AUTHOR: OJIESON SILVER ABHULIMHEN AFFILLIATION: (UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, DEPARTMENT OF CREATIVE ARTS, SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES, AKOKA, LAGOS.

) CONTACT EMAILS: osawisdom4me@yahoo.com, silverabhulimhen@gmail.com, MOBILE: +2348035503729. TITLE: HEAD WITHOUT HEART, A STUDY OF DEPRIVED WOMEN IN DRAMATIC LITERATURE: An appraisal of Altines Wrath and Hands that Crush Stones ABSTRACT: Deprived women are the victims of circumstances perpetrated by egocentric men left at the mercy of a patriarchal order. In pursuit of a phallo-centric propagation which leaves women at the receiving end, dramatic literature and the theatre postulates a stance antithetical to the womans wellbeing. Such ill-conceived portrayal that reiterates and berates woman as being perpetually helpless results in the damage of the female psyche and leaves them conditioned detrimentally at the mans expense. Using the case study approach, this study asserts that portrayal of women in their helpless state makes matters worse for the coping gender as Osofisans Altines Wrath and Eze-igbos Hands that Crush Stones posit. INTRODUCTION One thing that is notable about women and the way they are portrayed in dramatic texts is that most of them are written by men. Scholarly records bear witness to the fact that until the 17th century women were not allowed to appear on stage. All female roles were played by young male actors. According to Felner (cited in Wilson 2007) it is stated that: In Athenian society, where women were excluded from all political roles and were not even considered citizens, it followed logically that they could not participate in the creative processes of theatre (51). If women could not participate in the creative processes of theatre as insinuated above, it follows that all forms of portrayal of women did not come from a womans perspective. As a matter of fact, from Greek theatre era until the 20th century no notable female dramatist of the theatre can be accounted for. Hence, the society in which the woman lives, headed by a man who often times

does not regard her as an equal, given the opportunity to showcase the womans potential will turn out biased. However, one thing is certain and that is the fact that whatever is portrayed in drama and theatre holds an iota of truth. When playwrights, as they often do portray women as suffering in play texts or victims of societal laws and subject of an injurious act, it only mirrors the obvious to the effect that women are at the receiving end. Allen summits that: Theatres duality, its mirroring quality, offers direct immediate reflection. Shakespeare believed that theatres purpose was just this: to mirror life, throw back an image so we can see ourselves. Theatre has immediacy, present vitality and is ephemeral. It is limited in size, a living art form, provocative, entertaining and truly magical with its active construction of meaning in regard to human experience (63). Theatres duality as said above is its ability to reproduce the tensions inherent in our world. Therefore, Queen Jocasta finds herself in a situation orchestrated by divine and patriarchal forces. If it werent the custom, made by the men of old Greek society, she would not have been a victim of an incestuous relationship which leads to her death. It is enough that her husband the King of Thebes is dead, but tradition compels her to marry the new king who turns out to be her son. In several societies, such inhuman lore abound such as a situation where the woman must drink the bath water of her husbands corpse as evidence that she is not a culprit in his demise. Not minding the medical consequences of such customary acts against the woman, these manmade injunctions still exist unchallenged and many women suffer its consequences. Some other societies would shave the widows hair and lock her up to mourn the late husband for 14 days, sometimes without food and water. When incidences such as these make the subject matter of drama, it goes without mincing words that the society in which such acts of inhumanity are perpetrated cannot be divorced from the portrait of women we see in drama. Abuya asserts that: Women have always constituted a larger disadvantaged group in almost all known and existing societies. The kinds of problems and experiences hitherto thought of as 2

