THE IMPLICATION OF THE USE OF FOOD RAW MATERIALS IN BIOFUEL PRODUCTION BY BOROKINNI, Emmanuel Olalekan 0701040009 SUBMMITTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOOGY, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLLMENT OF THE REUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF HONOURS DEGREE, BACHE LOR OF SCIENCE (B.Sc) IN FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. JOSEPH AYO BABALOLA UNIVERSITY, IKEJI-ARAKEJI, OSUN STATE, NIGERIA

JULY, 20 12 CERTIFICATION This is to certify that this seminar report was written by BOROKINNI, Emmanuel O lamilekan (0701040009) in the department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agricultural Sciences, Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji-arakeji, Osun S tate, Nigeria. SEMINAR COORDINATOR SUPERVISOR HEAD OF DEPARTMENT ... SIGNATURE & DATE ... SIGNATURE & DATE ... SIGNATURE & DATE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT All the thanks go to almighty God, for given me the grace and opportunity on thi s research carried out for my seminar presentation. Also I must acknowledge my family for their support all through my year of acade mics in this great school. My appreciate also go to the lecturers in the department of Food Science and Tec hnology; Mrs. Esan, Mr O.L Otutu, Mrs Adisa, Miss D. Ikuomola, Dr. A. Sanni, Mrs . Fatiregun, Miss O. Ibidapo and also the technologists Miss Akinyele, for their support and word of encouragement throughout my stay in the department, God ble ss you and reward you all. My almost appreciation goes to my supervisor and also the HOD of the department Dr. A. Ojo who always encourage me in order to work hard and put effort in all w hat am doing. Thank you sir for your support through my research of this paper i n order to make it successful. May the Lord bless your family and you too. Also to my course mates, Yewande, Tomilayo, Adeyanmola, Queen, and Abiodun thank s very much. You are the best friend and course mates I ever had. And I cannot but appreciate you Alade Funmilola, for your words of encouragement , prayer and support throughout my research of this paper and also for being the re when I thought there is nobody, Alade Funmilola you the best. The Lord will s ee you through in the remaining years left for you and you shall excel in your a cademics and also whatsoever you lay your hand on shall prosper, success is your s forever. And to all my well wishers thank you very much.

TABLE OF CONTENT Title Page i Certification ii Acknowledgement iii Table of Content iv List of Figures vii List of Tables viii Abbreviation ix CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Classification of Biofuels 3 1.2 Issues Relating to Biofuels 4 1.2.1 Oil Price Moderation 5 1.2.2 Food versus Fuel Debate 6 1.2.3 Poverty Reduction Potential 7 1.2.4 Sustainable Biofuel Production 8 1.2.5 Soil Erosion and Deforestation 8 1.2.6 Impact on Water Resources 9 1.2.7 Loss of Biodiversity 11 1.2.8 Carbon Emissions 11 CHPTER TWO 2.0 FOOD RAW MATERIALS WHICH HAS BIOFUEL POTENTIAL 13 2.1 Biofuel Production from Sorghum 13 2.2 Biofuel Production from Cassava 14 2.2.1 Ethanol from Cassava 15 2.3 Biofuel Production from Sugarcane 18 2.4 Biofuel Production from Jatropha 19 2.5 Biofuel Production from Cellulose 21 2.6 Biofuel Production from Solid Waste 21 CHAPTER THREE 3.0 AGRICULTURAL ROLE IN BIOFUEL PRODUCTION 24 3.1 Impact of Utilization of Agricultural Products for Biofuel Production 3.2 Agricultural Impact on Bioenergy Yield 26 3.3 Impact of Biofuel Production on Farmlands and Feedstock 27 3.4 Impact of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering in Biofuel Production 28 3.4.1 Fermentation- A Traditional Technology 29 3.4.2 Enzyme-Based Bioconversion Technology 31 3.4.3 Rainbow Biotechnology 32 CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN ADVANCING THE BIOFUEL PRODUCTION 33 4.1 Government Strategies for Biofuel Production 35 4.2 Nigerias Policies and Incentives on Biofuel 36

4.2.1 4.2.2

Objectives and the Anticipated Benefits of the Policy 36 The policy Structure, Market and Investment Incentives 38

CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 IMPLICATION OF THE USE OF FOOD RAW MATERIALS IN THE PRODUCTION OF BIOFUE L 42 CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSION 44 REFERENCE 45

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Flowchart of the Production of Ethanol from Cassava 17

LIST OF TABLE Table 1: 41

Projected Marketed Possibility

ABBREVIATION AAFC Agricultural and Agric-Food Canada ADH Alcohol Dehydrogenase DNA Di-ribonucleic Acid EEA European Environmental Agency FAO Food and Agricultural Organization GDP Gross Domestic Product GHG Greenhouse Gas IEA International Energy Agency ITDG Intermediate Technology Development Group LCA Life Cycle Analysis LDCs Least Developing Countries NNPC Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation PDC Pyruvate Decarboxylase UNIDO United Nation Industrial Development Organization USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION Biofuel is a renewable energy source produced mainly by the sugar fermentation p rocess (Oyeleke and Jibrin, 2009); although it can also be synthesized by chemic al processes such as reacting ethylene with steam (Anuj et al., 2007). Biogas, b ioethanol and biodiesel are the main biofuels widely used today, among these, et hanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide, particularly in Brazil. Ethanol fuel blends are widely sold in the United States of America. The most common bl end is 10% ethanol and 90% petrol (E10). Biofuels are liquid fuels for use in transport. They take the form of bioethanol from cereals, sugar beet or cane, and of biodiesel from vegetable oil. They can substitute for and be blended with fossil fuel based gasoline and diesel, respe ctively, and in low concentration be used in regular combustion engines of cars and trucks, and hence be distributed by oil companies relying on existing infras tructure. Energy security (bio or fossil origin) like food security in Africa is a crucial element in sustaining development and technological progress in Africa (Leuenbe rger and Wohlgemuth, 2006). It is a crucial element in sustaining development an d technological progress in Africa. Highcost fossil fuel prices and national secu rity concerns have sparked interest in bio-fuels in continental Africa (Pillay a nd Da Silva, 2009). With world petroleum reserves fast depleting, in recent year s biofuels such as ethanol and butanol, have emerged as most important alternati ve resource for liquid fuel. It has generated a great deal of research interest in ethanol fermentation. However, research on improving biofuels production has been accelerating for both ecological and economical reasons, primarily for its use as an alternative to petroleum based fuels (Prasad et al., 2007). This review presents the current trends in biofuel production and outlines prosp ects for the future of renewable energy systems. It also outlines prospects for the future of renewable energy systems and waste utilization, although this is b y no means a simple task, since problems concerned with energy, the environment, population, and food, are all interrelated.

