Pak Affairs

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Pakistan Affairs
Till 1973
Advocate Ch. Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

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The Sufic Tradition

The first account of Sufi activities in the subcontinent was the visit which Mansur Hallaj paid to Gujrat, Sindh and Multan in 905. More than one and a half centuries later, a disciple of the mystical masters of Eastern Iran came to settle in Lahore. He was Syed Ali Hajveri, called Data Ganj Bakhsh whose tomb is as much venerated by the pious as his book Kashf-ul-mahjub, "The unveiling of the hidden", which is admired by scholars as the first comprehensive survey of mystical doctrine written in the Persian language. The peak of mysticism in the subcontinent, however, was the thirteenth century, the age of the greatest masters of sufism from Spain to Bengal. Mueenuddin Chishti (d. 1236) came from his native Sistan to Ajmer, which had become part of Bengal and ruled by Delhi, where his friend Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (d. 1235) lived. Mueenuddin's preaching of the love of God for man attracted the masses, and soon the Chishti order spread over the whole of India. Other outstanding representatives of this movement were the Fariduddin Ganj Shakar of Pakpattan, and Nizamuddin Aulia of Delhi. The Chishtiya avoided contact with the ruling classes, but their influence permeated the lives of Indian Muslims. Their love of poetry and music (given lasting expression by Amir Khusrau and Hasan Dehlvi) added a new dimension to Muslim culture in the subcontinent. The sayings of the early Chishti saints yielded an insight into the social and cultural life of mediaeval India. An outstanding member of the early Chishtiya is Muhammad Gaisudaraz (d. 1422 in Gulbarga in the Deccan), famous as a prolific writer in Arabic, in Persian for his intense devotional poems and letters, and one of the first authors of a mystical work in Dakhni Urdu, rnaarif al-ashiqui. He wrote an appreciation of the teachings of the "greatest master" Ibn Arabi, who later deeply influenced Indian sufism and led it towards existentialism. The Chishtiya became connected with the Mughal court - when Akbar's son Salim was born, the birth was ascribed to the prayer of a Chishti saint, in whose honour Fatehpur Sikri was erected. Other saints reached the subcontinent at the same time. The fame of Bahauddin Suhrawardi (d. 1262) was such that Multan became a centre of spiritual life, and the Persian poet Iraqi spent 25 years there. From Multan and Uch, the Suhrawardiya, more closely in touch with the aristocracy than the Chishtiya, spread soon to Bengal where its cultural influence has never ceased. A unique figure in thirteenth century sufism was Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, whose tomb in Sehwan is still a much frequented shrine.
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In 1371 Syed Ali Hamadhani introduced that Kubrawiva in Kashmir. This order with its fine psychological insights seems to have influenced northern India more than can be proved at present. The Qadiriya, probably the most influential order in the Islamic world, reached India in the fifteenth century. Its most prominent representative was Mian Mir of Lahore, who inspired Prince Dara Shikoh in his vision of uniting "the two oceans" of Islam and Hinduism, and whose lovely tomb is in Lahore. The influence of the Qadiriya can be measured best by the innumerable songs in regional languages that are dedicated to Abdul Qadir Jilani. An order whose influence extended over the borders of India is the Shattariva. Its best known master was Muhammad Ghaus Gwaliari (d 15621), the author of a complex mystical work, AI-Jawahir al-Khantsa, "The five jewels". His tomb in Gavalior, built by- Akhar, is a superb example of Muslim architecture. The Naqshbandiya order, originating from Bukhara and later politically influential at the Timurid court of' Herat and in Turkestan was introduced to India in about 1600. Its foremost representative, Ahmad Sirhindi (1624) relentlessly fought against the strong tendency towards existentialism, mainly expressed in mystical poetry, which blurred the differences between Islam and Hinduism. The claim of Ahmed Sirhindi to be the gavvum, the spiritual ruler of this world, and the title given him by his followers Mu.jaddi-i-al i-Sani, the leader of revival of Islam in the second millennium, is interesting for psychological and political reasons. The Naqshbandiya were largely responsible for the restoration of truly spiritual life in eighteenth century Delhi; Shah Waliullah (1762), Flazhar Aanjanan (1781) and Khwaja Mir Dard, represent the attempt of Naqshbandi-oriented mystics to respond to the challenge posed by the decay of Muslim power in the subcontinent. The favour of their commitment was an example to the freedom fighters of Sayed Ahmad Barelvi, to the Deoband school, and to Sir Syed Ahmad Khan of Aligarh. The Naqshbandis in Sindh were the first to introduce religious educational literature in the Sindhi language. The mystical orders, using the regional languages and infusing them with the literary idiom, have done much to acquaint the masses with a love of God and of the Prophet (PBUH) The mystics travelled widely and thus spread the message of Islam as far east as the Malayan Archipelago. The veneration shown to living and dead saints by the masses tended to dilute the purity of lslam. Likewise, the activities of the mystical leaders, the pirs, were not always restricted to the spiritual sphere and their power over their followers grew disproportionately. This caused the reformers' aversion to "pirism", which is a recurrent theme in Iqbal's philosophy. Iqbal himself went back to the classical, pure sufism, drawing largely on the dynamic concept of' love as preached in the middle ages by Jalaluddin Rumi (d 1273), whose Persian poetry was widely read and commented upon in all Muslim languages of the subcontinent. Iqbal also resuscitated the essence of Sufism.
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Sufi Orders
In the early centuries of Islam, the Sufis were not organised into particular circles or Orders. However, as time went by, the teaching and personal example of Sufis living the spiritually decreed code of life began to attract many groups of people. Between the ninth and eleventh centuries, we find that various Sufi Orders, which included adepts from all strata of society, began to emerge. As these Sufi Orders, or brotherhoods, came into existence, the centre of Sufi activities was no longer the private house, school or work place of the spiritual master. A more institutional structure was given to their gatherings, and the Sufi Order began to use centres which existed specifically for these gatherings. A Sufi centre was usually called a Khaneqah or Zawiyya. The trucks called their Sufi sanctuary a tekke. In North Africa such a centre was called a ribat, the name which was also used to describe the frontier fortresses of the Sufi soldiers who defended the way of Islam and fought against those who tried to destroy it. In the Indian sub-continent a Sufi culture was called a jamaat Khana or khanegah. In the same way that the various schools of Islamic Law which emerged in the early centuries after the Prophet Muhammads death were meant to define a clear path for the application of that law, so the Sufi Orders which emerged during the same period also intended to define a simple path for the practice of inner purification. In the same way that many great schools of Islamic Law ceased to be propagated and accordingly ended, likewise many great Sufi Orders faced a similar situation. During the ninth century, more than thirty schools of Islamic Law existed, but later on this number was reduced to five or six. During the twelfth century, you could not count the number of Sufi Orders, partly because there were so many, and partly because they were not yet defined as such. Most of the great spiritual masters and teachers of the Sufi Orders and schools of law did not expect that their teachings would be given a defined and often a rigid interpretation at a later stage after their deaths, or that the Sufi Orders and schools of law would be named after them. However, the preservation of the Sufi Orders was often partly a result of their physical isolation as well as the direction that mainstream Islam took. A noticeable trend within these Sufi Orders is that many of them intermingled, often strengthening each other and at times weakening each other. Most of the Sufi Orders kept a record of their lineage, that is their chain of transmission of knowledge from master to master, which was often traced back to one of the Shiite spiritual leaders and accordingly back through Imam Ail to the Prophet Muhammad, as a proof of their authenticity and authority. The only exception to this is the Naqshabndi Sufi Order whose lineage of transmission of knowledge traces back through Abu Bakar, the first leader of the Muslim community in Medina, to Muhammad.
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The following are a few of the Sufi Orders which are still established today, each with its own predominating characteristics. Seekers of knowledge can be members of one or more of the Sufi Orders, as indeed they often follow more than one spiritual master. The following are only a sample of those Sufi Orders with which the author has personal familiarity.
The Naqshbandi Order:

The Naqshbandi Order takes its name from Shaykh Baha ud-Din Naqshbandi of Bukhara (d. 1390). It is widely spread in central Asia, the Volga, the Caucasus, the north-west and south-west of China, Indonesia, the Indian sub-Continent, Turkey, Europe and North America. This is the only known Sufi Order which traces the genealogy of its lineage of transmission of knowledge back through the first Muslim ruler, Abu Bakar, unlike the rest of the known Sufi Order which trace their origins back to one of the Shiite spiritual leaders, and therefore through Imam Ali, and so to the Prophet Muhammad.
The Qadri Order:

The Qadri Order was founded by Shaykh Abd al-Qadir al-Gilani (d. 1166) from Gilan in Persia, who eventually settled in Baghdad in Iraq. After his death, his Sufi Order was propagated by his sons. The Qadri Order has spread to many places, including Syria, Turkey, some parts of Africa such as Cameron, the Congo, Mauritania and Tanzania, and in the Caucasus, Chechen and Ferghana in the Soviet Union, as well as elsewhere.
The Chisti Order:

The most influential Sufi Order in the sub-continent of India and Pakistan has been the Chisti Order, which takes its name from Khwaja Abu Ishaq Shami Chisti (d. 966). Its spread has been primarily within south-east Asia. Sufi Orders, like other movements, have tended to be cyclical in nature. A Sufi Order has generally had a cycle of two to three hundred years before weakening and decaying. Whenever there has been a need for it, a Sufi Order begins to rise, then reaches its, climax, and then gradually declines and disintegrates. One observable trend in the history of Sufism has been that whenever there has been a lack of Islamic source material, such as the Quran or the original way of Muhammad, within a Sufi Order then it has tended to be dominated by the stronger and older culture of its environment. This adulteration is noticeable in the Chisti
Order of south-east Asia and in the Sufi Orders of Indonesia which have integrated many elements of Hindu and Buddhist customs into their practices. Similarly the Sufi Orders of Africa below the region of Sudan have integrated some of the African tribal religious customs into their practices. All these Sufi Orders seem to have taken on some of the colour of cultishness in these remote regions.
The Rifa's Order:

Founded by Shaykh Ahmad ar-RifaI (d. 1182) in Basra, the RifaI Order has spread to Egypt, Syria, Anatolia in Turkey, Eastern Europe and the Caucasus, and more recently to North America.
The Shadhili Order:

The Shahdhili Order crystallised around Shaykh Abdul-Hasan as-Shadhili of Morocco (d. 1258) and eventually became one of the greatest Sufi Orders, having an extraordinarily large following. Today it is found in North Africa, Egypt, Kenya and Tanzania, the Middle East Sri Lanka and elsewhere, including the West and North America.
The Mevlavi Order:

The Mevlavi or Mawlawi Order centres around Mawlana Jalal ud_din Rumi of Qonya in Turkey (d. 1273). Today it is mostly found in Anatolia in Turkey and more recently in North America. The followers of this Order are also known as whirling dervishes.
The Bektashi Order:

The Bektashi Order was founded by Hajji Bektash of Khurasan (d. 1338). Shiite ideas strongly permeate this Sufi Order. It is limited to Anatolia in Turkey and was most powerful up until the early twentieth Century. The Order is regarded as a follower of Shias Islamic Law.
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The Ni'amatullah Order:

The Niamatullah Order was founded by Shaykh Nur ud_din Muhammad Niamatullah (d. 1431) in Mahan near Kirman in South-west Iran. . its followers are found mostly in Iran and India.
The Tijani Order:

The Tijani Order was founded by Shaykh Abbas Ahmad ibn at-Tijani, an Algerian Berber (d. 1815). It has spread from Algeria to the South of the Sahara and into western and central Sudan, Egypt, Senegal, West Africa and northern Nigeria, as well as being represented in the West and in North America.
The Jarrahi Order:

