Changes in the Universe of wildlife through Microbiology Microbiology:

Microbiology (from Greek , mkros, "small"; , bios, "life"; and -, -logia) is the study of microscopic organisms, which are defined as any living organism that is either a single cell (unicellular), a cell cluster, or has no cells at all (acellular). This includes eukaryotes, such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes. Viruses and prions, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied. Microbiology typically includes the study of the immune system, or immunology. Generally, immune systems interact with pathogenic microbes; these two disciplines often intersect which is why many colleges offer a paired degree such as "Microbiology and Immunology". Microbiology is a broad term which includes virology, mycology, parasitology, bacteriology, immunology and other branches. A microbiologist is a specialist in microbiology and these related topics. Importance of Microorganisms in Human Affairs Infectious disease : among the most common worldwide causes of death (more than 100,000 deaths/ year) Diarrhea Measles Amebiasis Pneumonia Tetanus Tuberculosis Whooping cough Malaria AIDS Hepatitis B Schistosomaisis

Schistosomiasis
Classification and external resources

Skin vesicles on the forearm, created by the penetration of Schistosoma. Source: CDC

Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia, bilharziosis or snail fever) is a parasitic disease caused by several species of trematodes (platyhelminth infection, or "flukes"), a parasitic worm of the genus Schistosoma. Snails serve as the intermediary agent between mammalian hosts. Individuals within developing countries who cannot afford proper sanitation facilities are often exposed to contaminated water containing the infected snails. Decay Reduces complex organic chemical compounds to inorganic compounds cellulose Pollution Eutrophication, Bioremediation (cleanup) fats proteins DNA and RNA starches

Bioremediation (cleanup)
The use of biological agents, such as bacteria or plants, to remove or neutralize contaminants, as in polluted soil or water. The use of plants to extract heavy metals from contaminated soils and water Also called phytoremediation

Eutrophication - The process by which a body of water acquires a high concentration of nutrients, especially phosphates and nitrates. These typically promote excessive growth of algae. As the algae die and decompose, high levels of organic matter and the decomposing organisms deplete the water of available oxygen, causing the death of other organisms, such as fish. Eutrophication is a natural, slow-aging process for a water body, but human activity greatly speeds up the process. - Art, 1993 Eutrophication - The term 'eutrophic' means well-nourished; thus, 'eutrophication' refers to natural or artificial addition of nutrients to bodies of water and to the effects of the added nutrients.When the effects are undesirable, eutrophication may be considered a form of pollution. - National Academy of Sciences, 1969

Photosynthesis and Nitrogen fixation Converts CO2 to organic carbon compounds bottom of food chain Foods Production of O 2

converts N2 to usable Nitrogen-containing compounds

bread, cheese, milk products, alcoholic beverages spoilage and preservatives

Antibiotics penicillins, tetracyclines, erythromycin,etc. Scientific Inquiry We study microorganisms because of their similarity to other organisms. Biochemically, all cells are similar, from bacteria to humans. Microorganisms are much easier to work with. Molecular Biology Gene cloning, genetic engineering Immunology Disease prevention, diagnosis

Wildlife issues and problem, Many of the human diseases that are new, emerging and re-emerging at the beginning of the 21st century are caused by pathogens originating from animals or from products of animal origin referred to as zoonotic diseases. Emerging zoonoses are zoonoses that have newly appeared or have occurred previously but are increasing in incidence or geographical range. A number of examples from various parts of the world (cutaneous zoonotic leishmaniasis (An acute
form of cutaneous leishmaniasis occurring among people living in rural areas near infected rodents and characterized by rapidly developing skin lesions that become severely inflamed, with moist necrotizing sores that often leave disfiguring scars. Also called rural leishmaniasis, wet leishmaniasis.) in Brazil; Ebola (Ebola virus disease (EVD) (or Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF) ), monkeypox, Rift Valley fever (RVF) in Africa and the Arabic Peninsula(peninsula between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf; strategically important for its oil resources); CrimeanCongo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF)( is a widespread tick-borne viral disease, a zoonosis of domestic animals and wild animals, that may affect humans. The pathogenic virus, especially common in East and West Africa, is a member of the Bunyaviridae family of RNA viruses. Clinical disease is rare in infected mammals, but commonly severe in infected humans, with a 30% mortality rate. Outbreaks of illness are usually attributable to handling infected animals or people.) in the Middle East; BSE in

