METAL POLLUTION CONSIDERATIONS IN INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO, WEST INDIES.

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Sharda Surujdeo-Maharaj1, Dr. Mary Alkins-Koo1, Wayne Rostant1, Lorraine Maharaj1, Floyd Lucas1, Dr. I. Chang Yen2.
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The Life Sciences Department, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies.
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The Chemistry Department, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies.

INTRODUCTION Heavy metals are simply defined as metals with high atomic number for example, lead, copper or chromium. They are considered important environmental pollutants because they are toxic to plants and animals in low concentrations and can be accumulated and transferred along a food chain. They occur naturally, however many anthropogenic activities such as quarrying and combustion of fossil fuels, increase the rate of release of these pollutants to the natural environment. Metal pollution is an important consideration for integrated water resource management (IWRM). IWRM is a process, which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximise the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (GWP Technical Advisory Committee, 2000). Freshwater systems are especially important because they represent 0.0001 per cent of the worlds water supply and are subject to increasing pressure from competing interests involved in social, economic, political and ecological activities (Gleick, 2000). Inherent in IWRM is the need to know levels and sources of contamination, which threaten the equitable proportioning of water resources between competing demands and are integral aspects of water resource management. This papers looks at surface water quality in Trinidad and Tobago rivers, specifically heavy metal concentrations and their possible human health effects. Trinidad and Tobago is the twin island state located at the end of the Caribbean archipelago. It experiences a tropical climate with only two seasons wet and dry. The majority of Trinidad and Tobago freshwater demand is derived from surface waters (77%), with ground water being the second source (23%). There has been no comprehensive assessment of the quality of the water resources of the country but instead a number of independent studies of varying levels of reliability have been carried out (WRA, 2001). Most of the water quality studies in the country have been
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Paper presented at The Second Caribbean Environmental Forum (CEF-2), Energising Caribbean Sustainability, Port of Spain, 2004 May 31-June 04.

restricted to the one important water basin because it accounts for 30 per cent of the drinking water for the country. The aim of this paper is to outline the water quality of local rivers according to the levels of metals of greatest concern. It is also meant to identify the possible human health risks from poor surface water quality. METHODS Heavy metal data was collected for 64 sites across Trinidad and Tobago from November 1998 to June 2001, during both the wet and dry seasons (Map 1& Table 1). Sites were chosen in order to represent most of Trinidad and Tobago as well as to ensure accessibility. Water and sediment samples were collected from each site and analysed for the metals copper, nickel, cadmium, zinc, chromium and lead. Measuring the concentration of metals in the water can be used as a means of short-term monitoring since there can be significant temporal and spatial variability in the aquatic concentration of contaminants. Sediment concentrations, however, can be used as a more reliable, longterm indicator of the amounts of heavy metals entering freshwater systems (Shea, 1988). The water results were compared to the USEPA National Recommended Water Quality Criteria (Corrected) (1999) and for sediments, the Canadian Sediment Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life (CMC, 1999). Preliminary statistical analysis of this data showed that there are three metals of concern for sediments and water namely, copper, zinc and lead. Concentration values for these three critical metals were then summarised using a numerical categorisation method (after Phillip, 1998). Sites meeting the appropriate criteria were given a value of 2 and not meeting, a value of 1. These numerical values were tallied for wet and dry season and an overall water quality value derived for the water and sediments separately. This overall water quality was expressed in three categories namely, clean, perturbed and polluted. This information was then plotted using GIS Arcview ( 1992-2000, ESRI) to show the quality of each of the sites. Further GIS information (Ramlal, 2003) was overlaid onto these water quality maps to create maps showing possible sites of concern with respect to human health. This mapping however could only be done for Trinidad because of unavailable GIS information for Tobago. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Sources and behaviour of metals Table 2 summarises the results for metals in water and sediment for the wet and dry seasons. From this table, trends with respect to the behaviour of the metals can be deciphered. Copper was noted more in the water than in the sediments, which may be because of the amphoteric nature of the metal, allowing it to be soluble within a wide range of pH. It was found to be greater than the USEPA water quality criterion for both the wet and dry seasons in both islands. In Tobago, however, copper was detected at more sites in the water in the dry season than in the wet. It is suspected that this metal might be naturally

FIG.1. MAP OF SAMPLING SITES, MAJOR TOWNS AND COUNTIES.