The Jarrahi Order was founded by Shaykh Nur ud-Din Muhammad al_jarrah of Istanbul (d. 1720). It is limited mostly to Turkey, with some representation in the West and in North America.
Sufism in Modern Times

During the eighteenth, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the major Sufi movements in Africa and Asia were often connected to mainstream Islamic movements. The Sufis were the elite of their societies, and often led the reform movements or opposition to oppression and foreign or colonial domination. Thus, for example, they were deeply involved in political movements such as the uprisings in Morocco and Algeria against the French, and the rebuilding of society and Islamic governance in Libya, which was carried out largely by members of the Sanusi Order. In northern Nigeria, Shaykh Uthman dan Fodio (d. 1817), a member of the Qadiri Order, led the religious war against the Habe rulers who had failed to govern according to the Islamic Law, which had led to the imposition of arbitrary taxes, general corruption, oppression and the dwindling of Islamic morality both at the popular and at the courtly levels. Further eastward, Shaykh Muhammad Ahmad alMahdi (d. 1885), a member of the Tsemani Order, successfully opposed attempts at British colonial rule in Sudan. Similar phenomena occurred in the East as well. For Example, the Naqshbandi Sufis and Shah Waliullah challenged the British colonial power in India.
Thus the Sufis were in action in many countries during the colonial era, opposing the colonial dismantling of Islamic governance and attempting to revive and sustain original Islam. They often formed or were at the heart of strong social groupings, and had great followings in many parts of the world. What kept many of these movements coherent and strong was the fact that during the nineteenth century people were not mobile, and the control or ownership of land, together with the influence of long-established cultural traditions, played an important role in the stability of society. However during the twentieth century, the situation began to change radically and rapidly. The Western colonization of most of the Muslim land was almost complete by the end of the First World War. After that, the advent of secular and often Western appointed or approved "client" rulers set the scene. Religious and Sufi interests and influences became of secondary importance, due to the rapid erosion of past and traditional values and lifestyles, and it became increasingly difficult and dangerous to follow the original way of Islam in its entirety in the Muslim lands. In contrast to what was happening in the East, we find many spiritual organisations and societies springing up in the West, often started by Western seekers of knowledge. The fact that many people from the Western societies embraced pseudo-religious movements, such as those of the Bahai and Subud, as well as various branches of Buddhism, Hinduism and other minor new religions or revived versions of old ones, shows the growing thirst and interest in spiritual knowledge in the West, where the various versions of Christianity which were mind-or emotion-based, rather than heart "based, had failed to provide any real spiritual nourishment for several centuries. More influential than these various movements were the Theosophist and Masonic movements. By the early twentieth century, we find that there was a great deal of interest in spiritualism in both Europe and North America. The work of the orientalists who attempted to explore the spiritual dimension of the Eastern religions " albiet from within their own peculiar conceptual framework " including Islam, contributed to the increasing interest in spiritualism and the search for mystical experience in the West, by means of their writings and translations of original works on Eastern traditions, art, culture, philosophies and religions. Sufism began to arrive in the West alongside many other real or pseudo-spiritual movements. The arrival of so many Indian gurus and Buddhist masters coincided with the advent of interest in Sufism. By the middle of the twentieth century, we find quite a number of Sufi societies and movements springing up in Europe and North America, some of them founded by genuine Sufis and some by pseudo-sufis. As time went by, more information about Sufism and Islam on the whole became available in the West. The oil crisis in the West and the petrol boom in a number of Middle Eastern countries also helped in increasing contact with the Middle East and the Arabic language and information about Islam. Then came the revolution of the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979 which has, ever since then, generated a global awakening of interest in the Islamic tradition. It will not be out of context to mention here that Imam Khomenis former residence and the place where he gave audience to
his people in the north of Tehran is itself a Sufi mosque and sanctuary. In fact Imam Khomeni concentrated on the science of Sufism and gnosis during his early years at the religious school in Qum, and his early writings were mainly concerned with the inner meaning of night vigils, night prayers and self-awakening. It is important that we do not confuse the spiritual qualities of an individual with outer events. Imam Ali, the master of all Sufis, had only war on his hands during his years as the leader of Muslim community. Outer events can sometimes confuse the onlooker and conceal the light of such beings. As for the state of Sufism in the West in the more recent past, we observe in conclusion that many of the groups that had accepted Sufism in order to benefit from some of its disciplines, doctrines, practices or experiences have begun to disintegrate. These groups of the "new age" movement which embraced a number of ideas derived from Sufism are breaking apart because their way of life is not in harmony with the mainstream of original Islam, and accordingly they do not have the outer protection which is necessary to protect and ensure the safety of the inner movement. Thus during the last few decades of this century, we observe that most Sufi movements in the West have either been strengthened by holding on to the outer practices of Islam, or weakened and degenerated by not doing so.
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Mujadad Alf Sani (Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi)

(June 26, 1564 December 10, 1624)
Brief Life Sketch:

Birth 26th June 1564, Sirhind in East Punajb. Named Ahmed and title was Badr-ul-Din and Kunniyat was Abu-al-Barkat S/o Sheikh Abdul Ahad up to Hazrat Umer Farooq. Memorized the Holy Quran, Hadith and Fiqh from father and Ulama Kamal ud Din and Sheikh Yaqub Sarfi Kashmiri. Educated at Sailkot and Sirhind Wrote book on Isbat-un-Nabuwwat. (Affirmation of the Prophethood) Journey to Agra and met with Akbars Darbari Ulema Abu-al-Fazal and Faizi During return from Agra married with daughter of Sheikh Sultan Journey to Delhi and met with Hazrat Khawaja Baqi Billah Bairang After the death of Hazrat Khawaja Baqi Billah became head of Silsala-eNaqshbandia Died in 10th December 1624 in Sirhind
Shiekh Ahmed is an individual from Sirhind, rich in knowledge and vigorous in action. I associated him for few days and found truly marvelous in his spiritual life. He will turn into a light which will illuminate the world. (Khawaja Baqi Billah)
Social Conditions of India:

Firm and widespread belief in Karamat. Un-Islamic Pracitces - During Akbar's reign, emperor married hindu princesses and adopted hindu customs. Negative attitude of Ulema - Ulema presented negative image of Islam in order to please the emperor. Submissive Attitude of the Masses - People were blindly obeying the emperor. Ouran and Sunnat was practiced but Jurisprudence was considered only religious. Akbars Din-i-Elahi - Akbar invented Din-i-Elahi to unite all his subjects. High positions given to Rajputs etc.
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Services to Islam (Efforts to Purify Muslim Society of Unislamic Practices):

By sending his Disciples. Emphasize on Ittibat-i-Sunnat (examples of the Holy Prophet (pbuh) and commandments of sharia in the sermon and preaching. Origin of Concept of Wahdat-ul-Shahood against Mohayyudin Ibn-e-Arabis concept of Wahdat-ul-Wajood. Work for restoration of teaching Islam emphasized on the concept of Tauheed. Denounced Bhakti Movement and Akbars Deen-e-Elahi. The Bhakti movement is a Hindu religious movement in which the main spiritual practice is loving devotion among the Vaishnava saints. Revealed importance of Namaz and Fasting.
Bhakti Movement:
The history of the movement goes back to the time of great reformer Shankracharya who gave Hinduism a solid philosophical background. But the movement became popular in the middle ages. Chaitanya led the movement in the east( modern Uttar Pradesh), Tuka Ram, Nam Dev and Tirlochan in the Central India, Sadna, Pipa, Mirabai, Tulsi Das and above all Kabir were its leaders in the north. Kabirs teachings had great influence in the Punjab, but actually the movement in the Punjab was led by Guru Nanak and his nine successors. The message of love and devotion to god was spread among the people of the Punjab for ten generations. This intense and organized propaganda of the Bhakti cult by the Sikh Gurus led to the foundation of a community of Bhaktas known as the Sikhs. To consider Ram and Rehman as one is stupidity because creator cannot be one with its creation
Reformation Efforts:
To face Hindu Hostility
Opposition of Akbars Religious Policy Din-e-Elahi in 1582 under influence of Faizi, Abu-al-Fazl and Hindu Ranis Policy of Sulh-e-Kul and Secularism Sajda-e-Tazeemi, Blaze & Solar Worship Negation of Pillars of Islam, Miraj Incident and Prophethood Opposition of Cow Slaughtering, Promotion and Participation in Hindu Customs with Hindu Ranis.
Stress of Shariat
Concept of Tauheed Wahdat-e-Adyan the core of all religions is same Ram Rahim and Rehman Bhagwan are two sides of same picture. Reforms of Mujadis Alif Sani o Ram and Krishan were creation of Almighty Allah. Then. how creator and his creation could be one o Ram was Seetas husband and even if he couldnt protect his wife how he would help others. o Rehman is immortal was present before the birth of Ram and would remain after his demise
Connections with Dignitaries Specially with Ameer Nawab Jahan Khan Three ways 1. Leave the state and nation on its fate like other Sufis. 2. Rebel against the so-called Muslim State of Hindustan 3. Reformation of the religious thoughts of the elite class and promotion of Naqshbandia Chain among them. a) Lessen the hostility of Akbars Religious Policy b) Enthronement of Jahangir instead of Khussro c) Forced Jahangir for promulgating Islamic Policy Enthronement and Transfer of Kingdom to Prince Saleem (Jehangir) Enthronement of Jahangir instead of Khussro on the recommendations of Islamic Dignitaries of Naqshbandia Chain
The position of a king is the same as that of the heart in the body, if the heart is pure the body will be pure and if the heart is not pure how an the body be pure.
Prohibition of Unislamic customs and Titled King of Islam by Mujadid Alif Saani in a letter to Sheikh Farid Refusal to Prostrate (Sajda-e-Tazeemi) Befoore Jahangir Allegations of rebellion and he was dubbed as an atheist by his opponents. Summoned to the court of Jahangir and was asked to bend down
Imprisonment in Gwaliar Fort for one year to discourteous behaviour. Sunnat-e-Yousafi in Prison Later on summoned by Jhangir on the advice of Asaf Jah. (Prime Minister) received Khilat-e-Fakhira and 1000 rupess The Opposition of Ulema-e-Sou
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Two Nation Theory
Opposition of Innovation (Biddat)
Promotion of Naqshbandia Chain
Reformation through Letters
Shiekh Ahmed and Two-Nation Theory:

Liberal point of preaching resulted the joint nationalism. Demanded destruction of temples and separate identity. Openly negated Hinduism and wanted to impose Jaziya again.
If Muslims want to live as a nation than they have to quit the talk of Shirk and Bidat and stay separate from Hindus. If the awareness of separate national identity is not awakened in Muslims than it is feared that they would be swept away with the flood of combined nationhood. Islam would become observed in the soil of and would be destroyed like Buddhism and other religion which have been observed in Hinduism.
Literary Works of Hazrat Mujadid Alif Sani:

"Moving to Allah is a vertical movement from the lower stations to the higher stations; until the movement surpasses time and space and all the states dissolve into what is called the Necessary Knowledge (Talim-ul-wajib) of Allah. This is also called Annihilation (fana'). "Moving in Allah is the stage in which the seeker moves from the station of Names and Attributes to a state which neither word nor sign can describe. This is the State of Existence in Allah called Baqa. "Moving from Allah is the stage in which the seeker returns from the heavenly world to the world of cause and effect, descending from the highest station of knowledge to the lowest. Here he forgets Allah by Allah, and he knows Allah with Allah, and he returns from Allah to Allah. This is called the State of the Farthest and the Nearest.
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"Moving in things is a movement within creation. This involves knowing intimately all elements and states in this world after having vanished in Annihilation. Here the seeker can achieve the State of Guidance, which is the state of the prophets and the people following the footsteps of the Prophet . It brings the Divine Knowledge into the world of creation in order to establish Guidance. Hazrat Mujaddid Alif Sa'ani was a great writer but his letter proved more popular than his books. These letters translated in Urdu, not only express his opinion on various issues but are also fine pieces of language and style. Besides them following are some of the titles of his books: o Maktubat (Letters) of Imam Rabbani Collection of 536 letters, consists of three volumes. An elaborate printing of the book was accomplished in 1973 in Nazimabad, Karachi, Pakistan. It was reproduced by offset process in Istanbul, Turkey. Copy of the Persian version exists in the library of Columbia University. Maktubat was rendered into the Arabic language by Muhammad Murad Qazan, and the Arabic version was printed in two volumes in the printhouse called Miriyya and located in the city of Mekka. A copy of the Arabic version occupies number 53 in the municipality library in Bayezid, Istanbul. It was reproduced by offset process in 1963, in Istanbul. o Isbat-un-Nubuwwat and Risala Isbat-ul-Nabuwwat. In these works the need and importance of prophethood was described. o Tauheed-i-Shuhudi was his greatest work on Islamic philosophy was. o Interpretation of Rubiyaat-e- Khawaja Baqi Billah o Mobada-o-Ma'ad. o Ma'arife-Ladqiya. o Makashifaat-e-Ghebia. o Sharah Rubaeyat-e-Hazrat Khawaja Baqi-Billah. o Risala-Telilia. o Risala Basilsila-e-Aha'dis.
Effect of Teachings:
Drew a distinction between Islam and Atheism (Ram and Rahman, Kaaba and Kaashi, Quran and Paran) Restored dominance of Shariah and Islam Opposing United Nationhood Advise on Shariat Jhangir ordered Khutabah (Holy sermon) to be recited. Cow slaughter to be carried out.
Agreed to construct the mosque. Shariats superirority to Myticism
Kashf and revelation get value through the book of Allah and Sunnah and not through wajd
Homage:
Conclusion:
The efforts of Sheikh Ahmed to purify the religious and practical life of the Muslims left an indelible impact on the history of Muslim India. Hazrat Mujaddid Alf Sani was the most powerful religious personality in the history of sub-continent who opposed Akbar and thereby invited his wrath. He was a widely read scholar and a magnetic orator. He got an opportunity in a liberal atmosphere in Jahangir's reign to use his powerful pen to denounce Akbar's religious innovations. He is considered as a pioneer of Muslim self-assertion by denouncing Un-Islamic practices.
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Shah Wali Ullah Muhaddith Dehlvi

(February 21, 1703 August 20, 1762) We have sent you as a witness and as a bearer of good news and as a warner and as one inviting to Allah alone by His Permission and as a light-giving torch. (Quran 33: 45-46) Ulema are the successors of the prophets, in the mission of delivering the message of Allah. (Abu Daud, Tirmizi)
Introduction:
History itself stands evident to the fact that whenever Islam was in danger, by any agency or enemy, it was saved by such personalities who through their spiritual power not only saved it but also gave it a new life. The movement of Shah Wali Ullah was the first in the Subcontinent that aimed at socio-economic and politico religious reformation of the degenerated Muslim society. He worked for the revival of Muslim rule and intellectual learning in South Asia, during a time of waning Muslim power. Shah Waliullah urged Muslim rulers to a jihad against the enemies of Islam and hoped to restore the Ulama's former power and influence. He despised the divisions and deviations within Islam and its practice in India and hoped to "purify" the religion and unify all Indian Muslims under the "banner of truth". He is also thought to have anticipated a number of progressive, social, economic, and political ideas of the modern era such as social reform, equal rights, labour protection, welfare entitlement of all to food, clothing, housing, etc.
Conditions of India At That Time:

The condition of India at that time was bad because the departure of Aurangzeb Alamgir, the Mughal king, from the scene of Mughal Empire in (1707) wreak havoc not only on the future of Mughal Empire but also on the future of Islam and the Muslims in the Subcontinent. According to S. M. Ikram, In the 18th century, Islam in the subcontinent was faced with such menacing problems as sectarian conflict, low moral values of society, poor understanding of the Holy Quran and general ignorance of Islam, that there were valid reasons for fearing that political disintegration would be accompanied by religious collapse. That did not happen was due to more than any thing else but the services of one man.
1. Social Conditions:
During these days political and social turmoil was rampant in the sub-continent.
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The weak successors of Aurangzeb had divided the country / state into three parts. There was degeneration of morality and the rulers were indulged in immoral activities. Life, property and honour were not secure as there were a number of disruptive forces at work in the Muslim society. The Mughal Empire gradually began to collapse with manifest signs of decadence.
2. Religious Conditions:
The religious groups were also claiming their superiority and the tussle between the Shia and Sunni sects was posing serious threats to Muslim nobility.
The Muslim society was riddled with differences of all kinds like poor understanding of the Holy Quran and general ignorance of Islam and that had made the situation even worse. There was no unity among the Muslims and the religion of Islam was on the verge of losing its identity and spirit.
3. Political Conditions:
The stability and strength of Aurangzeb time was lacking in the political, social and religious sections of the society.
There was no political unity, the whole country was divided into different states and there was no central authority. The Marhatas and Sikhs had gained a firm foothold that usually raided the seat of the Government, Delhi, sometime occupying the old city physically for short durations. The rise of Marhata might promote Hindu nationalism which intensified the social decay in the Muslim society. The situation had been aggravated by the defective laws of succession, demoralized army and economic bankruptcy.
In these circumstances, Shah Wali Ullah appeared on the scene as a great social reformer. He launched a movement to bring social, political and economic reforms in the society. His object was to alleviate the deteriorating condition of the Muslim society and to defend it from external threats.
Brief Life Sketch:

Shah Waliullah is a descendent of the Quraish tribe of Arabia and his genealogy can be traced to the second Khalifa of Islam, 'Umar on his paternal side.
Born on 21st February 1703 in Moza Phalat, a town in Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India on
S/o Abdul Rahim founder of Madrassa Rahimia His father, Shah Abdur Rahim, named his son 'Qutbuddin Ahmad'. Dubbed as 'Shah Waliullah' because Waliullah means "Friend of Allah" His father was a sufi, saint and theologian who assisted Aurangzeb in the completion of Fatawai-Alamgiri. Follower of Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaah and was a sub follower of Hanafi school of thought (However, he was not fanatical to the Hanafi school of thought and used to give precedence to the authentic narrations of the Prophet Muhammad above anyone else's statements) Pedigree leads up to Hazrat Umer from fathers side and to Imam Musa Kazim from mothers side
Family:
Shah Waliullah had a son, Shaikh Muhammad, and a daughter, Ammatul Aziz, from his first wife. His second wife bore him four sons: Shah Abdul Aziz Muhaddis Dehlvi, Shah Rafiuddin, Shah Abdul Qadir, and Shah Abdul Ghani. The only son of Shah Abdul Ghani, Shah Ismail Shaheed, also became a renowned scholar and a freedom fighter, along with Syed Ahmad Shaheed.
Education
Shah Waliullah received his education at Madrasa Rahimiyya. His father was his teacher and source of spiritual guidance.
He commenced his studies at the tender age of five and completed the recitation and memorization of the Qur'an by the age of seven. Thereafter, completed primary lessons in Persian and Arabic in a year. Then, studied the grammar and syntax of Persian and Arabic. Completed his studies in Philosophy and Theology at the age of fifteen Then commenced his studies in Mantiq, Fiqh, Hadith, Tibb, Algebra, Mathematics, Kalaam, Spiritualism, Mysticism, Oratory and Metaphysics under his father. Thereafter, he was inducted into the tradition of Bay'at by his father and, by the age of seventeen, he was permitted to provide spiritual guidance to and reform his fellow Muslims.
On the death of his father when he was hardly seventeen years old, he became a Mudarris (teacher) at Madrasa Rahimiyya. He held this position for twelve years. Then, in 1731, Shah Waliullah performed Hajj. He reached Makkah on May 21 and performed Hajj, after which he proceeded to Madina. 17 Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam Cell: 03336587420
There, he attended Shaikh Abu Tahir Muhammad bin Ibrahim Kurdi Madani's discourses on hadith. Shah Waliullah studied Sihah Sitta, Mu'atta Imam Malik, Masnad Da'armi, and Imam Muhammad's Al A'saar under him. Thereafter, he returned to Makkah, performed another Hajj, studied Mu'atta Imam Malik for a second time under Shaikh Wafadullah Maliki Makki, and attended the discourses of Shaikh Tajuddin Hanafi Qala'i Makki on Sihah Sitta. Then, he was permitted to teach all of the Kitabs of hadith by Shaikh Tajuddin.
Thereafter, Shah Waliullah returned to India. His journey back to India lasted six months and he reached Delhi on January 1, 1733.
Achievements and Services

During his sojourn in Makkah, Shah Waliullah had a dream in which Rasulullah (S.A.W.W) commanded him to reform the organization and emancipation of Muslims in India. Thus, after he returned to Delhi, he started his work in earnest. This was in a period when Muslims in India were passing through the most critical phase of their history and their entire social, political, economic and spiritual fabric was torn to pieces. On his arrival in Delhi, he started to train his pupils in diverse branches of Islam and entrusted them with the mission of enlightening people with the true nature of Islam. He embarked upon the task of authoring standard works on Islam and was able to complete a number of works on Islam. Shah Waliullah rose to be an eminent scholar of Islamic studies. He was a prominent intellectual figure whose mission was to reform the Muslims he saw as misguided. His activities were not confined to spiritual and intellectual spheres only. He lived in troubled times and witnessed a number of rulers occupying the throne of Delhi. With his keen political insight, he observed the deterioration of Muslim rule in India and wrote to a number of political dignitaries to attempt to bolster the political life of Muslims in India. He established several branches of Madrasa Rahimiyya in Delhi in order to effectively disseminate his knowledge.
1. Literary and Religious Works:

Shah Waliullah was a prolific writer as well. In the realm of Islam, he produced a number of memorable literary works and, within a period of thirty years, he wrote a total of fifty-one works of merit, twenty-eight in Arabic and twenty-three in Persian. Some of these are still unsurpassed in the domain of Islamic literature. His most valuable service to Islam was that he codified the vast store of Islam under separate heads. Both in thought and prediction, his works occupy an outstanding position. His works can be classified into six categories.
1. Quran: Persian Translation of Holy Quran (Fath-ur-Rahman fi Tarjumatul Quran) in 1738 to answer questions of Christian Missionaries. Al Faudhul Kabir fi Usoolut Tafsir: A booklet in Persian that follows his Persian translation of the Qur'an. It contains the nucleus of the Qur'an, the
rules of interpretation, and interpretations of the Qur'an by various eminent scholars. 2. Hadith: The second category deals with hadith, in which he has left behind several works such as commentaries on Mu'atta Imam Malik in both Arabic (Al-Muswaa) and Persian (Al-Mustafaa). A collection of 40 ahadith which are brief yet of inclusive character is named as Chehal Hadith. Shah Waliullah also wrote a number of works and pamphlets on hadith. His greatest work is Hujjatullahil Baligha, also contains a lot of articles on Hadith. 3. Fiqh or Islamic Jurisprudence: This type which includes lnsaaf fi Bayaan-e-Saboob-ul-Ikhtilaf, a brief yet informative history of Islamic jurisprudence over the five centuries before his life. Shah Waliullah's greatest work is Hujjatullahil Baligha, Its title is derived from the Qur'an (Suratul An'aam:149). It is a two-volume Arabic manuscript and elaborates about the jurisprudence from the hadith and necessities of the Sharia.. 4. Mysticism: 5. Muslim Philosophy and Kalaam: He also wrote a pamphlet Aqd-ul-Jaid Fi Ahkam-ul-Ijtehad wal Taqlid on the principles of Ijtihad (independent interpretation) and Taqlid (conformity). In his principles of Ijtihad, he clarifies whether it is obligatory for a Muslim to adhere to one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence or whether he can exercise his own judgment. 6. Problems Between Shias and Sunnis: Wrote Izalat-al-Akhifa and Khilafat-ul-Khulfa to remove differences and misunderstandings between Shia and Sunnis. He himself states:
I was informed through Ilham (Inspiration) that I would have to undertake this responsibility. The time has come when every injunction of sharia and general instruction of Islam should be presented to the world in a rational manner.
Partial List of His Works: A partial list of the rest of his works is as follows:
Arba'een (Arabic): Matul Ilmul Isnad (Arabic): This work is about the scholars of Hijaz who taught Shah Waliullah. Izalatul Khafa'an Khilafatul Khulafa (Persian) At Tayyabul Naghm fi Madh-e-Sayyidul Arab wal Ajam (Arabic): A collection of odes eulogizing Rasulullah, which display Shah Waliullah's poetic talent and love towards Rasulullah. Altaaful Quds (Persian): This work deals with esoteric principles of mysticism.
Al Imdad fi Ma'athirul Ajdaad (Persian): A brochure outlining Shah Waliullahs genealogical table and containing brief notices about some of his ancestors. Al Intibah fi Salaasil ul Auliaullah (Persian): A book which details the history of and a brief introduction to various mystic orders. Insanul 'Ain fi Mashaaikhul Haramayn (Persian) Al Insaf fi Bayaanul Asbabul Ikhtilaf (Arabic) Anfaasul Arifeen (Persian) Al Budurul Bazigha (Arabic): This work on theology employs philosophical terminology in discussing human nature and social behaviour. Bawaariqul Wilaaya (Persian): This tract forms part of the Anfaasul Arifeen, in which Shah Waliullah has described the life and spiritual attainments of his father, Shah Abdur Rahim. Tawillul Ahadith (Arabic): It recount the stories of different prophets mentioned in the Qur'an in order to draw out lessons and rules of Shari'a from the Qur'anic description. Tuhfatul Mu'ahhidin: This is a Persian tract explaining the creed of tauhid. Taraajimul Abwaabul Bukhari (Arabic): It expounds the principles which would be found helpful in understanding certain difficult portions of Sahih ul Bukhari. At Tafhimatul Ilahiya (Arabic and Persian): This is a mystical work, partly in Arabic and partly in Persian, detailing the mystical experiences of Shah Waliullah. Al Juz ul Latif fi Tarjumata ul Abdul Dha'if (Persian) Husnul Aqidah (Arabic): The fundamental creed of Islam, as accepted by the Ahlus Sunnah wal Jam'aat sect, has been expounded in this work according to the Qur'an and hadith. Al Khair ul Kathir (Arabic): This work on the philosophy of religion elucidates the concept of ma'arifah and the wisdom of divine names, revelation, etc. Ad Duroos Thama'in fi Mubashshiratul Nabi'ul Amin (Arabic): A collection of the glad tidings that Shah Waliullah and his ancestors received from Rasulullah. Diwanul Ashar (Arabic): A collection of the Arabic poetry of Shah Waliullah. Risala: This pamphlet was written in reply to certain mystical issues raised by Shaikh 'Abdullah bin Abdul Baqi. Risala Danishmandi (Persian): A valuable tract containing detailed directions with regards to the methodology of teaching. Zahrawain: A commentary on Suratul Baqara and Suratul Imran. Sururul Mahzun (Persian): A concise Persian translation of Kitab Nurul 'Uyoonul Aminul Ma'mun, a well-known biography of Rasulullah. Sharhul Taraajimul Abwaabul Sahih ul Bukhari (Arabic): An annotation on certain chapters of Sahih ul Bukhari. Shifahul Quloob (Persian): A tract on mysticism.
Shawaariqul Ma'arifah (Persian): This is a biography of Shah Waliullah's uncle, Shaikh Abdul Raza. Al Atiyyatus Samadiyya fi Anfaasul Muhammadiyya (Persian): A small brochure which contains a biographical sketch of Shah Waliullah's maternal grandfather, Shaikh Muhammad Phulti. Iqdul Jid fi Aakhamul Ijtihad wat Tajdid (Arabic) Fathul Kabir (Arabic): A glossary of the intricate words of the Qur'an. Fathul Wadud lil Ma'arifatul Junood (Arabic): It pertains to ethics and mysticism. Al Fadhlul Mubin fil Musalsal min Hadithul Nabi'ul Amin (Arabic) Izalat-ul-Akhfa: An explanation of the Qur'an 2. Social Works:
In Shah Wali Ullah's time Muslims were indulged in many non-Islamic customs because of co-existence with the Hindus. He took following steps to beware the Muslims of these problems: Struggled to get rid of the Hindu concept about the marriage of the widows and told the Muslims that it is the Sunnah of The Holy Prophet (PBUH) Opposed the superstitions, charm wearing and other such practices. Struggled against dowry and other such unnecessary expanses on marriages. Strained to abolish mourning on death more than three days. Instructed the Muslims to work for lawful earning and avoid Usury on loan. Opposed the unjust distribution of wealth.
Entitlement of fundamental rights without any discrimination. Emphasized on Equality, Brotherhood and Free Dispensation of Justice Concept of Ijtehad and Taqlid. Worked against the Sectarianism, Grouping and proclaiming of Fatwas regarding Kufr against each other. In his book, Hujjat-ullah-il-Balighah, he pinpointed the causes of chaos and disintegration of Muslim society. Following are the reasons: 1. Pressure on public treasury, the emoluments given to various people who render no service to the state. 2. Heavy taxation on peasants, merchants and workers with the result that tax evasion was rampant. 3. He also requested Mughal rulers to stop their corrupt activities and advised not to give lands to those who were not loyal to the state. 3. Political Services
Apart from imparting religious education of Muslims, Shah Wali Ullah also provided leadership to the Muslim in the political field. He came out with his great wisdom and foresight to create political awakening in the Muslims of India.
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Struggle against Anarchy: The rise of Mahratas and Sikhs to crush the Muslim rule and wanted to put Pehwas son Biswas Rao on the throne of delhi. Shah Wali Ullah wrote many letters to Ahmad Shah Abdali and encouraged Najib-ud-Daula of Bengal to help him to save the Muslim Community from the Marhattas. He gave a crushing defeat to the Marhattas in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. The victory of Ahmad Shah Abdali at Panipat blasted the Marhats power and paved way for the revival of Islam in India. The occasion was the culmination of Shah Wali Ullah's political efforts. Efforts for Muslim Unity: He advised the Muslims to be united for the sake of Muslim society. And keep in mind the Islamic teachings of brotherhood. He taught them to work for the betterment of humanity and to follow the teachings of Islam regarding Non-Muslims. He was a great advocate of human rights especially of Non-Muslims. Two-Nation Theory: Shah Wali Ullah was a staunch supporter of Two Nation Theory. He played a vital role to make Muslims a strong nation on the basis of their Culture, History and heritage. His teachings proved helpful and saved Muslim culture from the amalgamation of Hindu customs. Revolutionary Legislature for Islam: 4. Shah Waliullahs 4 Basic Principles of Economics
Shah Waliullah has discussed about the four basic principles of economics; such as Production of wealth, consumption of wealth, distribution of wealth, exchange of wealth.The whole nation is participant in the production of wealth, so it should be distributed in the whole nation. He established the principles for distribution of wealth among people as well as the values that how the wealth should be consumed. That economic system is successful which establishes the principles for these four branches.
1. The first principle is that people living in specific geographic boundaries has the right over the resources of that area. That economic system in which all the people are equal no single person or specific class can get hold of the resources. He has narrated Hazrat Abu Bakkar Siddique in Aizaalatul Khifa Equality is better in economics than giving priority to one group over other. 2. Second principle is that everybody has the right to have limited owner ship as the abilities of every individual are different. Not that the whole nation should have same clothing, food and houses. 3. Third principle is that any practice which concentrates wealth in certain hands will not be tolerated and the system will oppose it. 4. Fourth principle is that such a balance should be maintained in these factors that society develop as a whole.
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Shah Waliullah stressed on the creation of a party on such principles which will end the outmoded system and built a new system which ensures the development of society as a whole.
Conclusion:
The efforts of Shah Wali Ullah for the integration of whole Islamic structure would never be forgotten.
He can be called The founder of Neo-Islamization of the Muslim society in the Sub-Continent. It was because of the effects of Shah Wali Ullah's reforms that the other religious movements, such as Tehreek-e-Mujahideen of Syed Ahmad Shaheed and Tehreek-e-Faraizi of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan flourished after him.
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Faraizi Movement
Background:
The condition of the Bengali Muslims in the subcontinent was very miserable. The British Policy of disturb and repressions towards the Muslims rendered them economically and educationally depressed. The oppression of the Zamindars made their lives unbearable. They had also gone far away from the paths of true religion. Being influenced by the Hindus, they were sunk in various superstitions. Haji Shariatullah was deeply moved at the prevailing condition of the Muslims of Bengal.
Faraizi Movement:
Faraizi Movement was started in East Bengal. The founder of this movement was Haji Shariatullah. His movement basically targeted the most depressed class of the Muslims. The term Faraizi is derived from 'farz' meaning obligatory duties (Faraiz only i.e. prayer (Namaz), Fasting (Roza), Pilgrimage (Hajj) and Zakaat) enjoined by Allah. The Faraizis are, therefore, those who aim at enforcing the obligatory religious duties. The exponent of the movement, Haji Shariatullah, however, interpreted the term in a broader sense to include all religious duties enjoined by the QURAN as well as by the Sunnah of the Prophet (S.A.W.W).
Object of The Movement

He emphasized that 1) Muslims should act upon Faraiz [injunctions of Allah and the holy Prophet (PBUH)] and this movement came to be known as Faraizi Movement. 2) Like other revivalist movements the Faraizis prescribed strict observance of the principles of Islam and abhorred any deviation form them, especially shirk (polytheism) and Bidah (innovation). 3) Social equality was emphasized and social discrimination and caste practices of any kind disapproved. 4) Most distinguishing feature of the movement was that its followers refused to attend the juma and eid prayers. They argued that according to Hanafi School of law, to which they belonged, these prayers could only be performed in the
presence of a Caliph or his agent. To them British India was Darul Harb (a land of enemy), and not Darul Aman (land of peace). They resumed these congregational prayers only after creation of Pakistan.
Haji Shariatullah (1781-1840)

Introduction:
o o o o Mystic, Saint, thinker Was born Faridpur in Bengal ,was son to an ordinary former Founder of Faraizi Movement, was the movement of the 1st half of the 19th Cent:
Condition of Bengal on That Time:

Socially, Politically & Religiously people were being threatened by Hindu Zamindars & British regime Unfair Taxes, (Bear Taxes etc) Usually cases were being aging the innocent people etc.
His Revival Efforts and Services / Effect of The Faraizi Movement:

