Caterpillar

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For other uses, see Caterpillar (disambiguation). Caterpillars are the larval form of a member of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). They are mostlyherbivorous in food habit, with some species being insectivorous. Caterpillars are voracious feeders and many of them are considered pests inagriculture. Many moth species are better known in their caterpillar stages because of the damage they cause to fruits and other agricultural produce. The etymological origins of the word are from the early 16th century, from Middle English catirpel, catirpeller, probably an alteration of Old North French catepelose: cate, cat (from Latin cattus) + pelose, hairy (from Latin pilsus).[1]

Anatomy

A head, B thorax, C abdomen, 1 prothoracic shield, 2 spiracle, 3 true legs, 4 midabdominal prolegs, 5 anal proleg, 6 anal plate, 7 tentacle, a frontal triangle, b stemmata (ocelli), c antenna, d mandible, e labrum.

Actias selene with some of the spiraclesidentified.

Most caterpillars have tubular, segmented bodies. They have three pairs of true legs on the three thoracic segments, up to four pairs of prolegs on the middle segments of the abdomen, and often a single pair of prolegs on the last abdominal segment. There are ten abdominal segments. The families of lepidoptera differ in the numbers and positioning of the prolegs. Some caterpillars are fuzzy (which means they have hair), and they are most likely to cause itching of the hands if touched. Caterpillars grow through a series of moults; each intermediate stage is called an instar. The last moult takes them into the inactive pupal or chrysalis stage. Like all insects, caterpillars breathe through a series of small openings along the sides of their thorax and abdomen called spiracles. These branch into the body cavity into a network of tracheae. A few caterpillars of the family Pyralidae are aquatic and have gills that let them breathe underwater.[2] Caterpillars have about 4,000 muscles (compared to humans, with 629). The average caterpillar has 248 muscles in the head segment alone. Caterpillars move by sliding their internal organs forward using contraction of the muscles; the torso first elongates and then contracts like a slinky. They are one of the only known organisms that use this method of locomotion. Another way of describing this process is: gut-first, body-later.[3]
[edit]Senses

Close-up of a caterpillar face.

Caterpillars do not have good vision. They have a series of six tiny eyelets or 'stemmata' on each side of the lower portion of their head. These can probably form well focused, but poorly resolved images.[4] They move their heads from side to side probably as a means of judging distance of objects, particularly plants. They rely on their short antennae to help them locate food. Some caterpillars are able to detect vibrations, usually at a specific frequency. Caterpillars of the common hook-tip moth, Drepana arcuata (Drepanoidea) produce sounds to defend their silk nests from members of their own species,[5] by scraping against the leaf in a ritualized acoustic duel. They detect the vibrations conducted by the plant and not airborne sounds. Similarly, cherry leaf rollers Caloptilia serotinella defend their rolls.[6] Tent caterpillars can also detect vibrations at the frequency of wing beats of one of their natural enemies.[7]
[edit]Classification

A geometrid caterpillar or inchworm

Crochets on a caterpillar's prolegs.

The geometrids, also known as inchworms or loopers, are so named because of the way they move, appearing to measure the earth (the word geometridmeans earth-measurer in Greek); the primary reason for this unusual locomotion is the elimination of nearly all the prolegs except the clasper on the terminal segment. Caterpillars have soft bodies that can grow rapidly between moults. Only the head capsule is hardened. In caterpillars, the mandibles are tough and sharp for chewing leaves; in most adult Lepidoptera, the mandibles are highly reduced, or soft. Behind the mandibles of the caterpillar are the spinnerets, for manipulating silk. Some larvae of the Hymenoptera (ants, bees and wasps) order can appear like the caterpillars of the lepidoptera. These are mainly seen in the Sawfly family and while the larvae superficially resemble caterpillars, they can be distinguished by the presence of prolegs on every abdominal segment. Another difference is that lepidopteran caterpillars have crochets or hooks on the prolegs while these are absent on the sawfly larvae. Also in lepidopteran caterpillars is the upside down Y shaped suture on the front of the

head.[4] The larvae of sawflies differ also in having prominentocelli on the head capsule.
[edit]Defenses

The saddleback caterpillar has urticating hair and aposematic colouring.