One of the main arguments put forward to encourage biofuel production is that bi ofuels will be a reliable source of energy and will decrease dependence on fossi l fuels. However, a preliminary assessment of the extent to which the potential ethanol or biodiesel supply meets those fuel needs is disappointing. Global prod uction is still too small and the need for raw materials is still too high for b iofuels to have a significant impact on the fuel market and be able to compete w ith fossil fuels (Forge, 2007). Using waste biomass to produce energy can reduce the use of fossil fuels, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and reduce pollution a nd waste management problems (USEPA, 2007). A recent publication by the European Union highlighted the potential for waste-derived bioenergy to contribute to th e reduction of global warming (EEA, 2006). 1.1 Classification of Biofuels Biofuels are energy carriers that store the energy derived from biomass. A wide range of biomass sources can be used to produce bioenergy in a variety of forms . For example, food, bre and wood process residues from the industrial sector; en ergy crops, short- rotation crops and agricultural wastes from the agriculture s ector; and residues from the forestry sector can all be used to generate electri city, heat, combined heat and power, and other forms of bioenergy. Biofuels may be referred to as renewable energy because they are a form of transformed solar energy. Biofuels can be classi ed according to source and type. They may be derived from f orest, agricultural or shery products or municipal wastes, as well as from agro-i ndustry, food industry and food service by-products and wastes. They may be soli d, such as fuel wood, charcoal and wood pellets; liquid, such as ethanol, biodie sel and pyrolysis oils; or gaseous, such as biogas. A basic distinction is also made between primary (unprocessed) and secondary (pr ocessed) biofuels: Primary biofuels, such as re-wood, wood chips and pellets, are those where the or ganic material is used essentially in its natural form (as harvested). Such fuel s are directly combusted, usually to supply cooking fuel, heating or electricity production needs in small- and large- scale industrial applications. Secondary biofuels in the form of solids (e.g. charcoal), liquids (e.g. ethanol, biodiesel and bio-oil), or gases (e.g. biogas, synthesis gas and hydrogen) can be used for a wider range of applications, including transport and high-temperat ure industrial processes. 1.2 Issues Relating to Biofuels There are various social, economic, environmental and technical issues with biof uel production and use, which have been discussed in the popular media and scien tific journals. These include: the effect of moderating oil prices, the "food versus fuel" debate, poverty reduction potential, carbon emissions levels, sustainable biofuel production, deforestation and soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, impact on water resources, as well as energy balance and efficiency. The International Resource Panel, which provides independent scientific assessme nts and expert advice on a variety of resource-related themes, assessed the issu es relating to biofuel use in its first report towards sustainable production an d use of resources: Assessing Biofuels. In it, it outlined the wider and interre lated factors that need to be considered when deciding on the relative merits of pursuing one biofuel over another. It concluded that not all biofuels perform e qually in terms of their impact on climate, energy security and ecosystems, and suggested that environmental and social impacts need to be assessed throughout t he entire life-cycle. 1.2.1 Oil Price Moderation The International Energy Agency s World Energy Outlook 2006 concludes that risin

g oil demand, if left unchecked, would accentuate the consuming countries vulne rability to a severe supply disruption and resulting price shock. The report sug gested that biofuels may one day offer a viable alternative, but also that "the implications of the use of biofuels for global security as well as for economic, environmental, and public health need to be further evaluated". According to Francisco Blanch, a commodity strategist for Merrill Lynch, crude o il would be trading 15 per cent higher and gasoline would be as much as 25 per c ent more expensive, if it were not for biofuels. Gordon Quaiattini, president of the Canadian Renewable Fuels Association, argued that a healthy supply of alter native energy sources will help to combat gasoline price spikes. 1.2.2 Food versus Fuel Debate Food versus fuel is the debate regarding the risk of diverting farmland or crops for biofuels production in detriment of the food supply on a global scale. Esse ntially the debate refers to the possibility that by farmers increasing their pr oduction of these crops, often through government subsidy incentives, their time and land is shifted away from other types of non-biofuel crops driving up the p rice of non-biofuel crops due to the decrease in production. Therefore, it is no t only that there is an increase in demand for the food staples, like corn and c assava, that sustain the majority of the world s poor but this also has the pote ntial to increase the price of the remaining crops that these individuals would otherwise need to utilize to supplement their diets. A recent study for the Inte rnational Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development shows that market-driven expansion of ethanol in the US increased maize prices by 21 percent in 2009, in comparison with what prices would have been had ethanol production been frozen a t 2004 levels. A November 2011 study states that biofuels, their production, and their subsidies as leading causes of agricultural price shocks. The counter-arg ument includes considerations of the type of corn that is utilized in biofuels, often field corn not suitable for human consumption; the portion of the corn tha t is used in ethanol, the starch portion; and the negative effect higher prices for corn and grains have on government welfare for these products. The "food vs. fuel" or "food or fuel" debate is internationally controversial, with disagreem ent about how significant this is, what is causing it, what the impact is, and w hat can or should be done about it. 1.2.3 Poverty Reduction Potential Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have argued that biofuels coul d help to reduce poverty in the developing world, through increased employment, wider economic growth multipliers and by stabilizing oil prices (many developing countries are net importers of oil). However, this potential is described as f ragile , and is reduced where feedstock production tends to be large scale, or c auses pressure on limited agricultural resources: capital investment, land, wate r, and the net cost of food for the poor. With regards to the potential for poverty reduction or exacerbation, biofuels re ly on many of the same policy, regulatory or investment shortcomings that impede agriculture as a route to poverty reduction. Since many of these shortcomings r equire policy improvements at a country level rather than a global one, they arg ue for a country-by-country analysis of the potential poverty impacts of biofuel s. This would consider, among other things, land administration systems, market coordination and prioritizing investment in biodiesel, as this generates more l abour, has lower transportation costs and uses simpler technology . Also necessa ry reductions in the tariffs on biofuel imports regardless of the country of ori gin, especially due to the increased efficiency of biofuel production in countri es such as Brazil. 1.2.4 Sustainable Biofuel Production Responsible policies and economic instruments would help to ensure that biofuel commercialization, including the development of new cellulosic technologies, is sustainable. Responsible commercialization of biofuels represents an opportunity to enhance sustainable economic prospects in Africa, Latin America and impoveri shed Asia. 1.2.5 Soil Erosion and Deforestation Large-scale deforestation of mature trees (which help remove CO2 through photosy