mundane and of little interest are shared by women the world over. Despite their large population everywhere, gender difference is a common phenomenon (104). Ogundipe (37) is of the view that women are powerless on the basis of the principles of social stratification which operate in Nigeria. Under these principles, there are three kinds of valued resources. They are power, the ability to impose ones will on others, prestige (honour and respect) and property, material good. Debunking the inequality status of womens ration to men, Ogundipe states that in any society that, there is hierarchy ranked status from high to low, based on the abilities and appearances that are culturally valued. Ogundipe goes on to say that in Nigeria that since men are culturally given the superiority, they are entitled to a greater share of resources. Making further assertions, Ogundipe states that inherent in the culture of most Nigerian societies are cultural norms, attitudes and values which continue to render women powerless (38). Hence Ogundipe posit that: Socialization practices condition women into accepting their future roles as cooks, beasts of burden, hewers of wood and fetchers of water, in short second class citizens, as they are raised ironically by women to accept their inferior roles and not to aspire to areas of male preserve in education or careers (38, 39). It is in the light of the above issues, stereotyping women as mere domestic and powerless lots that some scholars have resorted to pulling down the foundation of the male dominated society which limits the aspiration and prospects women have to realize their potentials. Theatre and drama have been able to expose these ills perpetrated against the female essence. The portrayal of women in the light of their present predicament as most likely dependent on their male counter parts calls for review. According to Albert: Little wonder that feminist scholars, wherever they are found around the world, find it fashionable to start their study of any problem by first making reference to the fact of womens exclusion, distortion, misrepresentation, exploitation and neglect [by men]. The typical feminist literature therefore, starts by making reference to some unacceptable things men do [in the public and private spheres]; how these affect women and what needed to be done towards liberating or empowering the 3

woman in a patriarchal world. This pattern of scholarship is not limited to Nigeria,...(59). It cannot be disputed that most societies, whether European or African has cultures that undermine womens place and subject them to the whims and caprices of the male folk. Recurrent themes in drama, of the ages past and present is full of women concerned issues, which in great numbers portrays a state in which women are relegated to the background and undermined. As these subjects make dramatic literature as themes, the light in which they are put forward, biased or prowomen leaves the documentary evidence full of or devoid of the principles of equity. Therefore, in the following analysis of plays, significant issues related to womens position, perception and attitude of men towards them, as permitted by the cultural and socio-economic circumstances will form the core areas of analysis. As we shall see in the analysis of Akachi-Ezeigbos Hands that Crush Stones, the pitiable condition of widows are exposed. The theatre informs as well as educates and exposes the ills inherent in our societies, especially the sort of injustice meted out against women. For example, Altines predicament in Lawals household, although being his wife, He resorts to maltreating her for reasons without substance. The functions of the feminist theatre aims to pull down the phallocentric strongholds which seeks to keep the woman as an object of the mans fancy, disposable at will and subject to his whims and caprices. Sonpa and Kapur state that: Women's lack of authority, autonomy and 'bargaining power' also renders them without redress in the face of discrimination, exploitation and injustice (69). In most of the Greek plays, although not overtly stated, we find that female characters are victims of the influence of patriarchal dominance and rule, a typical case is the Antigone by Sophocles and Women of Troy by Euripides where women suffer the brunt of manmade decisions. At other times, the woman really stands up against male dominance. According to Wilson and Goldfarb:

The young Greek heroine Antigone and the Medieval religious figure Saint Joan are the epitome of the independent, courageous female, willing to stand up to male authority with strength and dignity (154). The society of the old-Greek to the late 19th century was built on a foundation regulated by the power of mens thought until in the late 18th century when women rights activists began to demand equal rights for all. Until the wake of conscious feminist thoughts, playmaking and writing which came after the printing press formulates a core subject that vilifies the stance of male dominance and the evil of oppressive headship and habitation perpetrated against the woman. Since a lot of people are steeped in customary and traditional beliefs that leave them indoctrinated, the role of the theatre in brainwashing an aspect of people often conditions their mindset in receiving certain information as universal or parochial. Basing their argument on the powerful effects of the theatre at influencing opinions, Wainscott and Fletcher posit that: The Greek philosopher Plato found theatre disturbing and potentially dangerous. Because Plato found theatre so effective in performance, he feared that convincing acting and the powerful language of a gifted playwright could harm society if the artists decided to present subversive or morally corrupt ideas (18). A critical examination of the above position shows that drama is capable of creating a concrete vision on our social psyche. Some of these areas in which dramatic literature has informed and perpetrated its anti-womanish ideals comes through its portrayal of female characters in the playmaking process. Throughout much of theatre history, dramatic representations and the portrayal of women have shown them as perpetually dependent on the man, weak and incapable of making sound rational judgement except assisted by the man. It may not have changed totally in favour of women, but the apparent thing about the lot of women in drama is that, instead of the age long portrayal of women as subservient and weaklings, recent playwrights have jettison the hegemonic prevalence of male dominance and the numerous injustices meted out against the woman. In considering Noras portrayal in Ibsens A Dolls House, Wilson and Goldfarb assert that: 5