Many animals feed on caterpillars as they are rich in protein; as a result, caterpillars have evolved various means of defenses. The appearance of a caterpillar can often repel a predator, the markings and certain body parts can make it seem poisonous, bigger in size thus threatening, or non-edible. Some types of caterpillars are indeed poisonous, and are capable of shooting acid.[citation needed] Some caterpillars have long "whip-like" organs attached to the ends of their body. The caterpillar wiggles these organs to frighten away flies.[8] Caterpillars have evolved defences against physical conditions such as cold, hot or dry environmental conditions. Some Arctic species like Gynaephora groenlandica have special basking and aggregation behaviours[9] apart from physiological adaptations to remain in a dormant state.[10]
[edit]Appearance

Costa Rican hairy caterpillar. The spiny bristles are a self-defense mechanism

Many caterpillars are cryptically coloured and resemble the plants on which they feed and may even have parts that mimic plant parts such as thorns. Their size varies from as little as 1 mm to about 3 inches (76 mm). Some look like objects in the environment such as bird droppings. Many feed enclosed inside silk galleries, rolled leaves or by mining between the leaf surfaces. Caterpillars of Nemoria arizonaria that grow in spring feed on oak catkins and appear green. The summer brood appear like oak twigs. The differential development is linked to the tannin content in the diet.[11] More aggressive self-defense measures are taken by caterpillars. These caterpillars have spiny bristles or long fine hairlike setae with detachable tips that will irritate by lodging in the skin or mucous membranes.[4] Some birds, like cuckoos, will swallow even the hairiest of caterpillars. The most aggressive defenses are bristles associated with venom glands, called urticating hairs; a venom among the most potent defensive chemicals in any animals is produced by the South American silk moth genus Lonomia. It is ananticoagulant powerful enough to cause a human to hemorrhage to death (See Lonomiasis).[12] This chemical is being investigated for potential medical applications. Most urticating hairs range in effect from mild irritation to dermatitis.

Giant swallowtail caterpillar everting itsosmeterium in defense

Plants have evolved poisons to protect themselves from herbivores and some caterpillars have evolved countermeasures and eat the leaves of these toxic plants. In addition to being unaffected by the poison, they sequester it in their body, making them highly toxic to predators. These chemicals are also carried on into the adult stages. These toxic species, such as the Cinnabar moth (Tyria jacobaeae) and monarch (Danaus plexippus) caterpillars, usually advertise themselves with brightly striped or coloured in black, red and yellowthe danger colors (see aposematism). Any predator that attempts to eat a caterpillar with an aggressive defence mechanism will learn and avoid future attempts.

Larvae of Craesus septentrionalis, asawfly showing 6 pairs of pro-legs.

Some caterpillars regurgitate acidic digestive juices at attacking enemies. Many papilionid larvae produce bad smells from extrudable glands called osmeteria. Caterpillars can evade predators by using a silk line and dropping off from branches when disturbed.

Some caterpillars obtain protection by associating themselves with ants. The Lycaenid butterflies are particularly well known for this. They communicate with their ant protectors by vibrations as well as chemical means and typically provide food rewards.[13] Some caterpillars are gregarious; large aggregations are believed to help in reducing the levels of parasitization and predation.[14] Clusters amplify the signal of aposematic coloration, and individuals may participate in group regurgitation or displays. Caterpillars can be confused with the larvae of sawflies (see image on right). Lepidopteran larvae can be differentiated by: the numbers of pairs of pro-legs; sawfly larvae have 6 while caterpillars have up to 5 pairs. the number of stemmata (simple eyes); the sawfly larvae have only two, while a caterpillar has six. the presence of crochets on the prolegs; these are absent in the Symphyta (sawflies). [edit]Behavior

A Pasture Day Moth caterpillar feeding on capeweed

Caterpillars have been called "eating machines", and eat leaves voraciously. Most species shed their skin four or five times as their bodies grow, and they eventually pupate into an adult form.[15]Caterpillars grow very quickly; for instance, a tobacco hornworm will increase its weight ten-thousandfold in less than twenty days. An adaptation that enables them to eat so much is a mechanism in a specialized midgut that quickly transports ions to

the lumen (midgut cavity), to keep the potassium level higher in the midgut cavity than in the blood.[16]