GULF OF PARIA

Clean Perturbed Polluted TABLE 1. SITES LOCATED IN TOBAGO

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SITE UPPER/LOWER Bloody Bay Courland Upper Courland Lower Hillsborough West Lower Lambeau Lower Louis D'or Lower Louis D'or Upper Speyside Upper Speyside Lower

Towns Intake Towns located close to sites of poor quality

occurring in the soils and rock formations of Tobago. The source of copper in Trinidad is from discarding metallic objects in the rivers, for example vehicles, their parts and/or old appliances. Other sources include the use of copper herbicides as well as sewage from a number of dysfunctional sewage treatments plants across the country. Zinc showed similar trends to that of copper with respect to its greater presence in the water than the sediments. Zinc is a reactive metal, which easily forms complexes and adsorbs onto particulate matter. It is also an essential metal, which means that it is required by humans in small concentrations for proper enzymatic and biochemical reactions. It is as a result a key component of sewage, which in Trinidad and Tobago, is one of the important contributors to the high levels noted there. Another source is roofing material which is coated with zinc that is easily dissolved and washed downstream. Tobago, according to Table 1, did not have any zinc in the sediments. Lead showed different trends as compared to copper and zinc. It is of significance in both the wet and dry seasons and the water and sediments for both islands. This is because until April 2004, lead was still an additive to gasoline and was being released from vehicle exhaust. Many of the sites were located close to roads and bridges, which contributes significantly to the reduction in water quality for the sites. Lead concentrations in water were high for both the wet and dry seasons for both islands indicating that the source of the metal (vehicle emissions) was not seasonal. For Trinidad, lead concentrations were high for both seasons. However for Tobago, the levels of the metals varied between seasons and possibly levels of traffic. Overall, it is very clear that there is a serious concern with respect to the presence of these metals in water. With respect to sediments, there seems to be a greater concern for Trinidad than Tobago. Categorisation of sites and GIS Analysis Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the summarised water quality for the rivers in both the wet and dry seasons. According to Figure 2, there was only one site that was recognised as being clean. Thirty-six sites are categorised as perturbed and nineteen as polluted. As can be seen from the map, there are eight towns (triangles) that are located very close to sites recognised as perturbed or polluted. These are mostly located in North Trinidad in the county of St. George, where the major part of the population (43%) resides. Many of the intakes are fortunately above the sites that are recognised as polluted and/or perturbed. For the sediments (Fig 3), there are no recognised clean sites. There are fifty sites recognised as perturbed and fourteen as polluted. There are nine towns that are located close to sites categorised as perturbed and polluted. Many of these are the same for the results for water, with only one addition with the town Valencia. For both water and sediment, perturbed/polluted sites were noted to be close to towns. The towns have served as the sources of pollution for the rivers that in turn, result in poor water quality for residents to use. Even though most of the intakes are upstream of

TABLE 2. PERCENTAGE OF SITES NOT MEETING THE APPROPRIATE CRITERIA FOR THE DIFFERENT SEASONS

TRINIDAD
WATER Cu % 29.8 Wet 19.3 Dry BOTH WD 33.3 17.5 NONE 100 15.6 3.1 12.5 68.8 100 Zn % 8.8 10.5 68.4 12.3 100 21.9 7.8 15.6 54.7 100

TOBAGO
Pb % 3.5 WATER 7 78.9 10.5 100 26.6 SEDIMENTS 21.9 23.4 28.1 100 Cu % 11.1 Wet 33.3 Dry BOTH WD 55.6 0 NONE 100 Wet Dry BOTH WD NONE 33.3 0 66.7 0 100 Zn % 11.1 11.1 55.6 22.2 100 0 0 0 100 100 Pb % 0 0 88.9 11.1 100 33.3 33.3 22.2 11.1 100

SEDIMENTS Wet Dry BOTH WD NONE

TABLE 3. POPULATION NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGE PER COUNTY (Brinkhoff, 2003)

