A 20-SUN HYBRID PV-THERMAL LINEAR MICRO-CONCENTRATOR SYSTEM FOR

URBAN ROOFTOP APPLICATIONS

D Walter
1
, V Everett
1
, A Blakers
1
, M. Vivar
1
, J. Harvey
1
, J. Muric-Nesic
1
, T. Ratclif
1
, S. Surve
1
, R. Van Scheppingen
1
1
Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
P. Le Lievre
2
, M. Greaves
2
, A. Tanne

2
Chromasun Inc, San Jose, CA, United States of America
ABSTRACT
A unique, linear, low-concentration, hybrid 'micro
concentrator' (MCT) system concept has been developed
specifically for urban roofop environments. The light
weight, low-profile form factor satisfies aesthetic demands
for general roofop solar technologies, and is a marked
departure from conventional linear concentrator systems.
Valuable thermal energy, normally of nuisance value only,
and usually wasted by conventional CPV, is extracted via
a heat transfer fluid. The recovered thermal energy can be
used for applications ranging from domestic hot water
through to space heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC), and process heat. The system can be modularly
configured for hybrid concentrating PV-Thermal (CPV-T)
or thermal-only operation to meet specific customer
demands. At a 20x concentration ratio, system output of
500 Wpe and 2 kWpt is expected, for a combined system
eficiency of up to 75%. The MCT is constructed from
mature, proven technologies and industry-standard
processes. An installed system cost of less than US$2Ipe
is targeted, and commercial availability is expected to
commence in 2011.
INTRODUCTION
The driving principle for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV)
technology is the potential for cost reduction in solar
power generation via the substitution of expensive solar
cells with comparatively inexpensive concentrating optics.
A hybrid concentrating photovoltaic-thermal (CPV-T)
system increases total energy output by extracting waste
heat that is not converted to elecricity via a heat transfer
fluid. A roofop-mounted system couples the benefits of
distributed PV electricity generation with the on-site
generation of thermal energy in a temperature range of 60
to 220C.
This is ideal for applications ranging from domestic hot
water, space heating, commercial process heat in the food
and hospitality industries, through to solar cooling. Under
concentration, electrical and thermal energy can be
produced more eficiently and economically than
independent fat-plate PV and solar hot water systems. In
markets where subsidies exist for both technologies, such
as Australia, net costs to the consumer are greatly
reduced.
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High-concentration photovoltaic technology is already
demonstrating its capability for utility-scale power
generation, where very expensive, specialist solar cells
are placed under concentration ratios of up to 650X [ 1]. By
comparison, only limited research and development has
been focused on CPV-T systems that are technologically
and commercially feasible for small-scale urban roofop
environments. Such an urban market would be well
served by systems operating under low ( 15X - 35X)
concentration. In this concentration range, solar cell area
requirements are reduced by at least 95%, while the
demands on optics, tracking, and thermal management
are significantly relaxed in comparison to high
concentration systems. However, low concentration
systems sufer from a lack of specialised components
available at industrial volumes, most notably solar cells
capable of high eficiency operation at low concentration.
At these concentration levels, however, high quality
monocrystalline silicon solar cells are suitable candidates,
with their marginally higher cost being ofset by greatly
reduced material consumption.
A key metric for assessing commercial performance is the
levelised cost of energy (LCOE), a measurement that
captures the cost throughout the lifecycle of a PV system;
and a measure that is growing in acceptance throughout
the industry. The ultimate success of any PV technology,
at least in the near term, will be its ability to compete with
fossil fuels. By reducing the area of expensive solar cells,
the performance and reliability pressure mounts on the
economy and durability of the non-cell system
components. The tracking and optic systems need to be
suficiently precise and reliable to ensure acceptable
performance during 25 or more years of operation, along
with associated material costs also being kept to a
minimum.
It is clear from observing the record of previous
implementations of linear CPV-T systems, such as the
ANU CHAPS system, the full extent of the challenges that
exist in meeting the above goals. Mirrors at up to 2m wide
require significant structural support, are subject to large
wind loading, and are dificult and expensive to
manufacture to the tolerances necessary for excellent flux
uniformity in the presence of gravitational and wind
loading distorions. Composite mirror constructions are
more sensitive to thermal cycling events, and are
OOO831
generally exposed to rain, hail, snow, dust, and other
soiling sources. Manufacturing costs for these types of
systems are likely to remain high in comparison to fat
plate PV systems as long as there is only limited industry
experience in high-throughput producion of proven,
reliable system components [2]. Economies of scale have
yet to be fully realised, and indeed may never be, and any
CPV or CPV-T technology that can tap into existing
industrial production processes and technologies will have
a significant cost and long-term performance advantage.
