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5 Simulation Results: 5.1 Introduction:

A proportional-integral controller (PI controller) is a generic control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control systems. A PI controller attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and a desired set point by calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process accordingly. The PI controller calculation involves two parameters; the Proportional, the Integral values. The Proportional value determines the reaction to the current error, the Integral determines the reaction based on the sum of recent errors and the Derivative determines the reaction to the rate at which the error has been changing. The weighted sum of these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as the position of a control valve or the power supply of a heating element. By "tuning" the three constants in the PI requirements. The response of the controller can be described in terms of the controller algorithm the PI can provide control action designed for specific process responsiveness of the controller to an error, the degree to which the controller overshoots the set point and the degree of system oscillation. 5.2 PI controllers: 5.2.1 Proportional term: The proportional term makes a change to the output that is proportional to the current error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant Kp, called the proportional gain. The proportional term is given by: Pout = Kp e(t) (4.1)

Where Pout : Proportional output Kp : Proportional Gain, a tuning parameter

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A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable (See the section on Loop Tuning) In contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less responsive (or sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control action may be too small when responding to system disturbances.

In the absence of disturbances pure proportional control will not settle at its target value, but will retain a steady state error that is a function of the proportional gain and the process gain. Despite the steady-state offset, both tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that it is the proportional term that should contribute the bulk of the output change. 5.2.2 Integral term: The contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of the error and the duration of the error. Summing the instantaneous error over time (integrating the error) gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously. The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain and added to the controller output. The magnitude of the contribution of the integral term to the overall control action is determined by the integral gain, Ki. The integral term is given by: I out=K ( )

Where

Iout : Integral output Ki : Integral Gain, a tuning parameter e : Error = SP PV : Time in the past contributing to the integral response

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The integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates the movement of the process towards set point and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs with a proportional only controller. However, since the integral term is responding to accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the set point value (cross over the set point and then create a deviation in the other direction). For further notes regarding integral gain tuning and controller stability, see the section on Loop Tuning.

The output from the three terms, the proportional, and the integral terms are summed to calculate the output of the PI controller.

Fig:5.2.1 Discrete PI controller

First estimation is the equivalent of the proportional action of a PI controller. The integral action of a PI controller can be thought of as gradually adjusting the output when it is almost right. Derivative action can be thought of as making smaller and smaller changes as one gets close to the right level and stopping when it is just right, rather than going too far. Making a change that is too large when the error is small is equivalent to a high gain controller and will lead to overshoot. If the controller were to repeatedly make changes. Those were too large and repeatedly overshoot the target, this control loop would be termed unstable and the output would oscillate around the set point in either a constant, a

growing or a decaying sinusoid. A human would not do this because we are adaptive controllers, learning from the process history, but PI controllers do not have the ability to learn and must be

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set up correctly. Selecting the correct gains for effective control is known as tuning the controller. If a controller starts from a stable state at zero error (PV = SP), then further changes by the controller will be in response to changes in other measured or unmeasured inputs to the process that impact on the process, and hence on the PV. Variables that impact on the process other than the MV are known as disturbances and generally controllers are used to reject disturbances and/or implement set point changes. In theory, a controller can be used to control any process which has a measurable output (PV), a known ideal value for that output (SP) and an input to the process (MV) that will affect the relevant PV. Controllers are used in industry to regulate temperature, pressure, flow rate, chemical composition, level in a tank containing fluid, speed and practically every other variable for which a measurement exists. Automobile cruise control is an example of a process outside of industry which utilizes automated control. Kp: Proportional Gain - Larger Kp typically means faster response since the larger the error, the larger the feedback to compensate. An excessively large proportional gain will lead to process instability. Ki: Integral Gain Larger Ki implies steady state errors are eliminated quicker. The trade-off is larger overshoot: any negative error integrated during transient response must be integrated away by positive error before we reach steady state. Kd: Derivative Gain - Larger Kd decreases overshoot, but slows down transient response and may lead to instability 5.2.3 Loop tuning: If the PI controller parameters (the gains of the proportional, integral terms) are chosen incorrectly, the controlled process input can be unstable, i.e. its output diverges, with or without oscillation, and is limited only by saturation or mechanical breakage. Tuning a control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters (gain/proportional band, integral gain/reset) to the optimum values for the desired control response. Some processes must not allow an overshoot of the process variable beyond the set point if, for example, this would be unsafe. Other processes must minimize the energy expended in reaching a new set point. Generally, stability of response (the reverse of instability) is required and the process must not oscillate for any combination of process conditions and set points.

