Bpvi 13 02

Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Agriculture
BPVI-013
MILK PROCESSING & PACKAGING
Block
PROCESSING OF MILK
UNIT 4 Clarification, Separation, Bactofugation and Standardization UNIT 5 Pasteurization UNIT 6 Homogenization UNIT 7 Sterilization and Ultra-High-Temperature Processing UNIT 8 Preparation of Designated and Special Milk 5 24 38 54 72
Processing of Milk
Programme Design Committee

Prof. H.P. Dikshit Vice Chancellor IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. S.C. Garg Pro-Vice Chancellor IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. Panjab Singh Vice Chancellor Banaras Hindu University, Banaras (U.P.) Shri A.N.P. Sinha Additional Secretary, Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Delhi Milk Plant, Gwalior : Shri M.E. Khan, Manager - Plant Operation Delhi Milk Scheme, Delhi : Shri Ashok Bansal, DGM CITA, New Delhi : Shri Vijay Sardana Mahaan Protein, Mathura (U.P.) : Dr. Ashwani Kumar Rathor, GM Technical IGNOU, New Delhi (SOA Faculty Members) : Dr. M.K. Salooja, Dy. Director Dr. M.C. Nair, Dy. Director Dr. Indrani Lahiri, Asstt. Director Dr. P.L. Yadav, Sr. Consultant Dr. D.S. Khurdiya, Sr. Consultant Sh. Jaya Raj, Sr. Consultant Sh. Rajesh Singh, Consultant
Ministry of Food Processing Industries, New Delhi : Mr. K.K. Maheshwary Mr. R.K. Bansal, Consultant Mr. V.K. Dahiya, Tech. Officer (Milk Products) NDRI, Karnal, Haryana : Dr. S. Singh, JD (Academics) Dr. S.P. Agrawala, Head (Dairy Engg.) Dr. Rajvir Singh, Head (Dairy Eco.) Dr. K.L. Bhatia, Ex-Principal Scientist Dr. S.K. Tomar, Principal Scientist Dr. B.D. Tiwari, Ex. Principal Scientist Dr. Dharam Pal, Principal Scientist Dr. A.A. Patel, Principal Scientist Mother Dairy, Delhi : Dr. P.N. Reddy, Quality Control Manager
Programme Coordinators: Block Preparation Team

Writers: Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr.
Prof. Panjab Singh, Dr. M.K. Salooja and Dr. P.L. Yadav
A.A. Patel (Unit-4), M.K. Salooja (Unit-5) RRB Singh (Unit-6 & 7) Alok Jha (Unit-8)
Editors: Dr. P.L. Yadav Dr. M.K. Salooja
Course Coordinators: Dr. M.K. Salooja, Dr. P.L. Yadav and Dr. A.A. Patel
Material Production
SOA, IGNOU : AR (Publication) - Ms. Pushpa Gupta Secretarial Assistance - Mr. Vinay Sehgal
July, 2006 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2006 ISBN 81-266All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Copyright holder. Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University's office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in. Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Prof. S.C. Garg, Pro-Vice Chancellor, IGNOU. Printed at Paper Used: Agro-based Environment Friendly
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
We have learnt that milk is collected and transported to the dairy plant for further processing. Now we will know the different operations, which are performed in the dairy plant for processing the milk like clarification, separation, standardization, pasteurization, homogenization and packaging of milk. The method for preparing sterilized milk also has been explained. We will know the methods for preparing standardized, toned, flavoured, recombined and reconstituted milk. Unit 4: Milk clarification, separation, bactofugation and standardization are the common operations in a dairy plant. In this unit, we will learn about the purpose and operational features of filtration and clarification of milk. Methods of separation, separation of milk, factor affecting yield and fat contents in cream are also included in the text. Bactofugation and clarification are important processes in modern dairy units for removal of heavy dirt particles and bacteria from raw milk. Standardization of milk for fat and SNF is important to ensure the desired and designated composition in the milk and milk products. We will learn about the purpose and procedure of standardization of milk. Simple methods for preparation of different types of milk with varying fat % and SNF % have been explained. This will help us to calculate the required quantity of fat and SNF for preparation the milk of desired/designated standards. Unit 5: Pasteurization is one of the most important heat treatment processes in any milk plant. In this unit, we will study the fundamentals of pasteurization process, reasons for pasteurizing milk, theory of pasteurization, type and important parts of pasteurizer, procedure for operating a pasteurizer and cleaning of plant. Unit 6: Homogenization is widely accepted process in dairy industry to reduce the size of fat globules. We will learn in this unit the reasons for homogenization of milk, theory governing the homogenization process, design of homogenizer, factors related to homogenization efficiency, effect on physico-chemical properties of milk due to homogenization and operational details of homogenizer. Unit 7: Milk is highly perishable commodity. To preserve its quality, different processing treatments are employed. One of such processes is sterilization. The unit Sterilized and UHT Processing gives the details such as definition, theoretical basis, type of plants, processing details, changes during processing of milk and aseptic packaging. Unit 8: Special types of milks are prepared by altering natural constituents of milk. In this unit, we will study about the preparation of different types of special milk like toned milk, double toned milk, standardized milk, skim milk, recombined milk, reconstituted milk and flavoured milk.
Processing of Milk
UNIT 4
CLARIFICATION, SEPARATION, BACTOFUGATION AND STANDARDIZATION
Structure 4.0 4.1 4.2 Objectives Introduction Filtration and Clarification of Milk

Filtration Clarification Methods of Separation Factors affecting the Skimming Efficiency Factors affecting Yield and Fat content of Cream Bactofugation Clarifixation Standardization of Milk for Fat Standardization of Milk for Fat and SNF
4.3
Separation of Milk

4.4
Other Centrifugal Processes for Milk

4.5
Standardization of Milk

4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10
Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Some More Questions to Check Your Progress
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, we should be able to:

state the purpose of some of the basic milk processing operations. differentiate between filtration and clarification of milk. define what separation of milk means and what factors affect the same. enumerate other centrifugal processes viz. bactofugation and clarifixation. specify standardization means and how to carry our the same.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
As we have studied earlier, that it is essential to keep the milk cool soon after milking till it reaches the processing plant. At the milk plant it may be (i) processed for distribution in fluid form as market milk, or (ii) converted into various products. In either case, it is required to be subjected to certain basic treatments before further processing. The treatments that milk is required to undergo at a dairy plant include filtration or clarification, separation and standardization. These are aimed at purification and compositional modification of the milk. In the present unit we shall discuss the objectives of such treatments, and ways and means of carrying out the same. Clarification and separation of milk are, in practice, achieved by centrifugation of
Processing of Milk
milk (in specially designed centrifugal machines.certain other centrifugation-based processes such as bactofugation and clarifixation relevant to milk processing will also be briefly discussed in this unit.
4.2 FILTRATION AND CLARIFICATION OF MILK

i. Purpose
Raw milk as produced on the farm and transported to the collection centre or a dairy plant generally contains varying amounts of visible, invisible impurities. This foreign matter includes straw and hair pieces, dust particles, leukocytes (somatic cells or white blood cells), insects, etc. If not effectively removed, such extraneous insoluble matter can result in deposits in milk handling equipment such as cooler, etc., and, more importantly, cause unsightly appearance. Relatively large pieces of such material e.g. straw, hair and insects, are usually removed by straining (passing the milk through a fine metalgauge strainer or metallic sieve on the farm, at the collection centre or at the processing plant. Tubular sieves located in the milk inlet pipe to the processing unit (e.g. pasteurizer) are also used. However, finer foreign matter to be eliminated requires clarification using a special filter or a centrifuged clarifier. These steps of aesthetic improvement of product are particularly useful for overcoming the problem of sediments in fluid milk and liquid milk products in general, and homogenized milk in particular.
ii. Filtration
Filtration (or, clarification using a filter-bag) refers to making the milk pass through a filter-cloth or filter-pad. The filtering medium has a pore size (25-100 mm) that permits most of the foreign matter to be retained on it. The milk filter consists of a nylon filter-bag or a filter-pad supported on a perforated stainless steel (SS) support held in an SS enclosure with a tight-fitting lid, milk distributor, and inlet- and outlet- connections. Milk usually passes from top to bottom. In case of twin filters, three way valves in the inlet and outlet lines enable switching from one filter to the other when the first is to be cleaned. Sometimes, filters may be provided in the form of cylindrical bags or stockings fitted over perforated SS tubes as in the modern continuous pasteurizing plants (high-temperature short-time, or HTST pasteurizers Filtration can be carried out either on cold milk (about 10oC) or warm milk (4045oC). Since warm milk filtration is more rapid due to lower viscosity of warm milk, it is universally used. For cold filtration, the filter is located in the line connecting the milk receiving tank or holding tank and the pasteurizer. Since warm filtration requires preheating, the filter of this type is placed between the regenerator and the final heating section of the HTST pasteurizer. The filter-bag must periodically be cleaned. Accordingly, the operation run may vary from 2 to 10 hours depending on the level of foreign matter and the filter pore size. Generally, twin filters located in parallel are employed to permit cleaning of one filter while the other is in use. This enables continuous process run. We should be able to realize that filtration removes only the gross impurities, and does not remove bacteria from milk. Accordingly, it does not improve the keeping quality of the milk. In fact, bacteria may grow in the filters if they are used for unusually long times before cleaning.
iii. Clarification
6 Definition and objective : As an alternative to filtration, clarification can also be
employed to remove insoluble impurities especially the finer ones. It involves the use of a centrifugal machine called clarifier. Thus, clarification is a process of subjecting milk to a centrifugal force in order to eliminate the finer but heavier particles from milk, somatic cells, dust particles, etc. Although part of bacteria are also removed along with the extraneous matter, clarification cannot be considered an effective means of bacteria removal. Hence, one should be aware that it cannot be a substitute for a suitable heat treatment in order to ensure safety against pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms. Principle of clarification : As we have studied, when milk is introduced between two adjacent rotating conical discs (in a stack of several discs) of a centrifuge bowl, it is subjected to a centrifugal force. This force causes the heavier dirt particles to be thrown out into the sludge space surrounding the discs where it is collected during the run, while the comparatively lighter milk continuously flows inward and upward to the outlet. There is no separation of fat globules (cream) and skim milk in a clarifier. Operation of a clarifier : Raw milk is made to pass usually under a pump pressure, down a central pipe of a rotating bowl and led to the outer edge of the clarifier discs through a distributor in the bottom and then onto the spinning discs, where milk and dirt are separated. The milk is led to the discharge port at the top of the bowl whereas the dirt is accumulated in the sediment space. The accumulated sludge is removed from the bowl by dismantling the clarifier at regular intervals. The interval may range from 1 to 8 hours depending on size of the clarifier and the amount of impurities in the milk. However, most large-size modern clarifiers are self-desludging or partial desludging type in which periodical sludge removal takes place during the clarification process, without interruption of the clarifier operation. Such desludging results in about 0.05-0.10% of milk being lost and the sludge being liquid rather than solid as in the non-self-desludging machines. As for the milk filter, clarifier may be located in the raw milk line between the raw milk tank and pasteurizer. Alternatively, milk may be clarified warm/hot by placing the clarifier at a suitable point in the regeneration section of the HTST unit or between the regeneration and heating sections. The clarifier sludge or clarifier slime consists primarily of dust and dirt particles, blood cells, microorganisms and milk protein. Its composition will depend on whether it is liquid (82-86% water, 6-8 % protein), or solid (65-69% water, 24-28% protein). Check Your Progress I 1. What type of impurities are removed from milk by filtration? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. What will happen if milk is not clarified? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 3. State about the milk filter. ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
Clarification, Separation, Bactofugation and Standardization
Processing of Milk
..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 4. What is the purpose of twin filters? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 5. What is clarification? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 6. How does a clarifier remove milk impurities? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 7. What is the main operational advantage and limitation of a self desludging clarifier? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 8. Where should a clarifier are located? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 9. What is clarifier sludge? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
4.3 SEPARATION OF MILK

We have studied that milk contains fat and non-fat constituents, also called solidsnot-fat (SNF). Fat is present as globules whereas the SNF form an ionic solution (e.g. certain salts), true solution (e.g. lactose and whey proteins), or a colloidal solution (e.g. casein micelles) in the water part of milk. Thus, milk represents an emulsion in which the relatively large fat globules are dispersed in the continuous aqueous phase (serum). Since fat globules are lighter as compared to other solids, they tend to readily separate out from the serum (or skim milk), as can be seen in the formation of a cream layer on the top of milk held undisturbed in a container for a few hours. Cream is that portion of milk, which is rich in milk fat, but poorer in SNF. This suggests that much of the fat can be easily separated in the form of cream from milk, leaving behind the skim milk containing very little fat.
Cream separation enables the processor to manufacture a variety of fat-rich dairy products such as cream of various types, butter, ghee, etc. Cream separation also makes it possible to adjust the composition of milk with respect to its fat and SNF contents. Such compositional modification (vide Sec. 4.5) may be desired for products manufacture as also for meeting the legal requirements of different types of fluid milk
i. Methods of Separation
Two methods of separation of cream from milk are commonly used: (i) gravity separation and (ii) centrifugal separation. Both these methods rely on the basic principle of separation of two immiscible liquids having different densities, under the influence of gravitational or centrifugal force. Gravity Separation: As mentioned above, when milk is allowed to stand undisturbed for some time, a layer of cream (or malai) forms on the top due to rising of the fat globules which are initially dispersed throughout the bulk of milk. The upward movement of the lighter fat globules (density, 0.93 g/cc at 20oC) in the heavier serum (density, 1.035 g/cc) takes place owing to gravity. Creaming may become evident in as short time as half an hour. The rate of cream separation is directly proportional to the difference between the densities of fat and serum and to the square of fat globule diameter, and inversely proportional to the viscosity of serum. Thus, for a given sample of milk, the creaming rate will be maximum when the density difference is maximum and viscosity is minimum. Both these factors are, in turn, affected by temperature of milk. As the temperature rises, the ratio of the density difference and the serum viscosity increases favouring the separation process. This increase is particularly prominent between 10o and 30oC and much less above 50oC. Cream separation by gravity is, however, a very slow and inefficient process. It is of little practical value for commercial purposes. Hence, mechanized cream separation employing a centrifugal machine is most commonly used in the dairy industry. Even for a very small scale separation involving, say 10-20 litres of milk, a centrifugal separator is used, be it hand-driven or motor-driven. Centrifugal Separation: In principle, this method of cream separation is similar to gravity separation but gravity as the driving force is replaced by the centrifugal force for which a rotational machine is used. Since the latter force is much larger than the gravitational force, separation is greatly accelerated. The centrifugal separator is similar to the clarifier discussed in the earlier section, but milk entering through the bottom of the separator bowl holding a stack of conical discs rises up through holes located somewhere in the middle of the inner and outer edges of the discs. The milk between discs is subjected to a centrifugal force in the rotating bowl and thereby tends to fly out from the centre. The skim milk fraction, being heavier, moves away and forms a layer on the outer edge of the discs, whereas the fat globules gather on the inside edge. The incoming un-separated milk forces the separating layers further and upward out at the top of the bowl. Thus, there are two outlets in a cream separator, one for skim milk and the other for cream, the cream outlet being nearer to the centre. The rate of cream separation in ease of a centrifugal separator is influenced by the same factors affecting gravity separation, but the speed of the separator bowl and the disc diameter are also very important here. The higher the speed of the bowl or larger the diameter of discs, the greater will be the separation rate.
ii. Factors affecting Skimming Efficiency

Since fat removal from milk is the principal function of a cream separator, the efficiency of the process, also called skimming efficiency, is determined by the 9
Processing of Milk
effectiveness with which the fat content of the out-coming skim milk is reduced. The residual fat content of skim milk is usually in the range of 0.01 0.05% in the modern machines. A fat content higher than 0.06% represents poorer separation efficiency. The skim milk fat content is inversely related to fat recovery in the cream. Hence, the skimming efficiency is often defined as the percentage of total fat in whole milk recovered in the cream separated from it. For a given fat content of whole milk, the higher the fat content of skim milk, the lower the skimming efficiency. The factors that affect the skimming efficiency are related to either the milk being separated or the separator. Intense agitation of milk prior to separation, air incorporation (or foaming) and high acidity of milk adversely affect the separation efficiency. Further, if the proportion of smaller fat globules (especially below 2 mm in diameter) is greater, the skimming efficiency will go down. It should, therefore, be obvious that homogenized milk with its very small globules (please see Unit 3) cannot be separated. Gravity or centrifugal separation of fat globules from skim milk is faster at a higher temperature. Thus skimming efficiency increases with increasing temperature of milk up to about 80oC, beyond which increasing viscosity of milk tends to make the separation process less efficient. Depending upon location of the cream separator in the milk processing line (particularly with respect to HTST pasteurization), the separation temperature may range usually from 35-75oC, optimum being 50-55oC (warm milk separation). However, cold milk separators may operate at 5-10oC giving an advantage of less foaming, but partial churning of fat, bowl clogging and reduced flow rate (separator capacity) are the associated disadvantages. Adjustment of the cream screw for high-fat cream (above 55%), or excessive flow rates of feed milk reduce the skimming efficiency. However, feeding rates below the normal separator capacity does not enhance the skimming performance, but it may lead to undesirable air incorporation. A higher bowl speed gives higher skimming efficiency but, since increased speed requires greater energy input, normal range of 4000-7000 rpm (sometimes as low as about 2000 rpm) giving efficient separation is normally not exceeded in the separator design. Poor disc condition (e.g. deshaped, dirty or scratched one), vibrations of the separators, and defective gaskets in the cream section could cause unacceptable skimming efficiency. Excessive slime getting collected in the sludge space of the bowl would also have an adverse impact on the separator performance.
iii. Factors affecting Yield and Fat Content of Cream

The yield of cream and skim milk can be given by the following formulae: i) Yield of cream (% of feed milk) =
fm - fs x 100 ..... fc - fs
(Eq.1)
ii) Yield of skim milk (% of feed milk) =
fc - fm x 100 ....... fc - fs
where, fm = fat in milk, % f s = fat in skim milk, % fc = fat in cream, %. 10
(Eq. 2)
All those factors which affect the skimming efficiency can be expected to influence the cream yield too. Conditions leading to a higher skimming efficiency would give a better yield. However, the fat content of cream is obviously the major factor influencing the yield of cream. Accordingly, the adjustment of the cream screw or skim-milk screw is critical with regard to cream yield. The position of the cream screw i.e. a valve provided in the cream outlet controls the flow rate of the cream being discharged. Turning the screw inward reduces the cream discharge rate thereby increasing the fat content of cream. Adjusting the valve by outward movement has the opposite effect. Similarly, manipulation of the skim milk screw so as to decrease the flow rate of the exiting skim milk will decrease the fat concentration of cream, and vice-versa. Thus, changing the position of the cream screw or skim-milk screw alters the ratio of cream to skim milk; an increased ratio decreases the fat content of cream and a decreased one raises it. Further, a lower separation temperature and a higher fat content of milk lead to an increased fat content of cream, whereas an increased feed rate causes a decreased richness of cream, and vice-versa. Check Your Progress 2 1. What are the objectives of cream separation? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. What are the methods of separation of milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 3. What is creaming? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 4. What are the factors affecting the creaming rate? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 5. What is the effect of temperature on the rate of creaming? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 6. What is the major drawback of gravity separation as compared to centrifugal separation? ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
11
Processing of Milk
..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 7. How is fat separated from skim milk in a centrifugal separator? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 8. How do the machine parameters affect the rate of fat separation in a centrifugal separator? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 9. What do you understand by skimming efficiency? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 10. List the factors affecting the skimming efficiency. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 11. How is the fat content of cream exiting the separation adjusted? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 12. How does the fat content of feed milk influence the richness of cream? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 13. What is the effect of temperature of separation on the fat content of cream? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
4.4 OTHER CENTRIFUGAL PROCESSES FOR MILK