Europe and the rest of the world; West Nile fever in the United States of America and Canada; demonstrate that a wide variety of animal species, both domesticated and wild, act as reservoirs for these pathogens, which may be viruses, bacteria or parasites. These

infections have clearly shown that new zoonoses are emerging in both the developed and the developing world. There are many factors that can lead to the emergence of zoonotic diseases. For example, microbiological factors associated with the agent, the animal hosts/reservoirs and the human victims can result in a new variant of a pathogen that can jump the species barrier. Environmental changes resulting from environmental degradation, human and animal demography, changes in farming densities and practices, including climatic variations and change, can also play a major role. Social, behavioural and cultural risk factors such as food habits, religious beliefs, risk perception and management patterns can also encourage the emergence of zoonoses, as can economic factors such as economic growth or economic hardship. Several of these examples underline the importance of the anthropogenic risk factors for zoonoses emergence. So far, emerging zoonoses have taken us by surprise and the complexity of the interactions between agents, animals hosts species and the environment represent a challenge for effective forecasting, surveillance, prevention and control of zoonotic diseases. Their capacity to occur very unexpectedly in new places and new animal species underscores the need for stronger international cooperation in ensuring better local, regional and global networks for communicable disease surveillance, which must be integrated across the human and animal health sectors. Microbiological risk factors In the past century, pandemic outbreaks of influenza and AIDS have cost the lives of tens of millions of people. These events were all caused by multiple introductions of animal viruses, influenza A viruses and SIV of birds and non-human primates respectively into the human population. Besides these introductions causing major pandemics in humans, a large number of other virus infections have spilled over from animal reservoirs to humans or other susceptible species, resulting in considerable morbidity and mortality as virgin soil epidemics. Over the last decades there seems to be a dramatic increase in the emergence or re-emergence of virus threats in humans and animals worldwide. A long list of exotic names like Ebola, Lassa, Rift-Valley, Crimea-Congo, Hendra, Nipah and West-Nile is the illustration of names of just some of the places associated with the origin of viruses that crossed the species boundary to humans, with dramatic consequences in the last ten years alone. Similarly, outbreaks of hog cholera, foot-and-mouth disease and fowl plague among domestic animals, highlight this trend. Although improved detection and surveillance techniques, as well as increased media attention may have contributed to our perception of an increase in the incidence of outbreaks of virus infections, it is becoming more and more clear that major changes in our modern society increasingly create new opportunities for virus infections to emerge: a complex mix of changes in social environments, medical and agricultural technologies and ecosystems continues to create new niches for viruses to cross species boundaries and to rapidly adapt to new species.

West Nile virus

West Nile Virus

Virus classification Group: Family: Genus: Group IV

((+)ssRNA)

Flaviviridae Flavivirus

Species: West Nile virus

West Nile virus (WNV) is a virus of the family Flaviviridae. Part of the Japanese encephalitis (JE) antigenic complex of viruses, it is found in both tropical and temperate regions. It mainly infects birds, but is known to infect humans, horses, dogs, cats, bats, chipmunks, skunks, squirrels, domestic rabbits, crows, robins, crocodiles and alligators. The main route of human infection is through the bite of an infected mosquito. Approximately 80% of West Nile virus infections in humans are without any symptoms. Image reconstructions and cryoelectron microscopy reveal a 4550 nm virion covered with a relatively smooth protein surface. This structure is similar to the dengue fever virus; both belong to the genus Flavivirus within the family Flaviviridae. The genetic material of WNV is a positivesense, single strand of RNA, which is between 11,000 and 12,000 nucleotides long; these genes encode seven nonstructural proteins and three structural proteins. The RNA strand is held within a nucleocapsid formed from 12-kDa protein blocks; the capsid is contained within a host-derived membrane altered by two viral glycoproteins.