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Some processes have a degree of non-linearity and so parameters that work well at full-load conditions don't work when the process is starting up from no-load. This section describes some traditional manual methods for loop tuning. There are several methods for tuning a PI loop. The most effective methods generally involve the development of some form of process model, and then choosing P, I, based on the dynamic model parameters. Manual "tune by feel" methods have proven time and again to be inefficient, inaccurate, and often dangerous. The choice of method will depend largely on whether or not the loop can be taken "offline" for tuning, and the response time of the system. If the system can be taken offline, the best tuning method often involves subjecting the system to a step change in input, measuring the output as a function of time, and using this response to determine the control parameters.

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If the system must remain online, one tuning method is to first set the I value to zero. Increase the P until the output of the loop oscillates, and then the P should be left set to be approximately half of that value for a "quarter amplitude decay" type response. Then increase I until any offset is correct in sufficient time for the process. However too much I will cause instability. Finally, increase D, if required, until the loop is acceptably quick to reach its reference after a load disturbance. However too much D will cause excessive response and overshoot. A fast PI loop tuning usually overshoots slightly to reach the set point more quickly; however, some systems cannot accept overshoot, in which case a "critically damped" tune is required, which will require a P setting significantly less than half that of the P setting causing oscillation.

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5.2.4 Limitations of PI control While PI controllers are applicable to many control problems, they can perform poorly in some applications. PI controllers, when used alone, can give poor performance when the PI loop gains must be reduced so that the control system does not overshoot, oscillate or "hunt" about the control set point value. The control system performance can be improved by combining the PI controller functionality with that of a Feed-Forward control output as described in Control Theory. Any information or intelligence derived from the system state can be "fed forward" or combined with the PI output to improve the overall system performance. The FeedForward value alone can often provide a major portion of the controller output. The PI controller can then be used to respond to whatever difference or "error" that remains between the controller set point and the feedback value. Since the Feed-Forward output is not a function of the process feedback, it can never cause the control system to oscillate, thus improving the system response and stability.

Another problem faced with PI controllers is that they are linear. Thus, performance of PI controllers in non-linear systems (such as HVAC systems) is variable. Often PI controllers are enhanced through methods such as gain scheduling or fuzzy logic. Further practical application issues can arise from instrumentation connected to the controller. A high enough sampling rate and measurement precision and measurement accuracy (more relevant to FF and MPC). A problem with the differential term is that small amounts of measurement or process noise can cause large amounts of change in the output. Sometimes it is helpful to filter the measurements, with a running average, also known as a low-pass filter. However, low-pass filtering and derivative control cancel each other out, so reducing noise by instrumentation means is a much better choice. Alternatively, the differential band can be turned off in most systems with little loss of control. This is equivalent to using the PI controller as a PID controller.

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5.3 Simulation: 5.3.1(a) Simulation Model of a Double Frequency Buck Converter.

Fig 5.3.1(a) simulation model of a double frequency buck converter

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CHAPTER 5 5.3.1(b) simulation model of a high frequency buck converter:

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Fig5.3.1 (b) simulation model of a high frequency buck converter

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5.3.1(C) simulation model of a low frequency buck converter:

Fig 5.3.1(c) simulation model of a low frequency buck converter

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5.3.1(D) Simulation model of a double frequency buck converter fed with dc motor

ia t Clock To Workspace
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Fig 5.3.1(d) simulation model of a double frequency buck converter fed with dc motor

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5.3.1(e) Simulation result for double frequency buck converter fed with dc motor

Fig : 5.3.1(e) Double frequency buck converter fed with dc motor output
armature current ,eletromagentic torque ,speed wave forms

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5.3.2 Simulation result:

5.3.2(a) steady state response:

DF

HF

Lf

Fig 5.3.2.(b) output voltage steady state response comparison of the double frequency, single high and low frequency buck converter. Ripple voltage in double frequency buck converter = 5x Ripple voltage in single high frequency buck converter = 1x Ripple voltage in single low frequency buck converter = 1x v v v

The output voltage waveforms of various buck converters are shown in Fig. 7.in the above large magnitudes denote that the low frequency buck converter output voltage in steady state. It can be seen that the steady state performance of DF buck and that of single high-frequency buck converter are almost the same.

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5.3.2(b) transient response when load is step up:

Df

Hf

Lf

Fig 5.3.2.(b)output voltage transient response comparison on of the double frequency, single high and low frequency buck converter when load is step up

Output voltage Transient response comparison of the double frequency, high frequency and low frequency buck converter when load is increased from R to 2R as shown in above fig 4.3.2(b).transient response of the double frequency buck converter is same as the transient response of the single high frequency buck converter.