nthesis much better than sugar cane or most other biofuel feedstock crops do) co ntributes to unsustainable global warming atmospheric greenhouse gas levels, los s of habitat, and a reduction of valuable biodiversity (both on land as in ocean s). Demand for biofuel has led to clearing land for palm oil plantations. In Ind onesia alone, over 9,400,000 acres (38,000 km2) of forest have been converted to plantations since 1996. A portion of the biomass should be retained onsite to support the soil resource. Normally this will be in the form of raw biomass, but processed biomass is also an option. If the exported biomass is used to produce syngas, the process can b e used to co-produce bio-char, a low temperature charcoal used as a soil amendme nt to increase soil organic matter to a degree not practical with less recalcitr ant forms of organic carbon. For co-production of bio-char to be widely adopted, the soil amendment and carbon sequestration value of co-produced charcoal must exceed its net value as a source of energy. Some commentators claim that removal of additional cellulosic biomass for biofue l production will further deplete soils. 1.2.6 Impact on Water Resources Increased use of biofuels puts increasing pressure on water resources in at leas t two ways: water use for the irrigation of crops used as feed stocks for biodie sel production; and water use in the production of biofuels in refineries, mostl y for boiling and cooling. In many parts of the world supplemental or full irrigation is needed to grow fee d stocks. For example, if in the production of corn (maize) half the water needs of crops are met through irrigation and the other half through rainfall, about 860 liters of water are needed to produce one liter of ethanol. However, in the United States only 5-15% of the water required for corn comes from irrigation wh ile the other 85-95% comes from natural rainfall. In the United States, the number of ethanol factories has almost tripled from 50 in 2000 to about 140 in 2008. A further 60 or so are under construction, and ma ny more are planned. Projects are being challenged by residents at courts in Mis souri (where water is drawn from the Ozark Aquifer), Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas (all of which draw water from the non-renewable Ogallala Aquifer), central Illinois (where water is drawn from the Mahomet Aquifer) and Minnesota. For example, the four ethanol crops: corn, sugarcane, sweet sorghum and pine yie ld net energy. However, increasing production in order to meet the U.S. Energy I ndependence and Security Act mandates for renewable fuels by 2022 would take a h eavy toll in the states of Florida and Georgia. The sweet sorghum, which perform ed the best of the four, would increase the amount of freshwater withdrawals fro m the two states by almost 25%. 1.2.7 Loss of Biodiversity Critics argue that expansion of farming for biofuel production causes unacceptab le loss of biodiversity for a much less significant decrease in fossil fuel cons umption. The loss of biodiversity also makes heavy dependence on biofuels, very risky by reducing our ability to deal with blights affecting the few important b iofuel crops. Food crops have recovered from blights when the old stock was mixe d with blight resistant wild strains, but as biodiversity is lost to excessive a griculture, the possibilities for recovering from blights are lost. 1.2.8 Carbon Emissions Biofuels and other forms of renewable energy aim to be carbon neutral or even ca rbon negative. Carbon neutral means that the carbon released during the use of t he fuel, e.g. through burning to power transport or generate electricity, is rea bsorbed and balanced by the carbon absorbed by new plant growth. These plants ar e then harvested to make the next batch of fuel. Carbon neutral fuels lead to no net increases in human contributions to atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, redu cing the human contributions to global warming. A carbon negative aim is achieve d when a portion of the biomass is used for carbon sequestration. Calculating ex actly how much greenhouse gas (GHG) is produced in burning biofuels is a complex and inexact process, which depends very much on the method by which the fuel is produced and other assumptions made in the calculation. The carbon emissions (carbon footprint) produced by biofuels are calculated usin

g a technique called Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). This uses a "cradle to grave" or "well to wheels" approach to calculate the total amount of carbon dioxide and o ther greenhouse gases emitted during biofuel production, from putting seed in th e ground to using the fuel in cars and trucks. Many different LCAs have been don e for different biofuels, with widely differing results. Several well-to-wheel a nalysis for biofuels has shown that first generation biofuels can reduce carbon emissions, with savings depending on the feedstock used, and second generation b iofuels can produce even higher savings when compared to using fossil fuels. How ever, those studies did not take into account emissions from nitrogen fixation, or additional carbon emissions due to indirect land use changes.

CHAPTER TWO FOOD RAW MATERIALS WHICH HAS BIOFUEL POTENTIAL 2.1 Biofuel Production from Sorghum Sorghum is one the high drought resistance crop cultivated in about 50% of the N igerian agricultural land, mostly the northern region (8 0N to 14 0N latitude), accounting for 6.86 million hectares of land. Annual production has been estimat ed to rise by 45% from the total production of 4.8 million tonnes in 1978 (Ogbon na, 2002). This figure gives Nigeria the opportunity to be the highest producer of s orghum in Sub- Saharan Africa, accounting for about 70% of the total production in the region. The commonly grown varieties are the Farfara, Guinea and Kaura, w hich are all resistance to different killer weeds. Sorghum is currently use in N igeria for two main categories of purpose classified here as local and industria l. Traditionally, the crop is mostly cultivated by poor farmers to meet their lo cal demands. They mainly use their harvest for food, beverages, and variety of d rinks. Non-food uses include roofing and fencing of compounds in local communiti es. The local application accounts for about 73% of annual sorghum usage in the country. Industrially, the crop is used in malting and breweries. In 1984 and 19 85 the demand for industrial sorghum malt in Nigeria was computed as 134170 and 161043, accounting for 64 and 74 million naira market value respectively (Ilori, 1991). This figure had since rise by about 45%. Considering the large scale demand of sorghum both locally and industrially, div ersion of the crop for fuel ethanol production could have severe consequences. O ne, the peasant farmers would definitely shift from cultivating other subsistenc e crops to sorghum, creating an imbalance in the food circle. Secondly, the objective of the biofuels policy would be defeated by sudden rise in food price and inappropriate use of agricultural land. Thirdly, most of the agricultural land would be exposed to degradation due to co ntinuous mono-cropping, and this can severely add to the already existing proble ms of soil erosion and desertification in the northern parts. 2.2 Biofuel Production from Cassava Cassava is another crop grown on both local and commercial scales in some major parts of Nigeria, especially the rainforest, and the savannah areas of North Wes t and North Central, due to availability of well-drained deep loamy soils. The s