Haji Shariatullah the founder of this movement devoted his attention mainly to religious reforms. Shariatullah made a pilgrimage to Makkah, stayed there for 20 years and studied religious doctrines under Shaikh Tahir Sombal, an authority of Hanafi School. Returning home he launched a movement to make the Bengal Muslims follow the true canons of Islam. For historical reasons the Muslims of Bengal had been following many indigenous customs, rituals and ceremonies which were far from the principles of Islam. Most Bengal Muslims did not even follow the fundamentals of Islam. Shariutullah vowed to bring the Bengal Muslims to the true path of Islam. 1. Tawbah: to be penitent for past sins as a measure for the purification of soul. 2. Faraiz: Emphasised on the five fundamentals of Islam, insisted on the complete acceptance and strict observation of pure monotheism. 3. Tawhid or Unitarianism as enunciated by the Quran: Condemned all deviations from the original doctrines as Shirk (polytheism) and Bid'at (sinful innovation). 4. Social Equality , Justice and Brotherhood: Stressed on justice, social equality, and the universal brotherhood of Muslims.
5. India being Dar-ul-Harb, Jum'ah and Eid congregations were not obligatory: Regarded British rule in Bengal as injurious to the religious life of the Muslims. In pursuance of the Hanafi law he opined that the absence of a lawfully appointed Muslim caliph or representative administrator in Bengal deprived the Muslims of the privilege of holding congregational prayers. To the Faraizis, Friday congregation was unjustified in a non-Muslim stale like Bengal. 6. Fobidden of Taziah: Raising of Taziah during the Muharram was also declared shirk. 7. Denouncing All Popular Unislamic Rites and Ceremonies: Also numerous rites and ceremonies connected with birth, marriage and death such as Dancing, Chuttee, Puttee, Chilla, Shabgasht procession, Fatihah, Milad and Urs which had no reference to the Quran and Prophetic traditions were forbidden. And a person so initiated into the Faraizi fold was called Tawbar Muslim or Mumin. 8. Ustad & Shagird: Saint-worship, showing undue reverence to the Pir was declared shirk and converted the concept of Piri Muridi into Ustad Shagird.
Resistance to Landlords & European Indigo Planters:

The Faraizi movement spread with extraordinary rapidity in the districts of Dhaka, Faridpur, Bakerganj, Mymensingh, Tippera (Comilla), Chittagong and Noakhali as well as to the province of Assam. The movement, however, gained the greatest momentum in those places where the Muslim peasantry were depressed under the oppressive domination of Hindu zamindars and European indigo planters. Many Muslims did not accept the Faraizi doctrine and they tried to resist their activities with the help of zamindars. Thus, the landlords of Dhaka secured the expulsion of Shariatullah by the police in 1831 from Ramnagar or Nayabari where he had set up his propaganda centre. Socio-Economic Programme: Through continuous involvement with the Hindu landlords and European indigo planters, the movement gradually developed into a socio-economic programme which became a dominant feature of the Faraizis under his son DUDU MIYAN and his successors. Abwabs of Religious Nature: The landlords levied many ABWABs over and above normal rent and such abwabs were illegal in the eyes of law. Many abwabs were of religious nature, such as, cesses on Kali Puja, Durga Puja etc. Shariatullah objected to this practice and directed his disciples not to pay these illegal cesses to the landlords. Ban on Cow Slaughtering: The landlords had even imposed ban on the slaughter of cow, especially on the occasion of Eid-ul Azha. The Farizis ordered their peasant followers not to adhere to such a ban.
All these contributed to strained relations between the Faraizies and the landlords who were almost all Hindus.
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The offended landlords launched a propaganda campaign with the British officials, implicating the Faraizis with rebellious mood. In 1837, they accused Shariatullah of attempting to set up a kingdom of his own like that of TITU MIR. They also brought numerous lawsuits against the Faraizis in which they gained active co-operation of the European indigo planters. Shariatullah was more than once in the custody of the police for allegedly occasioning agrarian disturbances in Faridpur.
Dudu Mian (1819-1860)

Introduction
After the death of Haji Shariatullah in 1840 his son carried on his mission named Duhu Mian Real name of Dudu Mian was Muhammad Mohsin Was not well educated but active in politics
His Revival Efforts and Services:

After the death of Haji Shariat Ullah his son Mohammad Mohsin known as Dudu Mian organized the movement in which a systematic way that it became stronger and popular. Dadu Mian was less a religio-moral preacher and more a politico-military activist. In his leadership, It proved to be a public movement and took a more militant form. a) His Political Organization: He was not a learned person but politically more organized than his father. In organising the Faraizi society, Dudu Miyan had two objectives in view, viz. 1) Protecting the Faraizi peasantry from the oppression of the zamindars and European indigo planters 2) Securing social justice for the masses. In order to secure the first objective, he raised a volunteer corps of clubmen (lathial) and arranged for their regular training in the art of fighting with clubs. For securing the second objective, he revived the traditional system of local government (Panchayet) under Faraizi leadership. The former came to be known as the Siyasti or political branch and the latter Dini or religious branch, which were amalgamated later on into a hierarchical Khilafat system. He divided Bengal into different circles for administration & appointed District Commissioners called Khalifas in order to update from any jurisdiction news. The Faraizi Khilafat system was designed to bring all the Faraizis under the direct control of the authorised representatives of Dudu Miyan who stood at the top of the
hierarchy of Khalifahs. Their role was to raise funds, carry out propaganda, and settle disputes between villagers who were expressly forbidden from taking their cases to the British courts without permission. He appointed three grades of khalifahs: 1) 2) 3) The Uparastha Khalifah, The Superintendent Khalifah and The Gaon Khalifah.
Dudu Miyan divided the Faraizi settlement into small units of 300 to 500 families and appointed a Gaon or ward Khalifah over each unit. Ten or more such units were grouped together into a circle or Gird, which was put under a Superintendent Khalifah. The Superintendent Khalifah was provided with a peon and a piyadah or guard, who was sent to and fro maintaining contact with the Gaon Khalifaha on the one hand, and with the Ustad on the other. The Uparastha Khalifahs were advisers to the Ustad and remained in his company at Bahadurpur, the headquarters of the Faraizi movement. The Gaon Khalifah acted as a community leader whose duty was to spread religious education, enforce religious duties, maintain a prayer-hall, look after the morals and administer justice in consultation with elders. He was also required to maintain a Maktab for teaching the Quran and elementary lessons to the children. The Superintendent Khalifahs main functions were to supervise the activities of the Gaon Khalifahs, look after the welfare of the Faraizis of his Gird, preach the fundamentals of religion and above all, to sit as a Court of Appeal against the decisions of the Gaon Khalifahs, if any. In such cases, he heard the appeal sitting in a council of the Khalifahs of his Gird. In all matters, religious as well as political, the decision of Dudu Miyan was final and as the Ustad he also acted as the final Court of Appeal.
JAMES WISE
testifies that
The Panchayets of Eastern Bengal exercised great influence on the people and in Faraizi villages, it was exceedingly rare that any case of violence or assault committed within the area found its way to the regular courts. According to him Dudu Miyan settled disputes, administered summary justice and punished any Hindu, Muslim or Christian who dared to bring a suit for recovery of debt in the adjoining Munsif's Court instead of referring the case to his arbitration.
b) Opposed Hindu Zamindars & British Regime

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He organised resistance to Hindu landlords and money lenders, who were keep decorating of the image of Durga. He boycotted the payment of unfair taxes and interest charges and told that the land is belong to Allah no one has right to collect the unfair taxes of any land. He asked his followers to give only revenue tax that was known as 'Khas Mahal Land'. His popularity had been reached far far away from Bengal.
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c) Administration of Justice o He punished those who were paying taxes without consulting him & of any matter. d) His Jihad against the British & Hindu Zamindars He also formed an armed force of cudgel bearers to attack the zamindars and their followers and then went one stage further by attempting to form a parallel Muslim government within East Bengal. His activities alarmed the Hindu Zamindars & the British. The British made persistent attempts to prosecute Miyan for crimes ranging from theft to murder, but all such allegations foundered from a lack of witnesses prepared to give evidence though he was placed under arrest during the Mutiny. Consequently, a conspiracy were made against him and he was arrested on charges of sparking sedition and died in 1860.
Conclusion:
Dudu Miyan died in 1860 and before his death he had appointed a board of guardians to look after his minor sons, Ghiyasuddin Haydar and Abdul Gafur alias Naya Miyan who succeeded him successively. The board, with great difficulty, kept the dwindling movement from falling to pieces. It was not until Naya Miyan attained maturity that it regained some of its lost strength. NABINCHANDRA SEN, the then subdivisional officer of Madaripur, thought it prudent to enter into an alliance of mutual help with the Faraizi leaders, who, in their turn, showed a spirit of co-operation towards the government. On the death of Naya Miyan in 1884, the third and the youngest son of Dudu Miyan, Syeduddin Ahmad was acclaimed leader by the Faraizis. During his time, the conflict of the Faraizis with the Taiyunis, another reformist group reached the climax and religious debates between the two schools had become a common place occurrence in Eastern Bengal. He was bestowed the title of Khan Bahadur by the government. In 1905, on the question of the partition of Bengal, he lent support to Nawab Salimullah in favour of partition, but he died in 1906. Khan Bahadur Syeduddin was succeeded by his eldest son Rashiduddin Ahmad alias Badshah Miyan. During the early years of his leadership, Badshah Miyan maintained the policy of co-operation towards the government. But the annulment of the partition of Bengal made him anti-British and he took part in the KHILAFAT and NONCOOPERATION Movements. Soon after the establishment of Pakistan he summoned a conference of the Faraizis at Narayanganj and declared Pakistan as Dar-ul-Islam and gave permission to his followers to hold the congregational prayers of Jum'ah and Eid.
Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi

(1786-1831)
Brief Life Sketch:
Syed Ahmed Shaheed Brelvi was born in 29 November 1786 in Rai Bareilley. His father Shah Ilm-Ullah was pious religious scholar. His father died whilst he was still young In 1806 he moved to Dehli and enrolled in the Madrassa Rahimiya. For two years he studied under the son of Shah Wali Ullah learning the Quran and the Hadith. He was a well-built young man and took interest in many sports. In 1812 he joined the army of Nawab Ameer Khan Tonak in order to take part in Jihad against the British. In 1821, he went to perform Hajj but stayed there for two years where he met with the great thinkers of Islam and got knowledge about the movements of Islam in the world. He became greatly impressed from this new system of thought for Islam. When he came back on 6 August 1823 to India, he devoted himself for the religious and social reformation of the Muslims and the preparation of Jihad. His religious and political sermons won him many companions which included Shah Ismail and Shah Abdul Haye. He received martyrdom in fighting with Sikhs on 6th May 1831.
Beliefs
As a man of action Syed Ahmad was an ideal person to act as a leader to work against British power in India and to try to ensure that Muslim were ruled by fellow Muslims. He believed that the freedom of Muslims could only come as a result of armed struggle against the foreign and non-Muslims forces which were oppressing them. Syed Ahmad believed that there was a need to end the evils that had corrupted Islamic society. Consequently , even when he served as an army officer he surrounded himself with men of great piety who were prepared to reject worldly wealth and work for improving the moral and intellectual lives of Muslims. The British had ensured that the Mughal emperors had little real power and the Sikhs were dominant in the Punjab Syed Ahmad founded the jihad movement , which called for armed struggle to overthrow non-Muslim oppression and restore Muslim power .He believed that once that once this was done Islam could be rejuvenated to Islamic beliefs which had crept into everyday life.
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The Mujahideen Movement

Syed Ahmed Shaheed Brelvi started a great movement in the North of India; this movement is known as "The Mujahideen Movement" or "The Movement o Jihad". This movement arranged a power for the struggle of freedom in Muslims which produced a spirit of survival and they started freedom struggle.
Background of the Mujahideen Movement

Syed Ahmed Shaheed Brelvi selected a particular way on the command of his spiritual guide Shah Abdul Aziz and devoted himself in the preparation of the holy war. He started a national movement for this purpose in 1818 and organized this movement after his arrival from Hajj as the Mujahideen Movement in 1831.
Objectives of Mujahideen Movement