In order to address these challenges, Chromasun, a
Silicon Valley based industry, and the Centre for
Sustainable Energy Systems at the Australian National
University are developing a novel hybrid 'micro
concentrator' (MCT) CPV-T system. This paper presents
an overview of the development of the MCT system, some
key design decisions, and preliminary real-world electrical
performance data. Preliminary estimates indicate that the
MCT will deliver an LCOE (based on electrical output
alone, but including the costs of the thermal components)
of close to US 6 per kWh. Under this costing scenario,
the thermal energy is essentially a free bonus.
THE MICRO-CONCENTRATOR SYSTEM
The MCT system is a unique implementation of CPV-T
technology, enclosed in a small-footprint, low-profile
housing (see Fig. 1). The enclosure, measuring 3.2 m
long, by 1.2 m wide, by 0.3 m deep, isolates the internal
components from the surrounding environment. This
allows the MCT to match the aesthetic standards set by
flat-plate PV systems, which dominate the urban roofop
market.
FIGURE 1 The micro-concentrator (MCT) enclosure.
While this approach was desirable from an aesthetic
perspective, it also delivers imporant operational
advantages. Material costs are significantly reduced by
almost entirely eliminating internal support structures.
Instead, the enclosure itself both protects and suppors the
mirrors, tracking system, and the hybrid receiver. By
protecting the optics from wind loading and soiling, it has
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been possible to employ ultra light-weight 97% eficient
Fresnel reflectors. The tracking system is free to
"concentrate" on optical considerations alone; with the
minimal mirror weight, which is always perfectly balanced
and free from wind loading or diferential thermal stress,
furher reducing the parasitic power consumption of the
tracking motors. Consequently, the complete system
weighs less than 100 kg, with an area loading of 25 kg/m
2
,
which facilitates roofop installation.
Isolating the system components from the surrounding
environment increases the mean time between failure,
improving lifetime yield, and reducing or eliminating
maintenance costs. Construction of the system can occur
entirely of-site, with the installation carried out in a
manner similar to flat-plate PV systems.
In operation, PV electrical performance considerations
place an upper limit on the useful hybrid operating
temperature. However, the MCT is highly adaptable and
can be configured for either CPV-T or thermal-only
operation, allowing for a modular approach to system
installations. Multiple MCTs, independently configured,
can provide combined-system electrical energy, low
temperature (50-70 "C) hot water, process heat up to
220 C, and high thermal output suitable for high COP
double-efect absorption coolers or ejecor air-conditioning
systems.
The MCT has set aggressive performance targets, and will
deliver electrical and thermal energy at a cost not currently
available to customers deploying independent systems. In
order to achieve this goal, design decisions have been
influenced by a desire to incorporate mature materials,
components, and manufacturing processes into the
system design. This has allowed the MCT to tap into
existing economies of scale, reducing final system cost
and development time to market, and improving
confdence in the reliability and durability of the product.
HIGH PERFORMANCE PV RECEIVER
Point-contact, monocrystalline silicon solar cells have
demonstrated eficiencies of over 26% at 20x
concentration [3]. However, performance at this level has
yet to be found in cells available at industrial production
volumes. Instead, the MCT incorporates high eficiency,
non-concentrator, rear-contact, mono-crystalline silicon
solar cells that are modified for operation at concentration
ratios of up to 30x. Narrow electrode 'pitch' and low bulk
resistivity allows these cells to maintain an electrical
eficiency of around 20% while operating at 20X
concentration ratio. The cells are commercially
manufactured at a scale of tens of millions of wafers
annually, and are then modified in-house for concentrator
applications using industry-standard semiconductor
processing techniques. Figure 2 shows a plot of prepared
concentrator cell eficiency as a function of concentration
ratio for four sample cell widths. We can observe from this
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data that remarkable eficiencies, greater than 19.5% at 20
suns, are achievable using one-sun silicon solar cells
available at a fraction of the cost of specialist concentrator
cells.