pread of cassava production in the country could be traced to the period between 1930 and 1946, when yam production was considered unprofitable due to considera ble damage by pests. Over sixty different varieties are currently cultivated. In itially, sweet varieties that could be eaten by the local people without further processing were the dominants. However, these were subsequently matched with ot her improved varieties such as TMS 30572, 4(2)1425, 92/0326 and NR 8082. The ann ual production was estimated to have increased by about 66% from 382,000 ha per year from 1946 (Nweke, 2004). Like the sorghum, cassava is used at both local an d industrial scales. Peasant farmers employ the tubers for production of food in form of gari, fufu and fermented flour (Ugwu and Nweke, 1996). Industrially, th e crop is used as raw material for starch, chips, pellets, unfermented flour and more importantly in beer manufacture. Cassava has been given a great emphasis f or fuel ethanol production under the current biofuel implementation plan than so rghum. In areas where its production remain the only source of food and househol d incomes for the local farmers, an imbalance could be created, although may not be very severe if the existing pre-exploited land is used in preference. Carefu l planning is therefore necessary to ensure that, large scale cassava production is carried out screening out food-to-fuel diversion issues. 2.2.1 Ethanol from Cassava Ethanol is generally produced by the fermentation of sugar, cellulose, or conver ted starch and has a long history. In Nigeria, local production of ethanol from maize, guinea corn, millet, and other starchy substances, and cellulose is as ol d as the country itself. Apart from food and pharmaceutical uses, ethanol is fin ding itself alternative use for biofuel in most of the developed world for the f ollowing reasons: It is not poisonous It does not cause air pollution or any environmental hazard It does not contribute to the greenhouse effect problem (CO2 addition to the atm osphere, causing global warming) It has a higher octane rating than petrol as a fuel i.e. ethanol is an octane bo oster and anti-knocking agent It is an excellent raw material for synthetic chemicals Ethanol provide jobs and economic development in the rural areas Ethanol reduces countrys dependence on petroleum and it is a source of non-oil r evenue for any producing country Ethanol is capable of reducing the adverse foreign trade balance

Cassava flour (water and - myl se enzyme) Liquification (80-85 C, pH 4-4.5)400rpm Saccarification (56-65 C, pH 4-4.5) Glucose isomerase enzyme Cooling (30-33 C)

Fermenter (Yeast added, carbon dioxide out) Distillation (Feed recovery) Ethanol Fig 2.1 Flowchart of the production of Ethanol from Cassava

2.3 Biofuel Production from Sugarcane Since its introduction into the country through the eastern and western coasts b y the European Sailors in fifteen century, sugarcane has become an important cro p grown in many parts of Nigeria. Traditionally, sugarcane is grown on small hol dings (usually 0.2 to 1.0 ha) for chewing as juice and preparing livestock feed. However, with the increased in demand for sugar in the country, the crop is gro wn on large scale as raw material for sugar industry. Around 1997, the major sug ar companies operating; Bacita, Lafiagi, Numan and Sunti utilised about 12,000 h a out of the total 30, 000 ha for sugar-based sugarcane production (Agboire et a l., 2002). In the year 2007/2008 an estimate of 100, 000 tonnes were produced co mpared to 80, 000 tonnes in 2006/2007. However, due to the persistent increased in sugar demand to 1.50 billion, making Nigeria the second largest in Africa, th e local sugarcane production is insufficient to meet the demand. With the curren t shift to biofuel ethanol production by the government, more companies were inv ited to participate in sugarcane production across the country. In the last few years, a US-based company (Lemna International) proposed to establish the first ethanol production plant in Taraba State. The project analyses to cost US$ 50 mi llion would require a land covering 30,000 to 50,000 ha for local raw material c ultivation. The NNPC have clearly identifies sugarcane and cassava as the major raw materials for the bioethanol production program. Currently, investors have a lready invested over $3.86 billion for the construction of 19 ethanol bio- refin eries, 10,000 units of mini-refineries and feedstock plantations for the product ion of over 2.66 billion litres of fuel grade ethanol per annum from sugarcane a nd cassava, leading to land requirement of 859,561 ha (Ohimain, 2010). Sugarcane -based fuel ethanol production would have very little threat to the local people , as the crop is not used for daily food like sorghum or cassava. However, sudden rise in prices of sugar and sugar products would be a great chal lenge. To address this, importation and sell of sugar to peasants at a subsidize s rate is necessary. Similarly, an unbiased food price versus food-fuel feasibil ity research should be executed simultaneously, such that proper policy modifica tion is carried out in line with real situation. 2.4 Biofuel Production from Jatropha The policy identifies Jatropha oil as the main pilot raw material for the biodie sel industry. Jatropha is non-edible plant and therefore has not been on the lar ge scale production by either the Nigerian food or commercial farmers. Some few research plantations were established in the recent years, as pilot stu dies for checking soil desertification. However, with the current biofuels plan some northern states namely Kebbi, Sokoto, Zamfara, Katsina, Kano, Jigawa, Bauch i, Yobe, Borno, Adamawa and Gombe are selected for large scale production. A num ber of Literature studies have indicated Jatropha to be a very good source of oi l for biodiesel production; yielding nearly 100% of the fuel in short transester ification time under both homogeneous and heterogeneous conditions (Lu et al., 2 009; Sahoo and Das, 2009; Vyas et al., 2009). From the economic perspective stud ies indicated successes in large scale Jatropha plantations in different tropica l countries. Studies by Prueksakorn et al (2010) in Thailand showed that, both 2 0 years perennial system and annual cultivation method, involving harvesting the trees for wood and the seed for biodiesel could produce up to 4720 and 9860 GJ

of net energy per ha. In India, production and use of Jatropha biodiesel have re ported to triggers 82% decrease in fossil diesel demand and 52% decrease in glob al warming potential (Achten et al., 2010). Therefore, selection of Jatropha in Nigeria would be a multipurpose opportunity. In addition to the sources of energ y, soil degradation, desertification, and deforestation problems could be addres sed. If only 10% of the available agricultural land (60,000,000 ha) in the selec ted states could be utilised, additional revenue of $3 billion, which is more th an the annual allocation to these states, could be generated. However, the poor farmers may shift from food crops to Jatropha cultivation due to foreseeable mar ket value, deforming the food circle. Similarly, continuous plantation is associ ated with soil acidification and eutrophication (Achten et al., 2010). 2.5 Biofuel Production from Cellulose

