Running head: MOTIVATIONAL THEORY AND CHICANO/CHICANA ED.

EXPERIENCE

In Search of Answers: Have Tenets of Educational Leadership & Motivational Theory Eluded the Chicano/Chicana Educational Experience in America? Mary Jove Keiser University Dr. Daddio EDUL751 May 30, 2012

Motivational Theory & The Chicano/Chicana Educational Experience

In Search of Answers: Have Tenets of Educational Leadership & Motivational Theory Eluded the Chicano/Chicana Educational Experience in America? This document serves as an attempt to present an amalgam of leadership concepts and motivational theory within the framework of a counterstory and apologue to the Chicano/Chicana educational pipeline. Chicanos/as are individuals born in the United States to parents of Mexican heritage. Present day Chicanos/as can be as many as fourth generation U.S. born citizens. The critical point to understand here is that Chicanos/as are consistently the least educated and least academically successful culture in America (Yosso, 2006). The purpose of this research paper is to disclose areas of possible contradiction about the nature of Chicanos/as poor performance in school and about this ethnic groups inability to improve overall academic performance, high school graduation rates and higher education attainment levels; despite numerous education reform initiatives, Affirmative Action and increased educational opportunities for underrepresented minorities. The following presentation is influenced by Abraham Lincoln's ideal that in order to improve "we must first know where we are and whether we are tending, so that we can better judge what to do and how to do it" (Basler, 1953, p. 461). The tenets of motivational theory and educational leadership are illustrated as they relate to Chicano(a) students educational outcomes. The Chicano educational experience, attempts to eradicate gaps or inequities in education, and the current state of Chicano(a)'s in obtaining and succeeding as students are discussed. This project has been structured to identify if motivation has been relevant throughout a Chicano(a)'s students educational pipeline. The research presented here is significant to the conclusion, which the author will form as it relates to motivational theory and leadership attributes that have or have not contributed to the improvement or advancement of the issue. Literature Review

Motivational Theory & The Chicano/Chicana Educational Experience

Yosso, Tarra J. (2006) focuses her work around cultural deficit theories, critical race theory and white privilege as pillars upon which the Chicano/Chicana educational pipeline can be measured and analyzed. Ethnicity, skin color, accent, surname and many other racial factors are poised as contributors to the lack of Chicano/Chicana student success in K-12, lack of improvement in the groups high school drop-out rates or continuous meager enrollment in college. Yosso (2006) uses counterstories, simple stories about realistically oppressed people suffering inequalities. Her counterstories are about education and the white man's purposeful privileged route to prosperity and his planned system to marginalize and push out minorities or people of color. Acuna, Rodolfo (2003) writes about the umbrella of Latino's in America. The terms Latinos/as is contested as mythical because there is no such identity as Latinos/as, accusing the U.S. government of attempting to erase a person's individual definition of the world. Acuna's (2003) work illustrates that 58.7% of the Hispanic's in America are of Mexican descent, making up seven out of every ten Latino's. Mexican-American's also make up the youngest population amongst any other in the U.S.. 36% of the Mexican-American population was born in Mexico, while 50% have immigrated since 1992. Acuna (2003) denotes that within the past 20 years, Latino household incomes have increased by 80%. Of the American born Latino's, 42% are classified as middle class. The author addresses Affirmative Action, public funding inequalities of education and the continued efforts of bilingual education reform. Valencia, Richard R. (2002) provides in depth coverage of the Chicano school experience. The author discloses school conditions and outcomes, such as high drop rates amongst this minority group. Many implications have come up such as the deficiency of Mexican-American teachers, especially in states like Texas where nearly half the states'