Symptoms
The West Nile virus produces one of three different outcomes in humans. The first is an asymptomatic infection; the second is a mild febrile syndrome termed West Nile fever;[4] the third is a neuroinvasive disease termed West Nile meningitis or encephalitis. The population proportion of these three states is roughly 110:30:1. The second, febrile stage has an incubation period of two to eight days followed by fever, headache, chills, diaphoresis (excessive sweating), weakness, lymphadenopathy (swollen lymph nodes), drowsiness, pain in the joints and symptoms like those of influenza. Occasionally, some patients experience a short-lived truncal rash or gastrointestinal symptoms, including nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, or diarrhea. Symptoms are generally resolved within seven to 10 days, although fatigue can persist for some weeks and lymphadenopathy up to two months. The more dangerous encephalitis is characterized by similar early symptoms, but also a decreased level of consciousness, sometimes approaching near-coma. Deep tendon reflexes are hyperactive at first, later diminished. There are also extrapyramidal disorders. Recovery is marked by a long convalescence with fatigue. More recent outbreaks have resulted in a deeper study of the disease and other, rarer, outcomes have been identified. The spinal cord may be infected, marked by anterior myelitis with or without encephalitis.[7] WNV-associated Guillain-Barr syndrome has been identified[8] and other rare effects include multifocal chorioretinitis (which has 100% specificity for identifying WNV infection in patients with possible WNV encephalitis),[9] hepatitis, myocarditis, nephritis, pancreatitis, and splenomegaly.

Mortality rate
There is no way to accurately measure the number of worldwide cases at this time. However, the United States keeps records of West Nile infection cases. In 2009, there were 663 cases. Three hundred and thirty-five of these cases were encephalitis or meningitis infections, a reaction to the virus that approximately one in 150 people who get the virus will show. Three hundred and two cases were filed for West Nile fever, the most likely symptom of the virus. Twenty-six cases were unspecified. The state of Texas had the most cases, with 104 total. The total mortality rate for 2009 was 30 deaths of the 663 reported serious cases. That is a 4.5% casualty rate, but only of the severe infections. Approximately 80% of cases have no symptoms, so the total casualty rate would be less than 1% of total infections in the U.S. These data and earlier years data are available from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Control
West Nile control is achieved through mosquito control, by elimination of mosquito breeding sites, larviciding active breeding areas and encouraging personal use of mosquito repellents. The public is also encouraged to spend less time outdoors, wear long covering clothing, apply bug repellant that contains DEET and ensure that mosquitoes cannot enter buildings.[66] Environmentalists have condemned attempts to control the transmitting mosquitoes by spraying pesticide, saying that the

detrimental health effects of spraying outweigh the relatively few lives which may be saved, and that there are more environmentally friendly ways of controlling mosquitoes. They also question the effectiveness of insecticide spraying, as they believe mosquitoes that are resting or flying above the level of spraying will not be killed; the most common vector in the northeastern U.S., Culex pipiens, is a canopy feeder. The first effective horse vaccine, West Nile-INNOVATOR was introduced by Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth). Shortly thereafter, a second, one-annual-dose vaccine called Prevenile was introduced by Intervet/Schering-Plough Animal Health (Merck),[67] followed by a DNA-based vaccine, called Recombitek (Merial). In 2009, a new killed virus vaccine was introduced by Boehringer-Ingelheim, a privately held pharmaceutical company, incorporating an equine origin WNV strain (E159), representative of the more recent WNV strains impacting horses.[68]

Treatment research
AMD3100, which had been proposed as an antiretroviral drug for HIV, has shown promise against West Nile encephalitis. Morpholino antisense oligos conjugated to cell penetrating peptides have been shown to partially protect mice from WNV disease.[69] There have also been attempts to treat infections using ribavirin, intravenous immunoglobulin, or alpha interferon.[70] GenoMed, a U.S. biotech company, has found that blocking angiotensin II can treat the "cytokine storm" of West Nile virus encephalitis as well as other viruses. In 2007 the World Community Grid launched the Discovering Dengue Drugs Together project. This uses a distributed network of volunteers' computers via the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) to perform computer simulations of interacting molecules. Thousands of small molecules are screened for potential anti-viral properties with respect to West Nile and related viruses.