Cellulose is a fibrous, insoluble, crystalline polysaccharide (Li et al., 2009). It is a major polysaccharide constituent of plant cell walls, composed of repea ting D-glucose units linked by -1,4-glucosidic bonds (Jagtap and Rao, 2005) and being the most abundant carbohydrate polymer on earth (Guo et al., 2008). Cellul ose has attracted worldwide attention as a renewable resource that can be conver ted into biobased products and bioenergy (Li et al., 2009). Cellulose is used as a food source by a wide variety of organisms including fungi, bacteria, plants and protists, as well as a wide range of invertebrate animals, such as insects, crustaceans, annelids, mollusks and nematodes (Watanabe and Tokuda, 2001; Daviso n and Blaxter, 2005). Indeed, using cellulosic materials such as agricultural re sidues, grasses, forestry wastes, and other low-cost biomass can significantly r educe the cost of raw materials for ethanol production compared to corn (Li et a l., 2009). 2.6 Biofuel Production from Solid Wastes

Human activities generate large amounts of waste such as crop residues, solid wa ste from mines and municipal waste (Oyeleke and Jibrin, 2009). This solid waste production is of global concern and development of its bioenergy potential can c ombine issues such as pollution control and bio-product development, simultaneou sly. They may become a nuisance and sources of pollution. It is therefore import ant to handle them judiciously to avoid health problems, since these wastes may habour pathogenic microorganisms (Ledward et al., 2003). Prasad et al. (2007), highlighted major agricultural, industrial and urban waste , which could be used for ethanol production in an ecofriendly and profitable ma nner. In addition, agronomic residues arisen from human activities, such as corn stover (corn cobs and stalks), sugarcane waste, wheat or rice straw, forestry, and paper mill discards, the paper portion of municipal waste and dedicated ener gy crops, also have plentiful cellulose, which can be converted into fuel ethano l (Li et al., 2009). However, enormous amounts of these agricultural, industrial and municipal cellulose wastes have been accumulating or used inefficiently due to the high cost of their utilization processes (Kim et al., 2003). Nowadays, i t has become of considerable economic interest to develop processes for the effe ctive treatment and utilization of cellulosic wastes as cheap carbon sources (Li et al., 2009). Primarily, the utilization of these wastes for ethanol production will reduce de pendency on foreign oil and secondly, this will remove disposal problem of waste s and make environment safe from pollution (Prasad et al., 2007). Agricultural w astes, including wood, herbaceous plants, crops and forest residues, as well as animal wastes are potentially huge source of energy. In Nigeria, large quantitie s of these wastes are generated annually and are vastly underutilized (Oyeleke a nd Jibrin, 2009). The practice is usually to burn them or leave them to decompos e. However, studies have shown that these residues could be processed into liqui d fuel such as biogas and bioethanol, or combusted to produce electricity and he at (Soltes, 2000).

CHAPTER THREE 3.0 AGRICULTURAL ROLE IN BIOFUEL PRODUCTION Field crops offer potential source of fuel, offering promise as large-scale ener gy and based on its genetic diversity, climatic adaptation, biomass and sugar pr oduction (Prasad et al., 2007). There are agricultural products specifically gro wn for biofuel production which include corn, switch-grass, and soybeans, primar ily in the United States; rapeseed, wheat and sugar beet primarily in Europe; su gar cane in Brazil; palm oil and miscanthus in South-East Asia; sorghum and cass ava in China; and jatropha in India. Hemp has also been proven to work as a biof uel. Sugar will be the key feedstock of the future, as it can be used to ferment ethanol for transportation fuel, but also for a whole set of new basic building blocks. Indeed, the combination of bio-based feedstock, bio-processes and new p roducts offers the potential to revolutionize energy sector of any nation. The use of guinea corn husk and millet husk (agricultural waste with no apprecia ble value to industries or competitive use as food) as alternative and cost effe ctive feed stock for the production of bioethanol was examined by Oyeleke and Ji brin (2009), which showed that ethanol can be produced from these agricultural p roducts using acid hydrolysis with 2.5 M H2SO4, and simultaneous saccharificatio n and fermentation with Aspergillus niger and Zymomonas mobilis isolated from so il and palm wine. The results revealed that ethanol could be produced from agric ultural residues, such as guinea corn husk and millet husk, using Z. mobilis and A. niger as fermenting organisms. However, higher ethanol has been reported produced from fresh fruit due to highe r presence of fructose and glucose in fresh fruits, as stated by Micheal and Ros aline (2000). The maximum volume of ethanol (27.10 g/l) produced from guinea corn husk in this study is in agreement with that (27.7 g/l) reported by Lekneth et al. ( 1994) produced 27.7 g/l of ethanol from sweet sorghum while Gunasekran and Chand ra (2007) reported production yield of ethanol (59 g/l) at 120th h from cassava starch hydrolysate. This is due to cassava containing more carbohydrates, which could be fermented to ethanol (Oyeleke and Jibrin, 2009). 3.1 Impact of Utilization of Agricultural Products for Biofuel Production on Food Market A number of observers are wondering what effect; the increase in demand will hav e on the food market, and especially food prices. However, it is still too early to determine the specific effect of the biofuel boom on the various agricultura l foods and feed markets, and to know whether farmers will benefit over the long term. While the Canadian grains and oilseeds industry has stated on a number of occasions that increased biofuel production will have a positive impact on pric es, it has not indicated whether this impact could reverse the long-standing dow nward trend in grain prices and have a significant effect on farm income. In Can ada, the livestock industry has expressed concern that the expansion of the biof uels market will affect the price and availability of grains used for animal fee d (Forge, 2007). Increased demand for and production of biofuels, specifically ethanol, in North America will inevitably affect the agricultural market. However, there are very few studies of the expected impact, and almost all of them deal exclusively with the U.S. marketplace (Forge, 2007). 3.2 Agricultural Impact on Bioenergy Yield With increasing worldwide interest in this non-food human and animal crop, the p ossibilities are exciting. Jatropha oil can be used as a diesel substitute for r ural electrification and transport. The energy yield from ethanol or biodiesel d epends on the feedstock used. For instance, one hectare (ha) of sugarcane grown in Brazil produces almost twice as much ethanol as the same area of corn grown i n Canada. It would take slightly less than 2 ha of wheat or 0.6 ha of corn grown