Motivational Theory & The Chicano/Chicana Educational Experience

population is predicted to be Mexican American by 2030. A devastatingly high percent of Mexican-American children's poor performance on standardized tests is another critical aspect of this ever increasing minority population in America. Valencia (2002) finds that Chicanos/as have the lowest education attainment rate from among the different Latino subgroups in the country. "The immediate payoff of just obtaining a high school diploma may not be a sufficient motivator for Chicanos/as" (Valencia, 2002, p. 115). Social disenfranchisement, poverty and the overall undereducated status of the Latino subgroup are possible and viable causes for the high levels of Chicano/Chicana high school drop outs. Wyner, J.S., Bridgeland, J.M., and Diiulio, J.J. (n.d.) exclaim that low income and low school performance are linked. Rather, the article points out that many minorities and socioeconomically disadvantaged students of all ethnicities are overcoming economic and social barriers as they excel academically. "Very little is known about high achieving low income students" (Wyner, Bridgeland & Diiulio, 20, p. 4). A whopping 90% of high achieving low income students enter college. Over 3 million high achievers, whose ethnography is proportionate with that of the American population by ethnicity and gender go unnoticed year in and year out. Learning more about these high achievers could point us in the right direction as to how to replicate their academic successes. The authors find that in the Hispanic population, first graders high achievement indicates that learning disparities begin to show up as low income children advance in grade level and get lost in the cracks of the educational system, which is not set up to recognize high achievers. Byun, S., Meece, J.L., and Irvin M.J. (2012) offer a probable cause for low educational attainment in some students. Although the longitudinal study does not apply directly to the Chicano(a) student, geographical location can be said to be an indicator of low education

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attainment. For example, Byun, Meece and Irvin (2012) found that rurally located students live in lower social-economic conditions and hence are less likely to complete a bachelors degree. Hatt, B. (2012) discusses smartness as a cultural construct to educational attainment and academic success. Teacher expectations and student self identity are highly influenced by the cultural definition of smartness, which to a high degree can even determine social status. Hatt (2012) finds that parents influence a conception of intelligence, which has an effect on whether or not they grow up to feel smart enough to be successful in education. For Mexican Americans, Hatt (2012) points out, the feeling of not being 'smart enough' for college is viral. Hatt (2012) rationalizes that teachers have a duty to recognize cultural differences and to not equivocate perceptions of readiness to learn with their expectations of student abilities. Dorner, L. (2012) focuses on understanding how immigrant families make sense of school policies. Parents decision making with regard to student enrollment and select programs, like bilingual education, can have a significant impact in establishing and navigating the educational pipeline of Chicano(a) students. The author uses ethnographic factors of time, culture, place and development to identify how immigrant sense making of policy selection, policy processes and policy implications has an effect on student success. The Tenets of Educational Leadership Educational leadership is a process fueled by trust and mutual respect, aiming at collectively creating and continuously accomplishing student successes. Effective leaders are confident that they can create student successes (Green, 2013). Educational leaders can readily inspire others to share in a vision of creating student success after success. Leader traits, personalities, behaviors, situations, styles etc. have all been implemented throughout the history of the existence of the Chicano(a) educational pipeline. None of the leadership theories, types or

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practices thus far have truly uncovered the nature and resistance to the impoverished educational attainment of Chicano students. As Green (2013) illustrates the history of leadership practice, theory, and development, it is easy to see how leadership has changed. Once clearly defined as top of the hierarchy power roles, which were highlighted by productivity, leaders are no longer identified from such an illustration. Throughout the 20th century leadership went through a metamorphosis, shifting from a definition as a singular hierarchical position to one of collaborative organizational labors. Nonetheless, leadership still has eluded the opportunity to overcome the lack of educational success infused within the Chicano community. However, in the Mexican American community, that which is described by Acuna (2003) as one of the least educated minority groups in America, educational leaders such as principals, teachers, politicians and even parents have failed in crafting reality out of a vision of success for Chicano(a) students. The tenets of leadership align the effective educational leader with selfefficacy, vision, change oriented and an unparallel capability of balancing task accomplishment and relationship creation at the same time. Figure 1. illustrates the tenants of effective school leadership as identified by Green (2013). The single most important, corporate goal of educational leaders and his or her followers is to create student successes. The creation of student successes is not considerably significant within the Chicano(a) race. For this reason, we will explore the tenets of motivational theory next and how these have or have not influenced Chicano(a) educational success in America.