The principle of differential movement of heavy and light components of milk subjected to a centrifugal force has been utilized in a few applications other than clarification and cream separation. These include bactofugation and clarifixation. 12
i. Bactofugation
We may recall clarification of milk wherein it was stated that the centrifugal removal of heavy dirt particles etc. results in elimination of a part of bacteria as well. Such bacteria removal is made more effective using a special high-speed discbowl centrifuge called bactofuge. This process known as bactofugation is particularly applicable to removal of bacterial spores from milk, which are not only difficult to inactivate by heat treatment but also heavier (or denser) than vegetative cells. The bactofuge is kind of high-speed (up to 20,000 rpm) clarifier provided with discharge nozzles in the bowl wall. The centrifugal force generated in it is upto 10,000 g (g = gravitational acceleration). The bacteria in milk being bactofuged are collected in the form of bactofugate in the sludge space. The bactofugate is approx. 3% of the feed volume and contains primarily bacterial spores and milk proteins. Anaerobic spores are removed to an extent of 98-99%. A double-bactofuge treatment at 73oC yields more than 99.9% reduction in bacterial spore count of milk. However, since bactofugation does not effectively eliminate all microorganisms, pathogens in particular, the milk must ordinarily be pasteurized so as to ensure safety of consumption. The main application of this expensive process is in the field of cheese making where removal of anaerobic (clostridial) spores from milk is useful in avoiding the problem known as late blowing in hard and semi-hard cheeses. Bactofugation has also been employed to extend the shelf life of milk under refrigeration. In order to destroy the bacteria contained in the bactofugate and improve the economy of the process by utilizing the milk protein in it, a process called Bactotherm has been evolved. Clarified and standardized milk is bactofuged at 60-75oC followed by pasteurization employing the HTST process. The bactofugate is deaerated in a vacuum chamber and sterilized at 130-140oC for 3-4 sec using steam injection, and finally mixed with chilled bactofuged milk for further processing.
ii. Clarifixation
A clarifixator is a machine working on the same principle as that of the centrifugal separator but has an additional provision to effect reduction of the size of fat globules in the cream fraction before it is remixed with the outgoing skim milk. The resulting milk, sometimes called stabilized milk has a reduced tendency to creaming upon undisturbed storage because of small-size fat globules. The break-down of fat globules is brought about by the peripheral spikes or protrusions on the paring disc provided in the cream passage at the top of the centrifuge. A paring disc is a fixed circular structure acting as a stationary centripetal pump. The cream separated from milk strikes the protruding obstacles before entering the paring disc. The fat globules thus experiencing an intense turbulence or shearing action are broken down to a smaller size (less than 2 mm). The cream is then mixed with the incoming milk to be recycled through the bowl. The fat globules of sufficiently reduced size will not get re-separated when the cream passes through the bowl discs again and will therefore, exit the separator through the skim milk outlet which thus discharges homogenized whole milk. However, because of its lower effectiveness as compared to pressure homogenization, clarifixation has not been used to any significant extent in the dairy industry. Check Your Progress 3 1. What is the function of a bactofuge? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 13
Processing of Milk
..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. How is a bactofuge different from a clarifier? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 3. Whether bactofugation can be a substitute for pasteurization. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 4. Give the major applications of bactofugation. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 5. What is the Bactotherm process? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 6. What is the difference between a cream separator and a clarifixator? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 7. What is a paring disc? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 8. How is clarifixated milk different from homogenized milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
4.5 STANDARDIZATION OF MILK

i. Purpose and Definition
We know that liquid milk sold in the market is of different types with regard to its composition. Since the milk available to the processor may not necessarily be of the same composition as desired in the milk to be marketed, it is a very common
14
practice to adjust the composition as per the requirement. Also, compositional modification (or adjustment) is necessary if the milk is to be converted into a certain product. A product must conform to the legal standards prescribed for it, or the quality standards set by the manufacturer. Product manufacture without appropriate compositional manipulation of milk may lead to poor quality product, or a product that does not meet legal requirements, or it may be an economical loss to the processor. Standardization thus refers to the process by which the milk composition is adjusted to the desired level. The most commonly considered compositional parameters are fat and SNF for market milk, although sometimes fat alone may be taken into account for standardization. For certain specific, product,-manufacturing applications even protein content may be adjusted. Accordingly, the process of standardization involves lowering or raising the level of a particular constituent(s) to the desired value specially fat.
ii. Standardization of Milk for Fat

Often milk may be standardized to a certain value of a single component i.e. fat or SNF alone. This can be achieved by adding to the milk, a calculated quantity of a fat-rich product such as cream if the fat level is to be raised, or a low-fat or fatfree component e.g. skim milk, if the milk has excess fat. The fat content of milk can be reduced also by separating a calculated amount of cream of known fat percentage. The calculation of the quantity of cream or skim milk to be added to milk, or cream or skim milk to be separated from it can be made by a simple method known as the Pearsons square method. It consists in drawing an arbitrary square (or, a rectangle), placing at the left concerns of the square, the values of fat content of the two products to be mixed and at the centre of the square, the desired fat percentage. Then, subtractions are made diagonally across the square, the smaller value being deducted from the larger one, and the differences are entered at the correspondingly opposite corners on the right- hand side. These two new values at the right corners are summed to obtain a third value. All the three values placed at the right represent the proportions or relative amounts of the given products to be mixed (top right figure for the amount of the product to the top left, bottom right figure for the product to the bottom left, and the sum for the final product). The following is an example of such a calculation: 500 kg of milk testing 6.5% fat to be standardized to 3.1% fat using skim milk containing 0.05% fat. 6.5 3.1 3.05
0.05
3.40 6.45
Thus mixing of 3.05 kg of 6.5% fat milk with 3.40 kg of the skim milk will yield 6.45 kg of milk containing the desired fat level i.e. 3.1%. Therefore, the quantity of skim milk required to be added to 500 kg whole milk will be
3.4 x 500 = 557.38 kg 3.05
15
Processing of Milk
Accordingly, 557.38 kg of 0.05% skim milk mixed with 500 kg of 6.5% fat whole milk will yield 1057.38 kg of milk having 3.1% fat. The single-component (fat-based) standardization is commonly used for cream meant for butter-making. It generally involves adjusting the fat percentage of a high-fat cream to the desired level by mixing it with the calculated quantity of skim milk (or, whole milk). Blending of the two components i.e. cream and skim milk or whole milk can be carried out by transferring the calculated quantities of the two (one after the other), to a tank (or, silo) with a provision for adequate mixing. Continuous, on-line blending is much more desirable in a large-scale operation. This can be achieved on the cream separator itself by allowing sufficient cream to remix with the skim milk so that the mixture is a milk with the desired fat content; the balance cream flows through the cream line into the cream tank. This requires that the separator is fitted with a standardizing device.
iii. Standardization of Milk for Fat and SNF

When milk is required to be standardized for both fat and SNF, the basis of calculation of the quantity of skim milk or cream to be added is the ratio of fat to SNF, and the total solids (TS) content. If the desired fat-to-SNF ratio is higher than the actual ratio in the available milk, then skim milk will be required to be added. On the other hand, when the desired ratio is lower, cream needs to be blended into the milk. It is, therefore, necessary that both the fat and SNF contents of the milk to be standardized, and those of cream or skim milk to be used are known. If the fat content of cream or skim milk (separated from a milk of known fat and SNF contents) is known, the SNF content can be estimated as under
100 - fc ....... 100 - fm
100 - fs ....... 100 - fm
i) SNF in cream, % = SNFm x
(Eq. 3)
ii) SNF in skim milk = SNFm x
(Eq. 4)
where, SNFm = SNF percentage in milk fc fm fs = fat percentage in cream = fat percentage in milk = fat percentage in skim milk.
The amount of skim milk or cream required to be added to a given quantity of milk (so as to attain the desired levels of fat and SNF in it) can be worked out by using the following formulae:
(R x SNFm ) - Fm ......... fc - (R x SNFc ) (fm /R) - SNFm ....... SNFs - (fs /R)
i) Qc = Qm x
(Eq. 5)
ii) Qs = Qm x
(Eq. 6)
where, Qm Qc Qs 16 R = Quantity of milk to be standardized = Quantity of cream required = Quantity of skim milk required = Fat/ SNF ratio desired.
fm fc fs
= Fat percentage in milk = Fat percentage in cream = Fat percentage in skim milk
SNFm = SNF percentage in milk SNFc = SNF percentage in cream SNFs = SNF percentage in skim milk. Alternatively, an algebraic method can be used taking x quantity of cream or skim milk of known fat and SNF contents required to be added to the given quantity of milk with certain fat and SNF levels, and then solving. (for x) an equation of the desired fat-SNF ratio:
Q x + fm ( m ) 100 100 ....... Q x SNFc (or SNFs ) x + SNFm ( m ) 100 100 fc (or fs ) x
R =
(Eq.7)
where all values except that of x are known. Check Your Progress 4 1. What is standardization of milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. The Pearsons Square method is used for standardizing milk for fat and SNF. True or False? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 3. Single component standardization is applicable to cream for butter-making. True or False? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 4. How can an in-line cream separator be used for standardization of milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 5. When standardizing milk for both fat and SNF, how is it determined as to whether cream should be added or skim milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 17
Processing of Milk
4.6 LET US SUM UP

There are certain basic operations in relation to processing of raw milk into market milk (or, fluid milk) or dairy products. These are primarily aimed at removing the physical impurities (insoluble foreign matter) from the milk and ensuring the desired composition of the finished product. The processes that are supposed to clean the milk include straining through a metallic sieve to remove coarse particles, filtration using a filter-bag which eliminates small particles and body cells, and centrifugal clarification meant for removal of very fine dust, dirt and cells. While in-line straining and filtration are most common milk treatments followed in a dairy plant, clarification (using a centrifugal machine) is employed only to a limited extent, usually when filtration is not practiced. A centrifugal separator helps fractionate milk into a fat-rich component i.e. cream, and an essentially fat-free component i.e. skim milk. Several milk- and machinerelated factors affect the efficiency of the separation process, also known as skimming efficiency. Similarly, the yield of cream and its fat content are governed by several variables, which must be controlled by the operator in order to obtain the desired quality and quantity of cream. Besides cream separation, clarifixation and bactofugation are other centrifugal dairy processes. Intended to make milk resistant to fat separation, clarifixation causes break-down of the fat globules, whereas bactofugation eliminates microorganisms (especially bacterial spores) from milk. In order to meet quality and legal requirements milk meant for market purpose or product manufacture may be adjusted to a prefixed level of certain compositional parameters such as fat or non-fat solids (SNF) alone, or both. Such standardization is usually practiced on batch milks in tanks and silos by blending of the milk with cream or skim milk. Alternatively, standardization can, more conveniently, be carried out on a separator in a continuous manner.
4.7 KEY WORDS

Bactofugation : It is a process of removing microorganisms, particularly bacterial spores, from milk by means of a centrifugal machine called bactofuge, which is essentially a high-speed clarifier. It is a process in which the bactofugate (the bacterial mass entrained in milk protein getting collected in the sludge space of a bactofuge) is subjected to a high heat treatment (130-140oC for 3- 4 sec) and then remixed with the milk. It is a process of removing insoluble extraneous matter such as dirt particles, somatic cells (or, blood cells), etc. from milk by using a clarifier, which is a centrifugal machine similar to a cream separator but having only one outlet i.e. the one for the clarified milk. It is the semi-solid impurities separating from milk and getting collected in the sludge space of a clarifier bowl. It primarily comprises dust particles, leucocytes, microorganisms and milk protein.
Bactotherm
Clarification
Clarifier sludge
18
Clarifixation
It is a process of reducing the size of fat globules in milk (and making it stable against fat separation) by using a specialized centrifugal machine called clarifixator in which fat globules are separated and broken down before being remixed with the milk. It is the fat-rich fraction of milk obtained upon separation of fat globules from milk under a gravitational or centrifugal force (the latter using a disc-bowl centrifuge). It is the phenomenon of cream separation in general, but refers particularly to gravity separation of fat globules in the form of cream from whole milk; a fat-rich cream layer forms at the top of undisturbed milk. It is a centrifugal machine in which milk is subjected to a whirling action resulting in separation of lighter fat globules (cream) from heavier non-fat fraction (skim milk). It refers to removal of extraneous impurities such as hair pieces, dust, dirt, insects, cell debris, etc. from raw milk by passing it through a filler-bag usually placed in-line during milk processing. It refers to automatic, intermittent removal of clarifier slime (or, separator slime) from the sludge space (without dismantling the bowl) while the process of clarification or cream separation is going on. It is the semi-solid material (impurities) separating from milk and getting collected in the sludge space of the bowl of a cream separator. It is similar to the clarifier slime. The portion of milk excluding fat globules. It comprises water and the non-fat constituents viz., lactose, protein and minerals. The non-fat component of milk obtained upon separation of cream from it. It contains very little fat, usually less than 0.10%. It refers to the effectiveness with which milk fat can be separated as cream from milk. It is defined as the percentage of the total fat in the whole milk recovered in the cream that has been separated from it. The solids (or constituents) in milk other than fat are called SNF. These include milk protein, lactose and minerals (or, ash). It is the process whereby the composition of milk (in terms of fat, or both fat and SNF) is adjusted to a predetermined level. Refers to removal of coarse impurities such as hair pieces, insects, etc. from milk by passing it through a cloth piece or metallic sieve (called strainer).
Cream
Creaming
Cream separator
Filtration
Self desludging
Separator slime
Serum
Skim milk
Skimming
Solids-not-fat
Standardization
Straining
19
Processing of Milk
Yield (or, out-turn)
It is the amount of a product (e.g. cream), expressed in terms of percentage of milk used (or separated).
4.8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

De, S. (1980). Outlines of Dairy Technology. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Kessler, H.G. (1981). Food Engineering and Dairy Technology, Verlag A. Kessler, Freising (Germany). MacWalter, R.J. (1962). Clarifying, cooking and storage of milk. In: Milk Hygiene. WHO, Geneva. Spreer, E. 1998. Milk and Dairy Product Technology. Marcel Dekker, N.Y. Towler, C. (1994). Developments in cream separation and processing. In: Modern Dairy Technology. Vol. 1 Advances in Milk Processing, Sec. Ed. R.K. Robinson (ed.) Chapmen & Hall, London. Walstra, P., Geurts, T.J., Noomen, A., Jellema, A. and vanBoekel, M.A.J.S. (1999). Dairy Technology: Principles of Milk Properties and Processes. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York. Warner, J.N. (1976). Principles of Dairy Processing. Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
4.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PRGRESS

Your answer should include the following points: Check Your Progress 1 1) 2) i. i. Insoluble foreign matter such as straw, hair pieces, insects, dust, dirt particles, somatic cells, etc. Unfiltered or unclarified milk will tend to cause deposit formation in equipment used in handling of the milk and give rise to unsightly sediment at the bottom of the container. A milk filter is made up of a nylon cloth with fine pores (25-110 mm) and it is supported over a perforated stainless steel basket or tube. Twin filters permit uninterrupted run of a continuous milk process (e.g. in an HTST pasteurizer): Since at a time one filter is in use, when one filter is required to be cleaned, the other is brought into use merely by turning appropriate valves. Clarification is a process of removing milk impurities comprising fine dust and dirt particles, body cells, etc. by means of a centrifugal machine (although filtration is also sometimes termed as one of the methods of clarifying milk). When milk is subjected to a whirling motion, the centrifugal force acting on throws the heavier dirt particles away into the sludge space while the milk, being higher, moves inward and upward between the conical discs of the clarifier bowl. The clarifier slime in a self-desludging clarifier keeps discharging automatically at a definite interval of time so that the machine can work for a long period without the need to stop it for cleaning. The disadvantage however, is that desludging takes place by means of milk jets. Hence, 0.05 0.10% of milk is lost with the sludge.
3) 4)
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20
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If cold-milk clarification is desired, the clarifier should be located in the raw milk line to the HTST pasteurizer. For warm-milk clarification, the clarifier may be located within the regeneration section, or between the regeneration and heating sections. The clarifier sludge (or clarifier slime) is the liquid or semi-solid (or solid) material separating from milk and gathering in the sludge space of the clarifier bowl. It is the milk impurities consisting of dust particles, body cells, leucocytes and bacteria in addition to milk protein.
9)
i.
Check Your Progress 2 1) i. Separation of milk into cream and skim milk makes it possible to adjust the milk composition with respect to fat and SNF, and also facilitates manufacture of certain products such as cream, ghee, butter, skim milk powder, etc. Cream separation (or, separation of milk) can be achieved by either (i) the gravity (quiescent storage) method or (ii) centrifugal separation. Creaming is the phenomenon wherein the lighter fat globules in undisturbed milk tend to rise and form a fat-rich layer (of cream) at the top under the influence of gravity. The factors affecting the rate of fat separation in milk include the density difference between fat and serum, size of fat globules, and viscosity of serum. All these factors particularly the first and the last ones are in turn, influenced by the temperature of milk. As the temperature increases, there is an increase in the ratio of the density difference (between fat and serum) to the viscosity of serum up to about 80oC, the increase being more prominent up to about 50oC. Thus the creaming rate is higher at higher temperatures, up to approx. 80oC, beyond which it goes down. Gravity separation being much slower than centrifugal separation, it is of little practical utility in the industry. The milk distributed between the discs of the rotating separator bowl is subjected to whirling action. Under the resulting centrifugal impact the heavier serum portion is thrown outward whereas the lighter fat globules move inward and upward through the passage near the central axis to the cream outlet at the top; the skim milk is continuously forced upward over the outer edges of the discs and then to the skim milk outlet. The higher the speed of the separator bowl and the larger in diameter of the discs, the greater is the rate of separation of fat in a centrifugal machine. Skimming efficiency refers to the effectiveness with which fat can be separated from milk. It is defined as the percentage of total milk fat recovered in cream. Skimming efficiency is often indicated by the fat content of skim milk, which should not be higher than 0.06% for an efficient separation process. The factors affecting skimming efficiency include agitation of milk before separation, presence of air in milk, size of fat globules, acidity of milk, temperature of milk, feed rate, position of cream-screw, separator-bowl speed, condition of discs, vibrations of the machine and the condition of gaskets. The primary method of controlling the fat content of cream is by adjustment of the cream screw. The higher the fat content of the feed milk, the greater with the concentration of fat in the resulting cream if the cream screw setting and other factors are not changed.
2) 3)
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8)
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11) 12)
i. i.
21
Processing of Milk
13)
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As the temperature of separation decreases, the viscosity of cream increases which causes the cream flow rate to fall. Thus, a colder milk gives richer cream at the same feed rate.
Check Your Progress 3 1) i. A bactofuge achieves removal of bacteria, bacterial spores in particular, from milk by subjecting it to a centrifugal force, the heavier bacteria being thrown away from the axis of rotation and thereby getting collected in the sludge space of the disc bowl. The bactofuge has a higher speed (about 20,000 rpm) providing a larger centrifugal force (10,000 g) to effect removal of bacteria to a greater extent than in a clarifier. Bactofugation does not necessarily eliminate all pathogenic microorganisms from milk although the bacterial load is greatly reduced in bactofuged milk. Hence, heat treatment of such milk is necessary to make it safe for human consumption. Since bactofugation can render the milk nearly free from anaerobic spores, bactofuged milk is particularly suitable in cheese-making where the spores cause defects like late blowing. Also bactofuged milk can be used for products with extended shelf life. The Bactotherm process refers to bactofuging clarified milk, subjecting the resulting bactofugate to high heat treatment (130-140oC for 3-4 sec) and then remixing the latter with the pasteurized bactofuged milk for further processing. In a cream separator, milk under the influence of a centrifugal force is separated into a fat-rich component (cream) and a low-fat component (skim milk), but the fat globule size remains unchanged. On the other hand, a clarifixator reduces the size of fat globules in the separated cream to below 2 mm before remixing the cream with the feed milk from which small fat globules are not reseparated but pass into the skim milk. Thus it delivers homogenized whole milk. A paring disc is a stationary structure in the cream outlet of a cream separator (or a clarifixator). The product enters the disc in a circular path at the periphery whereby the rotational energy is converted into linear kinetic energy providing a pumping effect to the cream. Both clarifixated milk and homogenized milk have fat globules of reduced size giving stability against separation, but the mean globule size is larger in the former. Also, the clarifixated milk is also clarified one so that it shows little sediment.
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Check Your Progress 4 1) i. Adjustment of the composition of milk with regard to fat alone, or both fat and SNF, so that the milk has predetermined levels of these components. It usually involves mixing of a calculated quantity of cream or skim milk with milk in or der to attain the desired values of the compositional parameters. False. The Pearsons Square method is suitable for a single-component standardization, not for both fat and SNF. True. In butter-making cream is standardized for the fat content only. Special pipeline connections with necessary valves and flow meter provided in the outlets for cream and skim milk on a separator enable mixing of cream into the skim milk at a predetermined rate and thereby allow standardization of milk.
2) 3) 4)
i. i. i.
22
5)
i.
Comparing the fat-SNF ratio (Ra) of the available milk with the desired ratio (Rd) one can determine if cream is to be added (Rd > Ra) or skim milk (Ra > Rd).
1.10
SOME MORE QUESTIONS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. How does a clarifier deliver unseparated purified milk? 2. What is separator slime? 3. What is the role of temperature in clarification and separation of milk? 4. What is the function of the cream screw? 5. How are paring discs useful in a semi-closed separator? 6. What are the rotational speeds of a cream separator and a bactofuge? 7. Why is clarifixator not used extensively in the dairy industry? 8. What are the requirements of in-line standardization of milk?
23
Processing of Milk
UNIT 5
Structure 5.0 5.1 5.2
PASTEURIZATION
Objectives Introduction Definition and purpose of pasteurization