Rift Valley fever

Rift Valley fever
Rift Valley Fever virus Virus classification Group: Group V ((-)ssRNA) Family: Bunyaviridae Genus: Phlebovirus Species: Rift Valley Fever viru

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a viral zoonosis (affects primarily domestic livestock, but can be passed to humans) causing fever. It is spread by the bite of infected mosquitoes, typically the Aedes or Culex genera. The disease is caused by the RVF virus, a member of the genus

Phlebovirus (family Bunyaviridae). The disease was first reported among livestock in Kenya around 1915, but the virus was not isolated until 1931. RVF outbreaks occur across sub-Saharan Africa, with outbreaks occurring elsewhere infrequently, but sometimes severely. In Egypt in 1977-78, several million people were infected and thousands died during a violent epidemic. In Kenya in 1998, the virus claimed the lives of over 400 Kenyans. In September 2000, an outbreak was confirmed in Saudi Arabia and Yemen). On 19 Oct 2011, the first confirmed human case of Rift Valley fever contracted in Zimbabwe was reported in a Caucasian female traveler who returned to France after a 26-day stay in Marondera, Mashonaland East Province during July and August, 2011

Transmission
The virus is transmitted through mosquito vectors as well as through contact with the tissue of infected animals. Contact with infected tissue is considered to be the main source of human infections.[2] The virus has been isolated in two strains of bat, the Peter's Dwarf Epauletted Fruit Bat (Micropteropus pusillus) and the Aba Roundleaf Bat (Hipposideros abae), which are believed to be reservoirs for the virus.

Clinical signs and diagnosis

In humans, the virus can cause several syndromes. Usually, sufferers have either no symptoms or only a mild illness with fever, headache, myalgia and liver abnormalities. In a small percentage of cases (< 2%), the illness can progress to hemorrhagic fever syndrome, meningoencephalitis (inflammation of the brain), or affecting the eye. Patients who become ill usually experience fever, generalized weakness, back pain, dizziness, and weight loss at the onset of the illness. Typically, patients recover within two to seven days after onset. About 1% of human sufferers die of the disease. In livestock, the fatality level is significantly higher. Pregnant livestock infected with RVF abort virtually 100% of fetuses. An epizootic (animal disease epidemic) of RVF is usually first indicated by a wave of unexplained abortions. Other signs in livestock include vomiting and diarrhoea, respiratory disease, fever, lethargy, anorexia and sudden death in young animals. Diagnosis relies on viral isolation from tissues, or serological testing with an ELISA.

Animal vaccination
Several animal vaccines have been made to protect against RVF infection. The first one to be developed was a live vaccine. When administered to mice, the results were promising; this vaccine provided immunity for three years. However, a problem was encountered: administration to pregnant ewes on many occasions led to abortion. Since then, attenuated vaccines have been developed. Although they are protective and do not cause adverse effects, these results are only achieved after multiple inoculations. The fact that multiple doses are required may prove problematic, especially in areas where RVF is endemic.

2010 South Africa outbreak

As of 8 April 2010, the Ministry of Health South Africa had reported 87 human cases infected with Rift Valley fever (RVF), including two deaths in Free State, Eastern Cape and Northern Cape provinces.[10] Most of these cases reported direct contact with RVFV-infected livestock and or were linked to farms with confirmed animal cases of RVF. The human cases are: farmers, veterinarians and farm workers. All cases were confirmed with RVF by test conducted at the National Institute of Communicable Diseases (NICD) in Johannesburg, South Africa. An ongoing outbreak of Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) infection is affecting sheep, goats, cattle and wildlife on farms within Free State, Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, Western Cape, Mpumalanga, North West, and Gauteng provinces. As of 29 March 2010, about 78 farms reported laboratory-confirmed animal cases, with extensive livestock deaths. Outbreak investigations by the Department of Health and the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries are ongoing, and are being supported by the South African Field Epidemiology and Training Programme and NICD. The Department of Health and the Department of Agriculture are taking measures to enhance disease surveillance among cattle and in managing the control of the disease outbreak. Sporadic cases of RVFV infection in animals have been documented in South Africa in recent years. The last major outbreak of the disease in humans occurred between 1974 and 1976, where an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 cases were recorded