It has been said that Noras slamming of the door marked the beginning not only of modern drama but of the emancipation of modern women. Noras demand that she be treated as an equal has made her typical of all housewives who refuse to be regarded as pets (155). Despite the rebellion against the institution of marriage, women are usually seen as those who are not supposed to cry when beaten, dumb and nit wits. As housewives, their place it is said is the kitchen and the bed. The relegation of women has been a heated subject but dramatic literature gives us a wider view of how through state laws and oppressive tendencies perpetrated against women, the authority of the man is asserted. For instance, most society, especially African regards the woman as a subordinate and not an equal partner in a marriage relationship. Again, Wainscott and Fletcher, referring to the socio-cultural milieu of Ibsens times when he wrote A Dolls House say that: When you understand that married women could not own property and had no rights to their children, it makes Noras decision in A Dolls House (1879) to leave her family even more frightening and poignant (138). Re-representing women in the good light and not the weak and helpless person she has been portrayed has become the preoccupation of a school of thought known as feminism. These critics consider drama and its medium a viable tool for the deconstruction of patriarchal strongholds. The ancient world to which most of the intellectual basis for which dramatic literature has been shaped relies most times on acceptable tradition and customary formulations put forward by the men. For every law, ancient and modern, except in very few liberal societies today, majority of conventions and what not are the views of men of how they perceive women, not how women should be perceived. This inverted opinion leaves the woman at the mercy of the male counterpart who is at liberty to exploit and take advantage of the woman. At any point in time when the man feels that the woman is getting too enlightened and may challenge his authority, which too often is his might, he feels threatened. The theatrical environment engendered by Theatres hegemony has been one of a patriarchal nature which has left women at the bottom of the artistic abyss, often 6

painting them in the negative where productions showcasing women abound. As means of transportation and shared knowledge spread farther than what men had envisaged, so did the maltreatment of women in the works of art which the modern era produced. The kitchen had been their abode and until the man of the house have need of the woman which he always have need of, mind you, women were to keep their place below the mans shadow. African customs and traditions, especially Nigerian cultural heritages would have been perfect if the women folk were a complete ignoramus instead of a wild duck the sort of modern woman ideas which has gained more academic grounds. No matter how sweeping these statements might appear, sociological patterns in Afro-centric thoughts show that education of the girl child is responsible for quite a number of the rebellion against the barbaric standing orders that women do not amount to anything; their place is the kitchen; their principal responsibility is to bear children and make the home and to fulfil the vows of matrimonial contracts while the man lusts himself in an aggrandized parade of his alter-ego! Looking at Henrik Ibsens stand at what such patriarchal injustice amounts to, Brockett and Franklyn (2003) posits that most of Ibsens plays were about women and made clear boldly, to the effect that ideology, such as the repression of the female willpower/voice were the cause of problems and suggested the need to change it. Therefore, in A Dolls House (1879), Nora, upon realizing that, as a woman, she has always been kept ignorant of the practical world and treated as a play thing, chooses to leave her husband and children in order to learn about the world so she can make decisions for herself. According to Ibsen in his Preface to A DOLLS HOUSE: A woman cannot be herself in the society of the present day, which is an exclusively masculine society, with laws framed by men and with a judicial system that judges feminine conduct from a masculine point of view (Cited in Brockett and Ball, 165).

Contrarily, in Ghosts (1881), Mrs Alving, conforming to traditional morality, has remained with a depraved husband only to have her only son go mad, presumably from inherited syphilis. In the long run, the borderline between yesterdays theatre and the current theatre experience is that both derives from the formers accumulated biases, especially against the female who were not admitted into mainstream policy and decision making circuits until the coming of age of the modern woman. Today, women in governance (Law, Politics and Businesses) have a meeting point where they discuss and help each other. The social consciousness, unlike before, is great. Although not all women struggle are feminist by ideology, advancement in technological know-how has afforded many women the opportunity to leave the dark age of customary laws and its detrimental effects. ANALYTICAL REVIEW OF PRIMARY DATA HANDS THAT CRUSH STONES-Akachi-Eze-igbo According to Marshal: A more radical feminist approach extends dependency theory's critique that Western capitalist penetration retards long-term economic growth, political democracy, and quality of life in less-developed societies, arguing that dependent development also exacerbates gender inequality. According to this radical perspective, the subsequent expansion of the cash economy frequently recruits males while leaving females to labor in subsistence production where they are denied opportunities for upward mobility and independence from patriarchal control (219). The above position that dependent development also exacerbates gender inequality holds true when we examine the facts depicted in the play under study. The figure of Chief Mbu is practically all that we see from beginning to the end until Madam Udentas intervention turns the records in favour of the women. Going by Marshals position above, the subsequent expansion of the cash economy frequently recruits males while leaving females to labour in subsistence production where they are denied opportunities for upward mobility and independence from patriarchal control. What does that mean? It simply implies that men are the ones in charge, and that recruitment favours the male folk (For example, How come Single Bone, Seargeant and the Police 8