Time-temperature combination Purpose Limiting factors for heat treatment Types of heat treatment
5.3
Theory of pasteurization

5.4 5.5
Batch Pasteurizer HTST Pasteurizer Plant and its components

Flow diagram of pasteurization process Components of a HTST pasteurization plant Plate heat exchanger Instrumentation Starting the plant Shut down of the plant Cleaning and Sterilization of the plant Pasteurization of milk Trouble shooting Preventive maintenance
5.6
Operation of pasteurization plant

5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11
Test for Pasteurization Efficiency Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, we should be able to:

define and give the reasons for pasteurizing the milk explain the theory of pasteurization list important parts of a pasteurizer describe the procedure of operating a pasteurizer.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Pasteurization is a key process in modern dairy plant operations and forms an integral part of manufacturing of various indigenous and western dairy products. Milk is a perfect medium for growth of micro-organisms, and growth of pathogenic organisms can cause diseases such as tuberculosis and typhus. Pasteurization kills the organisms responsible for spread of diseases through milk and makes it safe for consumption. 24 The word pasteurization has been named after an eminent French scientist, Louis
Pasteur. In general terms it is heating milk or its products to such temperature, which destroys nearly all the microorganisms, present in it without affecting the composition or properties of the product. Thus it is important to monitor the pasteurization process as improperly/under pasteurized milk can cause the infection. This unit will give us working knowledge of pasteurization process. Let us understand the process.
Pasteurization
5.2 DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF PASTEURIZATION

Fresh milk produced from healthy milch animals generally contains minimum load of microorganisms. In the course of handling at the farm, milk is liable to be contaminated by various microorganisms mainly bacteria. Rapid chilling to below 4C temperature slows down the growth of microorganisms in the milk. Milk must be treated by an established process so that all pathogenic microorganisms are killed before it is consumed as fluid milk. This is achieved by heat treatment. Pasteurization is one of the most important heat treatment processes. The term as applied to market milk refers to the process of heating every particle of milk to a temperature of at least 63C (145.4F) for 30 minutes or 71.7C (161F) for 15 seconds (or to the temp-time combination which is equally efficient) in properly designed equipment. Milk is immediately cooled to 4C and stored in cold storage maintained at 4+1C. As per definition of International Dairy Federation (IDF) Pasteurization is a process applied to a product with an objective of minimizing possible health hazard arising from pathogenic microorganisms associated with milk by heat treatment, which is consistent with minimal chemical, physical and organoleptic changes in the product The heat treatments suggested by the IDF for the pasteurization of milk are 15 seconds at 71.7C=161F or 30 minutes at 62.8C=145F can be regarded as universal reference treatments. Three aspects emerging from the definition are: (i) level and degree of heat treatment, (ii) minimum chemical, physical and organoleptic changes, and (iii) minimum health hazards. These are elaborated here.
i. Time-Temperature Combination
The time-temperature combinations normally used for pasteurization of fluid milk are as follows:

63C (145.4F) and held at that temperature for at least 30 minutes 72C (161.6F) and held at that temperature for at least 15 seconds.
The milk is then immediately cooled to a temperature not greater than 4C. The selected heat treatment shall be applied only once. This means pasteurization includes heating to a specific time-temperature combination followed by immediate cooling to 4C.
ii. Purpose
Milk is pasteurized for two purposes:
To make safe for human consumption by destroying pathogenic microorganisms present in milk. To improve its keeping quality.
The most heat resistant pathogenic organism at pasteurization temperature is the Mycobacterium tuberculosis and hence this has been made as an index organism to achieve complete safety of milk. Any heat treatment, which will destroy this organism, can be relied upon to destroy all other pathogenic organisms as well as other organisms involved in milk spoilage. Some bacteria, call thermodurics (heat resisting) may survive during pasteurization but immediately cooling slows down their growth and thus prevents them causing spoilage such as flavour taint or
25
Processing of Milk
souring. Although, the main purpose of heat treatment is to destroy all microorganisms capable of causing disease in humans but pasteurization has two additional benefits, i.e. the destruction of a large number of spoilage microorganisms present in raw milk and deactivation of some natural enzymes like lipases, which can adversely affect the quality of manufactured products, i.e. lipolysis or breakdown of fat into glycerol and free fatty acid. However, we must be clear that pasteurization is not a substitute for cleanliness during milk production. The pasteurization process should only be applied to raw milk obtained from healthy cow, which is clean, sweet and has a low bacterial count. Check Your Progress 1 1. Give two reasons for pasteurizing the milk. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. Describe the time-temperature combination normally used for milk pasteurization. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
5.3 THEORY OF PASTEURIZATION

We have understood that heating milk to selected time-temperature combination effectuates pasteurization to ensure destruction of all pathogenic microorganisms. Theoretically, aspect of pasteurization is the heat treatment applied to the milk to destroy pathogenic organisms. The process parameters of heat treatment or timetemperature combinations are elaborated below: (a) Limiting factors for heat treatment and (b) Types of heat treatment. i. Limiting Factors for Heat Treatment The upper and lower limits of temperature to pasteurization process are based on thermal death point of tubercle bacilli and beginning of reduction of the cream line. The thermal death time for tubercle bacilli provides the lower limit to heat treatment. The adverse effects on the commercial quality milk provide an upper limit for the possible time- temperature combinations used in pasteurization. As the cream line is the first quality to be affected, it is generally used as the standard indicator of changes in the chemical, biological and physical properties of milk caused by over heating. In the early 1920s, North and Park performed extensive tests by heating milk samples containing tubercle bacilli at different time-temperature combinations that destroyed all the tubercle bacilli present in them. The time-temperature combinations that destroy all tubercle bacilli are taken as thermal death points. Table 5.1 shows a number of thermal death points for tubercle bacilli. Table 5.1: Thermal Death Points for Tubercle Bacilli Temperature C 100.0 26 F 212 10 seconds Time
93.3 82.2 76.7 71.1 68.2 65.6 62.8 61.1 60.0 57.8 55.6
200 180 170 160 155 150 145 142 140 136 132
20 seconds 20 seconds 20 seconds 20 seconds 30 seconds 2 minutes 6 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes 30 minutes 60 minutes
Pasteurization
These thermal death points can also be plotted on a graph to give a thermal death line. Safety margin: This is the additional amount of heat treatment (time and temperature above the thermal death point of the tubercle bacillus) so that, under no circumstances, will any tubercle bacilli be left alive after correct routine operation of a pasteurizer. Certainly, a more intense heat treatment would obtain more efficient antibacterial results than pasteurization. On the other hand, the milk is not inert to heating; overheating adversely affects the appearance, taste, nutritional and technological value of milk. Combination of higher temperature and longer holding time-temperature are also recommended for HTST pasteurization of dairy products having higher contents of solids.
ii. Types of Heat Treatment

The heat treatment given in form of (i) holding and (ii) continuous correspondingly relate with two methods of pasteurization i.e.

Batch, holding or Low Temperature Long Time (LTLT) method and Continuous, High Temperature Short Time (HTST) method.
In the batch method, the milk is heated to 63C in a tank or vat equipped with a hot water or steam jacket and agitators to keep the milk agitated; held for 30 minutes and then partly cooled in the batch pasteurizer. The further cooling is done by surface/plate cooler. This method is mostly used for processing of around 5000 liters of milk. High Temperature-Short Time (HTST) pasteurization is the process, which is commonly used now a day all over the world. Plate Heat Exchanger (PHE) is used to heat, hold and cool the milk. Milk is heated to a temperature of at least 72C and held at that temperature for not less than 15 seconds and then immediately cooled to a temperature not greater than 4C. Check Your Progress 2 1. What are the different methods of pasteurization? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 27
Processing of Milk
2. Enumerate the temperaturetime combination for the two methods of pasteurization. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
5.4 BATCH PASTEURIZER

The parts of a typical batch pasteurizer are following:

Insulated outer casing Insulated hinged cover Stainless steel inner vessel Agitator and its motor Outlet cock and heating water distribution pipe.
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Insulated outer casing Insulated hinged cover Stainless steel inner vessel Agitator Agitator motor Outlet cock Heating water distribution pipe
e b c g a d
Figure 5.1: Batch Pasteurizer
28
This system is well suited for small-scale operation, where less than 3000 to 5000 litres of milk are available. The vat may be rectangular, but a vertical, cylindrical design is preferred for practical reasons. The vat normally consists of an inner vessel, surrounded by an insulated outer casting, thus forming a jacket, through which hot water or steam is passed (Figure 5.1). After the milk has reached the required temperature (63.0C), it is usually held at that temperature for a certain fixed period (30 minutes). Thereafter, it is cooled as quickly as possible either by circulating refrigerant/chilled water or through plate/surface chiller. Cooling the milk after pasteurization by circulating a refrigerant in most cases cold water
through the jacket or the vat may take much time. Therefore, a separate smallcapacity surface, tubular or plate cooler may be used to rapidly cool the milk to the required temperature. This system also has the advantage that the vat will be available sooner for the pasteurization of another batch of milk. Batch pasteurizers have a small heating surface area relative to their contents. Heat transfer is greatly improved by agitating the milk. Agitators of different design are used for this purpose. They may even consist of double-walled paddles or other devices with internal steam or water circulation. Care must be taken to avoid foam formation during filling of vat. It is very difficult to heat the milk and foam together uniformly and consequently microorganisms present in the foam may survive pasteurization. If the inlet valve is at the bottom of the vat, foam formation can easily be prevented. A lid or cover on top of the vat promotes a uniform temperature of the contents and prevents skin formation on the milk.
Pasteurization
5.5 HTST PASTEURIZER PLANT AND ITS COMPONENTS

The HTST system is the most common method used by the dairy plants for pasteurization of milk. The main advantage of HTST pasteurization is its capacity to heat treat milk quickly and adequately with built-in safeguards that prevent improper pasteurization due to under heating of milk. The HTST system employs plate heat exchangers for heating, regeneration and cooling. The system consists of feed pump, plate heat exchanger, holding section, flow diversion valve, instrumentation, essential services and piping system. The entire process is automatic and is ideal for handling of 5000 litres per hour (lph) or higher quantity of milk. This is a continuous flow process and also saves energy due to regeneration section (Figure 5.2). In order to understand a pasteurizer let us go systematically for:
Figure 5.2: Flow diagram of high temperature short time pasteurizer (H.T.S.T.)
29
Processing of Milk
Flow diagram of process; Different compartments/sections; Plate heat exchanger, which is the main part; and Instrumentation
i. Flow diagram of pasteurization process

The schematic flow diagram of HTST pasteurization is given in Figure 5.3. Raw milk enters the constant heat tank (balance tank), passes to the milk pump and then through a flow controller to the plate heat exchanger. The plate heat exchanger consists of regeneration section, heating, holding and cooling sections.
30
Figure 5.3: Flow Diagram of Pasteurization
The raw milk enters the pre-heating (regeneration section), where hot pasteurized milk (72C) flows counter current to the raw cold milk, within adjacent plates, transferring heat for pre-heating of raw milk and pre-cooling of pasteurizing milk resulting in energy saving. The partially heated raw milk passes through a filter or clarifier and homogenizer. It then enters the heating section where it is heated to at least 72C. The hot milk then passes through the holding section to ensure that the fastest moving particles of milk are held at 72C for at least 15 seconds. The flow diversion valve diverts the milk to constant head tank if it is not properly heated to pasteurization temperature. Properly pasteurized milk passes forward through the flow diversion valve into the regeneration section where it is cooled by incoming cold raw milk passing in the opposite direction on the other side of the plates. Milk enters the cooling section and is cooled at 4C before storage. An indicating thermometer situated at the outlet of the holding section measures the temperature of the hot milk and this is recorded on a revolving thermograph. If the temperature of the milk falls below 72C, the hot milk-recording pen drops past the set pointer on the thermograph and this activates the flow diversion value, the safeguard pen and an alarm bell. The flow diversion valve diverts the unheated milk into the constant head tank for re-circulation until the milk reaches the correcting temperature.
Pasteurization
ii. Components of a HTST Pasteurization Plant

The complete pasteurizer plant consist of:

Constant head tank Milk feed pump Flow controller Filters Clarifier Homogenizer Plate heat exchanger consisting of bank of plates compartmentalized into regeneration, heating, holding and cooling sections, Flow diversion valve Instruments associated with indicating controlling and/or recorded functions, Systems for providing steam, air, water, heating and cooling arrangements, and Piping system to link various components
iii. Plate Heat Exchanger (PHE)

The Plate Heat Exchanger consists of a bank of plates inter-connected (sections) held in a rigid frame (figure 5.4). The main function of the PHE is the exchange or transfer of heat from a hot liquid (hot water or hot pasteurized milk) to a cooler one (cold water, chilled water brine or raw milk) across a metal plate. Let us see how the heat is transferred through plates. Plates: The plates are thin stainless steel sheets usually rectangular in shape. The plates are corrugated and cause a turbulent flow, which increases rate of heat exchange. The rate of heat exchange also depends on the surface area of the plate, the thickness and type of metal used in the plates, the rate and direction of flow of the liquids and the difference in temperature between the two liquids involved in the heat exchange process. An approximate 3-8 mm space is maintained between the plates by a non-absorbent rubber seal, which is bonded around the edges of the plate. The liquids, which are sandwiched among the plates, enter and leave the interspaces through holes in the corners of the plates. Open and blind holes route the liquids from one set of plates
31
Processing of Milk
Figure 5.4: Plate Heat Exchanger
to another. The capacity of the pasteurizer is secured by a corresponding number of plates. Regeneration sections: The bank of plates is usually divided into four sections separated by connector grids with inlet and outlet bosses. In the regeneration section, the incoming cold milk is heated by the hot pasteurized milk and the pasteurized milk is cooled by transferring heat to the cooling medium. This heat transfers process work most effectively when the two liquids involved flow in opposite direction, i.e. counter current flow on either side of the plates. Regeneration section raises the raw milk temperature from 4C to 67C and cools the pasteurized milk from 72C to 10C. Thus, PHE saves about 92% of heating and cooling energy. The regeneration efficiency is calculated by using the following formula: % Regeneration = temperature increase due to regeneration/ total temperature increase For example: The cold milk enters the pasteurizer at 4C and attains a temperature of 60C after regeneration. The final pasteurization temperature is 72C. Calculate the regeneration efficiency. Increase in Temperature due to regeneration: 600C-40C=560C Total Temperature Increase: 720C-40C= 680C 32 % Regeneration efficiency: 560C/680C = 82.36%
Steam-heated hot water or vacuum steam is used in heating section to raise the partly heated raw milk to pasteurization temperature. The holding section is either plate type or tube type. The plate type will have a number of plates. The partly cooled pasteurized milk is further cooled in cooling section to 4C.
Pasteurization
iv. Instrumentation
The instruments associated with the pasteurization plant are used for performing three functions (Table 5.2). Table 5.2: Instruments associated with pasteurizer and their functions S.No. 1. 2. Type of Instrument Indicating Controlling Function(s) Temperature (Milk, hot water, Chilled water), Steam & air pressure Operating the flow diversion valve, operating the steam regulating valve in the heating system Recording the hot and cold milk temperatures and recording the frequency and duration of diversions
3.
Recording functions
Check Your Progress 3 1. Describe the constructional and operational details of a batch pasteurizer. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. Describe the steps involved in the operation of a milk pasteurizer (HTST). ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
5.6 OPERATION OF PASTEURIZATION PLANT

We have studied the importance of pasteurization process and the important components of a pasteurization plant. Now let us see the operations involved in running of a pasteurization plant and how to cope with operational problems.
i. Starting the Plant

The following steps should be followed to start the plant: a) Start the air compressor; b) Switch on the control panel mains; c) Fill the hot water tank, start the hot water pump; d) Open the air vents e) Start flow of the milk to the float controlled balance tank f) Start the milk pump g) Close the air vents when the milk coming out from them indicates that all air has been displaced. 33
Processing of Milk
h) Set the temperature controller to maintain the milk at 72C. i) Turn on cold water and chilled water and hot water set.
ii. Shut down of the Plant

For shutting down the plant, at the end of the milk run: a) Make available in the storage tank a sufficient quantity of water (approx. equal to the capacity of the plant). b) As the last milk is leaving the float balance tank, tip in the water from the tank. c) When the last of the water is leaving the float balance, turn the three-way cock at the finished milk outlet so that the flow is diverted to the floor. d) Place a hose in the float balance tank and flush the plant thoroughly with water until the discharge from the finished milk outlet becomes clear. e) Turn off the cold water, brine or chilled water in the cooling sections. f) Shut off the steam supply to the hot water set. g) Admit cold water to the hot water tank and run until the plant is cold. h) Stop the milk and hot water pumps. i) If brine is used, flush out with running water. j) Turn off the air supply and the main electric switch at the panel. Thereafter, the plant must be thoroughly cleaned.
iii. Cleaning and Sterilization of the Plant
Cleaning the plant: Cleaning is done after completion of pasteurization process. The milk supply is stopped to constant head tank by turning off the valve of Raw Milk Storage Tank. Clarifier and homogenizer are stopped. The water is added to the constant head tank. Hot water temperature is set at 70C. Primary detergent solution is circulated for 20-30 minutes. Flush the system with lukewarm water. Secondary detergent solution is circulated for 20-30 minutes. Flush the plant with water. Sterilization: The plant can be sterilized by hot water or sodium hypochlorite solution. The raw milk tank and pasteurized milk tank are bypassed and hot water (87-90C) is circulated for 10 minutes. The sterilization is done before running the plant with milk for pasteurization.
iv. Pasteurization of milk