Changes in the universe

In combating this global threat, we should make optimal use of the new tools provided by the unprecedented advances made in the research areas of molecular biology, epidemiology, genomics and bioinformatics. Serious investment in these areas in the future will not only be highly costeffective but will also save many lives of humans and animals. such as, Biotechnology
Biotechnology is a set of techniques used to adapt plants, microbes, and animals for specific situations. Cellular biotechnologies include tissue culture and fermentation. Genetic biotechnologies include genomics, molecular-assisted selection, and transgenic crops, animals(genetic engineering).

Animal Biotechnology Animal biotechnology is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing or production of materials by animals or aquatic species to provide goods and services (NRC 2003). Examples of animal biotechnology include generation of transgenic animals or transgenic fish (animals or fish with one or more genes introduced by human intervention), using gene knockout technology to generate animals in which a specific gene has been inactivated, production of nearly identical animals by somatic cell nuclear transfer (also referred to as clones), or production of infertile aquatic species. Transgenics Since the early 1980s, methods have been developed and refined to generate transgenic animals or transgenic aquatic species. For example, transgenic livestock and transgenic aquatic species have been generated with increased growth rates, enhanced lean muscle mass, enhanced resistance to disease or improved use of dietary phosphorous to lessen the environmental impacts of animal manure. Transgenic poultry, swine, goats, and cattle also have been produced that generate large quantities of human proteins in eggs, milk, blood, or urine, with the goal of using these products as human pharmaceuticals. Examples of human pharmaceutical proteins include enzymes, clotting factors, albumin, and antibodies. The major factor limiting widespread use of transgenic animals in agricultural production systems is the relatively inefficient rate (success rate less than 10 percent) of production of transgenic animals. NIFA has supported research projects to generate transgenic animals or transgenic aquatic species with enhanced production or health traits. Gene Knockout Technology Animal biotechnology also can knock out or inactivate a specific gene. Knockout technology creates a possible source of replacement organs for humans. The process of transplanting cells, tissues, or organs from one species to another is referred to as xenotransplantation. Currently, the pig is the major animal being considered as a xenotransplant donor to humans. Unfortunately, pig cells and human cells are not immunologically compatible. Pig cells express a carbohydrate epitope (alpha1, 3 galactose) on their surface that is not normally found on human cells. Humans will generate antibodies to this epitope, which will result in acute rejection of the xenograft.
Genetic engineering is used to knock out or inactivate the pig gene (alpha1, 3 galactosyl transferase) that attaches this carbohydrate epitope on pig cells. Other examples of knockout technology in animals include inactivation of the prion-related peptide (PRP) gene that may generate animals resistant to diseases associated with prions (bovine spongiform encephalopathy [BSE], Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease [CJD], scrapie, etc.). ( CJD can mean: Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease , a rare disease of the brain caused by

prion s, related to bovine spongiform encephalopathy ...)

Country Austria Belgium Canada Czech Republic BSE cases 5 133[32] 17[33] 28[34]
[35]

vCJDc ases 0 0 2[5] 0

The table to the right summarizes reported cases of BSE and of vCJD by country. (The vCJD column is by county of residence of patient at time of diagnosis and not suspected

Falkland Islands Finland France [36]

1 1 900

0 0 25[5]

To get a hybrid animal, two animals from different species, but from the same genus, must be Germany 312 0 crossed. The resulting animal will be a hybrid. This does not happen very often in nature, and most Greece 0 hybrid animals are sterile, 1[37] imagine the possibilities. but
Hong Kong Israel 2 1[38] 138[40] 26 2 2 85[41] 2 21 875 1,353 0 15 7 412 1 453 0 0[39] 2[5] 1[5] 0 1 3[5] 0 0 2[5] 4[5] 1[5] 0 0 5[5] 0 0