that symbolize power or instruments of power are used against the widows?). For one thing, one notices that it is Chief Mbu-despite his title as Chief, a custodian of local tradition and customs, who should know that women without husbands deserve a welfare package who denies them the opportunity to rise beyond their immediate circumstances in want of a better life. Here, we see patriarchy, a situation wherein the man, having knowledge about the traditional laws uses it to his advantage. The women engage in subsistence production services, crushing stones for Chief Mbu and are denied opportunities for upward mobility. What does this mean? These widows have been crushing stones and deserve a pay rise but when they make a demand, the Chief refuses to add any salary to their wages. He insists that they take what hes been giving them or leave his quarry. This is one reference to Marshals position that dependent development also exacerbates gender inequality. The inequality herein spoken about is the discrimination of widows by the Chief Mbu led administration. This is a man who is a capitalist and head of the Izunga local government. As a leader and employer of labour, Mbu combines instruments of power such as the police and single bone his bodyguard to molest the women. When Hands that Crush Stones begins, we see a group of widows and two women, whose husbands do not cater for decrying their lot. They are under-paid, they work without receiving adequate compensation for their labour so they have embarked on strike. Using the strike as a protest against the Chief Mbu owned quarry where they work, the women are helpless but determined to carry on with the strike. Pointing to the Chiefs capitalist tendency, Amina, one of the widows says: You see, these big men do not want to part with money even when it is logical to do so. We come here in the morning before eight, crush stones till five in the evening only to go home with the starvation wage he pays us (2).

In the two weeks period since the inception of the strike, faced with the challenge of having resources to cater for their basic needs such as food, they learn from Ruki, a fellow widow that a certain Madam Udenta who is contesting in the forth coming local council election with Chief Mbu and that Udenta is sympathetic to the womens cause. Immediately, they dispatch some women to go while others hold it down at the quarry. When Chief Mbu arrive the quarry, he is unwilling to add any kobo to their wage, instead he says: ...I am not adding a kobo to what i pay you. If you do not like what you receive, then go away (28). In Mbus calculations, the women are replaceable, therefore, since no one may employ them he assumes they will come crawling back, begging to be employed. This is a capitalist attitude to human relations. Mbu, being the local government chairman should be in a better position to know that these women are widows, helpless and without other means of survival, yet he insists on handing them such wages as is barely enough to cater for their basic needs. As this scene ends we see Mbu ordering the police to bath the women with tear gas after his thug Single Bone had punched Kemi. This is an abuse of womens dignity, but who cares? The law which should have salvaged the womens cause works for Mbu, therefore it is a case in favouring patriarchy all the way. In scene three, having got wind of the womens suffering, Madam Udenta sends pressmen to the quarry where the women, having worked without receiving salary have been abused because they demanded for a pay rise. Interested more in the protection of his ego-image and if reported in the bad light may not win the elections, instead of initially meeting the demands of the women, Mbu poses for the camera, fully aware that his evil deeds have been exposed, capitalizes on the situation to his advantage. Mbu pays the women salary for last month in front of the camera and gives them the pay rise they demanded-all for show! To expose his deception, Sergeant says: Chief, you hear me, sah? Wetin we go do with de women. Make we no arrest dem again? (42). Definitely, Chief