The operation of plant with the milk is called running of the plant. The plant is started. It is sterilized. The plant is run on water. The standardization is done to check the flow, operation of flow diversion valve, heating temperature and cooling temperature. The homogenizer pressure is also set in according to requirements. The flow of milk from raw milk tank to pasteurized milk tank is monitored.
v. Trouble shooting
Pasteurizing problems may occur during start up procedures or during the run. When a problem occurs it is important to be able to identify the problems from the symptoms, identify the cause of the problem and take the appropriate action towards solving the problem. If the problem causes a delay in processing it is advisable to turn off essential services such as steam and heating and cooling system to prevent burn on in the heating section and a freeze up in the cooling system. The common problems and their remedial measures are given in practical exercises. These could be grouped in three broad areas: (i) inadequacy in achieving temperature, (ii) chocking of plates and (iii) leaking plant assembly. The broad reasons for these are given here. 34 (i) Inadequacy in achieving temperature : The possible reasons are: inadequate
steam supply, faulty temperature controllers, air in milk and improper assembly of plates. (ii) (iii) Chocking of plates : Fouling, high milk temperature, high milk acidity and inadequate filtering of milk could be the reasons for chocking of the plant. Leaking plant assembly : The reasons are: damaged and worn gaskets, damaged plates and wrongly fitted plates.
Pasteurization
vi. Preventive maintenance

Preventive maintenance will help to control damage, excessive wear and tear and occurrence of accidents. Preventive maintenance can be divided into two areas, (i) avoiding damage to the plant and equipment and (ii) observations and inspection of plant and equipment. Avoiding damage consists of basically the careful handling of machinery and equipment. The regular inspection of the plant and equipment is important as a part of preventive maintenance, and may include: a) Periodical tests may be made to check the flow rates of heating medium, cooling medium and milk. b) The recording instruments such as thermometers, etc must be periodically checked for accuracy. c) Air operated instruments should be supplied with clean air. d) The plate surfaces and gaskets must be checked during the manual cleaning of plants. e) Filter cloth/filters must be changed at regular intervals. f) The faces of the plate bar and tightening spindle should be lightly coated with grease.
5.7 TEST FOR PASTEURIZATION EFFICIENCY

Phosphatase Test: Phosphatase test is done to determine whether milk has been properly pasteurized or not immediately after pasteurization of milk. The test is based on the principle that alkaline phosphatase, a natural enzyme present in raw milk, is simultaneously deactivated by heat treatment as specified for pasteurization. When milk-containing phosphatase is incubated with p-nitro phenyl di-sodium ortho phosphate, it hydrolyses the substrate and, as a result, para-nitro phenol is liberated which gives a yellow colour under alkaline condition of the test. The amount of the yellow colour present is directly proportional to the amount of phosphatase present in milk. The presence of yellow colour indicates inefficient pasteurization or postpasteurization contamination of the milk. The intensity of the colour is compared with standard and lavibond comparator disc. Check Your Progress 4 1. Name two methods for sterilizing the pasteurizer. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. Write the importance of phosphtase test. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 35
Processing of Milk
5.8 LET US SUM UP

Pasteurization is a key process in dairy plant operations in which heat treatment is given to milk to destroy all pathogenic bacteria. It extends the keeping quality of liquid milk by destroying most of the milk spoilage organisms. It safeguards public health and ensures good quality manufactured products. There are two methods of pasteurization of milk (i) Low Temperature Long Time (LTLT) method and (ii) High Temperature Short Time Method (HTST). LTLT method is used in dairy processing less than 5000 litres of milk. The most commonly method adopted consists of heating the milk in continuous flow to a minimum temperature of 72C and maintaining it at this temperature for not less than 15 seconds after which the milk is rapidly cooled to 4C. This is known as the High Temperature Short Time (HTST) process. The principal item of equipment required for HTST pasteurization is a Plate Heat Exchanger (PHE) and usually this is of the plate type. The main function of the PHE is to exchange or transfer of heat from a hot liquid to a cooler one. The bank of plates is grouped into different sections called as Regeneration, Heating and Cooling Section. The holding section can be either plate type or tube type. Raw milk enters into Plant Heat exchange of the plate heat exchanger and its temperature is increased from 4C to 67C. The heated raw milk is further heated in heating section upto 72C and kept for 15 seconds and then pass through Flow Diversion Valve (FDV) and milk is forwarded to regeneration section where properly pasteurized milk is cooled from 72C to 10C. The cooled milk enters the chilling section and is further cooled to 4C. The pasteurization plant is equipped with instruments to indicate and control the temperature and also to performed the other related functions for efficient pasteurization of milk. Different operations like starting, sterilizing, cleaning and running of the plant should be done in a correct way and the standardized procedure/steps should be followed as specified by the manufacturer of the plant. The periodic inspection of the different components of the plant is essential to ensure its proper functioning and trouble free service.
5.9 KEY WORDS

Corrugated Taint Thermal Thermograph Turbulence Valve Organoleptic Pathogen : : : : : : : : bent into regular curves, folds or grooves objectionable foreign flavour determined, measured or operated by heat a self-registering thermometer violent commotion a dense attached to a pipe to control the passage of air, steam or gas sensory properties flavour (smell & taste), colour and texture an agent that causes diseases.

Dairy Handbook. (1985). Alfa-Laval, Food Eng AB, PO Box 64, Lund, S-22100, Sweden. De, Sukumar. (1980). Outlines of Dairy Technology, Oxford University Press Bombay 36 ICAR. (2002). Handbook of Animal Husbandry, Third Revised Edition New
Delhi Chapter on Dairying contributed by B. N. Mathur & D. K. Thompkinson Khan M. E. (1998) Milk Processing, Dairy Technology Textbook for Class XI. NCERT, Delhi. NDDB. (1980). Milk Processing Manual, NDDB, PO Box 40, Anand Manual for Milk Pasteurizer Operators. Victoria Milk Distribution Association.
Pasteurization
5.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Your answer should include the following points: Check Your Progress 1 1) i. ii. To make safe for human consumption by destroying pathogenic microorganisms present in milk. To improve the keeping quality of milk.
Check Your Progress 2 2) i. ii. Batch, holding or Low Temperature Long Time (LTLT):63C for 30 minutes. Continuous, High Temperature Short Time (HTST): 72 C for 15 seconds.
Check Your Progress 3 3) i. The components of a pasteurization plant: milk feed pump, constant head tank, flow controller, plate heat exchanger, filter, clarifier, homogenizer, flow diversion valve, instruments to record temperatures, systems for heating and cooling and piping system.
Check Your Progress 4 4) i. ii. Two methods are (i) Hot water sterilization, and (ii) Sodium hypo chloride sterilization. Phosphatase test is done to determine whether milk has been properly pasteurized or not.
37
Processing of Milk
UNIT 6
Structure 6.0 6.1 6.2
HOMOGENIZATION
Objectives Introduction Homogenization: Theories and Process Description

Definition of homogenized milk Theories of homogenization Advantages and disadvantages of homogenized milk Viscolised milk Design and operation of homogenizers High pressure homogenization technology Vacuum homogenization Checking the efficiency of homogenization
6.3
Influence of process variables on the processing efficiency and product quality

Factors affecting homogenization efficiency Effect of homogenization on milk properties Problems/Defects associated with homogenized milk
6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8
Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Some Questions to Check Your Progress
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit we should be able to:

define homogenization; explain the theories governing the homogenization process; describe the homogenizer design and operations; comprehend the innovations in homogenization technology; specify factors that affect homogenization efficiency; state the effect of homogenization on various physico-chemical properties of milk; enumcrate various problems associated with the homogenized milk.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Milk is an oil-in-water emulsion. Fat globules in the milk are dispersed in a continuous water phase (skim milk) and normally vary in sizes ranging from 1 mm to 22 mm, with a mean size of approximately 3-4 mm. As the density of milk fat is less than that of skim milk, the fat globules tend to rise to the surface during storage and form a cream layer. The rise of fat globules follows Stokes law where the velocity of rising fat globules is expressed as: d2 (rs - rf) V a 38 18 h
Where, d = diameter of the fat globule, rs = density of the serum phase, rf = density of milk fat and n = viscosity of milk serum. Very small fat globules (<1 mm) remain suspended in the serum phase due to brownian motion and adversely affect the creaming phenomenon. The presence of cryoglobulins in the raw milk causes agglomeration of fat globules, which subsequently have increased tendency to rise to the surface. Homogenization is a mechanical process in which milk is forced through a homogenization valve under very high pressure. The milk is thus deflected at right angles through a narrow opening of about 0.1 nm (100mm). As the milk comes out of this valve opening, there is sudden drop in pressure and the milk is subjected to impact against an impact ring. This complete process results in disruption of fat globules leading to decrease in the average diameter (typically from 0.2 to 2 mm) and an increase in the number and surface area of fat globules. Homogenization with reference to milk/ dairy applications thus refers to a mechanical process that is used to reduce the size of fat globules such that milk fat does not rise to form a cream layer during storage of milk. Although homogenization renders fat globules uniformly distributed in the body of the milk, upon prolonged storage it does not remain completely dispersed.
Homogenization
6.2 HOMOGENIZATION: THEORIES AND PROCESS DESCRIPTION

i. Definition of Homogenized Milk
United State Public Health Service has proposed one of the most comprehensive definitions for homogenized milk. This has been the most widely accepted and referred definition. It states that Homogenized milk is milk which has been treated in such manner as to ensure break-up of the fat globules to such an extent that after 48 hours of quiescent storage no visible cream separation occurs in the milk and the fat percentage of the milk in the top 100 ml of milk in a quart bottle (946ml), or of the proportionate volumes in containers of other sizes, does not differ by more than 10 per cent of itself from the fat percentage of the remaining milk as determined after thorough mixing.
ii. Theories of Homogenization

The principle underlying the process of homogenization is to subject the fat globule to enough severe conditions, which disrupts it into smaller globules. The newly formed fat globules are maintained in dispersion for sufficient time to allow milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) to be formed at the fat-serum interface. The following theories have been proposed to be responsible for the entire phenomenon. Shearing or Grinding: As milk is passed at high pressure (velocity ~ 200-300 m s-1) through the homogenizer valve (~ 100 mm gap), fat globules undergo shearing action. The shear between fat globules and the surface of the homogenizer wall coupled with wire drawing effect results in elongation of the fat globules which progressively becomes unstable. These phenomenon result in subdivision of the fat globules. Furthermore, the difference in velocity of the faster moving serum phase at the centre of the liquid stream as compared to the liquid near the edge of the stream causes the fat globules to grind against each other. The turbulence created by the difference in velocity and eddy currents of the liquid add to the shear effects and thus enhance the process of disruption of the fat globules. Exploding: This theory suggests that during homogenization, there is build up of tremendous pressure. When this pressure is suddenly released, the internal pressures
39
Processing of Milk
within the fat globules pull the globule apart with exploding effect. This results in disintegration or subdivision of fat globules into smaller globules. Splashing/Shattering: As the high homogenizing pressure is attained in the homogenizer, the homogenizing valve releases the highly compressed milk at very high velocity. The liquid suddenly strikes a retaining wall/ perpendicular surface. This causes splashing or shattering effect on the fat globules resulting in break down of globules into smaller sizes. Acceleration and Deceleration: This theory relates sudden change in velocity of milk as it passes through homogenizer to the homogenization effect. When milk enters the homogenizer valve, velocity of milk changes from almost static to very high velocity. As it comes out of the valve, there is sudden deceleration at a rate at which it was accelerated. This sudden change in velocity results in shattering effect leading to division of fat globules. Cavitation: It is postulated that as the milk passes through the homogenization valve, the initial homogenization pressure decreases sharply due to sudden increase in the velocity of milk. Depending on the back pressure that exists outside the homogenizer valve, the pressure can drop to as low as the saturated vapour pressure of liquid. This leads to formation of vapour bubbles due to cavitation. Cavitation generates shock waves, which could be in excess of 1600 kg/cm2 in intensity. Due to overlapping of these shock waves, disintegration of the fat globules may occur.
iii. Advantages and Disadvantages of Homogenized Milk

Advantages

Prevents removal of fat/cream from milk Homogenized milk results in softer curd and therefore easily digested by infants Churning of fat does not occur during bulk transportation Fat is uniformly distributed and therefore gives uniform consistency Homogenized milk is comparatively resistant to development of oxidized flavour defect
Disadvantages

Homogenization offers possibility of incorporation of foreign fat into milk Homogenized milk is prone to development of sunlight or activated flavour defect Homogenized milk if returned unsold from the market is difficult to salvage as centrifugal separation of fat is not possible
iv. Viscolised Milk

Viscolised milk refers to a product, which has unusually deep cream/fat layer resulting from admixing of homogenized cream, skim milk and/or whole milk. The homogenized fat forms very loose clumps with the unhomogenized fat globules and rise to the surface giving an appearance of deep cream layer. The unfair traders who first separate the cream, homogenize it and then remix with the skim milk sometimes practice it. This gives the remixed milk a very rich and creamy surface appearance and thus deceives the consumers.
v. Design and Operation of Homogenizers

There are several types of homogenizer valves and therefore designs of homogenizers vary depending on the manufacturers. However, many homogenizers used in the dairy industry have been developed based on the principles introduced by Gaulin. Homogenizers essentially consist of two components a piston pump to generate high pressure and a homogenizing valve.
40
The homogenizer pump is generally a positive displacement pump with at least three and sometimes five or seven pistons, which operate consecutively to generate steady pressure. Single piston pumps generate pulsating output with fluctuating pressure thereby resulting in poor homogenization. The pump block is generally made of stainless steel but the piston seal rings are of a soft composite material. Homogenizer valves, used for milk may be either a poppet type or ball type. A poppet design has relatively large contact surfaces and provides close fitting seal. If maintained properly, poppet valves give better performance with low viscosity liquids like milk. Ball valves can exert greater pressure on the much small seal area and are therefore, suitable for high viscosity liquids or suspensions with smaller particles. Milk from high pressure manifold enters into the centre of the valve seat. The internal diameter of the valve seat is smaller than the manifold. As it passes into the narrow gap between the fixed and the adjustable faces of this valve, milk velocity gets accelerated. The gap is maintained against the feed pressure by a counter force exerted by an adjustable heavy duty spring. Shear effects result from the high velocity gradients between the liquid and the surface of the homogenizing valve. Turbulence also results from the high velocity of the liquid in the valve, causing eddy currents within the flow. Liquid which passes across the valve at about 200-300 m s-1 suddenly drops in pressure to below saturation vapour pressure. This permits microscopic bubbles to form for a few microseconds before collapsing. The high velocity jet of milk then impinges on a perpendicular impact ring. These effects contribute to the disruption of the fat globules. Homogenizer valves are made of very tough corrosion resisting alloys such as stellite. Better resistance to corrosion can be achieved by using tungsten carbide and ceramic valves, which are used by many manufacturers in modern homogenizers.
B Milkout
Homogenization
Handle C A Milk enters into the centre of the valve seat B Milk out C Heavy Duty Spring
Sectional view of single-stage Gaulin type homogenizing valve
As the fat globules are subdivided into smaller globules, there is increased surface area of the newly homogenized fat globules. The original milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) material is not sufficient to cover this. Proteins, particularly casein micelles migrate from serum phase to form new membrane material with the existing MFGM. This may result in sharing of the casein micelles and therefore some aggregation of fat globules could take place thus defeating the purpose of homogenization. A second stage homogenization therefore, becomes essential at reduced pressure (almost 20% of the first stage pressure (175 kg/cm2) or upto 35 kg/cm2). This enables aggregated fat globules to be disrupted for formation of stable emulsion of finely dispersed fat globules.
41
Processing of Milk
vi. High Pressure Homogenization Technology

With significant improvement in understanding of machine design, material strength and fluid mechanical knowledge, homogenizers with higher pressure capabilities have been developed. Such high pressure homogenizers could be operating based on two principles: (1) Conventional valve type homogenizer operating at a far higher pressure; (ii) Micro-fluidization based on the principle of collisions between high speed liquid jets. Conventional Valve Type High Pressure Homogenizers (HPH): Such high pressure homogenizers work on the principle of conventional ball-and-seat type homogenizer valve. Highly abrasive resistant and durable components of high pressure homogenizers are made from best quality stainless steel, high alloy compositions and new ceramic materials. This allows these systems to operate at pressures upto 2550 kg/cm2 or more. Besides the regular use in emulsion formation, these high pressure homogenizers find applications in inactivation of enzymes and bacteriophages and also in destruction of micro-organisms. Destruction of bacterial cells by HPH is due to several physical phenomenon viz., pressure drop, cavitation, shearing, turbulance and collision. These systems can be therefore, used as a combined process for pasteurization and homogenization. Microfluidization Technology: The microfluidizer operates under a different principle as in this case the liquid being processed is divided into micro streams that are so projected that these collide with each other. The essential design features of micro-fluidizers include a double acting intensifier pump and an interaction chamber. The intensifier pump, which is either air-driven or electric-hydraulic driven, forces milk/product at high pressure through the interaction chamber. The interaction chamber has fixed-geometry micro-channels, which divides the product into streams. These streams, which accelerate to a very high velocity, are made to collide against each other. Shear and impact that occur lead to homogenization effect. These micro-fluidizers are capable of generating pressures upto 2800kg/cm2. As in case of conventional valve homogenizers, microfluidizers too bring about changes in the fat and protein fractions of milk thereby altering some physico-chemical properties of milk.
vii. Vacuum Homogenization

This innovation in the homogenization technology is based on the discrete pulse energy input theory. In vacuum homogenization, energy is introduced discretely into the liquid (milk) through powerful short-time impulses. The homogenizer unit, placed in the HTST pasteurization line has two condensing chambers. The chilled milk is first pumped to condenser-I where it is heated to 20oC and subsequently to 30oC in condenser-II. Milk then enters regeneration section of the pasteurizer where it is heated to 65oC. It is then delivered to 1st stage vacuum (homogenization) chamber through a special nozzle. As a result of flashing effect, bubbles are formed in the milk as it falls in the vacuum chamber maintained at 0.15 to 0.2 kg/cm2. Due to the pressure changes taking place, the bubbles either show high frequency pulsation and release energy or collapse producing shockwave effect in the product. The bubbles therefore burst into smaller units and the fat globules are divided into smaller globules. As the milk enters 2nd stage homogenization chamber, further breakdown of fat globules takes place. The outgoing milk passes through regeneration section followed by chilling section to finally attain 5oC temperature. Besides the generally accepted homogenization effect, the other major advantages offered by this vacuum homogenizer are deodourization, reduced acidity and partial suppression of microbial activity. These systems also claim to be economical as it consumes almost 2.5 times less power than the valve type high pressure homogenizer.
viii. Checking the Efficiency of Homogenization