in Canada to run a car entirely on biofuel for one year, while 0.3 ha of sugarc ane grown in Brazil would provide enough biofuel for the same level of consumpti on. By using 16% of its total corn production in 2006, the United States replace d 3% of its annual fuel consumption with biofuels. According to Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), if 100% of the total U.S. corn productions were used, that figure would rise to 20%. According to an artic le in the New Scientist in 2006, Canada would have to use 36% of its farmland to produce enough biofuels to replace 10% of the fuel currently used for transport ation (Wikipedia, 2008). Brazil, by contrast, would need to use only 3% of its agricultural land to attai n the same result. In order for Canada to reach its biofuel target of 5% of fuel consumption by the year 2010 (about 2.74 billion litres of ethanol and 0.36 bil lion litres of biodiesel), the AAFC estimates that 4.6 million Tonnes of corn, 2 .3 million tonnes of wheat and 0.56 million tonnes of canola will be required. I f all these feedstocks were grown domestically, they would represent 48-52% of t he total corn seeded area, 11-12% of the wheat seeded area and about 8% of the t otal canola seeded area in Canada (Forge, 2007). 3.3 Impact of Biofuel Production on Farmlands and Feedstock It is very likely that the proportion of farmland required will decrease with im proved yields and the cultivation of marginal soils, if the demand for biofuels raises the price of feedstock. However, the need for feedstock will remain high if the demand for biofuels increases. Therefore, there is concern about the rati onale for allocating farmland to energy production rather than food production. Some observers believe that there is already competition between the two markets : according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the r ising demand for ethanol derived from corn is the main reason for the decline in world grain stocks during the first half of 2006 (Forge, 2007). 3.4 Impact of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering in Biofuel Production Biotechnology is an important tool for economic and sustainable development thro ugh which the issue of biofuel production can become a success and a thing of re ality (Pillay and DaSilva, 2001). Genetics today largely is the result of resear ch that was performed during the 20th century. Although DNA was discovered in 18 69, discovery of physical structure of the miracle molecule of life in 1953 by W atson and Crick marked the beginning of modern genetics (Niazi, 2007). As a resu lt of research in genetics and advances in the field of biotechnology, the major benefits have been in the areas of agriculture, environment and medicine. Recom binant DNA technology has produced fundamental changes in agricultural food prod uction. Biotechnology is now an emerging field in food and its specific applications in food biotechnology, human health and diagnosis, industry and environment are few to mention. There were several agricultural challenges on which the scientists worked deliberately and as such agriculture have been improved in resistance to disease and insect and hybrid varieties have desirable qualities such as increas ed protein values (Niazi, 2007). Over the past four decades genetic manipulation s have produced many transgenic plants and GM crops have revolutionized, however much of the concern centers on issue of safety (Atherton, 2002). Genetic techniques will be used to clone the cellulase coding sequences into bac teria, yeasts, fungi, plants and animals to create new cellulase production syst ems with possible improvement of enzyme production and activity. It is predicted that the use of genetically engineered raw materials with higher carbohydrate c ontent combined with the improvement of conversion technology could reduce the c ost of ethanol a lot. This will give a great help for solving the problems of en ergy and food in the world (Li et al., 2009). 3.4.1 Fermentation- A Traditional Technology Prior studies for natural cellulose hydrolysis have revealed many cellulolytic m icroorganisms and their complex cellulases (Lynd et al., 2005). Traditionally, e thanol has been produced in batch fermentation with fungal strains such as Asper

gillus niger, Mucor mucedo, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which cannot tolerate high concentrations of ethanol. Therefore, improvement programmes are required i n order to obtain alcohol-tolerant strains for fermentation (Gunasekaran and Cha ndra, 2007). There have been many papers dealing with more efficient cellulose d egrading enzyme from various organisms such as Trichoderma reesei, Trichoderma v iride, Trichoderma lignorum, Chrysosporium lignorum, Chrysosporium pruinosum and Fusarium solani (Tong et al., 1980), Aspergillus and Rhizopus species have also been extensively studied by several researchers (Murashima et al., 2002; Saito et al., 2003), only limited research has identified the yeast as cellulase produ cer (Hong et al., 2007). Zymomonas mobilis, a Gram negative bacterium, is considered an alternative organ ism in large scale ethanol production. Its advantages over yeasts include higher sugar uptake and ethanol yield, lower biomass production and higher ethanol tol erance (Oyeleke and Jibrin, 2009). Z. mobilis is able to produced ethanol due to the presence of pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC) and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), w hich are key enzymes in ethanol formation, as reported by Gunasekaran and Chandr a (2007). It was also stated by the authors that the ADH of Z. mobilis appears t o facilitate continuation of fermentation at high concentration of ethanol. Investigations on ability of microbial strains to utilize inexpensive substrate and improvement of enzyme productivity have been done (Stenberg et al., 2000; Vi llena and Gutierrez-Correa, 2006). However, by far, although the cellulase enzym e cost has dropped due to improvements in expression vectors and on-site product ion, there is still a necessity of engineering a new generation of cellulase coc ktails that would further reduce cellulase cost (Kobayashi et al., 2003; Kashima and Udaka, 2004; Li et al., 2009). 3.4.2 Enzyme-Based Bioconversion Technology Cellulases provide a key opportunity for achieving tremendous benefits of biomas s utilization (Wen et al., 2005). There has been much research aimed at obtainin g new microorganisms producing cellullase enzymes with higher specific activitie s and greater efficiency (Subramaniyan and Prema, 2000). But currently, two sign ificant points of these enzyme-based bioconversion technologies are reaction co nditions and the production cost of the related enzyme system (Li et al., 2009). The complete enzymatic system include three different types, that is, exo--1,4gluc n ses (EC 3.2.1.91), endo--1,4-gluc n ses (EC 3.2.1.4), and -1,4-glucosid se (EC 3.2.1.21) (Wilson and Irwin, 1999). These enzymatic components act sequentia lly in a synergistic system to facilitate the breakdown of cellulose and the sub sequent biological conversion to an utilizable energy source, glucose (Beguin an d Aubert, 1994). The endo--1, 4-glucanases randomly hydrolyzes the -1,4 bonds in t he cellulose molecule, and the exo--1,4-gluc n ses in most cases release a cellob iose unit showing a recurrent reaction from chain extremity (Li et al., 2009). Lastly, the cellobiose is converted to glucose by -1,4-glucosid se (Bhat and Bhat , 1997). This whole enzymatic process to hydrolyze cellulosic materials could be accomplished through a complex synergistically reaction of these various enzyma tic components in an optimum proportion (Tomme et al., 1995). The cellulose enzy mes will be commonly used in many industrial applications such as biofuel produc tion, and the demand for more stable, highly active and specific enzymes has be growing rapidly (Li et al., 2009). 3.4.3 Rainbow Biotechnology This is a modern technology which has been described as a portal for African sus tainable development and bio-economic prosperity by Pillay and Da Silva (2009). The sense of accomplishment and satisfaction of time well-spent in acquiring foo d, feed, fibre and fertilizer for ones family in an urban, rural or village setti ngs indicate that Africa is setting its own biotech agenda for sustainable devel opment. According to Pillay and Da Silva (2009), in brief, Africa is taking the lead in creating its own biotechnology agenda and roadmap to socioeconomic and s ustainable development. The emergence of Rainbow Biotech serves as a catalytic por tal amongst others for collaborative effort and continental development (Lout, 20 06; Pincock, 2006; RIS, 2006).