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Mbu shuts the police officer up and goes ahead to make political statements and promises that the likes of him will never fulfil; that his government has plans to better womens lot. Lies! If there is anything to learn from this play, it is the fact that Chief Mbu who is a representation of a male dominated society where women hardly find their voice, makes life difficult for the woman. The playwright may be inferring that until women stand up and give the male folk a run for their selfish ambition, just like Madam Udentas action proved fruitful, although in actual fact we did not see her in the play, that women should come to the realization that once they agree to call mens bluff that there will be a rethink on how women are treated, most often to the mans advantage. ALTINES WRATH- Femi Osofisan Comparing the psyche of a power-drunk husband to that of a military officer, Mama discusses issues bordering on a mans mental picture of the woman as weak and subservient which makes them treat women in the inhuman manner they do. Hence, as it relates to a womans wellbeing, it is believed that: In the thinking of ordinary Nigerians, the military man exemplifies the masculine ideal. That is why the materially ambitious father has a vested interest in wedding his daughter to a groom clad in khaki. Street children and madmen can be seen acting out the roles of soldiers: they march, salute, and gesticulate frantically in a bid to convey their wholly imaginary authority (4). Altines fate is equivalent to a prisoner in a military regime in that, first, she was married off to Lawal when she was still a young girl by Her late father and grandfather as a token of appreciation to Lawals family who played host to them when Altines family migrated from the east. Years later, Lawal has finished his University Education and is now a permanent secretary in a government ministry. However, Altine is more or else a prisoner in her husbands house. She does not have a wifes status but is abused at will by Lawal. When marriage is supposed to be about Husband and Wife, in Lawals case, it is between Husband and his numerous concubines and mistress. To make matters worse, Altine does not sleep in the main house; she has a cubicle at the

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backyard where she operates from. When the play opens, Lawal brings one of his mistress home, then as Mariam the mistress protest that Lawal has yet to send Altine packing, he tells her that: ....Altine has her own room there, at the back of the house. And ive not allowed her to step into my room for over three years now. Okay? So you can stay with me. Stop fussing! (4). To say that Lawal is a shameful man is not enough but when we look at his religion which is Islam, it allows him to take more wives as much as he can cater for. No matter how right or wrong Lawals actions in this regard is, it is his attitude towards Altine that smacks of irresponsibility. Lawal has turned Altine into a punch bag, abuses her and does not regard her as a wife-equal partner in the marriage contract. For example, when Lawal tells Altine to get Mariam food, as she makes to go, Lawal insists that Altine kneel to greet Mariam, he does this to please another woman at his wifes expense: ...(Altine stares, silent. Lawal angrily hits her) I say greet her, you dumb female goat. Down on your knees! (Altine falls, and crawls as he kicks her. She drools in the mouth (6). It is such inhuman treatment meted out on Altine by Lawal over the years that led to Altines current state of dumbness. Altine has suffered so much as a wife in Lawals hand until the coming of Mariam. Meanwhile, Altine had registered in an extra mural class where she gets herself equipped with basic knowledge of the world and how things are, these being the reason why initially, after his University Education, Lawal considers Altine too crude for him. Altine says: A slave, isnt that all you wanted? Remember, all those years you went to the University, and i had to slave to pay your fees, and maintain the children, as well as your aged mother.... (31). In Lawals mind, Altine does not qualify for the kind of wife he wants so he brings home different women. It was on one of such occasions that Altines predicament began. Narrating her ordeal after she transformed from the battered house wife into the typical sort of modern woman picture that Lawal always wanted, Altine says: ... until that horrible day, when you brought that girl, Hauwa, to sleep on our