Motivational Theory & The Chicano/Chicana Educational Experience

Figure 1 Effective Educational Leader Tenets (Source: Green (2013))

Self-Efficacy

Shared Vision

Student Successes
TaskRelationship Balance

Manage Change

The Tenets of Motivational Theory Green (2013) presents Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (MHN) and Herzberg's MotivationHygiene Theory (MHT) as theories which identify facets that influence a person's behaviors. Needs influence behavior (Green, 2013). Food, shelter, and safety are primary examples of needs which influence behaviors. Maslow argued that after these primary needs have been met, humans move on to the next category on the hierarchy. Creating relationships and a feeling of worth or belonging are non-tangible needs which motivate a person to socialize, participate, collaborate and contribute. At the top of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is self-actualization. Once a person has reached a level of social influence, then Maslow theorized a person will feel as if they have accomplished being themselves. Herzberg's (2001) Motivational Theory stipulates that "approaching the world with healthy pragmatism" provides for more complete self-image (p. 365). Herzberg (2001) provides a brilliant explanation to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and adds his own theoretical concept to further develop and widen the scope of how the theory can be applied and interpreted. In

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borrowing from Herzberg's (2001) own words I have summed up how education, motivation, and the Chicano educational experience are interrelated and simultaneously disconnected. Like Herzberg, I begin by identifying two separate groups; Chicano(a)'s who have earned at least a four year degree and those who have dropped out of high school. In both groups, the value of education and/or the ability to successfully complete academic assignments is different. In school there is no unmet need for food, clothing, shelter or safety. These basic needs are met. Then, Maslow's theory would have us believe that the student should be at the next level of motivation, which is a social need. It is what I call the Socialization Zone of education. In the socialization zone of education students feel confident creating relationships with teachers, asking for their help, seeking answers to all kinds of questions or even asking for more challenging work. However, students only move into the relationship sphere of the zone when they feel as if they are part of a group, if they have a sense of belonging. Here, in the lack of evidence of Chicano students entering the Socialization Zone is where Herzberg's (2001) expansion of Motivational Theory proves to be instrumental in linking motivation to Chicano student success or lack of. If I transfer, almost word for word, Herzberg's (2001) theory about work processes to education, it would read as follows: The education process, by its very character and content, will provide the possibility of the multifaceted development of the individual. In the case of students within the Chicano population, the widening of the students mental horizons and the increase in his/her education has not improved, but rather worsens his/her attitude to obtain an education and compels him/her to quit school. In this case the appeal to the social value of education as a motivator to succeed in school hardly helps.

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Clearly, simply distributing propaganda that promotes the social value of education is not the solution to improving the educational outcomes of Chicano students. Herzberg (2001) continues with his expansion of Maslow's theory by adding two intricate dichotomies to motivation. One branch of motivation provides for intrinsic interests and personal growth. In other words, a student will succeed if he or she feels a moral obligation to succeed and if he or she is able to earn continuous average or above average grades. Herzberg's (2001) work concludes that both, moral and material rewards for motivation work unilaterally and not against each other or one without the other. For example, in the latest blockbuster movie Girl in Progress, an academically high achieving, teen, Hispanic girl aches for her irresponsible, single mom's attention and recognition. When she does not get it, she begins to fail. In this example, the teen girls motivation is high grades and her only parents recognition. The teen drops her grades, stops achieving, when her mother fails to affirm her success. The other branch of Herzberg's (2001) motivation theory concerns attitudes towards work. For this assignment, I have related attitude towards education to better understand how motivation can result in being an attitude towards education. For example, when I was growing up the attitude towards education was that education was for the White-Man. I believe this attitude shaped many of my decisions when choosing between staying in school or dropping out. Herzberg (2001) separates this second branch of motivation, attitude, into satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Table 1. below lists characteristics of an attitude of satisfaction and one of dissatisfaction towards work or education. The theory claims there is no unity in the two spheres of attitude. Therefore, if a student is completely satisfied with the type or topic of a project he or she is assigned, it does not mean that he/she is also satisfied with the group he/she has been assigned to work with.