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0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
Concentrat|on [Suns}
FIGURE 2 Eficiency as a function of illumination
intensity. It is the widest cell (1384), which
demonstrates the highest eficiency.
Backside contact cells have facilitated a simplified,
integrated solution for electrical interconnection, heat
sinking, mounting, and structural support. A substrate
technology common to the power electronics industry
eliminates all internal wiring by surface mounting the cells
to a custom-designed circuit using a flip-chip ball grid
array assembly method. The substrate has decades of
proven reliability in demanding automotive and other harsh
high-temperature applications, which establishes a high
level of confidence for reliable performance in the MCT.
The ball grid array consists of a precise arrangement of
solder balls that relaxes placement accuracy by utilising
the remarkable 'self-alignment' feature of the flip-chip
structure, which is commonly exploited in the electronics
industry [4]. This phenomenon is a result of the surface
tension of the molten solder bumps, which seeks to
minimise the surface area-to-volume ratio of individual
solder balls. Any perturbation from a spherical shape
while the solder is in a liquid state produces an opposing
force, which can be harnessed by design to pull the
soldered components into the required position. In
conjunction with a non-contact vapour-phase solder reflow
process, this process is used to align and electrically
interconnect fragile solar cells in densely packed arrays,
with a cell separation of less than 100 !m. By closely
spacing the cells, and with the complete absence of sun
facing bus-bars or electrodes, the active area of the
receiver can significantly exceed 95%.
The design of the mounting substrate allows the cells to
be heat sunk via the electrical circuit. A uniformly
distributed array of contact points across the rear surface
of the cell limits the localised temperature rise and
reduces series resistance; both critical considerations for
maximising cell performance. The size and aspect ratio of
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the cells have been carefully optimised to improve long
term system stability by minimising the operating current
level and accumulated diferential thermal expansion. The
materials that constitute the mounting substrate have been
selected to match the heat sink, further minimising thermal
expansion mismatch. A metal base-layer also provides a
rigid support for each sub-module and eases constraints
on module handling during receiver assembly.
A great deal of design flexibility is provided for by the
selection of the interconnecting circuit. This flexibility has
been exploited to allow the integration of bypass diodes in
structurally convenient and functionally efective locations.
Surface mount diode packages are used; they can be
connected to the substrate during the same electrical
connection process used for the solar cells. Independent
sub-modules are interconnected via refective metal tabs,
which also shelter the diodes from the concentrated
sunlight.
All of the aforementioned design details are eminently
suitable for high-throughput industrial manufacuring
processes. Figure 3 illustrates an un-encapsulated PV
module, with encapsulation to be provided by a PDMS
silicone compound.
FIGURE 3 The MCT PV sub-module.
SILICONE ENCAPSULANT MATERIAL
Under prolonged exposure to concentrated sunlight,
silicone encapsulant materials have demonstrated
superior optical and mechanical stability compared with
EVA [5]. A pourable, room temperature vulcanising (RTV
silicone is used in the MCT receiver, with a refractive
index matched to the front surace glass and optimised to
minimise refection at the cell surace. The silicone is
applied in a liquid state, which is ideally suited to
encapsulating the geometric channel that houses the
receiver components. The increased material costs of the
silicone, compared with other low-performance options,
are ofset by the relatively small encapsulated volume.
International safety standards require that the 'creepage
distance' between components never falls below the
margin necessary to prevent 'tracking', or unwanted
electrical shorts at test potential. The silicone
encapsulation benefits standards qualification by
increasing the dielectric strength between the components
to a value many times that of air. This is a valuable feature
due to the small scale on which the PV receiver is
constructed, the non-planar cross section, and the close
proximity of the solar cell electrodes to electrically-neutral
conductive suraces. Extensive standards testing,
conducted at ANU, and modified to match the expected
operating conditions of the MCT system, indicate that
OOO833
50 Im of the silicone dielectric is suficient to reliably
stand-of voltages exceeding 2500 VDC [6].