Examples:
Italy

Zebroids Japan
Liechtenstein Luxembourg Netherlands Oman Poland Portugal Republic of Ireland Saudi Arabia Slovakia Slovenia Spain

Zony

Sweden

A Zonkey

A Zorse

A Zebroid is the collective [42] name for any zebra hybrids, and comes about when a male zebra is Thailand a female animal from the equidae family. These hybrids never occur in nature, and 2 crossed with many zebroids can be born with a form of dwarfism and are almost always infertile. There are United 183,841 176[5] many different animals that would fall under the Zebroid group, including the Zorse (Zebra and a Kingdom horse), Zonkey (zebra and donkey) and the zoni (zebra and pony). These remarkable animals United States 4[33] 3[5] usually have the build of the female animal, and the stripes of the male zebra, although the stripes never cover their whole bodies, and is280 usually limited to the feet and legs, or can be found in Total 188,579 patches over the animals body Dzo
Dark green areas are countries with confirmed human cases of vCJD; light green shows countries which have reported cases of only BSE.

Switzerland

Most of the funding for these types of projects is conducted by private companies or in academic laboratories supported by the National Institutes of Health. Research projects designed to provide basic information regarding mechanisms associated with gene knockout technology are supported by NIFA. Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer

Another application of animal biotechnology is the use of somatic cell nuclear transfer to produce multiple copies of animals that are nearly identical copies of other animals (transgenic animals, genetically superior animals, or animals that produce high quantities of milk or have some other desirable trait, etc.). This process has been referred to as cloning. To date, somatic cell nuclear transfer has been used to clone cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, horses, mules, cats, rats, and mice. The technique involves culturing somatic cells from an appropriate tissue (fibroblasts) from the animal to be cloned. Nuclei from the cultured somatic cells are then microinjected into an enucleated oocyte obtained from another individual of the same or a closely related species. Through a process that is not yet understood, the nucleus from the somatic cell is reprogrammed to a pattern of gene expression suitable for directing normal development of the embryo. After further culture and development in vitro, the embryos are transferred to a recipient female and ultimately will result in the birth of live offspring. The success rate for propagating animals by nuclear transfer is often less than 10 percent and depends on many factors, including the species, source of the recipient ova, cell type of the yakow is a bovine Hybrid, and comes about from cross breeding a Yak with The Dzo or donor nuclei, treatment of donor cells prior to nuclear transfer, the techniquesaemployed for nuclear transfer, etc. NIFA has is much research projects to obtain a better understanding of domestic cow. The resulting animalsupportedlarger than a cow or a yak, and is thought to be much the basic cellular mechanisms associated with nuclear reprogramming. more productive in milk and meat production. All the females born from this cross are fertile, and they can be bred back with either of the original species. The males born from this cross are always Production of Infertile where Species. bred in Tibet production systems, some species are not infertile. These animalsAquaticoriginally In aquacultureand Mongolia as working animals, as they indigenous to a given either of their parental counterparts. are a lot stronger than area and can pose an ecological risk to native species should the foreign species escape confinement and enter the natural ecosystem. Generation of large populations of sterile Cama fish or mollusks is one potential solution to this problem. Techniques have been developed to alter the chromosome complement to render individual fish and mollusks infertile. For example, triploid individuals (with three, instead of two, sets of chromosomes) have been generated by using various procedures to interfere with the final step in meiosis (extrusion of the second polar body). Timed application of high or low temperatures, various chemicals, or high hydrostatic pressure to newly fertilized eggs has been effective in producing triploid individuals. At a later time, the first cell division of the zygote can be suppressed to produce a fertile tetraploid individual (four sets of chromosomes). Tetraploids can then be mated with normal diploids to produce large numbers of infertile triploids. Unfortunately, in a commercial production system, it is often difficult to obtain sterilization of 100 percent of the individuals; thus, alternative methods are needed to ensure reproductive confinement of transgenic fish. Another technique that is being developed for finfish is The Cama was created in a laboratory in Dubai, and came from breeding a male Dromedary camel to farm monosex fish stocks. Monosex populations can be produced by gender reversal and progeny with a Lama. This animal was created with the purpose of making something with the size and testing to identify XX males for producing all female stocks or YY males for producing all male strength of a camel, but with the easier temperament and higher wool production of the lama. stocks. NIFA (National Institute Of Food and Agriculture)has supported research projects to alter the Interestingly the cama are one of the few hybrids that are always fertile and this results from both chromosome content or produce monosex populations of genetically engineered fish or mollusks. the dromedary camel and the lama having the exact same amount of chromosomes. As the lama is six times smaller and lighter than a camel, the only way to obtain a cama is by artificial As with any new technology, animal biotechnology faces a variety of uncertainties, safety issues and insemination, and there have only been about 6 successful cama births. potential risks. For example, concerns have been raised regarding: the use of unnecessary genes in constructs used to generate transgenic animals, the use of vectors with the potential to be transferred Grizzly-Polar bear or to otherwise contribute sequences to other organisms, the potential effects of genetically modified animals on the environment, the effects of the biotechnology on the welfare of the animal, and potential human health and food safety concerns for meat or animal products derived from animal biotechnology. Before animal biotechnology will be used widely by animal agriculture production systems, additional research will be needed to determine if the benefits of animal biotechnology outweigh these potential risks. The USDA Biotechnology Risk Assessment Grants program supports environmental risk assessment research projects on genetically engineered animals. In addition, the NRI Animal Protection program supports research projects to determine the effects of genetic modification on the health and well-being of the animal. Advances in animal biotechnology have been facilitated by recent progress in sequencing and analyzing animal bear or Grolar bear has been seen both in captivity and in the expressed sequence The Grizzly-polar genomes, identification of molecular markers (microsatellites,wild and there are tags [ESTs], quantitative animals [QTLs], etc.) and a better understanding of the mechanisms that reported sighting of these trait loci from as early as 1964. Polar bears and grizzly bears generally regulate gene expression.For more information on these topics and projects supported by NIFA in this area, see Animal Breeding, Genetics, and Genomics. Dramatic improvements in yields of animal protein are crucial in meeting the ever-increasing food needs in the United States and around the world. NIFA provides national leadership and funding