A Gypsy Moth caterpillar

Most caterpillars are solely herbivorous. Many are restricted to one species of plant, while others are polyphagous. A few, including the clothes moth, feed on detritus. Most predatory caterpillars feed on eggs of other insects, aphids, scale insects, or ant larvae. Some are cannibals, and others prey on caterpillars of other species (e.g. Hawai'ian Eupithecia ). A few are parasitic on cicadas or leaf hoppers.[17] Some Hawai'ian caterpillars (Hyposmocoma molluscivora) use silk traps to capture snails.[18] Many caterpillars are nocturnal. For example, the "cutworms" (of the Noctuidae family) hide at the base of plants during the day and only feed at night.[19] Others, such as gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) larvae, change their activity patterns depending on density and larval stage, with more diurnal feeding in early instars and high densities.[20]
[edit]Economic

effects

Hypsipyla grandela damages mahoganyin Brazil

Caterpillars cause much damage, mainly by eating leaves. The propensity for damage is enhanced by monocultural farming practices, especially where the caterpillar is specifically adapted to the host plant under cultivation. The cotton bollworm causes enormous losses. Other species eat food crops. Caterpillars have been the target of pest control through the use of pesticides, biological control and agronomic practices. Many species have become resistant to pesticides. Bacterial toxins such as those from Bacillus thuringiensis which are evolved to affect the gut of Lepidoptera have been used in sprays of bacterial spores, toxin extracts and also by incorporating genes to produce them within the host plants. These approaches are defeated over time by the evolution of resistance mechanisms in the insects.[21] Plants evolve mechanisms of resistance to being eaten by caterpillars, including the evolution of chemical toxins and physical barriers such as hairs. Incorporating host plant resistance (HPR) through plant breeding is another approach used in reducing the impact of caterpillars on crop plants.[22] Some caterpillars are used in industry. The silk industry is based on the silkworm caterpillar.
[edit]Human

health

Buck Moth caterpillar sting on a shin twenty-four hours after occurrence in southLouisiana. The reddish mark covers an area about 20mm at its widest point by about 70mm in length.

Caterpillar hair can be a cause of human health problems. Caterpillar hairs sometimes have venoms in them and species from approximately 12 families of moths or butterflies worldwide can inflict serious human injuries ranging from urticarial dermatitis and atopic asthma to osteochondritis, consumption coagulopathy, renalfailure, and intracerebral hemorrhage.[23] Skin rashes are the most common, but there have been fatalities.[24]Lonomia is a frequent cause of envenomation in Brazil, with 354 cases reported between 1989 and 2005. Lethality ranging up to 20% with death caused most often by intracranial hemorrhage.[25] Caterpillar hairs have also been known to cause keratoconjunctivitis. The sharp barbs on the end of caterpillar hairs can get lodged in soft tissues and mucus membranes such as the eyes. Once they enter such tissues, they can be difficult to extract, often exacerbating the problem as they migrate across the membrane.[26] This becomes a particular problem in an indoor setting. The hairs easily enter buildings through ventilation systems and accumulate in indoor environments because of their small size, which makes it difficult for them to be vented out. This accumulation increases the risk of human contact in indoor environments.[27]
[edit]

The caterpillar is the larvae (the baby) of both a butterflyand a moth. After around 2-3 weeks, the caterpillar builds itself into a cocoon where it remains a pupa for a further 2 weeks. The caterpillar then emerges having grown wings. The moth caterpillar is well known for being a pest particularly in the fabric industry. One species of caterpillar has destroyed reams of silk in the far east, known in China as a silk worm. Generally, most species of caterpillar are considered to be agricultural pests as they can munch their ways through fields of crops, often leaving enormous holes which result in unhealthy or inedible plants.