OPTICAL SYSTEM
A major challenge in CPV and CPV-T linear concentrator
systems is meeting and maintaining an acceptable level of
flux uniformity at the receiver. The higher operating
currents of CPV systems make prolonged mismatch
particularly undesirable if potentially disastrous 'hot spots'
are to be avoided [7]. Larger scale linear CPV systems,
such as the ANU CHAPS system and the EUCLI DES
array in Tenerife, have demonstrated the significant
challenge involved in maintaining uniform flux distribution
at the receiver [8]. Optical misalignments, caused by
mirror deformities, the presence of shadows cast by
supporting structures, soiling, wind loading, gravitational
loading, and thermal distorions all impact long term yield
and system reliability. In the case of the ANU CHAPS
system, flux variations have been observed to be as high
as 40% [9].
FIGURE 4 An early prototype single-receiver, low
profile, high-reflectivity MCT Fresnel mirror array.
The MCT incorporates a low-profile, planar array of linear
Fresnel reflectors, which achieve an optical concentration
of 20X at the receiver (see Fig 4). The reflector array
improves fux uniformity, optical performance, and
manufacturability by using diferential width mirrors, each
varying in inverse proportion to the distance from the
receiver. Furher, the focal characteristic of each reflector
is varied in order to limit flux peaks, and reflector
astigmatism is actively harnessed to improve lateral flux
uniformity.
The reflectors are tensioned in order to provide a
consistent and uniform image profile along the length of
the reflector. This design has the unique capability to
provide torsional force from one end of the reflector to the
other, allowing for the correction of any twisting induced
during installation. The new reflector design eliminates
image instability which arises from the diferential
expansion of composite mirror structures, as commonly
used in conventional linear concentrators.
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Secondary optics in the CPV receiver, consisting of highly
reflective 'winglet' sidewalls, further enhances lateral flux
uniformity across the solar cells. The focal target of the
Fresnel array is shifed in a dispersed arrangement across
the receiver to include the optical aperture of the wing lets.
Instead of the typical Gaussian distribution resulting from
the focus of an array of Fresnel reflectors onto a flat
target, this innovation significantly flattens the distribution.
As a result, cell eficiency is increased by around 0.5
percent absolute by reducing localised series resistance
resulting from peaky, localised illumination.
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FIGURE b 'Smoothed' light flux distribution (botom)
eliminates the high peak intensity (top) at the centre of
the receiver, whilst simultneously minimising light
spillage.
Achieving a highly-uniform optical flux distribution has
freed the electrical design to maximise the number of
series-connected cells. This has increased the maximum
power voltage and hence the eficiency of integration with
low-cost, high-voltage, switch-mode inverters. One
OOO834
arrangement of the MCT design can build voltage at up to
70 Vp/m, for a system total output of over 400 Vp.
TRACKING SYSTEM
Operating at a 20X concentration ratio increases the
acceptance angle compared with higher concentration
ratio systems. The geometric layout of the single-axis
tracking mechanism is optimised to ensure that the
maximum available fraction of direct incident radiation
reaches the receiver. Each Fresnel array is 560 mm wide
and consists of 10 mirrors, with each focused on a
receiver that is 34 mm wide. The tracker is able to
maintain 100% of the reflected image on the receiver for
around 10 hours of a summer day.
ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE MCT
PHOTOVOL TAlC RECEIVER
Characterisation of the electrical perormance of the PV
modules was carried out under both laboratory and real
world conditions. In the laboratory, testing was perormed
using a constant voltage I-V flash tester. Flash testing
allows for simultaneous I-V measurements at a range of
illumination intensities, and eliminates the complication of
providing a stable, high-intensity light source. Oue to the
voltage limitations of the device, and the area of uniform
light intensity distribution provided by the flash source,
only shorter series strings (sub-modules) could be tested.
Nonetheless, this test procedure still provided a good
indication of full module performance by incorporating the
same fabrication and interconnection processes in test
sub-module preparation as used in the full module
construction. By stabilising cell temperature at 25 C, the
flash tester provides an accurate reference for the
correlation of light-induced current to open-circuit voltage
for use in standardising real-world performance to STC
conditions. Figure 6 illustrates a typical I-V curve at a
range of illumination intensities for a four-cell, silicone
encapsulated, MCT receiver sub-module.
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
0.00

-lOx Conten:ra:lon
-0.50 30x Conten:ra:lon
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-1.50 ___________-- L____--
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VoItae [V)
Figure b I-V test curves for four-cell sub-module at a
range of concentration intensities.
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The key performance characeristics are summarised in
Table 1. Note that all measurements were at STC, with an
accuracy of 5% relative.