distance themselves from each other. The Grizzly likes forested areas and always breed on land, whereas polar bears like the water and ice and even gives birth on the ice. This fact made scientists come up with a theory that polar bears are being forced south as the polar ice caps melt, forcing them to the grizzly bears general territory. The grizzly-polar bear is a fertile hybrid, and there has even been a case of a second generation grizzly-polar bear that was shot on Victoria Island. After running DNA tests, it was established that the bears mother was a grizzly-polar bear and the father was a grizzly bear. Liger

The Liger is a hybrid cross between a male lion and a female tiger, thus both its parents are from the Panthera genus, but from different species. Ligers are the biggest of all the big cats, growing to almost the lion and tigers combined size. They carry characteristics from both parents, for instance their love of swimming from tigers and their highly social behavior from lions. Nowadays, Ligers can only be found in captivity as their territories dont overlap, but in history there have been stories of ligers found in the wild. Ligers were long thought to be sterile, but this theory was disproved in 1953, when a 15 year old liger was successfully mated with a male lion. The cub survived into adulthood, despite having poor health. At Jungle Island, a theme park in Miami, you can see Hercules. Hercules is a huge liger, with a weight reaching over 410Kg. Hercules holds the Guinness World record for being the largest big cat in the world. He is very healthy and is expected to live a long and happy life.

Prevention and control of emerging zoonotic diseases There are a number of control methods and tools currently available at the animal reservoir,vector and human levels that are appropriate for the prevention and control of emerging zoonotic diseases.