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Table 1 Herzberg's (2001) Hygiene Factors and Motivators of Attitude Herzberg's 2 Spheres of Attitude Elements that Contribute to Attitudes about Education Elements which can cause: Elements which can cause: Satisfaction Dissatisfaction Motivator's (Content) Element's that describe student Tasks Achievement Recognition Interesting work Persona growth Promotion Hygiene Factors (Context) Elements that describe the environment Student's surrounding Policies Administrative agendas Status Grades (complex) Interpersonal relationships Peer groups Listed first on Table 1 are motivator's, which are factors that influence students with an attitude to succeed. Opposite of motivator's are hygiene factors, environmental and controllable factors, which lead to dissatisfaction in school, with teachers, peers, performance or the educational environment in general. Notice how the factors from opposite sides can relate. If there is no personal growth, then there is likely no status. If there is no achievement, then there is likely dissatisfaction with grades. Worse still is if there is no recognition, grades even when they are good, will be dissatisfying to the student. This is why grades, like Herzberg says about salary

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for work, is a complex factor of attitude. The good thing about this finding is that I can no longer say that only good grades is an indicator of achievement and academic ability. Dorner's (2012) research connects to Herzberg's (2001) theory of context factors and how these motivation hygiene factors can complicate the disclosure of deeper problems preventing student success. Chicano(a) Educational Experience Up to now you have read about the factors of motivation that influence behaviors and responses to environmental conditions. I have specifically laid out motivators and hygiene factors to fit into the sphere of education. Responses to factors of motivation produce a certain experience. Acuna (2003), Velencia (2002), and Yasso (2006) describe the Chicano educational experience as one that is limited because race has determined success and failure, acceptance or rejection in America. Acuna (2003) writes of a difficult assimilation process that MexicanAmerican's have had to overcome. Often, says Acuna (2003), Mexicans are expected to reject their past and become Americanized. In a resentful tone, Acuna (2003) calls out President Theodore Roosevelt as carrying an arrogant attitude toward immigrants: America, Love it or Leave it! Bilingual education was adopted into public schools in 1968 (Acuna, 2003). Radical researchers like Acuna (2003) believe the program was put in place to keep Mexicans from progressing through school as all other children. Hygiene factors threaded within the American education system are reducing the satisfaction levels of Chicano students, which in turn reduce their motivation to succeed in school (Herzberg, 2001, Acuna, 2003). Yosso (2006) declares that Chicano communities struggle to overcome a history of educational neglect. These institutions have also bore Chicano's the terrors of racism, according to Yasso (2006). Further, Yasso (2006) claims that the educational system has continually failed to educate the Chicano community. To further support

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the strong, resentful attitude of Yasso (2006) and Acuna (2003), Valencia (2002) accuses White scholars as the creators of minority education to solve the achievement gap. However, in an effort to save the American image and citizen from unproductive attitudes and values, such as those discovered by Oscar Lewis amongst the poor people of Mexico City and New York City in 1965, programs like Head Start were initiated to teach children Americanized manners, behaviors and values (Valencia, 2002). Contradictions in the Research In 1974 Equal Educational Opportunity Act was passed to make bilingual education a civil right. Researcher's like Acuna (2003) believe that opponents to programs like bilingual education are usually also against civil rights, affirmative action and immigration. Early childhood education programs like Head Start were also started in the 1960's (Valencia, 2002). Despite the attempts of political giants that may have been racist, or not, to create programs for minorities, appeasing minority groups demands for equality, equal representation, equal opportunity, and a right to identity the research demonstrates two things: 1) Chicano students success rates have not improved 2) Chicano activists are still not satisfied and have instead flipped the coin, identifying any attempt to provide educational opportunity as a racist conspiracy to keep Chicano's uneducated but under civil control. In addition, despite the numerous attempts of social groups to reform education for Chicano students at any given point in the educational pipeline, Chicano's are not performing as well as their white peers and attain less than other racial minority groups (Yasso, 2006). There is a need to make a personal point here and I may be accused of using a terrible example but I will use it because it reminds me of when I was a little girl. I used to here the song La Cucaracha over and over when I was a child living in welfare apartments. La Cucaracha is

