is negative o cos() < 0 = (2 1) + Because is odd, and is an integer To find when is real/ imaginary and positive/ negative o Sub the obtained from evaluating the real/ imaginary step, into the positive/ negative step, so as to relate the two restrictions. When solving ( ) = 0, and they give that the roots include cotangent o o = 1

cos() = 0 =

(21) 2

, +

=1

It can also be equal to stuff other than 1, just find the roots of those The simpler complex is the numerator

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For questions that first asks you to find ( + ) = and then hence o o o Let = and apply the answer found earlier to solve
1+ 1

Use the simplify method given earlier Convert from polar to rectangular form to solve (as per the method given earlier) = +
1 1+

2 2

The modulus-argument form, denominator and numerator will change depending on the question

Sampling

When asked to transform one point to another, e.g. to o Find in terms of in the polar form = o State the transformation The point representing is transformed from the point representing by an anti-clockwise rotation about the origin by , followed by an enlargement about the origin by factor Applying quota sampling to scenario o Issue How often teenagers aged 12-18 go shopping o Population Teenagers at a shopping mall o Sub-population Male and female teenagers Applying stratified sampling to scenario o Define the non-overlapping strata that the population is going to be grouped in o Calculate and state the sample size from each strata o State that the selection of sampling units within the strata is random Limitations o Quota Sample not representative of population Not everyone in the desired population has an equal chance of being selected

Maclaurins series

1. When is small, for trigonometry a. Multiples like 2, 3 can be subbed to replace in the formula directly b. Additions or subtractions, like , needs to be broken up using MF15 i. cos = cos cos sin sin Done by Nickolas Teo Jia Ming

2. When asked to find Maclaurins series for , find , 2 , 3 a. Then sub = 0 into the equation for i. Use the -value found earlier
2 2! 2 3

b. Then sub = 0 and into , 2 , 3 a. (cos )6 = 1

6(5) 2

3. When you have a Maclaurins series to a power, use binomial to expand i.

2 2!

ii. Use the value of when solving for 2 and so on +

4

4. When asked why the approximation of the Maclaurins series is not good/reliable a. Calculate the percentage error b. Say the error is significant

+ 4!

4 4!

= 1 + 2! +
2

4 4!

= 1 + 6 2! +
2

4 4!

100%

Differentiation

e. Use original = to change all into i. Use right angle triangle to convert between trigonometry Draw the triangle, and you have two sides known from the ration in the equation Find the other side using Pythagoras theorem 7. For trigonometry with powers greater than 1 a. Differentiate as per normal with chain rule 8. When dealing with more than one (inverse) trigonometry function a. Do product rule b. Apply differentiating inverse trigonometry if needed to differentiate one term 9. To show that there is not turning point a. Let = 0

5. When dealing with a. Let be .ln() b. Differentiate c. Replace .ln() with 6. When differentiating inverse trigonometry a. Let be the equation b. Throw the inverse trigonometry over c. Differentiate with respect to x d. Find

b. Show that the resulting equation is invalid i. Possibly due to restrictions stated in the questions, like

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 must be positive 10. To show that tangent does (not) cut the graph again a. Sub the equation of tangent into the equation of graph i. One solution will be the original point ii. If theres another, that other will be the other point 11. When they say that the tangent is parallel to the -axis a.

Integration

13. Whenever they say is small, find a way to use Maclaurins series 1. When using MF 15 i.
1

Solve using the denominator equal to 0 12. When trying to join two different variable, like and a. Differentiate first with respect to a common variable like b. Then =

i. Denominator of the equation of is 0

a. When the term has ()2 instead of 2 , multiply to the result ii. is any constant
() () 2()2 1

b. 2. When dealing with fractions a. See if can use inverse trigonometry in MF15 i. If both sides of the post-integration equation has a ln(|? ? |), let the constant be ln and combine it with the other ln(|? ? |) to make it easier to handle. ln(||) = ln(||) + ln = ln(||) c. If numerator is a constant i. Bring up the denominator using inverse power d. If numerator is a variable i. Do partial fractions if the denominator has roots ii. Use completing the square if possible 3. When dealing with sin2() or cos2 () a. Convert using double angle formula 4. In integration by parts a. Follow LIATE i. L = best u, as easiest to differentiate b. For when you have more than one trigonometry function c. If you get back the original function, just throw it over. 5. In integration by substitution b. Check for a. Find b. Change all

= sin1
1

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c. Change limits 6. When dealing with trigonometry

() ()

c. Integrate tan2() by converting it to sec 2 () 1 i. Integrate sec 2 () = tan() d. To integrate sin2() or cos2 () i. Convert to cos(2) using the MF15 7. When finding area under a curve, if it crosses the axis a. You can translate the curve by replacing or with the translated function i. For example, = + 1 8. When dealing with parametric a. When finding area i. Use and sub in the parametric forms Change the limits Change the into Change all 9. To get rid of modulus from ln a. Throw the modulus to the other side and incorporate it into the constant i. | + | = . + = , where = b. Get rid of the modulus first before you key in values to find c, if possible like and double angle formula

a. If the are different (e.g. and 2 and 2), use formula to convert to the same X

b. When dealing with tangent, try to convert to cosine and sine and look for patterns

Rate of change
1. Radius and height are related a. Convert height to radius first b. Then differentiate to find rate of change

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