Domestic animals For domestic animals, the common methods and tools used in disease control are:

 vaccination of pets or livestock (e.g. as for rabies control), prophylactic use of antiparasitics (e.g. antitrypanosomals or coccidiostats), proper biosecurity and quarantine (e.g. excluding wildlife from domestic stock, hygienic practices in husbandry and among farm workers), eradication programmes (depopulation), appropriate veterinary care, Other such methods include: breeding for disease resistance, feed and water control, using best animal husbandry practices, routine disease surveillance, testing animals before entering or leaving a farm. Wild animals There is currently no international organization dedicated to monitoring, reporting and studying wild animal health on a global scale. International conservation organizations such as the World Conservation Union and other international wildlife organizations should be more involved in the coordinated research as well as the current monitoring, and reporting of wildlife-related health issues to public health authorities. Disease surveillance and control in wild animals should take into consideration a number of conservation issues, particularly the conservation status of the species under investigation. The following methods and tools may be undertaken after careful evaluation of the species involved and its ecology: isolating and creating of physical barriers to exclude wild animals from farms or human residences, population control by culling, treating and vaccinating defined populations (e.g. oral rabies vaccination of foxes), limiting wildlife movement, conducting preliminary testing of all live import and exports, exercising care in adopting and translocating wild animals.

 Vector control Vector control is an effective tool in the prevention and control of vector-borne zoonotic diseases, for example by, spraying against fleas and mosquitoes during plague and Rift Valley fever outbreaks, respectively; and using tick control in outbreaks of Crimean Congo haemorrhagic fever and Lyme disease. Other effective methods involve environmental management through elimination of vector breeding habitats as well as limiting anthropogenic activities that promote vector breeding, such as land-clearing, unplanned development and the destruction of habitats that support vector predators.

Benefits of microbiology/Role of Microbiologist.

A major contribution of microbiology has been learning the role of microbes in disease. It is now known that bacteria cause diseases such as plague, tuberculosis, and anthrax; protozoans cause diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness, and toxoplasmosis; fungi cause diseases such as ringworm, candidiasis, and histoplasmosis; and viruses cause diseases such as influenza and yellow fever. Host-parasite relationships have been worked out, such as understanding that Plasmodium (cause of malaria) utilizes Anopheles mosquitoes in transmission; some Trypanosoma species (cause of African trypanosomiasis, or sleeping sickness, and Chagas disease, or South American trypanosomiasis) utilize the tsetse fly or conenose bugs; and Leishmania (cause of lieshmania) is carried by sand flies. Because of these findings, microbiologists have been able to develop antibiotics and vaccines, and the public has become aware of the importance of hygiene and means to avoid insect vectors (repellents, mosquito nets, etc.). However, while microbes are often viewed negatively due to their association with many human illnesses, only a small fraction of microorganisms are agents of disease (Paustian and Roberts 2007). Microbiology has helped humanity to understand the many important beneficial roles that microbes play in health, nutrient cycling, and food chains, and microbiologists have learned how to utilize microbes in industrial production and scientific research. For example, microbiologists have detailed how bacteria in human intestines and on skin help in preventing infection with harmful microbes and those in the intestine aid in digestion and provide needed vitamins, such as B12 (Paustian and Roberts 2007). The role of symbiotic bacteria and protists in many even-toed ungulates (cattle, deer, goats, and sheep) has been shown essential to allow them to break down cellulose, the most abundant organic compound on earth, into a form of carbohydrate that can be digested. Likewise, microbes have been show to be critical to nitrogen fixation, and most species of legumes provide a habitat for nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and receive a usable form of nitrogen as a benefit. Microbiology has detailed how abundant microbes are and how they are critical to food chains and decomposing dead plants and animals, releasing their nutrients for reuse. Microscopic algae provide oxygen. Prior to the work of microbiologists, people did not understand why food spoils. The identification of the role of microbes in food spoilage also has led to improvements in preserving food. Microorganisms also are used in industrial fermentation (e.g. the production of alcohol and dairy

products) and for antibiotic production. Many microorganisms are important research organisms, and scientists have utilized their knowledge of microbes to produce biotechnologically important enzymes and utilized and even genetically engineered microorganisms to help in removal of wastes, such as oil spills.