42 The method recommended by the United States Public Health Service has been the
most widely used for checking the homogenization efficiency. It is performed by subjecting a specified volume (one quart) of milk to quiescent storage for 48 hours and then testing the fat in upper 100 ml and the remainder of milk. For properly homogenized milk, the percent difference in both the top 100 ml and the remainder milk should not be more than 10 per cent. Check Your Progress 1 1. What is stocks law and how it is related to creaming phenomenon? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. How would you define homogenized milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 3. How would you relate shearing or grinding action with homogenization? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 4. What is the theory of cavitation? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 5. List out the different theories of homogenization ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 6. What is viscolised milk ? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 7. How would you describe the homogenizer pump? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 8. Name the types of homogenizer valves and explain their suitability for milk processing .....................................................................................................................
Homogenization
43
Processing of Milk
..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 9. What are the materials of construction of homogenizer pumps and valves? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 10. Why is a two stage homogenization often recommended for milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 11. Describe the special features and applications of conventional valve type high pressure homogenizers. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 12. Describe the working of a micro-fluidizer. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 13. Describe the working of a vacuum homogenization system. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 14. How would you check the homogenization efficiency? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
6.3 INFLUENCE OF PROCESS VARIABLES ON THE PROCESSING EFFICIENCY AND PRODUCT QUALITY
i. Factors Affecting Homogenization Efficiency
Type of Homogenizing Valves: Design of homogenizer valve affects homogenization efficiency. Grooved valves require less homogenization pressure to attain same degree of homogenization pressures as compared to either simple valve with flat seat or needle valve. 44
Homogenization Pressure: The recommended pressure ranges for homogenization of milk is 140-175 kg/cm2. If the homogenizer is in perfect working condition i.e. the homogenizer valves are not worn out and are well seated, a homogenizer pressure of 175 kg/cm2 should give good homogenization efficiency. Some modern valves may, however, give satisfactory performance at lower homogenization pressure as well. Higher pressure of homogenization however does not improve the efficiency any further. Single or Two Stage Homogenization: Two stage homogenization is often recommended because broken fat globules after first stage homogenization (175 kg/ cm2) may have a tendency to agglomerate. In order to re-disperse them, homogenization at reduced pressure (35 kg/cm2) may be thus necessary in the second stage. A homogenization process of two or more stages does not however affect the mean particle size of the fat globules in any significant way. Modern homogenizer designs permit two stage homogenization with a single machine. Effect of Fat Content in Milk: Homogenization becomes less effective with increasing fat content. When high fat milk is homogenized, the newly created total fat globule surface becomes so large that materials required to form new membranes for all the fat globules is not sufficiently availably in the serum phase. Thus the newly formed fat globules may have a tendency to agglomerate and rise to the surface during storage. Effect of Temperature of Homogenization: Milk can be homogenized over a wide range of temperature provided the homogenization temperature is above the melting point of milk fat (32OC). However, a temperature in excess of 50OC is often recommended which is necessary to inactive nature lipases. It lipase is not inactivated; it acts as a surface active agent and becomes incorporated into the newly formed membranes thereby causing hydrolytic rancidity in the product. Raw milk is therefore not to be homogenized. The recommended temperatures for attaining high degree of homogenization (80-90%) are therefore between 60 and 70 OC. Higher homogenization temperatures are also recommended for high fat milk. This is so because at higher temperatures, less protein is adsorbed during the formation of a new fat globule membrane. Furthermore, the membranes are formed more rapidly and thus the tendency of the fat globules to agglomerate is significantly reduced.
Homogenization
ii. Effect of Homogenization on Physico-Chemical Properties of Milk

Effect on Fat: Homogenized milk drains more freely out of the glass container leaving less milk sticking to the sides. This lack of adhesion is attributed to the reduction in size of the fat globules and the protection provided to these globules by the adsorption of higher proportion of casein. Homogenized milk with normal fat content does not have marked clustering of fat globules. This lack of clustering is attributed to:

destruction of natural agglutinin of milk during homogenization. resurfacing of the fat globules. increased brownian movement resulting from greatly increased number of fat globules.
Proper homogenization however, does not cause any change in important fat constants or physico-chemical properties. Effect on Protein: The fat globule membrane is composed of approximately 1/3 phospholipids and 2/3 protein. The membrane acts as an emulsifier to keep the emulsion stable. During homogenization, the original membrane is destroyed and the surface active agents in the serum phase get adsorbed on the fat globules to form a new membrane. The new membrane consists mainly of casein as well as serum proteins. While only 2% casein in milk is adsorbed on the fat globules in un-
45
Processing of Milk
homogenized milk, in homogenized milk almost 25% of casein is adsorbed as part of fat globule membrane. Homogenization is often associated with destabilization of proteins. This destabilization effect is reflected in reduced alcohol stability, increased feathering of cream in coffee and in coagulation during the manufacture of evaporated milk. This destabilization effect is partly attributed to adsorption of citrates and phosphates on the newly formed fat globule membrane, which lowers their concentration in the serum phase thereby adversely affecting the protein stability. Colour of Milk: Homogenization results in more uniform, opaque and whiter milk which make the product more acceptable to the consumers. The increased whitening is due to the increase in number and total surface area of fat globules, which reflect and scatter more light. Emulsion Stability: It is practically not possible to churn homogenized milk. However, with increasing fat content, the emulsion stability decreases. Curd Tension: Homogenized milk has greater tendency to form coagulum and requires less coagulating agent. The resultant coagulum has lower curd tension and a soft, spongy body. Homogenization at recommended pressure of 175 kg/cm2 causes the curd tension to be lowered by more than 50%. The possible reason for this effect of homogenization on curd tension is attributed to the increase in the number of fat globules, which serve as the points of weakness in the coagulum. Further, nearly 25% of the casein get adsorbed on the fat globules during the formation of new fat globule membranes as against only 2% of the total casein adsorbed on the surface of the fat globules in un-homogenized milk. This results in lower casein concentration in the serum phase thereby lowering the curd tension. Fat losses in the cheese whey are however low as the finely divided fat globules are retained in the curd due to adsorption of casein micelles on their surface. Viscosity: Single stage homogenization causes increase in viscosity. This is brought about by formation of fat clusters, which results from membranes of newly formed fat globules joining together although fat itself is not in contact. When the milk is subjected to second stage homogenization, the fat globule clusters are disintegrated/ broken down resulting in decrease in viscosity. The degree of clustering of the fat globules is directly proportional to the viscosity. A high fat content, a high homogenization pressure and a low homogenization temperature can significantly increase the fat clustering and hence the viscosity of milk. Preheating of milk at temperatures that promote whey protein denaturation also reduces membrane formation and hence increases agglomeration of fat globules.
iii. Problems/ Defects Associated with Homogenized Milk

Curdling During Cooking/Sterilization: Homogenized milk is some times more susceptible to curdling when it is used in certain food preparations requiring cooking. This is in part related to reduced protein stability of homogenized milk as also to the seasoning salts added as an ingredient in the new food formulation. Recovery of Fat During Centrifugal Separation: Milk fat is difficult to separate from the homogenized milk. If the milk has been homogenized at the generally accepted homogenization pressure of 175 kg/cm2, a significant portion (50-90%) of the fat remain in the skim milk after centrifugal separation. Even addition of homogenized milk with un-homogenized milk and then centrifugal separation does not yield a satisfactory result. The recovery of fat from homogenized milk is a serious problem for commercial dairies which receive significant quantities of processed milk as returns from the market and need to salvage fat for economic operation of the plant. Formation of Cream Plug: Appearance of scum or buttery particles on the surface of the homogenized milk is objectionable. Sometimes, fat rising in
46
homogenized milk is to such an extent that a compact ring of creamy material is visible under the container closure often referred as cream plug. Several factors such as worn out or poorly maintained homogenizer valve, improper homogenization pressure, excessive foaming, improper cleaning of processing lines and failure to recycle the first few liters of milk coming out of the homogenizer lead to such defects in the product. Sedimentation: Appearance of sediments in homogenized milk upon storage could be a serious problem. This defect is often ascribed to settling of the extraneous matters such as body cells and dirt as also to destabilization of proteins during homogenization. However, clarification of milk before homogenization reduces the amount of deposits significantly whereas clarification after homogenization prevents this defect entirely. Foaming: Though not a serious problem, excessive foaming in homogenized milk poses handling difficulties. The two possible reasons for this could be inclusion of air as a result of splashing or excessive agitation of the homogenized milk or homogenizing the air into the milk during processing. However, improving the handling procedure during homogenization can largely eliminate this problem. Flavour Defects of Homogenized Milk: The most important flavour defect associated with homogenized milk is sunlight flavour, sometimes referred as tallowiness, burnt like or activated flavour. This develops due to oxidation of free methionine and formation of free SH compounds from sulfur containing amino acids. Development of sunlight flavour also requires riboflavin. Probably, all of these compounds are together responsible for sunlight flavour. The possible reasons for sensitivity of homogenized milk for development of these flavour defects could be the effect of the light upon the increased protein surface following homogenization. Homogenized milk is however resistant to development of oxidized flavour defect. This could be attributed to the formation of new fat globule membranes resulting in dilution of catalytic metals viz., copper and iron, which are concentrated in the native MFGM, thereby minimizing direct contact between the fat and the metal ions. Check Your Progress 2 1. Why does high fat content in milk affect homogenization efficiency adversely? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. Why raw milk is not homogenized? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 3. Why relatively high heating temperatures are recommended for homogenization of high fat milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
Homogenization
47
Processing of Milk
4. Why is homogenized milk sometimes less stable? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 5. Why homogenized milk is whiter? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 6. Why homogenized milk forms softer curd? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 7. What factors are responsible for increase in viscosity of homogenized milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 8. How does fat recovery from homogenized milk affect economic efficiency of liquid milk processing plants? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 9. What factors contribute to formation of cream plug in homogenized milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 10. Describe the most common flavour defect associated with homogenized milk. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
6.4 LET US SUM UP

Milk is an oil-in-water emulsion, in which fat globules are dispersed in a continuous skim milk phase. As milk fat has less density than the plasma phase, it has a natural tendency to rise to the surface and form cream layer. To overcome this problem, milk is subjected to a mechanical treatment referred as homogenization. During homogenization, milk heated to a temperature of 60-70oC is passed through a tiny orifice under very high pressure such that as a result of shearing, turbulence, cavitation and impact there is decrease in the diameter and increase in the number
48
and surface area of the fat globules. Homogenizer essentially consists of two major components: a piston pump and the homogenizer valve. New generation homogenization technologies such as microfluidization, however work based on a different principle involving collision of thin streams of liquid. Microfluidizers are capable of operating at very high pressures and serve more functions than mere homogenization. Homogenization efficiency is determined by several factors including the valve design, the homogenization pressure, single or double stages of homogenization and the temperature of homogenization. Homogenization affects several physico-chemical properties of milk including the plasma protein, the fat globule membrane composition, colour, curd tension and viscosity. One of the major problems associated with the homogenized milk is its susceptibility to development of sunlight or activated flavour defect.
Homogenization
6.5 KEY WORDS

Alcohol stability : It refers to stability of milk to definite concentrations of alcohol and is a measure of colloidal stability of milk to heat. The alcohol test is used as the initial classification of milk. It is zigzag, irregular motion exhibited by minute particles of matter when suspended in a fluid. It is named after the botanist Robert Brown who observed (1827) the movement of plant spores floating in water. The effect, being independent of all external factors, is ascribed to the thermal motion of the molecules of the fluid. Brownian motion is observed for particles about 0.001 mm in diameter. Cavitation is the formation of pockets of vapor in a liquid. This process is caused by low pressures in the liquid. When the local ambient pressure at a point in the liquid falls below the liquids vapor pressure, the liquid undergoes a phase change to a gas, creating bubbles, or, more accurately, cavities, in the liquid. It is a colloid in which both phases are liquids. Milk is an oil-in-water emulsion. It refers to coagulation of cream forming small flakes which is a body and texture defect of fluid dairy products It is the heart of homogenizer assembly. It essentially comprises of a narrow opening through which the thin flow of milk passes. This creates conditions of high turbulence and shear, combined with compression, acceleration, pressure drop, and impact thereby resulting in disintegration of particles and dispersion throughout the product. They are the group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of fats into glycerol and fatty acids. Lipases are naturally present in milk and heat resistant lipases are liberated by psychrotrophs. A class of molecules containing a polar head group that contain phosphorus atom and two
Brownian motion
Cavitation
Emulsion Feathering of cream
: :
Homogenizer Valve
Lipases
Phospholipids
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Processing of Milk
non-polar hydrocarbon chains. There are many phospholipids due to the various possible types of head groups and hydrocarbon chains of different lengths. The major lipids in milk fat are trigylcerides, which are composed of three fatty acids covalently bound to a glycerol molecule by ester bonds. The remainder of the lipid fraction (~2% of the total) is phospholipids, diglycerides and cholesterol. Milk fat globule membrane is rich in phospholipids Suspension : It is a mixture of two substances, one of which is finely divided and dispersed in the other. A suspension is different from a colloid or solution. Particles in a suspension are larger than those in colloids or solutions; they are visible under a microscope, and some can be seen with the naked eye. Particles in a suspension precipitate if the suspension is allowed to stand undisturbed. It is resistance of a fluid to flow. This resistance acts against the motion of any solid object through the fluid and also against motion of the fluid itself past stationary obstacles. Viscosity also acts internally on the fluid between slower and faster moving adjacent layers. All fluids, i.e., all liquids and gases, exhibit viscosity to some degree.
Viscosity

Trout M. (1950) Homogenized Milk: A Review and Guide, Michigan State College Press, East Lansing, USA Walstra P, Geurts T.J., Noomen A, Jellema A, Bookel M. A. J. S. van (1999). Dairy Technology: Principles of Milk Properties and Processes, Publisher: Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, USA. Kessler, H. G. (1981) Food Engineering and Dairy Chemistry, Publisher: Verlag A, Friesing, Germany.

Your answer should include following points: Check Your Progress 1 1) i. This equation provides basis for explaining rise of fat globules in the unhomogenized milk. As the density of milk fat is less than that of the skim milk, depending on the diameter/size, the fat globules rise to the surface during storage and form cream layer. Homogenized milk is milk which has been treated in such manner as to ensure break-up of the fat globules to such an extent that after 48 hours of quiescent storage no visible cream separation occurs on the milk and the fat percentage of the milk in the top 100 ml of milk in a quart bottle (946ml), or of the proportionate volume in containers of other sizes, does not differ by more than 10 per cent of itself from the fat percentage of the remaining milk as determined after thorough mixing.
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As milk passes through the homogenizing valve at very high pressure, high velocity gradients between the liquid and the surface of the homogenizer valve cause the fat globules to undergo shearing action. There is also wire drawing effect causing elongation and subsequent division of the fat globules. The difference in velocity of the liquid streams at the centre and towards the edge result in grinding action thereby leading to sub-division of fat globules. Milk attains very high velocity as it enters the homogenizer valve. As it comes out there is sudden pressure drop and the pressure falls below the vapour pressure of the continuous phase. This leads to formation of small vapour bubbles in the milk due to the cavitation. As the pressure increases again, these vapour bubbles collapse and sets up shock waves. Due to overlapping of these shock waves, fat globules disintegrate. The various theories that explain the phenomenon of homogenization primarily are: shearing or grinding, exploding, splashing/shattering, acceleration and deceleration and cavitation. Viscolised milk is obtained by admixing homogenized cream with skim milk and/or whole milk. The homogenized fat forms very loose clumps with the unhomogenized fat globules and rise to the surface. The unfair traders use this practice for giving their milk a very rich and creamy surface appearance and thus deceive the consumers. The homogenizer pump is a positive displacement type pump with at least three and sometimes five or seven pistons. These pistons are so arranged that they operate consecutively to maintain an uniform feed pressure. Commonly used homogenizer valves, for milk may be either a poppet type or ball type. A poppet design has relatively large contact surfaces and provide close fitting seat. This is suitable for milk. Ball valves have a small contact area with the valve face and are particularly advantageous for viscous liquids and also when small particulates are present in the feed. The pump block is generally made of stainless steel but the piston seal rings are of a soft composite material. Homogenizer valves are made of very tough corrosion resisting alloys such as stellite. Modern homogenizers also use valves machined from more corrosion resistant materials like tungsten carbide or ceramics. During the first stage homogenization, new fat globule membranes are formed. Proteins, particularly casein from the serum phase are utilized for the purpose. Sharing of the casein micelles in the newly created membranes cause fat globules to form large aggregates, which have a tendency to rise to the surface. A second stage homogenization at reduced pressure (20% of the first stage) disrupts these larger aggregates and forms stable emulsion. Conventional ball-and-seat type valves in high pressure homogenizers are made of high quality steel, special alloy or a range of ceramic materials so that it can withstand high operating pressures which sometimes exceeds 2550 kg/cm2. Besides in the formation of emulsions, these homogenizers could also have applications in inactivation of enzymes, bacteriophages and destruction of microorganisms. Therefore, much better processing solutions could be sought for liquid milk industry by high pressure homogenizers. Microfluidizer is a high pressure homogenizer with a different working principle. The two principal component of this homogenizer is (a) double acting intensifier pump (b) interaction chamber. The interaction chamber has micro channels, which subdivide the liquid into very fine streams. These liquid streams at high velocity are made to collide with each other
Homogenization
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Processing of Milk
so that the shear and impact that is created results in homogenization effect. The micro-fluidizers can also operate at very high operating pressures (upto 2800 kg/cm2). 13) i. The working of a vacuum homogenizer is based on the discrete pulse energy input theory. In vacuum homogenization, milk is delivered into the vacuum (homogenization) chamber through a special nozzle. Due to flashing effect, bubbles are formed in the milk. As a result of the pressure change, the bubbles either show high frequency pulsation and release energy or collapse producing shockwave effect in the product. The bubbles therefore burst into smaller units and the fat globules are divided into smaller globules. A specified volume (one quart) of milk is subjected to quiescent storage for 48 hours and then tested for the fat content in upper 100 ml and the remainder of milk. For properly homogenized milk, the percent difference in fat content of both the top 100 ml and the remainder milk should not be more than 10 per cent.
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Check Your Progress 2 1) i. When high fat milk is homogenized, surface area of newly created fat globules becomes so high that there is not enough proteins available in the serum phase for formation of new fat globules membranes. The fat globules therefore form agglomerates and tend to rise to the surface. If raw milk is homogenized, the natural lipases present in milk act as surface active agents and become a part of the newly formed membranes. During storage, they hydrolyse fat and cause rancidity in the product. At higher homogenization temperature, less of protein from the serum phase is adsorbed during the formation of new fat globule membranes. Also the membranes are formed more rapidly. Therefore, the fat globules remain uniformly dispersed and do not agglomerate. When milk is homogenized, original fat globule membranes are destroyed and new membranes are created. This results in nearly 25% of the casein from serum phase getting adsorbed as part of the new membranes, besides the citrates and phosphates. This lowers their concentration in the serum phase and adversely affects the protein stability. Homogenization results in increase in the number and surface area of fat globules, which reflect more light. Milk after homogenization therefore becomes whiter Homogenization causes large increase in the number of fat globules, which serve as points of weakness in the coagulum when curd is formed. Furthermore, almost 25% of the casein from the serum phase is used up in the formation of new fat globule membranes. This results in lower casein concentration in the serum thereby lowering the curd tension. The factors responsible for increase in the viscosity of homogenized milk are: high fat content in milk, single stage homogenization, a high homogenization pressure, a low homogenization temperature and preheating of milk at temperatures, which promote whey protein denaturation, agglomeration of fat and therefore viscosity of milk. As centrifugal separation of fat from the homogenized milk is very difficult, utilization of processed milk as returns from the market, which is sizeable at times in many dairies is economically challenging. The factors responsible for cream plug formation in homogenized milk are: worn out/damaged homogenizer valve, improper homogenization pressure, excessive foaming, improper cleaning of processing lines etc.
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The most common flavour defect associated, with homogenized milk is sunlight flavour also referred as tallowy, burnt like or activated flavour. The mechanism for development of this flavour defect involves oxidation of free methionine and formation of free SH compounds from sulfur containing amino acids. Development of sunlight flavour also requires riboflavin. The effect of sun light upon the increased protein surface following homogenization increases the sensitivity of homogenized milk to development of these flavour defects.
Homogenization
6.8 SOME MORE QUESTIONS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Explain the working principle of a valve type homogenizer. 2. Compare the valve-and-seat homogenizer with a microfluidizer. 3. Explain various factors affecting homogenization efficiency. 4. Explain various advantages and disadvantages of homogenized milk. 5. Explain why homogenized milk is resistant to development of oxidized flavour defect.
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Processing of Milk
UNIT 7
STERILIZATION AND ULTRAHIGH-TEMPERATURE PROCESSING
Structure 7.0 7.1 7.2 Objectives Introduction Sterilization