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Spanish for the outdoor roach, or the big tree roach not your typical house roach. Anyhow, I remember my uncle would spray medicine and lay traps to keep the big cucaracha out of the house. On one occasion, I observed different cucaracha, same size except its color was different. It ate the bate my uncle had left and it was unaffected. It did not die. There was something about that roach that was unaffected by the type of poison my uncle had left. My point is this, public education is available to anyone of any color and until recently even to undocumented illegal residents. There is no conspiracy or deficit-thinking underground plan to keep Chicano's dumb. The issue boils down to motivation and all the facet's that make up the hygiene of attitude to succeed at school. Herzberg (2001) was clear, hygiene can be controlled, environmental threats can be eliminated. It is my Chicana opinion that the old adage Only Time Will Tell has spoken loud and clear. Over the years, one side, the educational leaders side has at the very minimum tried, yes they tried without avail to help lead the Chicano race to educational success. There is something deeper than an educational system failure within the walls of this issue. Unfortunately, time and space are limited for now and that shall be the conclusion of another project. Failed Attempts to Improve Bilingual education programs have been one of the barriers of success for Chicano students. Although the program aims at forming an identity for the student and simultaneously preserve a native language, bilingual education programs have failed at proving to improve success rates for minority students (Acuna, 2003). No Child Left Behind has increased standards and testing for students. When compared to motivational theory, No Child Left Behind is trying to reform education for minority groups only through a materialistic reward feature that has no

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moral value creation for the student. And according to Herzberg (2001) attempting to improve processes or systems through the use of only rewards is a waste of time and effort. The people of Mexican decent represent the youngest and the fastest growing population in America (Yasso, 2006). Only 44% of Chicano students graduate high school. About 26% go on to a two year college and 17% move on to a four year institution. Less than 1% will receive a PhD. Positive Contributions to Chicano(a) Success Dorner (2012) has researched the way immigrant parents make decisions in selecting and enrolling their children in public school programs such as bilingual education, early childhood education or English immersion programs. A step in the right direction, Dorner (2012) is pointing the way for policy makers and educational leaders to recognize and understand student and parent motivations. The greater the stimulation of motivators like achievement, recognition and status the greater the success can be for students. In addition, a significant contribution on Dorner's (2012) part is her discovery of how educational leadership decisions influence and determine the pipeline of minority/immigrant children. Briefly, I'd like to mention the work of Hatt (2012) and her idea of implicit intelligence, arguing that smartness is something done to someone. Cultural understandings of smartness have much to do with how the term defines a person, group or student. For example, when I was growing up I was frequently told, quite frequently actually, that White Americans were the smart ones. Cognitively, this placed me at a disadvantage because I grew up with an implicit belief that I was not as smart as my White peers. Hatt's (2012) research findings should definitely make its way to the desks of educational leaders, where considerable attention can be given to how teachers can avoid confusion between teachers conception of intelligence and differences in

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cultural understandings. Imagine, I was in graduate school the first time I heard a professor admit that no one is smarter than anyone else. I was hit in the forehead with a brick. My White-male professor was telling me I was as capable as he is to learn anything. That's how deep my Chicano Experience and reality is. Looking Ahead Just as social science contributed to economic growth and not its failure starting in the 1960's, so can social science contribute to the increased success, and not failure, of Chicano(a) students in America today (Herzberg, 2001). This is why I have chosen to identify tenets of leadership and motivation that are in practice within the educational pipeline of Chicano(a)'s. By defining who the Chicano is we may be able to better understand that which motivates and discourages participation, socialization, contribution, and collaboration within the educational arena. To a Chicano like myself, climbing the educational pyramid can seem like a monumental task. First of all, I was discouraged from socializing, period. Therefore, I did not move past food, shelter, safety zone on the pyramid. Figure 2 Illustrates a composite of Maslow's pyramid, except I have applied the concept to a Chicano student. Figure 2 Educational Pyramid Motivational Zones