COUNTY POP. NO. % 63,471 5.4475326 St. Andrew/St. David 500,009 42.914328 St George 141,441 12.139472 St Patrick 36,250 3.1112328 Nariva/Mayaro 241,866 20.75866 Victoria 182,096 15.628774 Caroni 1,165,133 100 TOTAL

perturbed/polluted sites, there is one Caroni-Arena Water Treatment Plant- which is responsible for the distribution of approximately thirty percent of potable water for Trinidad and Tobago. Uses of Surface water Presently, the per capita water availability for this country is approximately 2500 m3/year, which is 2.5 times the international criterion for water scarcity, thus making this country a water abundant country. However, despite this apparent abundance of water, there is an annual deficit in water demand of 14%, which is projected to increase to 27% by 2015. This is due to unreliable water supply during the dry season and high turbidity during the wet season (WRMU, 2002). There are three major demands on local freshwater resources agriculture (6%), industry (26%) and domestic uses (68%). Agricultural uses include irrigation, food and aquaculture. Presently, ten million cubic metres/year (MCM/Yr) are used for irrigation, which represent approximately three percent of the total water supply. This is not projected to increase over the next ten years. Aquacultural demands, which is included under agriculture, can be defined in two ways. Freshwater fish catch for 2000 was one metric ton. Also, freshwater aquaculture production was five tons in 1997 (Earthtrends, 2003). With respect to industry, the demand by both minor and major industries in 2000 was approximately sixty MCM/Yr, which is (20%) of the total available resources. Further, this value is supposed to increase to seventy-seven MCM/Yr by the year 2005. Conversely, domestic uses accounted for 120 MCM/Yr (38%) and is projected to increase to 142 MCM/Yr by 2005. All of these uses therefore put a great strain on the present water supply. Further, they all require a high level of water quality that according to Figures 2 and 3 is not present. Human health and metal pollution Heavy metals are amongst the worlds most recognised pollutants. They pose a serious health and environmental problem because they cannot be destroyed through biological degradation, as is the case with many organic pollutants. Additionally, they tend to accumulate in the environment. Table 4 illustrates short term and long term effects of metals on humans. Citizens of Trinidad and Tobago are at risk of metal pollution from five sources: 1. 2. 3. 4. Directly drinking contaminated river water Using the water for irrigation and/or washing of produce Eating contaminated foods from the river e.g. fish Eating contaminated livestock reared using river water and its products. 5. Eating contaminated products from estuarine and marine habitats that receive contaminated river water.

FIG. 2&3. MAPS OF QUALITY OF LOCAL RIVERS AND LOCATION OF COUNTIES, TOWNS AND INTAKES

Fig. 2. Water quality map for metals in water

Fig. 3. Water quality map for metals in sediments

Clean Perturbed Polluted

Towns Intake Towns located close to 7 sites of poor quality

Presently, this country has more than 90% of its population accessing potable water. However, only 14% receive a continuous supply of water and 30% have access to a sewerage system. The percent of persons using rivers directly for potable water or food is not known. However, newspapers articles highlight the problem for example, an article in the Trinidad Guardian carried the headline Raw Sewage flowing to Gulf says Watchdogs (Trinidad Guardian, 1997) and it described a sewage pipeline, which was releasing large amounts of sewage into the Beetham River. The residents of that area use the river as a source of food and water. Little work has been done on bioaccumulation of metals in Trinidad and Tobago rivers. Bernard (1979) looked at the levels of lead in soils and plants as well as sediments, macrophytes and macroinvertebrates of the San Juan/Aranguez area. According to measurements made at that time, sediment lead levels were between 150-200 gg-1 with macroinvertebrate concentrations reading between 24-30 gg-1. These sediment concentrations were four and five times greater than an unpolluted reference site and the macroinvertebrate concentrations were between two and three times greater than those measured for organisms of the same species collected in the Caroni River. Extensive work has been done by the Institute of Marine Affairs on measuring metal concentrations in the Gulf of Paria but little has been done on looking at the possible human health risks associated with consuming fish from this major fishing area of Trinidad and Tobago. Metal pollution is a significant consideration in water resource management because it is a negative contributor to the economic growth of a country and its people. For Trinidad and Tobago, metal pollution has not been a concern in the past because there has been too much focus on economic growth at any cost. This however is not sustainable and should not be encouraged. Hence, it is necessary to implement suitable strategies in order to implement Integrated Water Resource Management. SUMMARY Heavy metal pollution in rivers is very prevalent in Trinidad and Tobago. The sources of these metals are anthropogenic. Despite the decreasing quality of water, there is an increase in demand. These metals can have significant health effects on humans from ingesting water or food from the rivers of from the Gulf of Paria, because of possible bioaccumulation of metals in fish. Suitable measures need to be implemented in order to bring about more sustainable management of water resources. RECOMMENDATIONS Integrated water resource management has in the past been perceived as a Governmental responsibility with its appointed institution as the sole stakeholder in this pursuit. However, what has become clear is that each citizen, no matter his role in society, has a part to play in order to ensure the sustainability of our natural resources for the future.