Definition Theoretical Basis Types of Sterilization Plants Description of the Canning Process Quality of Sterilized Milk Definition Theoretical Basis for UHT Processing Types of UHT Sterilization Plants Changes in Milk during Processing Changes in Milk during Storage Types of Sterilizing Medium Types of Packaging Materials Description of Aseptic Packaging Systems
7.3
Ultra High Temperature Processing

7.4
Aseptic Packaging

7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9
Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Some Questions to Check Your Progress
7.0 OBJECTIVES

define sterilization. describe the theoretical basis for conventional sterilization and UHT processing. differentiate between in-package sterilization and UHT processing state the different types of sterilization systems and how they compare against each other. explain the changes in properties of milk that occur during sterilization and storage define aseptic packaging enumerate different packaging materials and sterilizing mediums available for aseptic packaging.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
We know milk is a highly perishable commodity. Its myriad nutrients makes it extremely favourable medium for the growth of microorganisms. It is, therefore, essential that milk is subjected to certain processing treatments for enhancing its keeping quality and ensuring safety to consumers.
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Thermal processing is the most prevalent preservation process employed in the dairy and food industry. Starting from pasteurization, which is a mild heat processing technology, in-bottle/in-package sterilization emerged as a means of extending shelf life of milk for several weeks at room temperature. Considerable changes in nutritional and sensory quality due to severity of heat treatment in this process, restrict its application to only special milks. Ultra-high-temperature processing, a relatively new processing know-how, became popular as it uses very high temperature (140OC) for short time (2 s) to sterilize milk. Such a time-temperature combination ensures minimal change in the product quality. Sterilized milk is then packaged in sterile container under aseptic conditions to prevent post-processing contamination. The product thus obtained has very long storage life.
Sterilization and UltraHigh-Temperature Processing
7.2 STERILIZATION
i. Definition
Sterilized milk refers to a product obtained by heating milk in a container in a commercial cooker/ retort to temperatures of 110-130OC for 10-30 min. The process is also referred as in-container sterilization. Sterilized milk is generally intended for prolonged storage at room temperature (up to 6 months). The major objective of heat sterilization is to destroy microbial and enzymatic activity. The length of time and magnitude of temperature employed during processing depend on the type of the product, number and heat resistance of microorganisms and enzymes present in milk. The heat resistance of microorganisms or enzymes is generally evaluated in terms of D-value or Z-value. Sterilization load or heat load for sterilization is generally expressed in terms of Fo value.
ii. Theoretical Basis

Clostridium botulinum is considered as the index organism for assessing thermal sterility in foods. Under anaerobic conditions, inside a sealed container, it can produce botulin, a toxin, which can be 65% fatal to humans. Therefore, destruction of this organism is a minimum requirement of heat sterilization. As milk is a low acid (pH>4.5) food, it is recommended to achieve 12 decimal reductions for C. botulinum. This can be achieved by heating the product at 121OC for 3 min (Fo = 3). However, this minimum treatment may produce milk that is safe but not necessarily commercially sterile. This is so because there are more heat-resistant spores present in milk. There is B. stearothermophilus or B. sporothermodurans. These spores are not pathogenic. Their presence may require heat treatment equivalent to two (2) or more decimal reductions. This may correspond to an F0 value of 8. Target spoilage rates should be less than one survivor in every 10,000 containers.
iii. Types of Sterilization Plants

Sterilizing retorts are either batch type or continuous in operation. Batch type sterilizers may be either vertical or horizontal. Horizontal retorts are easier to load or unload. They have facilities for agitating containers/cages. However, they require more floor space. Typically such horizontal retorts contain concentric cages. Cans are loaded horizontally into the annular space between the cages. When cages are full, the retort is sealed. The cages are supported by guide rails, which slowly rotate them. This stirring of the contents in cans facilitate proper heating. Continuous retorts are generally equipped with better controls. They cause very gradual change in pressure inside the cans. Thus products are heated more uniformly. Can seams are also subjected to less strain in comparison to batch process. Continuous sterilizers: They are mainly of three types: (a) cooker-coolers; (b) hydrostatic sterilizers; and (c) rotary sterilizers. Cooker-coolers carry cans on a conveyor which pass through three sections of a tunnel. These sections are maintained at different pressures for preheating, sterilization and cooling. The
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Processing of Milk
hydrostatic sterilizer consists of a chamber equipped with provision for steam injection. The chamber that is partially full of water is connected to two water columns (12 to 18 meter tall, barometric leg) which are used to adjust pressure in the chamber. If the height of the water columns is changed, the steam pressure is changed and therefore the maximum attainable temperature changes. For example, to get a temperature of 116oC, a difference in height between the two water columns should be 10.7 m while for attaining 121oC temperature in the chamber, the water column difference should be 13.7 m. A conveyor with provision to accommodate cans of different sizes moves through the steam chamber carrying the food cans. The heating time could be regulated by varying the speed of the conveyor. Hydrostatic sterilizers are very flexible and suitable for large capacity plants. However, size of the structure and high capital costs are the major disadvantages of this system. Continuous rotary sterilizer consists of several horizontal inter linked cylinders which allow for preheating, heating, precooling and cooling in upto four continuous stages. The vessel has a spiral track on the inner wall. A spoke or reel within the centre of the cooker causes the cans to roll along the spiral track. Rotary valves used to interconnect the shells, maintain pressure in the heating and cooling sections. Sealed cans are introduced directly from the sealing machines. The contents inside the cans are mixed as cans travel along the helix and therefore enhance heat transfer and ensure less heat damage to the product. Cans coming out of the cooker are directly taken to labelling and palletizing machine. Rotary sterilizers are particularly suitable for processing of milk and milk based products, which are extremely heat sensitive and susceptible to browning.
iv. Description of the Canning Process

Basic operations in conventional retorting/canning process include: preparation of the raw material, filling of the container, exhausting, sealing of container, sterilization, cooling of the cans, labelling and storage. The preparation of raw materials refers to washing, peeling, cutting, blanching, precooking, etc. in case of fruits, vegetables, meat, etc; and preheating, mixing, homogenization, etc; in case of milk. Filling of containers can be carried out either manually or mechanically. Correct and accurate filling is important from economic standpoint as well as for prevention of entrapment of large volume of air/ gas inside the can, which might decrease the intensity of heat treatment. Exhausting is an essential operation in the canning process and involves removal of air/ oxygen from the container before it is closed. Removal of air ensures minimum of strain on the can seams or pouch seals through expansion of air during heat processing. Removal of oxygen is essential to prevent internal corrosion of the container through oxidation and creation of vacuum inside the container while cooling. Absence of oxygen inside the container also delays oxidative deterioration of the product besides destruction of ascorbic acid. After exhaustion, containers are sealed. Depending on the type of containers (metal cans, glass bottles, flexible pouches); sealing machines are chosen. Glass jars are normally vacuum-sealed while tins are closed with a double sealing on the seal side and may also be vacuum-sealed. Flexible retortable pouches are sealed by fusion of two thermoplastic materials through application of heat by heated plates or jaws. Product in the closed containers is heated in the sterilizer in an atmosphere of saturated steam or hot water or air-steam mixture. The sterilizing action of steam depends on its latent heat of vaporization as it condenses on the surface of the can. Saturated steam condenses readily and is therefore an efficient sterilizing medium. Displacement of all air present in the retort by steam before the sterilizer is brought to operating temperature is a very essential step. This is also known as venting. The purpose of this processing step is to maintain uniform steam-air mixture in the
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sterilizer and prevent under processing. Sterilization temperature time combination in retorts may vary from 110 130OC for 10-30 min. Sterilized containers are then cooled and brought to room temperature for labelling and storage. Turbidity test developed by Aschaffenburg is conducted to ensure sterility of the product. This is an indirect test and it measures denatured whey proteins. Complete denaturation indicates that the milk is adequately sterilized.
v. Quality of Sterilized Milk

Sterilized milk has a rich creamy appearance and a distinct cooked flavour (rich, nutty, caramelized). It is considerably browner in colour than raw milk. The brown colour develops due to formation of coloured pigments resulting from interactions between free amino groups of proteins and aldehyde group of lactose through Maillard reactions. The intensity of cooked flavour and brown colour depends upon the severity of heat treatment. In-container sterilization causes loss of nearly half of the ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) and sizeable loss of thiamine (30-40%). Vitamin B12 is almost completely destroyed. Fat soluble vitamin A, carotene, riboflavin and nicotinic acid are not affected. Biological value of proteins is only marginally affected. Sterilized milk cannot be coagulated with rennet unless calcium chloride is added externally. Check Your Progress 1 1. Define sterilized milk. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. Why Clostridium botulinum is so important in sterilization? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 3. How would you obtain commercially sterile milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 4. How does a batch type horizontal retort operate? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 5. What are the different types of continuous sterilizers? Why these are preferred over batch type system? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 6. How would you change the processing temperature in a hydrostatic sterilizer? ..................................................................................................................... 57
Processing of Milk
..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 7. Why rotary sterilizers are suitable for processing of milk and milk products? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 8. Why exhausting is an essential step in canning process? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 9. What is the purpose of venting? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 10. What is Aschaffenburg test? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 11. What is the most undesirable physical change in milk after conventional sterilization? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
7.3 UHT PROCESSING

i. Definition
UHT milk can be defined as a product obtained by heating milk in a continuous flow to a temperature in excess of 125C for not less than two seconds and immediately packaging in sterile packages under aseptic conditions. In India, UHT milk is generally processed at 140oC for 2 seconds.
ii. Theoretical Basis

Heating of milk results in death of microorganisms. While some bacteria are destroyed by pasteurization (71.7OC/15 s) only, some survive this thermal treatment. Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus stearothermophillus spores are very heat resistant. Of the two, Bacillus stearothermophillus spores are most heat resistant. It is therefore, considered index organism for evaluating performance of UHT processing. Heating of milk at higher temperatures also result in undesirable changes in chemical quality. Browning reactions are particularly important. Higher thermal load results
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in more browning and therefore loss of flavour and quality. In the temperature range of 100-120oC, time required for death of almost all B. stearothermophillus spores are more. This may therefore result in more browning in the product. However, if milk is treated in the UHT range i.e. 135-150oC for only few seconds, almost all spores may get killed and browning would be minimum. Loss of nutrients and total quality also will be minimum. A product processed in this temperature range will be thus microbiologically safe and yet superior in terms of overall quality.
iii. Types of Sterilization Plants

There are two types of UHT plants: Direct type and Indirect type. In direct type plants, heating is done by mixing product and steam. In indirect type plant, product is heated by steam or hot water without the two coming in direct contact. Heating in direct type plant is very rapid particularly between 80-140oC and total heat load is less. Changes in the product quality are therefore minimum. In indirect plant, rise in temperature is very gradual. Therefore, heat load on the product is more. Changes in chemical quality are comparatively more in indirect type than in direct type plants. (i) Direct Heating Plant: There are two types of direct heating plants (a) Injection type and (b) Infusion type. Injection type: Processing is through steam-into-milk arrangement. Steam injector is the heart of this plant. Preheated milk at 80-90OC enters the injector nozzles from one side. Steam at slightly higher pressure enters the injector from the other side. As the steam mixes with milk, steam condenses and the product is rapidly heated. Rapid condensation of steam prevents entry of air in holding tube. Air in holding tubes results in improper heating. Backpressure is maintained on the discharge side. Backpressure ensures that product does not boil in holding tube. Boiling may result in fouling and improper heating of milk. Several designs of injector are available. Infusion type: In this system, milk is heated by milk-into-steam arrangement. The processing unit consists of a chamber filled with pressurized steam. Milk enters the chamber from the top. There are two alternative arrangements for distribution of milk. In the first type, milk flows to a hemispherical bowl with loose circular disc closing the top. When the bowl is full, milk overflows and falls in droplets through the steam environment. In an alternative arrangement, milk flows through a series of parallel and horizontal distribution tubes. These tubes have slits along the bottom and milk flows like a thin film through the chamber. As milk reaches the bottom of the chamber, it is heated to desired temperature. This system is particularly suitable for thicker liquids and for liquids suspended with smaller chunks. Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct Heating System: During processing in direct type heating systems condensing of steam coming into product contact results in dilution of the product. To remove this excess of water from the product, cooling is done in an expansion cooling vessel. In expansion vessel, along with the evaporating water incondensable gases and undesirable flavour volatiles produced during heating are also removed. The product therefore tastes better. Steam injection induces formation of casein aggregates, which give chalky or astringent mouthfeel to the product. Aseptic homogenizer, which can safely homogenize the product after final heating section, is generally preferred with direct heating systems to overcome such defects in the product. Rate of heating is very high (takes less than 1 sec to attain sterilization temperature). Thick/viscous liquid can also be easily processed. Deposit formation is minimum, hence plant can be operated for longer time without cleaning. Undesirable flavours are removed during flash cooling. Oxygen is removed during cooling, hence oxidized flavour defects are delayed during storage. Cost of processing per unit volume of milk is high. Requires additional equipment 59
Processing of Milk
(vacuum expansion chamber and aseptic homogenizer) cost of plant is twice that of indirect type plant. Heat energy requirement is very high. Water and electricity (25-50% more than in direct type) consumption are high. Requires culinary steam and hence special boiler. Creates greater noise during operation. (ii) Indirect Type Heating System: There are three types of indirect heating systems: (a) Plate heat exchangers (b) Tubular heat exchanger (c) Scraped surface heat exchanger. Plate heat exchanger: This resembles plate heat exchanger of HTST plants. Several rectangular stainless steel plates with corrugations are arranged in sequence. These plates are then mechanically tightened to hold together. Corrugations on the plates induce turbulence and therefore result in high heat transfer. High temperature processing generates high internal pressure. The gaskets are therefore made of heat resistant materials such as medium nitrile rubber or resin cured butyl rubber. A major advantage of this plant is therefore simple design and comparatively less cost. If deposit formation is more, plates can be removed and manually cleaned. Tubular heat exchanger: There are two types of tubular heat exchangers (a) concentric tube, (b) shell and tube type. Concentric tube type heat exchangers comprise two or three stainless steel tube lengths put one inside another. Spacer is placed in each inner tube space to maintain them concentric. Several such multiple tubes are bound together and placed into an outer cylindrical housing. Two tube heat exchangers are used for simple cooling and heating. In triple tube heat exchanger, available heat transfer area is doubled. It is generally used in final cooling section. It is also suitable for processing of thick liquids, which generally reduces heat transfer rate. Product flows through the middle annular space. Heating or cooling medium passes through inner tube and outer annular space. In shell and tube type heat exchangers, 5-7 straight lengths of smaller tubes (10-15 mm internal diameter) are assembled in an outer tube. The smaller tubes are connected to large outer tube at both ends by a manifold. Product passes through the smaller tubes. Heating or cooling medium passes through the space around them in a counter current flow. Tubular heat exchangers are mechanically very strong and can withstand even very high internal pressure generated during homogenization (200300 bar). Therefore the need for acquiring an aseptic homogenizer to be placed after heating section is totally eliminated. Instead, the high pressure reciprocating pump of an ordinary homogenizer can be placed before the sterile section. The homogenizing valve can be put at any point on the downstream side (even after final heating section). The problem of product contamination arises from the homogenization pump and not the valve. Therefore, with tubular heat exchangers, the product can be homogenized before sterilization, after sterilization or on both the occasions. Fat rich products like cream require homogenization after final heating to prevent re-association of fat globules due to high temperature processing after homogenization. Scraped Surface Heat Exchanger (SSWE): It is a very specialized type of heat exchanger. It consists of a jacketed cylinder. A shaft passes along the axis of the cylinder. The shaft is supported by bearings at both ends of the cylinder. The shaft also carries several scrapper blades. As shaft rotates, scrapper blades provide turbulence and physically remove the product from the surface of the wall. The colder product subsequently replaces the heated product and the cycle continues. SSHE is used only for heating very thick liquids. SSHE units are very expensive and have poor energy conversion efficiency. The cost of processing is therefore very high. Advantages and Disadvantages of Indirect Heating System: It is simple in design and requires less pumps and controls. It can regenerate 90% of the thermal energy requirement. It does not require aseptic homogenizer, which is very costly.
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It does not require culinary steam and therefore special type of boiler. The indirect type plant is less noisy. It requires low initial capital and operational cost is also comparatively less. In indirect type heat exchanger, rate of heat transfer is low. More heat load results in less acceptable product quality. Deposit formation is more and therefore plant requires frequent cleaning. For removal of dissolved oxygen from milk, additional equipment deaerator is required.
iv. Changes in Milk during Processing

UHT processing does not cause reduction in biological value of proteins. There is only small loss of available lysine (6-7%). UHT processing changes the casein micelle structure. This slows rennet action during cheese manufacture. Serum proteins are denatured (direct processing upto 50-75%, indirect processing upto 70-90%). Denatured serum proteins interact with casein and increase casein micelle size. This reflects more light and UHT milk appears whiter. Aggregates of denatured serum proteins and casein also give chalky mouth feel to the product. There is no physical or chemical change in milk fat. The total mineral content also does not change during UHT processing. The vitamin content of UHT milk is comparable to pasteurized milk. Losses in B-complex vitamins are not more than 10%. Folic acid and ascorbic acid are destroyed up to 15% and 25%, respectively. Fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K are not affected by UHT processing. Fresh UHT milk has slightly cooked flavour. The cooked flavour is due to oxidotion of the SH (Sulphydryl) groups from the denatured serum proteins.
v. Changes in UHT Milk during Storage