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5.3.2(c) transient response when load is step down:

Df

Hf

Lf

Fig 5.3.2.(c): output voltage transient response comparison of the double frequency, single high and low frequency buck converter when load is step down

Output voltage Transient response comparison of the double frequency, high frequency and

low frequency buck converter when load is decreased from 2R to R as shown in above fig 4.3.2(c). Transient response of the double frequency buck converter is same as the transient response of the single high frequency buck converter. In single low frequency transient response is increased.

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5.3.2(d) step change waveforms

Df

Hf

Lf

Fig 5.3.2(c) step change waveforms of the double frequency buck converter, single high frequency, and low frequency buck converter.

The above figure shows step change wave forms of the double frequency buck converter, single high frequency, and low frequency buck converter. Load current is changes when load resistance is reduced from 4 to 2 . Then the load current will increase from 0.5 IR to IR. (2.5 to 5A).as shown in above figure.

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5.3.2(e) switching states of the switches(S, Sd, Sa)

Sd

Sa

Fig 5.3.2(e) switching states of the high frequency buck cell switches(S, Sd),and low frequency switch Sa of the double frequency buck converter. The above figure shows the switching states of the high frequency buck cell switches (S, Sd), and low frequency switch Sa of the double frequency buck converter. That shows high frequency is 10 times of the low frequency. Where Sa is the low frequency switch and its switching frequency is 10khz, and S, Sd are the high frequency switch and its switching frequency is 100khz.

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Fig 5.3.2(a): Switch current waveforms.

The current waveforms are shown in Fig. 4.3.2(a). The waveform with large magnitude denotes the current flowing through the low-frequency switch isa, and the small magnitude is the current of the high-frequency switch is. The load is changed from 4 to 2 at the 12-ms time instant. A major portion of the increased load current (shown in Fig. 4.3.2) is diverted to the lowfrequency buck cell, while the current through the high-frequency switch remains the same. The current diversion enables the reduction of switching loss in high-frequency buck cell and improves the efficiency.

5.4 Efficiency Analysis: In order to analyze the efficiency improvement of the proposed Double Frequency buck converter, the efficiency expression is analyzed in the section. The analysis is also applied to the single high frequency buck and low-frequency buck converters. A simple loss model is adopted here in that we just want to show the efficiency relationship between the DF buck and single high-frequency buck, not to develop a new loss model In the analysis, we have the following assumptions;

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1. The conduction losses of active switch and diode are estimated, respectively, according to their conduction voltages Uon and UF. 2. The switching transient processes are assumed to satisfy the linear current and voltage waveforms. Moreover, the turn-on time ton is the same for all switches and diodes, so is the turn-off time to . 3. Since the switching loss usually dominates the total loss, losses of the output capacitor and output inductor are not calculated here.

In a single-frequency buck converter, the total loss PSF comes from four parts, the conduction loss Pscon and switching loss Pss of the active switch S , and the conduction loss Pdcon and switching loss Psd of the diode. When the input voltage is Uin, duty ratio is D, the inductor average current is IL, and the switching frequency is fs, the losses can be estimated according to the following equations. 4.4.1(a) ( ) ( ( ) ) 4.4.1(b) 4.4.1(c) 4.4.1(b)

For single-frequency buck converter, the conduction losses are the same; the difference is on the switching frequencies fh and fl . For DF buck, the losses consist of two portions: high frequency cell losses and low-frequency cell losses. The current chopped by the high-frequency cell is the difference between high-frequency inductor current iL and low-frequency inductor current iLa . This difference is roughly equal to 0.5 ILapk, where ILapk is the peakpeak lowfrequency inductor current ripple, because the inductor current ripple of the high-frequency cell is small compared with that of the low-frequency cell. Moreover, the average current in lowfrequency inductor is IL 0.5 ILapk with the peak current control. The loss break down can be expressed as follows: The losses in the high-frequency cell are, 4.4.2(a)
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4.4.3(a) 4.4.3(b) 4.4.3(c) 4.4.3(d)

Then, from (24)(26), the total conduction loss PconDF in the DF buck is approximately the same as that in the single frequency buck converter,

4.4.4

In the case the low-frequency inductor current is small with reference to the inductor average current, the total switching loss PsDF can be approximated as, ( )

4.4.5

It follows from (4.4.2)(4.4.5) that the total conduction loss of DF buck converter is the same as the single-frequency buck conductor. This result also can be reasoned from the fact that the total currents owing through the DF buck switches and diodes are the same as that through a single-frequency buck. On the other hand, the total switching loss is nearly the same as the single low-frequency buck, and is much smaller than that of the single high-frequency buck. Hence, the DF buck converter improves the efficiency by current diversion to the low-frequency cell. Although assumptions and approximations are made in the aforementioned analysis, it reveals the efficiency mechanism of the DF buck converter.

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