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bed. And the next day i had to wash the bed clothes, yes, wash off your smells and muck, after youd beaten me up! You do remember it all, Mr Lawal Jatau? (32). After suffered so much, Altine takes the bull by the horn when she truncates a business deal between her Husband and a certain Alhaji friend of Lawal. Lawal as a Permanent Secretary engages in corrupt practises that gives him wealth. This business transaction wherein he defrauds innocent people in the name of Government business makes Lawal very rich in that through the identity of his dumb wifes name, money is traded into his account lest his identity is revealed. When Altine had studied the situation and come to the realization that she has to pay Lawal back in his own coin, he transfers all the money, which has been in her name into a new account, lay claims to owning the properties. This action paralyzes Lawal who now finds himself at Altines mercy. Mariams reaction is as follows: Mariam: I didnt know you could be this trusting my dear! To keep everything in her name! And then to deceive me that you were sending her away. Lawal: ...illiterate and dumb! She wasnt supposed to know a thing! Lawal thinks that Altine will remain dumb. But he is surprised that after all the pains he puts her through that she is able to turn it in her favour. In the end, Altine overcomes Lawals oppressive regime, claims all his lifes savings and leaves Lawal wretched. Lawal is typical of a military husband, authoritative and tyrannical. But as we see, Altine, having studied the situation, refused to be trampled upon, she wins by cunning. Despite all her sufferings, she does not fight back, like a dove she bears her sorrow until she perfected her act to make this bully of a husband pay for all his eccentricity. Altines rise above Lawals expectation, the bottom of the pit where he has put her is a victory for womanhood. Osofisan seems to be making a point here, to the effect that, although women live in a mans world, a world that is not women friendly, it would be suicidal to stay put and allow the heavy weight of mans injustice to overcome us. Rather, that the woman should devise a way of liberating herself. At the end, Altine succeeds. Who would have thought that a husband as mean and dubious as Lawal could be overcome? The strength of every woman who 13

suffers injustice, oppression and evils which is directed at them by manmade laws, customs and traditional beliefs can only be transcended once those who suffer it face it with the mindset that, despite her weakness, if she could only try, change is imminent. For men and the society that empowers them to engage in anti-woman businesses, time to give up all negativity against the woman is now. CONCLUSION The two plays in this analysis shows to a large extent that in societies where men have an upper hand that the women always suffer. The pains of motherhood and the challenge of surviving in a male dominated world is a burden for women who must begin to take their destiny in their hands and chart a new course of life for themselves. Those in the Nora and Altine category who men have largely taken advantage of whatever the law or religion or customs says to do in their favour against the women must be resisted. The plight of widowhood on the other hand is a condition that must be taken up by all who have had course to be born and bred by a woman, married to a woman and feels deeply about a better life for women. In both plays, there is a trend- a common insight runs through the pages of the play texts, and that is the fact that the society in which these women live makes laws and have customs which are not in the womans favour. The enforcement of these patriarchal orders always limits the womans potentials, else no progress has been made to alleviate their plight. WORKS CITED Abuya, Pamela. Women in need of Liberation: an African Experience Ukhun, C.E (ed.) Critical Gender Discourse in Africa. Ibadan: Hope Publication, 2002. Albert, I, Olawale. Rethinking the impact of Patriachy Ukhun, C.E (ed.) Critical Gender Discourse in Africa. Ibadan: Hope Publication, 2002.

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Allen, Rob and Krebs, Nina. Dramatic Psychological Story Telling. New York: Palgrave, 2005. Brockett, Oscar and Ball, Robbert. The Essential Theatre 7th ed. Texas: Harcourt Brace, 2000. Brockett, Oscar and Franklyn, Hildy. History of the Theatre 9th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2003 Ezeigbo, Akachi. Hands that Crush Stones. Ibadan, UI Press, 2010. Felner, Milo. Women in Greek and Elizabethan Theatres in Wilson- The Theatre Experience 10th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2007. Ibsen, Henrik. A Dolls House. 1879. Mama, Amina. Khaki in the Family: Gender Discourses and Militarism in Nigeria African Studies Review, Vol. 41, No. 2 (Sep., 1998),: African Studies Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/524824 .Accessed: 22/03/2012 06:40 Marshall, E. Susan. Development, Dependence, and Gender Inequality in the Third World International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Jun., 1985): Blackwell; http://www.jstor.org/stable/2600507 .Accessed: 22/03/2012 05:51pm. Ogundipe, Ayodele. Power in Gender Discourse Ukhun, C.E (ed.) Critical Gender Discourse in Africa. Ibadan: Hope Publication, 2002. Osofisan, Femi. Altines Wrath. `Ibadan: New Horn Press, 1986. Sonpar, Shobna and Kapur, Ravi. Non-Conventional Indicators: Gender Disparities under Structural Reforms Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 36, No. 1 (Jan. 6-12, 2001),: Economic and Political WeeklyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4410144 .Accessed: 22/03/2012 06:17. Wainscott, R. and Fletcher, K. Theatre: Collaborative Acts. Boston: Pearson, 2004. Wilson, Edwin and Goldfarb, Alvin. Theatre: The Lively Art. New York: McGraw, 2002. Wilson, Edwin. The Theatre Experience 10th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2007.

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