Chemical, physical or sensory changes in stored UHT milk are dependent on storage temperature. Changes are rapid if storage temperature exceeds 30 OC. Browning reactions between protein and lactose progress during storage. At higher storage temperature (>30OC) UHT milk may become little brown after 3-4 months. Refrigerated storage of raw milk before UHT processing favours growth of psychrotrophs. They liberate heat resistant proteases and lipases. Proteases that survive UHT treatment act on proteins during storage. Bitter peptides are released causing bitterness in the product. Extensive proteolysis and other physico-chemical changes occurring as a result of interaction of proteins and salts during storage may cause thickening or sweet curdling also referred as age thickening after longer storage (more than 6 months). Lipases surviving ultra-high-temperature treatment act on lipid fraction. Short and medium chain free fatty acids are released. Short chain fatty acids particularly butyric acids contribute to development of rancid flavour in the product. Air in the product or in the packet reacts with unsaturated fatty acids. This auto oxidation reaction causes formation of aldehydes and ketones. These compounds cause oxidative rancidity (flavour defect) in the product. The cooked flavour in UHT milk disappears in first few days and milk tastes best after this period. Few weeks after this, depending on the temperature of storage, oxidized flavour defects appear which becomes more pronounced with progressive storage. In milk stored for considerable period of time, which could be 3-4 months at >30OC, stale flavour is a common defect. Several compounds that form during the progress of Maillard reactions in stored milk are associated with the appearance of this defect. Sometimes coconut like flavour defect also appears in UHT milk stored for longer period. Compounds such as ddodelactone and ddodecalactones are responsible for this. Check Your Progress 2 1. Describe UHT milk. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 61
Processing of Milk
..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. Why heating of milk above 130OC is desirable? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 3. Why UHT processing is recommended for liquid milk marketing in India? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 4. Why quality of milk processed in direct type UHT plant is better? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 5. Why direct type UHT systems are commercially less successful? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 6. What types of special gaskets are required in plate heat exchanger of indirect heating systems and why? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 7. List the major reasons for commercial success of tubular heat exchanger in UHT plant. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 8. When would you like to use SSHE? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 9. Why UHT milk is whiter? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
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10. What is age thickening and how it occurs? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 11. How rancid and oxidized flavour defects develop in UHT milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
7.4 ASEPTIC PACKAGING

Aseptic packaging can be defined as the process in which UHT processed or sterilized milk is filled in pre-sterilized containers under aseptic/sterile environment. This ensures that there is no post processing contamination of the milk so that the product has longer shelf life. Since aseptic packaging systems are complex, great care is needed to prevent contamination. Before the start of product packaging, trial runs are routinely conducted with sterile water. Critical parts of the filling machine and carton forming systems are thoroughly checked. The seal integrity of the package and overall microbial quality of the packaging material are monitored properly. Generally, for a good processing plant permissible spoilage rate is one in every 5000 sterilized, filled and sealed package of one litre carton.
i. Types of Sterilizing Medium

Sterilizing mediums to be used in aseptic packaging systems could be broadly classified under two categories: physical sterilization mediums and chemical sterilization mediums. Physical sterilization mediums: Steam under pressure or hot water is the most simple and reliable sterilant for high sterilization efficiency in short time. In aseptic packaging, its use is however restricted to sterilization of the milk tubes and valve and fittings coming into product contact. Dry heat/ super heated steam: Hot air is generally used to sterilize the closed space where the filling of milk takes place. Air heated to 300OC may be taken to the areas surrounding electric resistances used for sealing the packages. Dry air at 330-350OC is also used for sterilizing the milk filling tubes. Sterilized air (180200OC) is used for evaporating residual H2O2 (chemical sterilant) from the package. Ultraviolet radiation: UV rays (optimum wavelength 250 nm) alone are not a very effective sterilizing medium for aseptic packaging units. Two major reasons for this are: (i) intensity of radiation is not uniform on the entire package surface (ii) bacteria adhering to packages could be protected by dirt/ dust particles present on the surface. UV radiations are therefore used as a complementary sterilizing medium. Ionizing radiations: Gamma rays are often used for sterilizing packaging materials unable to withstand high temperature. Usually 2.5 Mrad intensity is suitable for sterilizing plastic laminates used in aseptic bag-in-box.
ii. Chemical Sterilization Mediums

Ethylene oxide: Ethylene oxide has slow sporicidal action. It is sometimes used as a pre-sterilization agent to reduce microbial load on packaging films so that a shorter time is required for final sterilization.
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Processing of Milk
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2): H2O2 has poor sporicidal effect at room temperature. However, with increasing application temperature and concentration, sterilization performance improves. H2O2 is the most popular sterilant for aseptic packaging system. H2O2 is applied on the package surface by either dipping or spraying. As its boiling temperature is slightly above 100OC, supply of heat by either sterilized hot air or infrared elements can evaporate the residual H2O2 from the package surface. Thus there is little H2O2 left for contaminating the product. Safety regulation recommended by IDF requires that atmospheric concentration of H2O2 in the packaging hall should not exceed 1 ppm. Further more, residual concentration in milk immediately after filling should not exceed 100 ppb and should reduce to 1 ppb within 24 hours. The most successful combination of sterilizing medium being used in commercial aseptic packaging units are H2O2 coupled with heat supplied by radiant heating element. Some packaging systems also use a combination of H2O2 and UV radiation. Other sterilizing agents which are rarely used in such applications are sodium hypochlorite and per acetic acid. These agents leave the residues of chloride and acetic acid on the package, which may finally contaminate the product.
ii. Type of Packaging Materials

Metal container: Cans made of tin plate or drawn aluminium are generally used for packaging of condensed milk, viscous liquids and chunk-in-gravy type of products. These are expensive and unsuitable for low cost products like liquid milk. They are bulky and require large storage and shipment space. The empty cans are carried in a conveyor to a tunnel for sterilization with steam super heated with gas flame at atmospheric pressure and require about 40-45s. The cans then move to filling chamber for product filling. The can lids are separately sterilized, placed on the cans and seams sealed. The can sterilizing, filling and sealing zones are sterilized before the filling begins with the same mixture of superheated steam and flue gas, which fills them during operation. Cans have been used for in-package sterilization for a long time. Manufacturers of UHT milk who want to impress the consumers with the advantages of the new technology therefore do not prefer to use cans which are so identified with a old technology Laminates/cartons: Different layers of flexible films of different materials viz. paper, polyethylene and aluminum foil are co-extruded to form a laminate. These materials have specific properties viz. water vapour transmission, burst strength, etc; and hence when co-extruded form an ideal packaging film. Such laminates could be 3, 4 or 5 ply and are generally used for products like, milk, cream, fruit juices, soups, etc. These laminates are supplied as film rolls, which can be mounted on FFS (form-fill-seal) machines. Alternatively, cartons made of laminates are supplied as preformed blanks, which are assembled into cartons for filling and sealing at the top. Plastic films: Black and transparent polyethylene films are co-extruded for packaging of UHT processed milk intended for 2-3 weeks shelf life. The coextruded film protects the product against light but not oxygen. The packaging machines also need to operate at not more than 45-50OC filling environment. A co-extrusion of polyvinylidine chloride (PVDC) or ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) with black or white polyethylene film is also used as packaging film. Such a combination imparts protection against oxygen as well as light and shelf life of milk can be extended upto 3 months. Other forms of packaging materials : Preformed packages of different shapes and sizes are also used for aseptic packaging of value added dairy products. Blowmoulded plastic bottles of polyethylene or polypropylene are used as cheap substitutes. However, these are transparent and permeable to oxygen. Multilayer materials with better light and oxygen barrier properties have also been developed. Pre-formed
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plastic cups of polypropylene (PP) or polystyrene (PS) are now gaining popularity. Bulk filling bags are made of laminates of 3 or 4 layers of which one will be barrier material such as metalized polyester (polyester with a coating of aluminium particles) or ethyl vinyl alcohol (EVOH). The bag with filling valve is sterilized by r-radiation (2.5 Mrad dose) before shipping. Bags remain sealed and internal surface therefore remains sterile. At the filling station, the sterilized bags are opened, filled and sealed under aseptic condition. All product contact surfaces in the filler however need to be sterilized with steam before the filling operation begins.
iii. Description of the Packaging System

Most of the aseptic packaging machines being used in the country are of form-fillseal (FFS) type. Packaging material used generally is laminate of polyethylene paper polyethylene Al foil polyethylene. Packaging film in the form of a roll is mounted on the packaging machine. The film moves continuously downward in the form of a strip and a shaping roll gives it a cylindrical shape. Heat sealing forms an overlapping longitudinal seal. Simultaneously extra polythene strip is heat bonded along inside of longitudinal seam. This is done to prevent filled product penetrating the paper layer. As this continuous cylinder moves downward, jaws at the bottom make transverse heat seal. The product is filled instantly and another jaw seals the package at the top. Depending on the type of machine, different shapes can be given to the package. The most popular is brick shaped package. Tetrahedron shapes were also being used some times back. Some new innovations that are now being used for packaging of fruit juices are Fino packs. To cut down on costs some dairies have introduced pillow packs for packaging of milk. Check Your Progress 3 1. What is aseptic packaging? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. Why UV rays alone are not effective medium for package sterilization? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 3. When should ionizing radiations be used in aseptic packaging? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 4. What are the regulatory requirements for H2O2 levels during aseptic packaging? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 5. Why cans are not suitable for packaging of UHT processed milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 65
Processing of Milk
..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 6. What types of laminates are generally used for packaging of UHT milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 7. What are the cheaper films available for packaging of UHT milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 8. What materials bulk filling bags are made of? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 9. How seals are formed on the FFS type machine? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
7.5 LET US SUM UP

Liquid milk is either subjected to pasteurization or sterilization for preservation and consumer safety. While pasteurization extends storage life of milk by a few days at refrigerated temperature, sterilization offers a far longer life. Conventional sterilization, which involves heating milk to 110-130oC for 10-30 min, is generally employed for the manufacture of special milks like flavoured or chocolate milk. Equipments available are both batch and continuous type. Of the available types of sterilizers rotary sterilizer is preferred for processing of milk. However the technology is not suitable for plain liquid milk processing as considerable changes in nutritional quality takes place. Furthermore, milk becomes visibly brown due to higher intensity of Maillard reactions at conditions employed during in-package sterilization. Ultra high temperature (UHT) processing, a relatively new technology is a better alternative for plain liquid milk processing. It requires milk to be heated to 140oC for 2 sec. Both direct type and indirect type systems are commercially available. Tubular heat exchangers are generally preferred for its manifold advantages. Processed milk is subsequently packaged in sterile containers under aseptic conditions. Form-fill-seal aseptic packaging machines, which are more popular use co extruded 3-5 ply laminates for packaging of liquid milk. UHT processing is slowly gaining popularity in our country and holds much promise for the future of Indian dairy industry.
7.6 KEY WORDS

Blow molding : It is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic or glass objects are formed. In general there are three types of blow molding processes: extrusion, injection and stretch.
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Canning
It refers to a preservation method whereby processed foods are put into metal cans or glass bottles, hermetically sealed to keep out air and then heated to specified temperature for definite time to destroy disease causing organisms and prevent spoilage. It is the oxidation of sugar; a process that is extensively used in food processing for developing nutty flavours and brown colour. It is therefore a type of non-enzymatic reaction. It is super heated water under pressure suitable for direct food contact and require food grade equipment, clean water and sanitary condition for its production It is time in minutes required for one log or 90% reduction of specific microbial population under specified lethal condition viz. constant temperature. It is sterilization value. One minute at 121.1o C or an equivalent amount of heat is defined as one unit of Fo. Other equivalent temperaturetime combinations are: 11.1oC/10 min or 101.1/ 100 min. It refers to a process in which milk is subjected to high shear at a temperature, which is above the melting point of the fat. Milk fat, which varies from 1 to 10 micron in size, are broken down into smaller particles and remain dispersed so that they dont rise to the top.
Caramalization
Culinary steam
D-value
Fo- Value
Homogenization
Latent heat
It is the quantity of heat absorbed or released by a subsance undergoing a change of state such as steam to water at constant temperature and pressure. They are the group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of fats into glycerol and fatty acids. Lipases are naturally present in milk and heat resistant lipases are liberated by psychrotrophs. It is a chemical reaction between an amino acid and a reducing sugar and requires addition of heat. The reactive carbonyl group of the sugar interacts with the free amino group of the amino acid and give rise to formation of compound, called melanoidins that impart brown colour. It is a processing treatment named after the inventor Luis Pasteur that requires milk to be heated to either 63oC/30 min or 71.7O/15 sec so that all pathogenic organisms are destroyed. Minimum time and temperature conditions are based on the requirements for the destruction of the most heat resistant pathogenic microorganism present in milk i.e. Coxelliae
Lipases
Maillard
Pasteurization
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Processing of Milk
burnettii and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Proteases : Any of the various enzymes that catalyze hydrolytic breakdown of proteins into peptides or amino acids. Proteases are naturally occurring in milk and heat resistant proteases are liberated by psychrotrophs. It is a substance containing rennin, an enzyme having the property of clotting or curdling milk. It is generally used in the manufacture of cheeses. Rennin is obtained from the stomach (abomasums) of milk fed calves. It is steam at temperature of the boiling point, which corresponds to its pressure. It is a process by which all microorganisms present in milk (both vegetative and spores) are destroyed or are rendered incapable of growth so that milk can be stored for longer period without refrigeration. It refers to a polyhedral shape composed of four triangle faces three of which meet at each vortex. It looks like a pyramid. Having sediments or foreign particles stirred up or suspended, which give the liquid cloudy or unclear appearance. The number of degree of temperature change necessary to change the D-value by a factor of 10.
Rennet
Saturated steam Sterilization
: :
Tetrahedron
Turbidity
Z-value

Ashton, T.R. and Romney, A.J.D (1981). In-container sterilization. In: Factors affecting the keeping quality of heat treated milk, IDF Bulletin, Doc. Burton, H. (1988). Ultra-high-temperature processing of milk and milk products. Elsevier Applied Science, London. Cerf, O. (1981). Aseptic packaging. In: New Monograph on UHT Milk, IDF Bulletin, Doc. Lewis, M.J (2000). Improvements in the pasteurization and sterilization of milk. In: Dairy Processing: Improving quality, Gerrit Smit (ed.) Woodhouse Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, England.

Your answer should include the following points: Check Your Progress 1 1) i. Sterilized milk refers to a product obtained by heating milk in a sealed container in a commercial retort at temperatures of 110-130oC for 10-30 min. The sterilized product can be stored for 4-6 months at room temperature without spoilage. Clostridium botulinum can produce botulin, a toxin that is fatal to human. For ensuring safety of low acid foods like milk, 12 decimal reduction of
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this organism equivalent to Fo of 3 is required which can be achieved by heating milk at 121oC for 3 min or such equivalent time-temperature combinations. 3) i. For obtaining commercially sterile milk a minimum of two (2) decimal reductions in counts of heat resistant B. stearothermophilus or B. sporothermodurans is necessary which may require a corresponding Fo value of 8. Horizontal retorts are equipped with concentric cages, which are loaded with sealed cans. Guide rails provided in the retort help the cages rotate thereby ensuring stirring of the contents in can for proper heating. Continuous sterilizers are broadly classified under three categories namely cooker-coolers, hydrostatic sterilizers and rotary sterilizers. Continuous sterilizers are preferred over batch types as these have better controls. As these sterilizers cause gradual change in pressure inside the cans, heating is more uniform which results in better quality product. A hydrostatic sterilizer is connected to two water columns (12 to 18 meter tall barometric leg). Depending on the operating temperature required, the water levels in the two legs are changed to change the steam pressure inside the sterilizer chamber. Typical sterilization temperature of 121oC is attained if the water column difference is 13.7 m. Rotary sterilizers have a spiral track on the inner wall of the vessel. A spoke within the vessel facilitate cans to roll along the track and the contents inside the cans are thoroughly mixed during heating. This ensures rapid heat transfer and less heat damage (particularly browning) to the products. Exhausting involves removal of air/ oxygen from the can before sealing of cans. It ensures minimum strains on can seams through expansion of air during heating and therefore little chance of leakage of cans. It also prevents corrosion of containers through oxidation and delays oxidative deterioration of the product during storage. Venting refers to displacement of air from the heating chamber of retort before the heating begins. This helps in maintaining uniform steam-air mixture in the sterilizer for efficient processing which is essential for good product quality. Aschaffen burg developed a turbidity test to assess efficiency of sterilization. It measures the amount of denatured whey proteins. Complete denaturation indicates adequate sterilization. The most undesirable physical change in milk after in-bottle sterilization is visible browning which occurs as a result of high intensity of Maillard reactions at time-temperature conditions followed during in-bottle sterilization.
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Check Your Progress 2 1) i. UHT milk refers to a product obtained by heating milk in a continuous flow to a temperature in excess of 125oC for not less than 2 sec and subsequent packaging in sterile containers under aseptic conditions. Generally, UHT milk in India is processed at 140oC/ 2s. Heating milk to temperature beyond 130oC results in several fold increase in the rate of destruction of spores like B. Stearothermophilus. At the same time, reactions responsible for browning or nutrient loss are accelerated to a lesser extent. Therefore at temperatures higher than 130oC, while spore destruction is maximum, change in total quality is minimum.
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Tropical climatic conditions prevailing in India require refrigerated conditions during storage, transport and marketing of pasteurized milk, which is difficult to maintain due to frequent electricity failure. UHT milk can over come these problems and the product can be marketed to even places where there is no electricity. In direct type UHT systems, milk is instantly heated (takes only 1 sec to reach 140oC) and therefore heat damage to the products quality is minimal. Furthermore, removal of oxygen and volatile compounds responsible for heated flavour result in improved taste and delayed oxidation during storage. The direct type plant costs twice that of indirect type plant. Water and electricity requirements are more and therefore, cost of processing per unit volume of milk is high. High temperature processing creates high internal pressures. Therefore, wherever plate type heat exchangers are used, the gaskets used are made of heat resistant materials like medium nitrile rubber or resin cured butyl rubber. Tubular heat exchangers made of SS tubes have high mechanical strength, do not require gaskets and can withstand high internal pressures. Regeneration is possible up to 90% of the thermal energy requirements and fouling is less frequent. It is possible to use ordinary homogenizer by placing the high pressure pump before the sterilization section and homogenizing valve either before or after the final heating section. Therefore it offers versatility in operation and the need for acquiring expensive aseptic homogenizer is totally eliminated. SSHE unit is very expensive and has poor energy conversion efficiency. It is therefore, to be used only for UHT processing of thick liquids, which cannot be otherwise, processed successfully in other heating systems. During high temperature heating, serum proteins get denatured and form large size complexes. Denatured serum proteins also interact with casein and increase casein micelle size. They thus reflect more light and appear whiter. Age thickening refers to progressive increase in viscosity of UHT milk during storage leading to formation of gel. The probable reasons are proteolysis by residual heat resistant proteases and physico-chemical changes involving interaction of proteins and salts in the stored milk. Heat resistant lipases surviving UHT treatment act on lipid fraction and release short and medium chain fatty solids during storage of UHT milk. Therefore the released fatty acids particularly butyric acids impart rancid flavour. The residual oxygen in the milk and packet react with unsaturated fatty acids and forms different types of aldehydes and ketones, which lead to development of oxidative rancidity (flavour defect) in the product.
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Check Your Progress 3 1) i. Aseptic packaging refers to packaging of a sterile product (read UHT milk) in pre-sterilized containers under aseptic environment so as to prevent post-processing contamination of the product and thus ensure long shelf life. During exposure of the package surface to UV radiations the intensity of radiation is not uniform. The bacteria adhering to the package surface could also be protected from the radiations due to hindrances offered by dust and dirt particles present. Ionizing radiations like g-rays are used for sterilizing packaging materials, which may not withstand high temperature exposure. It is particularly
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suitable for pre-sterilization of plastic laminates used in bag-in-box packages suitable for bulk packaging of UHT processed products. 4) i. As per IDF requirements, residual H2O2 in the freshly packaged UHT milk should not exceed 100 ppb and should subsequently reduce to 1 ppb after 24 hours. The atmospheric concentration of H2O2 in the aseptic packaging hall must not be more than 1 pm. Cans are expensive, bulky and require large storage and shipment space. Furthermore, they are so identified with in package sterilization that UHT processing plants do not find it attractive from marketing point of view. Different packaging materials viz. paper, polyethylene and aluminium foil with specific properties such as water vapour transmission, burst strength etc. are co-extruded together into 3, 4 or 5 ply laminates. These laminates supplied in the form of film rolls are generally used in form-fill-seal (FFS) types of aseptic packaging machines. Black and transparent polyethylene films are co-extruded and used for packaging of UHT milk intended for relatively short shelf life of 2-3 weeks. Other alternatives are films obtained by co-extrusion of polyvinylidine chloride (PVDC) or ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) with black or white polyethylene films. These are generally used for products, which offer 2-3 months of shelf life. Bulk filling bags are generally made of 3 or 4 layers of packaging materials of which one should be barrier materials such as metallized polyester (polyester with a coating of aluminium particles) or ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH). The downward moving film of multi-layer laminate is given a cylindrical shape by a shaping roll. Heat sealing forms an overlapping longitudinal seal. An extra polythene strip is heat bonded along inside of longitudinal seam. As the cylinder moves further, transverse heat seal is made by jaws first at the bottom and instantly after filling, at the top.
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9)
i.
7.9 SOME MORE QUESTIONS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Define D, Z and Fo values 2. Draw a comparison between direct and indirect type UHT heating systems. 3. Explain the storage induced changes in flavour profile of UHT milk 4. What routine care is taken before starting the aseptic packaging of the product? 5. What are the different types of pre-formed packages and their materials of construction?
71
Processing of Milk
UNIT 8
Structure 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3
PREPARATION OF DESIGNATED AND SPECIAL MILK
Objectives Introduction Full Cream Milk
Definition and Standards Definition History Preparation Definition Advantages Preparation Composition Utilization of Skim Milk for making different dairy products Definition Advantages Preparation Definition Advantages Preparation Definition Types of Flavoured Milk Preparation of Chocolate Milk Preparation of Fruit Flavoured Milk Preparation of Sterilized Flavoured Milk
Toned Milk and Double Toned Milk