CHAPTER FOUR ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN ADVANCING THE BIOFUEL PRODUCTION The role of government in advancing biofuel production cannot be over-emphasized . The government of any nation especially in the developing countries has a role to play the game of biofuel production as an alternative energy security. Natio nal, regional and international consultations and debates ensure timely attentio n of peer-reviewed guidelines concerning significant issues like bio-risks, biosafety, and bio-security that impinge on daily human existence and welfare (Pill ay and Da Silva, 2009). Since the second half of the 70 s, and as a result of the 1973 oil crisis, the B razil government has been promoting ethanol as a fuel. By 1978 the first gasohol automobile was developed. The Brazilian government provided three important ini tial drivers for the ethanol Industry: guaranteed purchases by the state-owned o il company Petrobras, low interest loans for agro-industrial ethanol firms and f ixed gasoline and ethanol prices where hydrous ethanol sold for 59% of the gover nment-set gasoline price at the pump. These pump-primers have made ethanol production competitive yet unsubsidized. In recent years, the Brazilian untaxed retail price of hydrous ethanol has been lo wer than that of gasoline per gallon (Lovins, 2005). Approximately US$50 million has recently been allocated for research and projects focused on advancing the obtention of ethanol from sugarcane in So Paulo (Balister, 2006). Furthermore, the federal government of most developed nations announcement of a s trategy to encourage biofuel production generated a great deal of interest in th e agricultural sector. Like most industrialized countries, Canada has launched p rograms to encourage biofuel production. In the mid-1990s, the federal governmen t waived its excise taxes of $0.10 per litre for ethanol blended with gasoline, and $0.04 per litre for biodiesel. It has also established a program to protect producers from any negative impact in the event of changes to this policy. In 20 03, the Canadian government launched the Ethanol Expansion Program, which suppor ted investments in building and enlarging ethanol plants (Forge, 2007). The delivery instruments are political will, provision of education, and investm ent in low-cost high-quality multipurpose biotechnologies such as the integrated biogas systems and the recycling of wastewaters by the government. These simple to implement small- or village-scale bioprocesses as proven in Brazil, China an d India uplift human dignity, empower endeavour, enthusize the morale spirit and conserve values (Pillay and Da Silva, 2009).

4.1 Government Strategies for Biofuel Production On 20 December 2006, the government released a strategy with the goal, announced earlier in the year, of increasing biofuel consumption to 5% of total fuel cons umption in Canada by 2010. According to Forge (2007), the strategy comprises the following elements: 1. The drafting of regulations that will require a renewable content of 5% in ga soline by 2010 and a 2% renewable content in diesel fuel and heating oil by 2012 . 2. The establishment of the Capital Formation Assistance Program for Renewable F uels Production, a $200-million, four-year program designed to encourage agricul

tural producers participation in the renewable fuels industry. It will build on t he $10 million budgeted for 2006-2007 for The Biofuels Opportunities for Produce rs Initiative, which is aimed at assisting agricultural producers with preparing business plans and conducting feasibility studies into developing and increasin g production capacity for renewable fuels. 3. The establishment of the Agricultural Bio-products Innovation Program, a $145 - million, five-year program designed to promote research, development, technolo gy transfer and the commercialization of agricultural bio-products, includes bio fuels, in Canada.

4.2 Nigerias Policies and Incentives on Biofuel The Nigerian Biofuels Policy and Incentives drafted in 2007 by the national oil company (NNPC) is the first of its kind established in Nigeria with the view of integrating agricultural activities with oil and gas exploration and production since the discovery of commercial quantities of oil in 1956. The policy addresse s the key government plans with regards to ethanol and biodiesel production acro ss the country from the research and development phase to large scale production and investment stages. The federal government of Nigeria in line with its progr am (Automotive Biomass for Nigeria) mandated NNPC to draft the policy in August 200 5, such that the nations overdependence on oil and gas economy and the environmen tal threats associated with the fossil fuels exploitation could be reduced to as low as reasonably practicable levels. The mandate requires that the policy is d esigned to allow the future usage of biofuels in the country, to make significan t impact on gasoline, diesel and other petroleum products quality enhancement. 4.2.1 Objectives and the Anticipated Benefits of the Policy The main objective of the policy is to firmly establish an ethanol and biodiesel industry, which will be solely dependent on local agricultural products as feed -stocks, so that the quality of the fossil fuels for use in automotive industrie s and other sectors could be improved. It therefore seeks to provide an appropri ate link between the agriculture and energy sector (NNPC, 2007). Furthermore, it aims to create an avenue for integrated national development covering all secto rs of the economy. The specific anticipated benefits of the policy are as follow s. Diversification of the countrys sources of revenue as additional taxes could be g enerated from commercial activities attributed to the industry. Creation of sustainable job opportunities for citizens and the empowerment of ru ral communities who are currently neglected from enjoying the national cake. Improving agricultural benefits by advancing farming techniques and agricultural research. Ensuring that the projected energy demand in the country is addressed sustainabl y; Reduction in environmental pollution due to fossil fuels. Biofuels could drastic ally reduce tailpipe emissions and the depletion of ozone layer. They can also b e used as desirable replacements to toxic octane and cetane enhancers in gasolin e and diesel respectively.