At the expected system optical concentration ratio of 20x,
a sub-module eficiency of 19.6% has been achieved for
these four cell prototype sub-modules.
10x 20x 30x
Ise, (A) 0.82 1.67 2.56
Voe, (V) 2.88 2.96 3.00
FF, (%) 76 71 67
Eficiency, (%) 20. 1 19.6 19.2
Table 1 Sub-module perormance characteristics
Field testing of the receiver sub-modules using a MCT test
rig was undertaken in Canberra, Australia. The test rig
was designed specifically to test prototype receiver
sections and comprises a short segment of the complete
MCT with production-standard implementation of the
tracking and optical systems. The geometric
concentration factor of the MCT test-rig is 14.2, which is
below the target production factor of 20, but nonetheless
suitable for preliminary characterisation of on-sun
elecrical performance and further development and
optimisation of MCT receivers.
The MCT electrical eficiency was determined by
calculating the 'aperure eficiency'; that is, the output
power relative to the total direct irradiation incident on the
concentrating optics. This is defined as,
where ONI is the direct normal irradiance, Xc the
concentration factor defined as the ratio of the receiver
area to the area of the concentrating optics and AM is the
concentrator receiver module area, including the roughly
5% non-active area. Normalisation to standard testing
conditions was performed using the temperature
coeficients of performance, open-circuit voltage, and
short-circuit current provided by the solar cell
manufacturer. The I-V curve was measured using a
capacitive curve tracer, and the total power output was
measured at maximum power point.
A pyrheliometer was used to measure ONI, which was
found to be 876 W/m
2
1 2%. Operating cell temperature
was inferred by referencing a known value of open-circuit
voltage at 25 C against the measured value, and
extrapolating based on the Voe temperature coeficient.
The MCT was inclined to beyond the latitude angle in
order to minimise the ONI incident angle, as is consistent
with a winters day. Figure 7 plots the I-V characteristics
for a PV module at a cell temperature of 55 C, and the
OOO835
same module corrected to STC. Table 2 illustrates the
key performance characteristics under both conditions.
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00
0.00 ,- ---------- ---,-.-,
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_ -0.60 -
c

< -0.90
1.20
VOltage (V)
FIGURE 7 I-V curve for PV module at bb C, and
normalised to STC. Incident direct radiation: 876
W/m
2

At bb C At STC
Ise, (A) 1. 31 1. 31
Voc |V} 20. 1 21.8
FF, (%) 65 72
Eficiency, (%) 16.6 18.4
Table 2 MCT PVModule on-sun perormance
characteristics at bbC and at STC.
An on-sun PV efciency of 18.4%, corrected for STC, has
been demonstrated at this concentration. However,
further work will aim to optimise the photovoltaic module
and confgure it for the MCT receiver. Future
characterisation will demonstrate the electrical
performance of the MCT over a prolonged period of
operation at a fixed inclination angle that is typical for a
roofop installation.
CONCLUSION
The jointly-developed Chromasun-ANU MCT system is a
unique implementation of CPV-T technology, with a high
NDI conversion eficiency, and a 'roofop friendly' form
factor. LCOE is minimised by significantly reducing
material requirements, and simplifing assembly
procedures by using existing industrial processes. Where
possible, components have been adapted from other
industries to capture existing economies of scale,
including modified non-concentrator silicon solar cells.
Non-cell system components are well-developed, and
work is presently ongoing to characterise and optimise
module electrical performance. To date, laboratory-based
testing has demonstrated module eficiencies of up to
19.6% under the target 20X concentration ratio, and on
sun eficiency of 18.4% under a 14.2X concentration ratio.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the suppor of the
Asia-Pacifc Partnership on Clean Development and
Climate, and support from The Australian National
University. This work is also supported by a linkage grant
from the Australian Research Council.
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[2] Science, Technology Applications Working Group, "A
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[3] R. Sinton et ai, "27.5-percent Silicon Concentrator
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[4] G. Humpston and D. Jacobson, "Principles of
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[5] K.R. Mcintosh, J.N. Cotsell, J.S. Cumpston, A.w.
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[6] M. Vivar, et aI., "Integrating the design and reliability
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[7] F. J. Vorster, E. E. Van Dyk, "Current-voltage
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[8] Optimizaci6n de la Tecnologia Fotovoltaica de
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