Some species of caterpillar are also highly poisonous, particularly those species that live in the tropical rain forests. Other species are only poisonous in their caterpillar form, meaning when they turn into a moth or butterfly, they no longer have venom. There are more than 20,000 different species of known caterpillar found all around the world and it is estimated that there are many more that are undiscovered as new species of butterflies and moths are regularly found in regions where there is little, of any, human presence. Caterpillars difference in size, colour and appearance depending on their species. Some caterpillars are very brightly coloured where other caterpillar species are quite dull-looking in comparison. Some species of caterpillars are very hairy, where others are very smooth. The main aim of the appearance of the caterpillar is to intimidate it's predators and to deter them from eating it. The caterpillar, like the butterfly, is a herbivorous animal but the diets of the caterpillar and the butterfly are very different. Butterflies use their long straw-like tongues to drink the nectar out of flowers, which is an adaptation that occurs in the process where the caterpillar becomes a butterfly. Caterpillars mainly feed on leaves, plants and flowering plants and big holes can often be found in leaves indicating the presence of a caterpillar. A number of species of caterpillar are known to be carnivorous and eat a variety of insects that pass them. One caterpillar species

found in Hawaii, hooks itself onto a leaf where it stands very straight trying to catching passing bugs. Due to their small size and worm-like shape, caterpillars are preyed upon by numerous different species of animal but the main predators of the caterpillar are birds and large insectssuch as wasps. Caterpillars are also commonly preyed upon by small mammals and reptiles.

Caterpillar
Insect. Butterflies and moths spend their childhood as caterpillars, called the larval stage. Caterpillars eat constantly. They outgrow their skin and shed it several times. After the last shedding, the caterpillar fastens to a branch and enters the pupa or chrysalis stage; moth caterpillars use a silk thread from their silk glands to spin a protective cocoon. Inside the cocoon, the pupa goes through a process called Gadgets powered by Google metamorphosis. The caterpillar's six front legs transform into the adult insect's legs, the other prolegs disappear, wings grow, and the insect emerges as a beautiful moth or butterfly.

Life Cycle of Butterflies and Moths

As advanced insects, butterflies and moths have a "complete" life cycle. This means that there are four separate stages, each of which looks completely different and serves a different purpose in the life of the insect. English | Franais | Deutsch | Espaol | Italiano | Nederlands

The egg is a tiny, round, oval, or cylindrical object, usually with fine ribs and other microscopic structures. The female attaches the egg to leaves, stems, or other objects, usually on or near the intended caterpillar food.

The caterpillar (or larva) is the long, worm-like stage of the butterfly or moth. It often has an interesting pattern of stripes or patches, and it may have spine-like hairs. It is the feeding and growth stage. As it grows, it sheds its skin four or more times so as to enclose its rapidly growing body.

The chrysalis (or pupa) is the transformation stage within which the caterpillar tissues are broken down and the adult insect's structures are formed. The chrysalis of most species is brown or green and blends into the background. Many species overwinter in this stage.

The adult (or imago) is colorful butterfly or moth usually seen. It is the reproductive and mobile stage for the species. The adults undergo courtship, mating, and egg-laying. The adult butterfly or moth is also the stage that migrates or colonizes new habitats. The butterfly pictured here is a Monarch, which is fairly large in size. The Monarch's wingspan is 3 3/8 - 4 7/8 inches (8.6 - 12.4 cm). Adult Anatomy

The Caterpillar or Larva

A caterpillar is an eating machine. Its consists of a pair of jaws or mandibles for chewing plant matter followed by a long gut for digestion. It moves using three pairs of true legs (like all insects) and five further pairs of 'prolegs', sucker like structures with hooks on the end for gripping hold of the leaves and stems. Along the side of the larva are small openings, spiracles, nine pairs in all, through which respiration occurs. A modified set of salivary glands, spinnerets, produce silk, which is discussed later on this page. All butterfly larvae are hairy, some quite spectacularly covered with bushes of setae, they may well be off-putting to potential predators.

When first hatched the larva or caterpillar is very small indeed, just a few millimeters long. These first instar larvae look similar regardless of which species they belong to.