TABLE 4. COMMON HEAVY METALS AND THEIR HEALTH EFFECTS

TOXIC EFFECTS (FROM INGESTING CONTAMINATED FOOD AND /OR WATER) SHORT TERM EFFECTS
Pb Anaemia; is absorbed in small amounts from the gastrointestinal tract.

METAL

LONG TERM EFFECTS

Causes damage to lungs, kidneys, heart and male gonads and is stored in the bones; causes adverse effects to the immune system; reduction in cognitive functions in children; embryotoxic. Eating or drinking very high amounts of copper can cause liver and kidney damage and effects on the blood. May also cause cancers in humans. Anaemia, pancreatic damage and lower levels of HDL-cholesterol; rats fed large amounts of zinc become infertile or have smaller young. Irritation of the skin also noticed in test animals.

Cu*

Drinking water with higher than normal levels of copper can cause vomiting, diarrhoea, stomach cramps, and nausea.

Stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting. Zn*

The data shows that the sources of pollution are anthropogenic in nature and hence, can be curbed with control of pollution activities. There is need therefore, for communication between stakeholders and this can be done at the community, town/city and country levels. The media should also be included in this plea for environmental awareness. There should be education programmes for all four levels of stakeholders. This programme should highlight the necessity for keeping a clean environment and attempt to instil in people a sense of responsibility towards this regard. More importantly it should highlight environment-friendly alternatives to many of the present-day activities that result in contamination of local rivers. For example, the reuse of car engine and transmission oil as well as the recycling of lead-acid batteries. Incentives, in the form of tax breaks, can be given to private sector companies if they contribute towards an environmental cleanup drive or adopt an area for cleaning. Companies contributing to the pollution can also be charged heavy fines for their transgressions. This should also extend to the general public and a special wing of police should be allocated in order to arrest, charge and fine persons for polluting the environment. More importantly, there needs to be more enforcement of present legislation that protects water and its related resources. Trinidad and Tobago has a long history of watershed protection. The first forest reserve in the Western Hemisphere, the Main Ridge of Tobago, was created in 1765 for the protection of the rains and most of Trinidad and Tobagos existing forest reserves protect critical water resources (WRMU, 2002). Since then, there have been fifteen water protection legislation and numerous others that indirectly protect the water resources of the country. Most however have not been enforced and this is one of the major contributors to the lack of water resource management in this country. REFERENCES Bernard G.I. 1979. A Study Of Lead Pollution resulting from Automotive Exhaust Emission. M. Phil Thesis, Chemistry Dept., The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago, W. I. Brinkhoff, T, 2003. http://www.citypopulation.de/Trinidad.html. Created 2003-07-13. Visited 2004-05-14. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CMC) 1999. Canadian Sediment Quality Guidelines for the Protection of aquatic life: Summary table. In: Canadian environmental quality guidelines, 1999, Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg, Canada.

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Earthtrends, 2003. http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/Wat_cou_780.pdf. Visited 200405-14 Gleick P. 2000. The Worlds Water 2000 2001. Washington D.C., Island Press, 2000. Global Water Partnership Technical Advisory Committee (GWP TAC) 2000. IWRM. Publ. Global Water Partnership, Stockholm, Sweden. Phillip D.A.T. 1999. Biodiversity of freshwater fishes in Trinidad and Tobago. Ph. D. Thesis, St. Andrews University, Scotland. B. Ramlal, 2003. Personal Communications. Shea D. 1988. Developing National Sediment Quality Criteria. Environ. Sci. and Tech., 22(11):1257-1261. Trinidad Guardian 1997. Raw sewage flowing to Gulf says Watchdogs. 2nd May. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 1999. National Recommended Water Quality Criteria. EPA 822-Z-99-001. Washington, D.C. Water Resources Agency (WRA), 2001. National Report on Integrating the Management of Watersheds and Coastal Areas in Trinidad and Tobago. Prepared by The Water Resources Agency for The Ministry of the Environment. Water Resource Management Unit (WRMU), 2002. Draft National Water Resources Management Policy. Prepared by the Water Resource Management Unit for The Ministry of Public Utilities and the Environment.

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