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Most Chicano students never move beyond the food, shelter, safety zone. Socialization is not encouraged or developed and therefore, moving up the pyramid is nearly impossible. The safety zone becomes just that, a safe place. No one judges the other for educational failure in the safety zone. Educational failure is the same as producing failing grades or dropping out of school. Byon, Meece, and Irvin (2012) have confirmed that disparities in educational attainment can be improved if context factors like family background, demographic background, academic preparation, close social ties with community and church organizations are positive or satisfactory. Figure 3 is a matrix of how self actualization can be expressed by Chicano students. Students can be at any plane at any point of their educational pipeline. The important thing to do as educational leaders is to recognize, affirm, and provide recognition when Chicano students act within the context of the matrix of self actualization. Figure 3 Tenets of Motivation

Socialization Zone Creating relationships Feeling of Belonging

Particaption Zone Accepting someone's value of self Valuing self Self-Actualization

Contribution Zone Valuing self, skills, knowledge etc Belief in ones abilities

Collaboration Zone Faith in self-worth & its value self/abilities in action

Conclusion I rationalize that past and present day Hispanic researchers have thwarted the reason that a great majority of Chicano students continue to lag behind their White and Black American counterparts in succeeding academically, completing high school and going to college. Well-

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meaning researcher's like Yosso (2006), Acuna (2003), and Valencia (2002) assign blame to politics, political agendas, discrimination and even a conspiracy to keep Mexican-American's from attaining positions of advanced economic social status. My research finds that tenets of motivation and leadership, as they are threaded within the culture and self-identity of Chicano children has a greater potential of creating a gap in educational attainment than the proposed theories by Yasso (2006), Valencia (2002) and Acuna (2003). Self-identity, as established by Chicano parents, creates attitudes towards education. Herzberg (2001) argues that motivation is driven by positive forces of satisfaction and negative forces of dissatisfaction. Rewards are not enough to keep a person motivated and satisfied. Moral values, steps towards self actualization in combination with material rewards are what keep motivation alive. Contextual factors like peers, relationships, setting, and curriculum can be controlled because they are external forces. Educational leaders can contribute to the success of their minority students by affirming their successes, getting family involved in school functions, illustrating smartness as a universal gift imparted to all humanity and by discussing educational goals with students. Motivation is obviously commanded by its own set of rules: needs must be met to a certain degree of satisfaction and when dissatisfaction is encountered, environmental barriers must be overcome in order to change negative attitudes about circumstances. In this case the circumstances would involve education. I can honestly say that when mom said I was trying to be White because I enrolled in college, she was wrong. Sorry mom. But, when she said attitude is everything, she was definitely right! And Herzberg would agree!

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Reference Page Acuna, R. (2003). U. S. Latino issues. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. Byun, S.-y., Meece, J. L., & Irvin, M. J. (2012). Rural-nonrural disparities in postsecondary educational attainment revisited. American Educational Research Journal , 413-437. Dorner, L. M. (June 2012). The life-course and sense-making: immigrant families journeys toward understanding educational policies and choosing bilingual programs. American Educational Research Journal , 461-486. English, F. W. (2008). The art of educational leadership: Balancing performance and accounatbility. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc. Green, R. L. (2013). Practicing the art of leadership: A problem-based approach to implementing the ISLLC Standards (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. Hatt, B. (2012). Smartness as a cultural practice in schools. Amercian Educational Research Journal , 442-460. Herzberg, R. The new industrial psychology. Industrial and Labor Relations Review. pp. 363 376 The collected works of Abraham Lincoln (Vol. 2). (1953). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Valencia, R. R. (2002). Chicano school failure and success; Past, present & future (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routlege. Wyner, J. S., Bridgeland, J. M., & Diiulio Jr., ,. J. (n.d.). Achievement trap; How America is failing many high achieving students from lower income families. Lansdowne, VA: Jack Kent Cooke Foundation.

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Yosso, T. J. (2006). Critical race counterstories along the chicano/chicana educational pipeline. New York, NY:: Routledge.