4.2.2 The Policy Structure, Market and Investment Incentives The policy has been structured into two major components in line with the availa ble agricultural land, research and development and implementation strategy. The first phase of the program defined in the policy as seeding the market involve th e importation of commercial quantities of fuel ethanol to seed the market base o n 10% ethanol blend (E-10) with gasoline up to the time when local production co uld be fully implemented. This can take up to ten years from the initiation peri od (NNPC, 2007). The second stage of the program (Biofuel Production Programme)

will begins simultaneously with the seeding phase, and would continue, involving large scale plantations using the massive agricultural land distributed across the country. Agricultural crops such as cassava, sorghum and sugar cane are the most likely options for ethanol production while Jatropha for the biodiesel prod uction. These crops could be grown in different part of the country, especially the north and central belts. With regards to biofuels market, records indicate that these commodities have no t been use previously for any commercial fuel application. The projected demands were therefore deduced from the recent and future gasoline and diesel productio n in the country. For the anticipated E-10 ethanol blend in gasoline, about 1.3 billion Liters of ethanol are required annually. This has been deduced to reach 2.0 billion Liters by 2020 and beyond. The demand for biodiesel is projected bas ed on 20% blend (B20) in line with international biodiesels specifications. 900 million Liters would be required by 2020 compared to the estimated current requi rement of 480 million Liters. The market is anticipated to reach 100% establishm ent by the year 2020. These projections are summarized in Table 4.1 Looking at these market possibilities as well as potential exports to other Afri can countries like Niger republic, Cameroon, Chad e.t.c the program will attract s investment from both local and international companies, especially the victims of long time Niger Delta insecurity. To aid this, the government has so far out lined the following investment incentives under section 6.0 of the policy (NNPC, 2007). Funding of research and establishment of biofuels agency to limit investment cos ts and access to any government subsidy by the companies Tax Holiday (Pioneer Status): All registered businesses engaged in activities re lated to biofuels production and/or the production of Agricultural feedstock for the purpose of biofuels production and Co-generation within the country shall b e accorded pioneer status within the provisions of the Individual Development (I ncome Tax Relief) Act. Withholding tax on interest, dividends etc.: Biofuels companies shall be exempte d from taxation, withholding tax and capital gains tax imposed under Sections 78 , 79, and 81 of the companies Income Tax Act in respect of the interest on forei gn loans, dividends and services rendered from outside Nigeria to biofuels compa nies by foreigners. Waiver on Customs and Import Duties: Biofuels companies shall be exempted from t he payment of customs duties, taxes and all other charges of similar nature. Waiver on Value-added Tax: Companies that are involved in the production of biof uels or feedstock and/or the generation of electricity from biomass shall be exe mpted from payment of value-added taxes on all products and services consumed.

Table 4.1 Projected marketed possibility S/N TREND Market Demand per Year (litres) 1 Gasoline (E-10 blend)-current -2020 1.2 billion 2 billion 2 Paraffin (Replacement with Ethanol Based Cooking Gel Fuel) lion

3.75 bil

3 4 5 6 Source:

Raw material for Portable Ethanol 90 million Total Market Size 5.04 billion Current market possibility (B-20) Biodiesel 480 billion Estimated Biodiesel demanded by 2020 900 million Azih (2007), Authors modified

CHAPTER FIVE IMPLICATION OF THE USE OF FOOD RAW MATERIALS IN THE PRODUCTION OF BIOFUEL Majority of the already-exploited agricultural land in Nigeria is used by the lo cal people for the production of food. Therefore, diversion of the land to biofu el raw material cultivation is associated with hunger threats. In line with this , the largest percentage of the respondents (70%) strongly discouraged the used of this land. Only few support the exploitation of the food-land. Majority of th e participants therefore encouraged that; pre-cultivated land should be used ins tead. This opinion directly correlates with experience in countries like India a nd Thailand (Achten et al., 2010; Prueksakorn et al., 2010). Similarly, Msangi et al. (2007) showed that, even at the global scale, this coul d result to upward pressure on international food prices, making staple crops le ss affordable for poor consumers; potentially significant adverse impacts on bot h land (soil quality and fertility) and water resources, and on biodiversity and ecosystems in general. With regards to whether, biofuels production will create additional imbalance to local people, having poor access to amenities, more than 80% of the respondents strongly disagreed, basing their arguments on integrated approach whereby acces s to jobs would be improved. Similarly, construction of mechanized agricultural projects such as feeder roads, irrigation facilities etc., would promote the sta ndard of leaving in many rural areas. On the other hand, less than 10% of the re spondents strongly opposed the potential contribution of the program to economic growth and access to energy in the rural areas. 75.68% are in strong agreement. Revenue generation, climate change mitigation and attracting investment, thereby creating more job opportunities to jobless are the major targets of the biofuel s policy, such that, the countrys over dependence on oil and gas economy would be greatly reduced. 91.89% of the people strongly agreed with generation of more r evenues, leading to increase in the countrys gross domestic product (GDP) due to potential increase in farm output. Environmental degradation by deforestation is a key challenge as suggested by 97% of the respondents. However, the selected c rops for the production are mainly adaptive to the northern part of the country that is a non-forest belt. But soil acidification and continuous cropping could be strong threats. 91.89% of the respondents strongly suggest that the biofuels policy will not create any imbalance to the nations economy.

CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSION 1. Biofuel production will reduce the affordability of food materials. 2. It will increase the use of land for biofuel production than food produc tion.

3. It will increase the rate of malnutrition that is people will no longer eat according to what is needed to the body but eat what is available for them t o eat. 4. Also the production of biofuel may lead to fold-up of many food companie s because of the less supply of food raw materials for food production. 5. Many local people will be enticed to this business because of the profit they will be getting from it. RECOMMENDATION The Government should encourage mass production of the food raw materials that h ave the potential of biofuels. There should be standard measure for the amount of raw materials which is needed to be used for the production of biofuels.

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