8.4
Standardized Milk

8.5
Skim Milk

8.6
Recombined Milk

8.7
Reconstituted Milk

8.8
Flavoured Milk

8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12
Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress
8.0 OBJECTIVES

define various types of special milk outline advantages/ of manufacturing special types of milk specify the requirements for preparation of special types of milks prepare various types of special milks
72
8.1 INTRODUCTION
When natural constituents of whole milks have been altered by addition, removal, exchange and/or treatment, the resultant milk is designated as special milk. Recent years have witnessed a large increase in the market penetration of special types of milk into the total fluid milk market. In India, there is great seasonal fluctuation in the production of milk on account of which many milk plants have to run below their installed capacity, particularly during the lean season. Besides, the cost of whole milk generally remains very high throughout the year. Production of recombined milk and low fat toned milk have greatly helped in extending the market supply and reducing the cost of milk to the consumers. The machinery and manpower of a market milk plant can be fully utilized all the year round by such diversifications.
Preparation of Designated and Special Milk
8.2 FULL CREAM MILK

i. Definition and Standards
Full cream milk means milk, or a combination of cow or buffalo milk or a product which has been prepared by a combination of both, which has been standardized to fat percentage of 6.0 and solids-not-fat (SNF) percentage of 9.0 by adjustment or addition of milk solids. Full cream milk must be pasteurized. It should show a negative phosphatase test. Upon pasteurization, it should be packaged in clean and sanitary containers and should be properly sealed in order to prevent subsequent contamination.
8.3 TONED AND DOUBLE TONED MILK

i. Definition
Toned milk means the milk obtained by the addition of water and skim milk powder to whole milk. In practice, whole buffalo milk is admixed with reconstituted spray dried skim milk for its production. Under the PFA Rules (1976), toned milk should contain a minimum of 3.0 per cent fat and 8.5 per cent solids-not-fat throughout the country, whereas double toned milk should contain a minimum of 1.5 per cent fat and 9.0 per cent solids-not-fat throughout India.
ii. History
Toned milk is the brainchild of D. N. Khurody (an Indian Dairy Pioneer), who is also credited with coining its name. Under his auspices, it was first produced in 1946 in the Central Dairy of the Aarey Milk Colony and marketed in Bombay city. Soon other cities, notably Calcutta, Madras and Delhi started producing and marketing toned milk.
iii. Preparation
The calculated amount of potable water is received in the pasteurizing vat/tank equipped with an agitator. The water is heated while the agitator is kept in motion to 38 43OC. Then a proportionate amount of spray dried skim milk is slowly added at the point of agitation and the mixture thoroughly agitated till it dissolves completely. A calculated amount of whole buffalo milk is now added and the mixture again agitated thoroughly till a homogenous mixture is obtained. The mixture is then filtered, pasteurized at 63OC for 30 min, rapidly cooled to 5OC, packaged and kept at 5OC or below until distribution. The detailed flow diagram for manufacture of toned and double toned milk is given below: 73
Processing of Milk
Receiving water in pasteurizing vat Pre-heating (38-43oC) Addition of skim milk powder and mixing, and addition of whole buffalo milk and mixing Filtration Pasteurization (63oC/ 30 min) Cooling (5oC) Packaging and Storage (5oC) Check Your Progress 1 1. Define special milk. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. List out quality parameters for full cream milk. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 3. Who invented toned milk? Give PFA requirements for toned and double toned milk. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 4. How do we prepare toned milk. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
8.4 STANDARDIZED MILK

i. Definition
Standardized milk is a product, whose fat and/or solids-not-fat (SNF) content have been adjusted to a certain pre-determined level. Under the PFA Rules (1976), the standardized milk for liquid consumption should contain a minimum of 4.5% fat and 8.5% SNF throughout the country. The standardization can be done either by
74
partially skimming the fat in the milk with a cream separator, or by admixture with fresh or reconstituted skim milk in proper proportions. ii. Advantages Standardized milk offers several advantages such as:
It ensures a milk of practically uniform and constant composition and nutritive value to the consumers. The surplus fat can be converted into butter and ghee. It becomes possible to supply cheaper milk as compared to the full cream milk. It is more easily digestible because of less fat content as compared to full cream milk.
iii. Preparation The detailed step-wise method of manufacture of standardized milk is given below: First of all milk should be received, and tested for fat and SNF levels. It is to be pre-heated to 35-40OC, followed by filtration/clarification. Milk should be standardized to 4.5% fat and 8.5% SNF levels after calculation of required quantity of skim milk or cream to be added. Upon standardization, milk should be homogenized (2500 psi/ 65OC) and then it must be pasteurized (72OC/15 sec). After pasteurization, milk must be packaged either in glass bottles or polypacks and then stored below 5OC till distribution. The detailed flow diagram for preparation of standardized milk is given below: Milk (Testing of fat & SNF levels) Pre-heating (35-40oC) Filtration/ clarification Standardization (4.5% fat/ 8.5% SNF) Homogenization 2500 psi/ 65oC) Pasteurization (72oC/ 15 sec) Packaging Storage (<5oC)
8.5 SKIM MILK

i. Composition
The average percentage composition of skim milk is given in the following table: Constituent % (Average) Water 90.6 Fat 0.1 Protein 3.6 Lactose 5.0 Ash 0.7
75
Processing of Milk
ii. Utilization of Skim Milk for Making Different Dairy Products

Skim milk is a by-product of cream separation process. It is mainly used for standardization of milk and cream. The broad principles for utilization of skim milk, together with the names of commonly made dairy products is given in following table: Principle of Utilization 1. Pasteurization 2. Sterilization 3. Fermentation Dairy Products Made Flavoured milks Sterilized flavoured milk Cultured butter milk (Lassi) Acidophilus milk Bulgarian butter milk 4. Fermentation and concentration 5. Concentration Concentrated sour skim milk Plain condensed skim milk Sweetened condensed skim milk Low-lactose condensed skim milk Frozen condensed skim milk 6. Drying 7. Coagulation Dried skim milk Cottage cheese Bakers cheese Quarg cheese Casein (edible)
8.6 RECOMBINED MILK

i. Definition
Recombined milk refers to the product obtained when butter oil (also called dry/ anhydrous milk fat), skim milk powder and water are combined in the correct proportion to yield fluid milk. The milk fat may also be obtained from other sources, such as unsalted butter or plastic cream. However, production of recombined milk is currently not in practice. Under PFA rules, recombined milk should contain a minimum of 3.0 per cent fat and 8.5 per cent solids-not-fat throughout the country.
ii. Advantages

It helps in making up the shortage of fresh milk supplies in developing countries. Helps prevent price rise of liquid milk in cities.
iii. Preparation
A stepwise process for preparation of recombined milk is given below: A calculated amount of potable water is received in pasteurization tank and it is heated to a temperature of 38O-43OC, while the agitator is kept in motion. A proportionate amount of dried skim milk is slowly added at the point of agitation. When the water reaches a temperature of 43-49OC, proportionate amount of butter oil is added. The mixture is thoroughly mixed, filtered and pasteurized at 63OC for 30 min. It is then homogenized at 2500 psi pressure and cooled to 5OC. 76
The detailed flow diagram for manufacture of recombined milk is given below: Receiving water in pasteurization vat Pre-heating (38-49OC) Addition of skim milk powder and mixing (38-49OC) Addition of butter oil and mixing (42-49OC) Filtration Pasteurization (63OC/ 30 min) Homogenization (2500 psi/ 63OC) Cooling (5OC) Packaging and storage Check Your Progress 2 1. What are the advantages of manufacturing standardized milk? Define standardized milks according to PFA. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. What is skim milk? Give its average chemical composition. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 3. Define recombined milk and briefly describe the method of manufacturing the same. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
8.7 RECONSTITUTED MILK

i. Definition
Reconstituted milk refers to milk prepared by dispersing whole milk powder in water (approximately in the proportion of 1 part powder to 7-8 parts water). During the lean season, reconstituted milk is the main source of milk supply in cities.
77
Processing of Milk
ii. Advantages

It helps in making up the shortage of fresh milk supplies. It is used by the military forces
iii. Preparation
The calculated amount of potable water is received in pasteurization tank equipped with agitator. The water, is heated to 38-43oC and then calculated amount of spray dried whole milk is slowly added at the point of agitation. The mixture is thoroughly mixed, filtered and pasteurized at 63oC/30 min. and promptly cooled to 5oC or below until distribution. Detailed flow diagram of the process is given below: Receiving water in pasteurization vat Pre-heating (38-43oC) Addition of skim milk powder and mixing (38-43oC) Filtration Pasteurization (63oC/30 min.) Cooling (5oC) Packaging and storage (5oC)
8.8 FLAVOURED MILK

i. Definition
Flavoured milk is milk to which some flavour has been added. When the milk is used, the product should contain a milk fat percentage at least equal to the minimum legal requirement for market milk. But when the fat level is lower (1-2 per cent), the term drink is used.
ii. Types of Flavoured Milk

The main types of flavoured milk are as follows:

chocolate milk/drink fruit flavoured milk/drink sterilized flavoured milk/drink
iii. Preparation of Chocolate Milk Drink

The milk on receipt is standardized to 2% fat level for preparation of drink. Standardized milk is then pre-heated to 35-40OC and filtered; alternatively, after standardization it is pre-heated to 60OC, homogenized at 2500 psi and then clarified. To the warm milk, cocoa powder (1 to 1.5%), sugar (5 to 7%) and stabilizer (sodium alginate 0.2%) are slowly added and stirred to dissolve them properly. The mixture is then pasteurized at 71OC/30 min., cooled rapidly to 5OC, bottled and kept under refrigeration (5OC) until used. The detailed flow diagram for the manufacture of chocolate milk/ drink is given below: 78
Receiving milk Standardization
Pre-heating (60OC) Pre-heating (35-40OC) Homogenization (2500 psi)
Mixing cocoa powder, sugar and stabilizer or Mixing flavour/ essence, colour and sugar Pasteurization (71OC/ 30min) Cooling Bottling and storage (5OC)
iv. Preparation of Fruit Flavoured Milk

The method of preparation of fruit flavoured milk is similar to that used for chocolate milk/drink. Instead of cocoa powder, permitted fruit flavours/essence, together with permitted (matching) colours and sugar are used. The common flavours used are strawberry, orange, lemon, pineapple, banana, vanilla, etc. In order to obtain good results, the following precautions should be taken:
No acid (citric or tartaric) should be added to the fruit syrup, as this may cause curdling of milk. Excessive sweet syrup should be avoided. The best sugar content of the syrup is 45-55 per cent. Add 1 part of fruit syrup to 5 parts of milk. Care should be taken to see that there is a pleasant blend of sweet, fruity and milky flavours (together with an appealing colour)
v. Preparation of Sterilized Flavour Milk

These combine the advantages of both sterilized and flavoured milk/drinks. The method of preparation is given below: Receiving milk Cooling to 5OC and bulk storage Pre-heating to 35-40OC Filtration/Clarification Mixing flavour/essence, colour and sugar
79
Processing of Milk
Filling and capping (in cleaned and sanitized bottles) Sterilization (108-111OC/ 25-30 min) Cooling (room temperature) Storage (room temperature) The raw milk, upon receiving, should be strictly examined by the prescribed physicochemical and bacteriological tests and only high quality milk should be used for production of sterilized milk. The incoming milk should be promptly cooled to 5OC for bulk storage in order to check any bacterial growth. Next, it should be preheated to 35-40OC for filtration, so as to remove visible dirt, etc. Flavour/ essence, permitted (matching) colour and sugar (syrup) are added to clarified milk and mixed well. The fruit flavoured milk is now filled in cleaned and sterilized bottles and then capped properly. The filled bottles are then sterilized at 108-111oC for 25-30 min. The sterilized milk bottles should be gradually cooled to room temperature. Finally, the sterilized milk is stored in a cool place. Check Your Progress 3 1. How reconstituted milk is different from recombined milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 2. Define flavoured milk and list out different types of flavoured milk. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 3. Briefly describe method of manufacturing chocolate milk. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... 4. What precaution should be taken during manufacturing of fruit flavoured milk? ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................
8.9 LET US SUM UP

Special milk physically resembles and behaves like liquid milk. Special types of milk are prepared by altering natural constituents of milk by addition, removal, exchange and/ or treatment. Different types of special milk are full cream milk, toned milk,
80
double toned milk, standardized milk, skim milk, recombined reconstituted milk and flavoured milk such as chocolate and fruit flavoured milk. All types of special milk should fulfill certain requirements laid down in the PFA rules. Also there are certain merits of manufacturing such special milk. Different manufacturing procedures and ingredients are required in the production of special types of milk.
8.10
KEY WORDS
: Pasteurization of milk is done by heating milk to at least 63OC for 30 min, or 72OC for 15 sec. After pasteurization milk is cooled to 5OC or below. Pre-heating of milk refers to heating before the operation which follows immediately. The usual temperature of pre-heating is 35-40OC, and the equipment used may be a plate or tubular heater. Filtration removes dirt, dust, suspended and foreign particles by the straining process. Milk is generally chilled to 5OC or below and stored cool till it is used, to prevent deterioration in its bacteriological quality. Standardization of milk refers to adjustment of fat and solid-not-fat of milk to fulfill the legal requirements before sale. Homogenization refers to the process of breaking fat globules in order to prevent formation of cream layer upon storage and enables easy digestion of milk Sterilization of milk refers to subjecting milk to heat treatment at more than 100 O C for sufficient period of time, so as to destroy almost all spoilage causing microorganisms.
Pasteurization
Pre-heating
Filtration Cooling
: :
Standardization
Homogenization
Sterilization

Ahmed, T. (1999). Dairy Plant Engineering and Management, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad. Aneja, R.P., Mathur, B.N., Chandan, R.C., Banerjee, A.K. (2002). Technology of Indian milk products, Dairy India Publication, Delhi. De, S. (1999). Outlines of Dairy Technology, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Mathur, M.P., Datta, Roy, D., Dinakar, P. (1999). Textbook of Dairy Chemistry, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Rangappa, K.S., Acharya, K.T. (1974). Indian Dairy Products, Asia Publishing House, Bombay.
81
Processing of Milk

Your answer should include the following points: Check Your Progress 1 1) 2) i. i. ii. iii. 3) i. ii. Definition of special milk. Types of milk or milk products used for manufacture of full cream milk. Fat and solid-not-fat per cent Pasteurization, packaging, storage Name of person who invented toned milk. Fat and solid-not-fat requirements for toned and double toned milk according to PFA.
Check Your Progress 2 1) 2) 3) i. ii. i. ii. i. ii. Merits of manufacturing standardized milk PFA requirements for standardized milk fat and solid-not-fat per cent. Skim milk a by product of cream separation Chemical composition of skim milk Definition Mixing of potable water and skim milk powder addition of butter oil mixing pasteurization homogenization
Check Your Progress 3 1) i. ii. 2) 3) 4) i. ii. i. i. ii. Differentiate between ingredients used Homogenization (Recombined milk) vs. non-homogenized (reconstituted milk) Definition of flavoured milk Different types of flavoured milk Milk reception standardization pre-heating homogenization Addition of ingredients Pasteurization Cooling Packaging Storage. Avoid addition of acids. Optimum levels of sugar, fruit, flavour and colour, etc.
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Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Agriculture

Programme Design Committee

Programme Coordinators: Block Preparation Team

Editors: Dr. P.L. Yadav Dr. M.K. Salooja

CLARIFICATION, SEPARATION, BACTOFUGATION AND STANDARDIZATION

Other Centrifugal Processes for Milk

4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10

4.2 FILTRATION AND CLARIFICATION OF MILK

Clarification, Separation, Bactofugation and Standardization

4.3 SEPARATION OF MILK

Clarification, Separation, Bactofugation and Standardization

ii. Factors affecting Skimming Efficiency

iii. Factors affecting Yield and Fat Content of Cream

ii) Yield of skim milk (% of feed milk) =

Clarification, Separation, Bactofugation and Standardization

4.4 OTHER CENTRIFUGAL PROCESSES FOR MILK

Clarification, Separation, Bactofugation and Standardization

4.5 STANDARDIZATION OF MILK

Clarification, Separation, Bactofugation and Standardization

ii. Standardization of Milk for Fat

iii. Standardization of Milk for Fat and SNF

i) SNF in cream, % = SNFm x

ii) SNF in skim milk = SNFm x

Clarification, Separation, Bactofugation and Standardization

4.6 LET US SUM UP

4.7 KEY WORDS

Clarification, Separation, Bactofugation and Standardization

Yield (or, out-turn)

4.8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

4.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PRGRESS

Clarification, Separation, Bactofugation and Standardization

Clarification, Separation, Bactofugation and Standardization

SOME MORE QUESTIONS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Objectives Introduction Definition and purpose of pasteurization

Batch Pasteurizer HTST Pasteurizer Plant and its components

Operation of pasteurization plant

5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11

5.2 DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF PASTEURIZATION

5.3 THEORY OF PASTEURIZATION

ii. Types of Heat Treatment

5.4 BATCH PASTEURIZER

Figure 5.1: Batch Pasteurizer

5.5 HTST PASTEURIZER PLANT AND ITS COMPONENTS

i. Flow diagram of pasteurization process

Figure 5.3: Flow Diagram of Pasteurization

ii. Components of a HTST Pasteurization Plant

iii. Plate Heat Exchanger (PHE)

Figure 5.4: Plate Heat Exchanger

5.6 OPERATION OF PASTEURIZATION PLANT

i. Starting the Plant

ii. Shut down of the Plant

iii. Cleaning and Sterilization of the Plant

iv. Pasteurization of milk

vi. Preventive maintenance

5.7 TEST FOR PASTEURIZATION EFFICIENCY

5.8 LET US SUM UP

5.9 KEY WORDS

5.10 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

5.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Objectives Introduction Homogenization: Theories and Process Description

Influence of process variables on the processing efficiency and product quality

6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8