Usually the caterpillar immediately searches out food and starts to eat, although some species overwinter at this stage.
Due to the nature of the skeleton of insects they cannot grow in the same way that we do. Every so often the caterpillar sheds its skin so that it can expand and grow to a larger size. This process is known as ecdysis and each time it happens the caterpillar moves on to a new instar. Most European species molt four times and so their final stage is usually the fifth instar. Caterpillars feed for a large part of their time, consuming an ever increasing amount of foodplant as they get rapidly larger. Some species prefer the cover of night to avoid unwanted attention, theComma, Polyg onia c-album, spends most of its time underneath leaves for the same reason. Their excrement, usually called frass, is dropped all over the place in small lumps.

The larva of the Large white, Pieris brassicae, pictured left demonstrates where the frass gets its colour from. Some butterfly species actually have a system of catapulting it away to deter predators, for example the Small skipper, Thymelicus sylvestris. The White admiral, Limenitis camilla ac tually covers itself in its own frass as disruptive camouflage to confuse predators.

Two views of the fully grown Comma larva, Polygonia calbum. The right view shows the disruptive colouring. Which end would you go for if you were a bird?

Caterpillars produce a silken thread from organs beside their jaws. This is used for a variety of purposes. It gives the caterpillars a good hold on their foodplant and some use it to rest between bouts of feeding. Others, for example Small tortoiseshell(Aglais urticae) and Peacock (Inachis io) build a web in which the young caterpillars live together, presumably for defensive purposes, only dispersing when near fully grown.

When a caterpillar is fully grown it takes time to wander in search of a suitable pupation site. This stage is sometimes known as the prepupa. The larva will let all frass clear its system before pupation. Different families pupate in different ways. A Nymphalid (left) spins a silken pad and hangs head down using its anal claspers to grip on. A Pierid (right) however spins a pad then attaches itself with head upwards, spinning a silken girdle for support. A short while after the larva has attached itself the change to a pupa begins. It is thought a hormone is introduced into the system to begin this process.

Butterfly Life Cycle - Egg: Adult butterflies lay their eggs on the leaves of their host plant. Each butterfly species has certain plants that their caterpillars must eat to live and grow. Some butterfly species are very

specific to one or two plants while others may be able to eat a family of plants. Butterfly eggs are small in general (like the size of a pin head) and usually hatch in about 3-7 days. Butterfly Life Cycle - Caterpillar: The caterpillar hatches from the egg and usually the first thing it does is eat the egg shell. After that it will start consuming the host plant. The caterpillar will spend the next several weeks eating and growing since that is its main purpose. Butterfly Life Cycle - Chrysalis: This stage is often a called a cocoon, but generally a cocoon is the pupa stage of a moth while a chrysalis is the pupa stage of a butterfly. At this point the caterpillar has made its final molt into a pupa and in about 1-2 weeks an adult butterfly will emerge. Butterfly Life Cycle - Adult Butterfly: The adult butterfly will spend its time eating nectar and mating/laying eggs. Many butterflies only live about 2 weeks, however, some species such as the monarchs will overwinter by migrating south and thus will live for many months. The Caterpillar: Caterpillars are truly eating machines. Before they become a chrysalis their body mass will increase thousands of times. With all this rapid growing they end up molting several times before their final molt into a chrysalis. They grow their new exoskeleton beneath their current skin then when the time comes they split the old skin off. Many times they will eat the old skin before returning to their leaf-munching. Caterpillars will change their appearance sometimes dramatically between their molts. An example is the black swallowtail caterpillar. When it is very young it is black with a white saddle. By the time it becomes ready to pupate it has become a beautiful mix of stripes and dots with colors of yellow, white, black and green. That can make identification more difficult since their appearance depends on their age. Caterpillar identification is not really that difficult if you happen to know what plant they are eating. If you can identify the plant then it becomes much easier to identify the caterpillar since they are so particular to their own host plant. Just Google the "plant name" plus "caterpillar" or "host plant" and you are very likely to find the butterfly or moth species to which the caterpillar belongs. The butterfly life cycle is fascinating and caterpillars are great fun to raise into butterflies indoors. For more information about the caterpillar life cycle visit Life Cycle of a Butterfly.