He wanted to make the Muslims as the true lover of Islam, for this purpose he started the Mujahideen Movement. The main objectives of the Mujahideen Movement were following; Establishment of Islamic State: Preaching of Jihad: To preach Jihad because it was not possible to get freedom from evil force without armed struggle. Preaching of Unicity of Allah: To preach unicity of Almighty Allah. To protect the Muslims from the worship of other things except Allah. Opposition of Biddats: To protect the Muslims against such acts and ideas which are contrary to Islamic values. Emphasised on Sunnat: To revive the teachings of Islam and prepare the Muslims to pass their lives simply according to the teachings of Quran & Sunnah.
Syed Ahmed Shaheed Brelvi wanted to eliminate the domination of Sikhs in Punjab and N.W.F.P to revive Islamic values and traditions. He started Jihad in the Punjab and N.W.F.P. Shah Ismail Shaheed along with six thousand followers also joined Syed Ahmed in his Jihad against evil forces. Syed Ahmed toured different areas around Delhi and Punjab, where number of his followers joined him.
Phases of The Struggle of Mujahideen Movement:

In 1812 Syed Ahmad left India for Hajj , but took the opportunity to hold meetings on his way across India. So he was able to spread his beliefs about jihad. When he returned from Saudi Arabia in 1823, he was ready to take action. The Mujahideen Movement was started against the Sikhs. He came to Sindh in 1826 and sought to help Syed Sibghatullah Shah Pir Pagara. Syed Sibghatullah Shah Pir Pagara sent a strong contingent of this staunch followers called "Hurs". Syed Ahmed Shaheed Brelvi left his family under the protection of Pir Pagara and proceeded towards Jihad without any worry about his family. Syed Ahmad toured the Punjab and the North West Frontier to enlist men to fight the Sikhs. He travelled many hundreds of miles to raise a mujahideen force. His travels took him through Rajasthan, Sindh, and Balochistan and into Afghanistan. However he found that the Afghan troops were suspicious of each other and not always prepared to join him in his jihad.
Battle At Okara (1826): Syed Ahmed Shaheed Brelvi reached Nowshehra

after passing though Afghanistan, the Khyber Pass and Peshawar in December 1826 and made it his headquarter.
At this time the Punjab was under the control of the Sikh regime of Ranjit Singh, who had also extended his authority into the North West Frontier. The Muslims suffered under Sikh rule because they were un able to carry out many of their religious practices even the call to prayer was banned in some places .Syed Ahmad though that this was intolerable and decided that the Punjab was the place from which to launch his jihad against non-Muslims rulers. He sent a message to Ranjot Singh telling him that he must allow Muslims freedom of worship or face the mujahideen. Ranjit Singh dismissed the ultimation, so Syed Ahmad was forced to attack and he declared war against Sikhs. Ranjit Singh the Sikh ruler of Punjab sent Budh Singh at the head of ten thousand soldiers to meet the challenge of the Mujahideens. On 21st December 1826 near Akora a strong contingent of Mujahideens attacked the Sikh army at night. As a result thousands of Sikh soldiers were killed and Budh Singh had to retreat with heavy losses. Later on after several skirmishes the Sikh army was defeated in the battle of Hazru.
Conspiracy of Sikhs After Several Defeats: The above said victories

established him as a successful military leader and encouraged other tribes to join the mujahideen and inspired a number of Pathan tribes to join Jihad Movement. Soon the army numbered over 80,000 strong. A major problem for Syed Ahmed, however, was that his army consisted from many different communities which
disagreed over how the campaign was fought. The Sikhs tried to exploit these differences by calling his army un-Islamic. They claimed that by following the teachings of Shah Walli Ullah, Syed Ahmads forces were not true Muslims.
Establishment of The Caliphate of Syed Ahmad: On January 11,

1827 Syed Ahmed Shaheed Brelvi was given the status of "Amir-ul-Momineen". Islamic laws were enforced in the area which was controlled by Syed Ahmed Shaheed Brelvi. His word on religious matters was considered binding and his increased authority helped to unite the various Muslim groups forming the mujahideen force.
Diplomacy of Ramjit Singh: These victories and successes of Mujahideens

disturbed Ranjit Sikh very much. He decided to weaken the Mujahideens through diplomacy. He reached Peshawar and won the sympathies of two local chiefs Yar Mohammad Khan and Sultan Mohammad Khan by pointing them the ruler of Peshawar. Thus the Muslims were divided into two camps. However Syed Ahmed Shaheed succeeded in conquering Peshawar in November 1830. Through mistake Syed Ahmed Khan appointed Sultan Mohammad Khan the ruler of Peshawar. Unfortunately Sultan Mohammad turned a traitor and hatched a conspiracy against Syed Ahmed Shaheed.
Betraying of Pathan Leaders: What he did not know was that yar
Muhammad Khan, a Pathan chief who had joined his army, had been bribed by the Sikhs. First one of his servants tried to poison Syed Ahmad, then Yar Muhammad Khan deserted in battle and Sir Ahmads forces were defeated. He was forced to move his headquarters to the safety of Panjtrar near Kashmir. Although Yar Muhammad was later killed in battle against the Mujahideen, his brother, Sultan Muhammad Khan also waged war against Syed Ahmad. This constant campaigning against fellow Muslims was not what Sved Ahmad wanted, so he moved his forces to Balakot, hoping to liberate Kashmir and Hazara.
Battle of Balakot (1831): Balakot was thought to be safe as it was protected
on three sides by mountains. But once again Syed Ahmad was betrayed when local leaders told the Sikhs of a way through the mountains. Sardar Sher Singh too arrived at the head of 20 thousands soldiers and Sikh army besieged the area They made a surprise attack on the forces of Syed Ahmad. The famous battle of Balakot was fought on 6th May 1831. The Battle of Balakot was a fiercely contested one. Although the mujahiideen had been taken by surprise by a much larger Sikh army they fought bravely but were heavily outnumbered and unable to resist the Sikhs. Six hundred mujahideen soldiers were killed, including Syed Ahmad and his commander, Shah Ismail.
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In short, the Mujahideen movement of Syed Ahmed failed in Balakot, but this movement kindled a flame of freedom in sub-continent. The political work of Syed Ahmed Brelvi was carried on later by Willayat Ali of Patna. When the British captured the Punjab then a battle was fought again against the British. Thus the Jihad movement of Syed Ahmed Shaheed Brelvi was ended after several wars like this for independence.
Causes of The Failures of Mujahideen Movement:

1. Ignorance to Modern War Strategy: Ranjit Singh acquired the military services of the Western generals Ventura and Elite who imparted training upon the soldiers of Ranjits Army and the battle was also fought with the modern war weapons from the side of Ranjit Singh. Mujahideen on the other side was ignorant of War Strategy. 2. Confronted by Superior Military Force: In the combat which took place between Ranjit Singh and Mujahideen army of Ranjeet Singh used modern Mujahideen depended on out dated and all weapon. The old weapon could not face the modern weapon. 3. Lack of Financial Resources: They were ample financial sources with Ranjit Singh but Mujahideen were facing the lack of financial resources. 4. Diplomacy and Conspiracies of Ranjit Singh: Ranjit Singh was aware of the fact that so long there unity of thought and action in amongst Mujahideen, it was not possible to defeat them. Therefore, He infiltrated his agents among Mujahideen who created misunderstanding amongst them. Ranjit Singh exploiting the human weakness, attracted Pathans by bribing luring and sometimes pressurizing who committed spying, revolt, dissimulation and slaughtered Mujahideen. 5. Divisions Amongst Muslims: 6. Implementation of the Islamic Laws Even in Wars: Syed Ahmed Shaheed, dominated by feelings of reformation, wanted to implement the Islamic laws even during the period of war. For instance, compulsory marriage of girl and widows. The sentiments of Pathans, in the manner, injured and they started to kill the government officials in nights. 7. Severe Sanctions for Minor Mistakes: Jihad Movement failed also due the reasons that the Syed's government punished people severely even on every minor mistake. For instance, lashing punishment to the liar woman and people who were not offering namaz. These were not Islamic punishments. 8. Culpable Negligence in Distribution of Zakat: Syed Ahmed after establishing Islamic rule collected Zakat (Islamic tax) from the rich Muslims but he could not arrange the proper distribution of Zakat amongst the needy poor people. Consequently, the lower class (majority of the masses) became the victim of pessimism, depravity and the sense of inferiority. The poverty suffering class. In this way refused to accept Islamic system and started the move against this government. 9. Diagreement Over Taxes
10. Resemblance with Wahabi Movement: Some points in Jihad Movement resembled with the Wahabi Movement while Pathans were against of Wahabi Movement.
Importance:
The defeat of the mujahideen in the Battle of Balakot, was a serious setback for the Jihad Movement and it struggled to survive in the following years. The movement continued on in the hills of the North West Frontier until 1863 when the British sent a large army to deal with the mujahideen threat. Even then the movement survived through the determination of its followers. The work of Sved Ahmad had been very important because: It was the first example in Indian history of a movement formed to free the Muslims from the tyranny of non-Muslim or foreign rulers. It was not a movement in order to place a particular leader in power but, instead, to achieve religious and spiritual freedom. The Jihad Movement was a uniting force for Muslims; Many of Syed Ahmads soldiers had been spiritual leaders or teachers. The fact that they were prepared to die for their cause was an inspiration to all Muslims. The Jihad Movement is regarded by many historians as the fore-runner of the Pakistan Movement in India because this movement created unity of thought and act amongst the Muslims of Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. Syed Ahmads efforts were an inspiration to all Muslims in defending their religion, their culture and their freedoms. Those Muslims who later campaigned for their own homeland saw Syed Ahmad as an example of a Muslim fighting for the Muslim cause in much the same way, since he too wanted to see a state which was based on the principles of Islam.
Conclusion
Although Syed Ahmed Shaheed failed to finish Sikh rule in Punjab yet his Jihad Movement Kindled a flame of freedom in the Sub-Continent. The Pathans of the Frontier province were greatly inspired by the valiant deeds of the Mujahideens, The tribesmen continued the Jihad for freedom against the British. Similarly the Mujahideen spread the spirit of Jihad throughout the length and breadth of SubContinent. The spirit of freedom led to the war of independence in 1857. In addition the Jihad Movement imbibed in the Muslims the spirit of Islamic nationalism which ultimately led to the Two Nation Theory and establishment of Pakistan.
TITU MIR
Introduction:
Syed Meer Nisar Ali alias Titu Meer (also popularly known as Titu Mir) was among the first Bengali Indians To fight the British imperialism by launching a mass movement which shook the base of British Rule in Bengal and surrounding. He first started a social reform to free the Muslims from the exploitation of the local Zamindars which later on turned out to be a peasant movement in a wide area. He is very familiar for his bamboo fort made at Narkelbaria and his Lathial force (Force armed with bamboo sticks). His courage inspired others to start revolting against the British colonialists.
Birth and Lineage:

Syed Mir Nisar Ali commonly known as Titu Mir Titu Mir was born on 14 Magh 1188 (Bangla calendar), 27 January 1782 at a village named Chandpur (controversially Haiderpur) under Bashirhat Thana of Chabbish Parguna District. His father was Mir Hassan Ali and mother was Abeeda Rukaya Khatun. Titu's family claimed descent from Hazrat Ali (R). A great Bengali freedom fighter and a peasant leader who resisted the oppression of the local zamindars and European indigo planters on the peasantry with ultimate object of liberating the country from British domination. He led the Muslim religious reform movement Tariqah-i-Muhammadiya in Bengal.
Education:
Titu Mir belonged to a Muslim aristocratic family. His predecessor Syed Shahadat Ali came to Bengal from Arabia to preach Islam. Syed Abdullah, son of Shahadat Ali, was appointed Chief Qazi of Jafarpur by the emperor of Delhi and was invested with the title of Meer Insaaf. Henceforth the descendants of Shahadat Ali used both the hereditary titles Syed and Mir. Titu Mir was well-versed in Islamic education and had memorized the holy Quran at an early age. He acquired his early education from village Maktab and then admitted to local Madrassah and completed his Madrassa education at the age of 18 years. He had command over three languages Bangla, Arabic and Persian and developed keen interest in Arabic and Persian literature.
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He became an expert of Islamic theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, Tasawwaf (Islamic mysticism) and Mantiq. He was also an expert gymnast and a renowned Pahlwan (wrestler) of his Madrassah. He defeated many of his contemporary boxers.
Hi Services for Refromation:

In 1822 Titu Mir went on a pilgrimage to Makka where he came in close contact with the great Islamic reformer and revolutionary leader Syed Ahmad of Bareilly who inspired him to preach the true teachings of Islam and fight for the freedom of Muslims and to free his fellow countrymen from unislamic practices and foreign domination. In 1827 Titu Mir returned to Bengal and preached pure Islam amongst the Muslims and advised them to refrain from practicing shirk and bidaat. He united Hindu peasants against the Zaminders and the British occupiers and inspired them to fight for liberation of Muslims of Bengal. He used to say that Muslims must be fully Muslim in their words, deeds and behaviours, and should help the oppressed irrespective of their religion. He organized Muslim to take stand against their oppressive Hindu Landlords (Zamindars) who were being supported by the British. Titu Mir protested levying spiteful tax on beard, mustache, mosque and Islamic name of Muslims by local Hindu Zaminder Krishna Deva Rai. It resulted in a conflict between Titu Mir and the Zaminder. The Zaminder tried to create division among Titu Mir's followers by labelling him as a Wahabi. However, the Muslims did not pay any heed to his tricks. As a result, he intensified torture on the Muslims.
Titu Mir As An Independence Activist

a) Successes of Titu Mir:
To overcome the force of the land lords Titu Mir commenced organizing the peasants of his native village against the landlords or Zamindars and the British colonialists and trained indigenous people with Lathi. He also affected the 'tahband' a tube shaped garment worn around the waist, in preference to the dhoti, seen as more overtly Hindu, and enjoined his followers to do likewise. Thereafter, the Muslims formed a Mujahid freedom fighter force in the leadership of Ghulam Masum. They built a bamboo castle (famously known as Bansher Kella) at Narkelbaria near the town of Barasat in October 1831. This was surrounded by a high double curtain wall of bamboo stakes filled in with mud cladding and sun-baked. He had around five thousands Mujahid freedom fighters with him. He proclaimed himself the king and instigated the people for jihad.
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He soon established his control over the districts of 24 Parganas, Nadia and Faridpur. 1. Titu Mir demanded tax from the zamindars of Taki and Gobardanga who entreated the English for protection. 2. An English contingent was sent from Calcutta. But the combined forces of the English and Zamindars met humiliating defeat at the hands of the mujahids. 3. The soldiers of the Zaminder and of occupier British were being repeatedly defeated by the Mujahids as a result of his strike-and-retreat guerrilla tactics. b) Failures of Titu Mir:
Subsequently Lord William Bentinck sent a regular army against Titu Mir under Lieutenant Colonel Stewart consisting of 100 cavalry, 300 native infantry and artillery with two cannons and muskets. The English attacked the mujahids on 14 November 1831. The mujahids with their simple swords and spears failed to resist the English army outfitted with modern arms and took shelter inside the bamboo fort. The English opened fire and totally destroyed the fort causing heavy casualties on the side of the mujahids. Titu Mir along with many of his followers died on 19 November 1831. 350 mujahids including their commander Ghulam Masum were captured. Ghulam Masum was sentenced to death penalty and other 140 captives were punished on different charges.
The commanding officer of the British forces noted his opponent's bravery in despatches, and also commented on the strength and resilience of bamboo as a material for fortification, since he had had to pound it with artillery for a surprisingly long time before it gave way.
Legacy:
The saga of the bravery of Titu Mir and the bamboo castle continue to be a source of inspiration to the Bengali people, and are also His efforts have inspired the freedom fighters of Bangladesh in the liberation war of 1971. Mahasweta Devi wrote a novella called Titu Mir, Titumirer Bansher Kella (Bamboo Fort of Titumur, 1981) written by Rabeya Khatun has been a popular play on TV in Bangladesh as well. It has also featured as a theme for Puja pandals which are often done up as historical tableaux. Titumir Hall, a major dormitory of Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology at Dhaka, is named after him. On 19th November 1992, Government issued a commemorative stamp honoring Titumir on his 161st death anniversary.
Conclusion: In spite of his defeat, Titu is important because he is another example of a leader defending the rights of fellow Muslims. A body of history was being made that future Muslim leaders would look to, and seek to follow according to the needs of their time. Historian S.F Mahmud in his book A Concise History of IndoPakistan, OUP (1988) writes
He (Titu Mir) had, however, done his work in that he had awakened the Muslims of West Bengal
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Sir Syed Ahmed khan (1817-18918) Aligarh Movement

Introduction:
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan flourished from 1817 to 1898. As the founder of Aligarh movement, he is ranked among the greatest Muslim reformers of the 19th century. He came to the rescue of his co-religionists after the War of Independence (1857) when the British unleashed a wave of vengeance against the Muslims. As a result of the atrocities of the British, the Muslims were cut of the mainstream of political, social, economic and educational development. At this critical juncture Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the first Muslim to realize that if the Muslims continued to keep themselves aloof then they would be completely absorbed by the Hindu community. Brief Life Sketch: 17th October, 1817 to Syed Muhammad Taqi Joined East India Company in 1836 in the office of Commissioner of Agra and soon promoted as sub-judge In 1857 saved 20 British Families and was made Sadr-us-Sadoor In 1869 along with Syed Mehmood went to England and wrote Khutbat-eAhmadia In 1878 Lord Dalton nominated him Member of Imperial Council In 1887 Lord Defren made him Member of Civil Service Commission Died in 1898 in Ali Garh
Conditions Of Muslims After The War Of Independence (1857):

The British considered Muslims to be responsible for the War of Independence. Thus, they subjected them to all sorts of cruelties. Leading Muslim leaders were hanged or sentenced to jail and their properties were confiscated. Moreover, they were denied important government jobs. Resultantly, the ratio of Muslim representation went on dwindling till 1871 when the number of Muslim government servants almost came to a naught. According to William Hunters disclosure in his book The Indian Mussalmans published in 1871. In the three grades of Assistant Government ngineers, there were fourteen Hindus and not one Mussalman; among the apprentices, there were four Hindus and two Englishmen and not one Mussalman. Among the Sub-Engineers there were 24 Hindus to one Mussalman. In the office of Accounts there were 50 names of Hindus and not one Mussalman and
in the upper subordinate department there were 22 Hindus and again not one Mussalman. Ashok Mehta, an Indian Socialist Leader, thrown light on the misery of the Muslims after the war in his book entitled The communal Triangle in these words, Not only were the Muslims economically crushed, educationally and socially also their position was deliberately depressed by the government. In 1870, the Muhammadan pleaders presented two memorials to the High Court pointing out that while closed holidays allowed to the Christians were sixty and those to Hindus were fifty-two, only eleven were granted to the Muhammadans.
Sir Syed's Services For The Renaissance Of Muslims:

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the founder of Aligarh Movement which checked the decline of the Muslims in political, social, educational and economic spheres. He devoted his whole life for the renaissance of his co-religionists and succeeded in pulling them out of the depths of ignorance and backwardness. According To Dr. Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi From 1858 up to about 1870 nearly all British politicians, authors and administrators unhesitatingly blamed the Muslims for the Mutiny. But in the 1870s a change in British opinion was visible. Men like Sir Richard Temple, Sir John Stratchy and W.H. Gregory came forward to argue that Muslim India was not disloyal and that the unpleasant past should be forgotten. His services can be summed up as under:
Sir Syeds Educational Services Sir Syeds Political Services Sir Syeds Literary works Sir Syeds Social Services Religious Services Two Nation Theory
i)
Sir Syeds Educational Services:
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the first Muslim leader who realized the importance of education for his people. In order to equip Muslim with the ornament of knowledge, he opened many educational institutions and societies which revolutionised the life of the Muslims.
Two Madrassahs in Muradabad (1858) and Ghaziabad (1862) which imparted education in Persian. In 1864, Sir Syed laid the foundation of a Scientific Society which translated English works into Urdu. Aligarh Institute Gazette (1866)
M.A.O High School was founded in 24th May 1875. In 1877, M.A.O High School was given the status of a college and inaugurated by Viceroy Lord Lytton on 8th January 1877. Later on,after the demise of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan this college became a University in 1920A.D. Muhammadan Educational Conference: Sir Syed Ahmed khan established Muhammadan Educational Conference in 1886 in order to bring political awareness among the Muslims. The Conference held its annual conferences regularly till 1906 when in its Dhaka session All-India Muslim League was founded.
According To Chaudhary Muhammad Ali:The monumental work of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the founding of M.A.O College at Aligarh in 1877. He had wanted to build a university, but his wish could only be fulfilled some twenty years after his death, when the college grew into the Aligarh Muslim University. The college at Aligarh was more than an educational institution; it was the symbol of a broad Movement affecting every phase of Muslim life----social, economic, political, literary and religious. To carry the message of reform to the masses, Sir Syed organised the Muslim Educational conference which held public meetings in various parts of the country. The greatest services these meetings did were to arouse a spirit of action and self-help. Schools and colleges modelled on Aligarh were opened in different places. Even the Orthodox Ulema or learned divines, who had denounced Sir Syed as an apostate, came to recognize his great ness. His precepts and example revived hope and self-confidence, showed new ways of organization and co-operative work and opened the door to modern knowledge and economic progress.
In the views of V.A. Smith:In 1920, the college (M.A.O College) became the Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh both enabled the talented young Muslim to compete on terms with the Hindu for government service and in public life, and gave him a dynamic which his community seemed to have lost.
ii)
Political Services:
Sir Syed Ahmed khan rendered meritorious political services in order to defend the rights of the Muslims. His services were as under:
After the War of Independence 1857, sir Syed compiled a pamphlet entitled Rasala-i-Asbab-e-Baghawat-i-Hind, in which he explained to the British that the Muslims were not the only force behind the catastrophe of 1857. He enlisted the following factors which led to the uprising. a) Misunderstanding of the people about the rulers. b) Maladministration by the army. c) Governments unawareness of the conditions and grievance of the people.
d) Promulgation of regulations which were contrary to the wishes of the people. Sir Syed Ahmed khan wrote a commentary on William Hunters book. He is regarded as one of the greatest exponents of Two-Nation theory because after the Hindu-Urdu controversy he was convinced that Hindus were not sincere towards the Muslims. Answering a query of Mr. Shakespeare, Commissioner of Banaras, he remarked.
Now I am convinced that both these communities will not join whole-heartedly in anything though, at present, there was no open hostility between the two communities, but on account of the socalled educated people it will increase immensely in future.
Sir Syed founded a Patriotic Association in order to counter the antiMuslim propaganda by the Hindus. Soon after the establishment of Indian National Congress, he came to realise that it was a purely Hindu organisation. Consequently, he asked the Muslims to desist taking part in its activities. According to Dr. I.H. Qureshi
Syed Ahmed Khan asked the Muslims not to join the Congress. This advice was followed by the vast majority of the people. He never wavered in his opposition to the Congress and declared that even if he was told that the Viceroy, the Secretary of State and the whole House of Commons had openly supported the Congress, he would still remain firmly opposed to it, and earnestly begged all Muslims to remain away from it.
He proposed the system of separate electorate for the Muslims in order to protect the political rights of the Muslim Community. He highlighted his views in this regard in a speech in 1883 by saying,
The system of representation by election means the representation of the views and interests of the majority of the population.
iii)
Sir Syeds Literary Works:
Sir Syed Ahmed khan was not only a prominent educationalist but also a capable author. Simple and Modest Language:
Urdu Hindi Controversy:

Translation of Foreign Books:
His Famous Writings: His writings include the following: Asarul Sanadid Rasala-i-Asbab-e-Baghawat-i-Hind Tarikh Sarkashi-e-Bijnaur Risalah Ahkam-i-Taam-i-Ahle-Kitab Tabeen-Ul-Kalam Kutbat-e-Ahmadiyah Risalah Tehzib-Ul-Akhlaq Jame-Jama
iv)
Sir Syeds Social Services:
Sir Syed wanted that Muslims of the Sub-continent should get an honourable position in the Hindu dominated society. Orphanage at Muradabad: For this purpose he not only opened many schools but also established an orphanage at Muradabad to provide refuge to the orphan Muslim children. Tehzib-ul-Akhlaq: outlined the ethical aspects of the Muslims life in this magazine and criticized the conservative way of the Muslims and advised them to adopt new trends of life. Emphasized on Modern Trends of Society:
Anjuman-i-Tarki-i-Urdu: He set himself to the task of protecting the Urdu from being faded away and replaced by English. He worked laboriously for the promotion of Urdu and gave a new tone and colour to the Urdu literature. He founded Anjuman-i-Tarki-i-Urdu which worked for the protection of Urdu. Loyal Muhammadans of India:
Ahkam-i-Taam-i-Ahle-Kitab: discussed the principles and etiquettes of eating and dinning in Islam. In this magazine Sir Syed wrote that it was not against Islam to eat with the Christians on the same table. He gave references from the Quran and proved that it was not un-Islamic to eat with a nation who was the bearer of Holy book. Tabiyan-ul-Quran:
In the views of V.A Smith,

Sir Syed was not concerned with material things only. His Movement was one of general reforms. It was inspired by the thought that the Muslims of India were a separate people or nation who must not be absorbed within Hinduism and that the essence of Islam was consistent with the best that the West had to offer. He was, in fact, a Muslim modernist appealing to general principles outside the scope of the four recognized schools of theology. He accepted the mission of the Holy Prophet and Gods revelation in Quran. But he claimed that reason was also an attribute of God and Nature His handiwork. The Quran and Islam might therefore be interpreted on the basis of reason to meet modern needs and problems. The achievements of the West so far as they rested on reason might thus be welcomed and assimilated.
K.K Aziz in his book The Making Of Pakistan pays tribute to the great leader in these words,
Syeds services to his community may be summarized in three terse phrases: loyalty to the British, devotion to education, aloofness from politics. He preached and practised loyalty to the British rule. From his speeches, writings and letters it is not difficult to read his mind. He based his pro-British attitude on three strong foundations. First, the only way of wiping off the stigma of Muslim instigation of the mutiny was to make friends with the British and thus to make them disabuse their minds of the idea that Muslim were their traditional enemies. He was sagacious enough to realise that British control would not cease in nay foreseeable future. It was ordinary common sense to be on good terms with the rulers.
v)
Sir Syeds Religious Services:
Sir Syed rendered many religious services through his movement. According to Dr. I.H. Qureshi:In religion Syed stood for a rational approach. He argued that revealed truth could be understood best through reason. The revelations of physical sciences could not be ignored in the understanding of religion. He put it pithily when he said that there could be no contradiction between the word of God (revealed truth) and the work of God (the laws of physical science and the phenomena of Nature). It may be argued that this attitude was too nave in so far as it placed too much confidence in human observation of phenomena at a particular time, nevertheless the basic idea that truth can be understood and interpreted in the light of human knowledge is sound. i) Essay On Life Of Muhammad (S.A.W.W): William Muir, a Christian
ii)
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writer, wrote a book, Life of Muhammad of (PBUH) and used derogatory remarks against the last prophet of Islam. Sir Syed took frequent notices of his book and wrote essays on the life of (PBUH) named Kutbat-i-Ahmadiyah in which he gave befitting reply to William Muir. Tafsir of Quran:
iii)
iv)
Tabeen-e-Alkalam: Sir Syed also wrote a commentary on Bible in a philosophical style and explained the similarities between the Islam and Christianity with solid arguments. Khutbat-e-Ahmadiya:
v)
Answers to The Objections of Missionaries:
vi)
Sir Syed As A Pioneer Of Two-Nation Theory:
Sir Syed was the first Muslim leader of the Sub-continent who used the word nation (quam) for the Muslims. In clear language, he pronounced that the Hindus and the Muslims were two different communities with different interests. After learning bitter lesson from the Hindi-Urdu controversy, he reached the conclusion that both the communities could not work together. According To Dr. I.H. Qureshi:The Muslims were inimical to Western education for three reasons: they considered it inferior to traditional Islamic learning it was being forced upon them by foreign people and they saw no of it for themselves. To learn English and acquire Western knowledge went against their pride, their memory of bygone superiority and their attachment to the learning of Islam. They thought that an education saturated with Christianity might corrupt their beliefs. Syed fought these attitudes with heroic courage. Through speeches, articles, pamphlets, scientific and translation societies and schools he slowly converted his people to his line of thought.
His views were evident in his speech delivered in 1886, in which he said, the system of representation by election means the representation of the views and thoughts of the majority of the population. In a country like India where caste distinctions still exist, where there is no fusion of interests of various races, where religious differences are still violent, where education in the modern sense has not made an equal or proportionate progress among all sections of the population. I am convinced that the introduction of the principles of the election pure or simple by the representation of various interests in the local boards and district councils would be attended with the evils of greater significance than pure economic consideration. The larger community would totally override the interests of the smaller community. In January 1883, Sir Syed Ahmed addressed Lord Ripons council and said:For socio-political purposes-----the whole of the population of England forms but one community----the same cannot be said of India. The system 46 Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam Cell: 03336587420
of representation by election means the representation of the views and interests of the majority of the population, and the countries where the population is composed of one race and one creed it is no doubt the best system that can be adopted. But in a country like India where caste distinctions still flourish where there is no fusion of various races where religious distinctions are still violent, where education in its modern sense has not made equal or proportionate progress among all the sections of the population---the system of election pure and simple cannot safely be adopted. The larger community would totally override the interests of the smaller community.
In the views of K.K Aziz:

Muslim India was not a nation by herself. Nor did she claim such a title. But the Muslims had begun to look upon themselves as a separate entity, a different community, and a group apart. This feeling of separateness from others and of oneness among themselves was the first foundation and first symptom of Muslim nationalism in India. According to V.A Smith: Sir Syed was not concerned with material things only. His Movement was one of general reforms. It was inspired by the thought that the Muslims of India were separate people and nation who must not be absorbed with Hinduism.
Conclusion: In the pretext of above mentioned efforts of Sir Syed we come to know that he took the responsibility of the renaissance of Muslim glory and to achieve its destination he guided the Muslim ship to a right direction and took it to a definite position where Muslims could mould their lives according to the pristine principles of Islam. Undoubtedly, Sir Syeds Aligarh Movement was the pioneer of two-nation theory which injected life in the dormant body of Muslim nation. He restored confidence among Muslims and fought for their political, religious, cultural, social and economic rights. He died on 27th March 1898. C.F Andrews a disciple, has endorsed the estimate of a lifelong friend of Sir Syed
Other men have written books and founded colleges; but to arrest, as with a wall, the degeneration of a whole people that is the work of a prophet.
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Aligarh Movement
Introduction:
Aligarh movement means that movement which was inspired by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, his colleagues and Muslim students of M.A.O College (later Aligarh University). The students of Aligarh College fired by the spirit of Muslim nationalism spread throughout the country and became the torch bearer of Two-Nation Theory. Thus, the quest of the Muslims for their national identity took the shape of a movement which resulted in the renaissance of the Muslims in the 19th century. This movement revolutionized the economic, social, and political status of the Muslims. However, Sir Syed was the chief architect of this movement. He worked day and night for the revival of Muslim glory. After the failure of the War of Independence in 1857, the Muslims became the victims of the wrath of the British rulers and they were subjected to an unprecedented systematic process of suppression and elimination. On the other hand the British rulers favoured the Hindus by granting them important government jobs in plenty. Thus the tide was turned on the Muslim community within a short span of time witnessed a steep fall from the high pedestal of the ruling class to a politically neglected and economically depressed minority.
Chronology of Sir Syeds Efforts Aligarh Movement: 1858: Built Gulshan School in Muradabad. 1862: Set up Victoria School in Ghazipur. 1864: Set up the Scientific Society in Aligarh. This society was involved in the translation of English works into the native language. 1866: Aligarh Institute Gazette. This imparted information on history; ancient and modern science of agriculture, natural and physical sciences and advanced mathematics. 1875: Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental School (M. A. O.), Aligarh, setup on the pattern of English public schools. Later raised to the level of college in 1877 and university in 1920. 1886: Muhammadan Educational Conference. This conference met every year to take stock of the educational problems of the Muslims and to persuade them to get modern education and abstain from politics. It later became the political mouthpiece of the Indian Muslims and was the forerunner of the Muslim League. MAO College Aligarh to Muslim University 1870: Committee Striving for the Educational Progress of Muslims
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Objectives of Movement: To protect Islam against the onslaught of Orientalists and to prove that it was the one true religion; To remove the bitter enmity which had arisen between the Muslim and the British for religious or political reasons and to establish friendly relations between them; To reinterpret the teaching of Islam and bring them in harmony with modern science and philosophy so that educated Muslims while holding on to their religion, might take a rational and enlightened view of life and meet the demands of the new age; To persuade Muslims to learn the English language and Western sciences so that they might secure a substantial share in the administration of the country. To maintain Urdu along with English as an associate official language and to develop it through translations and original writings.
Effects of Aligarh Movement
Development of Western Education Establishment of Islamic Educational Institutes According to W.W Hunter:All sorts of employments great and small are being gradually snatched away from the Muhammadans and bestowed on men of other races, particularly the Hindus.
Economic Development of Muslims Political Leadership Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar, Maulana Shokat Ali, Nawab Mehdi Khan (Mohsin-ul-Mulk), Nawab Wiqar-ul-Mulk and Nawab Ishaq Khan, Liaquat Ali, Nazimuddin Development of Urdu Language Role in Pakistan Movement Negative Effects of Aligarh Movement According to K.K. Aziz:They came to respect themselves. The pessimism of the post-mutiny days gave way to what was almost a feeling of buoyancy. No longer their loyalty was questioned in British quarters. No longer did the Hindus dismiss them with a shake of the head. They were catching u in education. The Aligarh College was producing graduates who could fill the vacancies in government offices reserved for Muslims. And further, By the turn of the century the Muslim community was pulsating with 49 Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam Cell: 03336587420
new ideas. Much had been achieved, though much remained undone. The old generation which had tasted the bitter fruit of defeat and disgrace was succeeded by a new generation, young in heart fresh to the opportunities of life, aware of its solidarity and hopeful of the future. Thus by the beginning of the twentieth century Aligarh Movement had become a living dynamic force which after the establishment of AllIndia Muslim League in 1906 took the shape of the Pakistan Movement.
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Darl-Ul-Uloom-I-Deoband Deoband Movement

Introduction:
The Aligarh Movement did a lot of work for social, political and economic uplift of the Muslims. It, however, lacked in religious sphere and could not work commendably for religious training of the Muslims. The lack of stress on religious aspect of the Muslims in the Aligarh Movement brought adverse effects on the spread of Islam. For this purpose Ulema started their movement with the establishment of institution to impart religious training.
Establishment Of Darl-Ul-Uloom-i-Deoband:
Maulana Mohammad Qasim Nanutvi started this movement by establishing DarlUL-Uloom Deoband in the Chattah Mosque, in Deoband (Sharanpur) on 30th May 1866 beneath a pomegranate tree. A managing committee consisting Maulana Mohammad Qasim, Maulana Zulifqar Ali, Maulana Fazul-ur-Rehman and Maulana Muhammad Mahmood was formed to look after the affairs of the madrasah. Haji Syed Hussain of Deoband with the help of Mehtab Ali and Sheikh Nehal Admed opened a Juma Mosque in Deoband Poper working on 3rd May, 1867 by a student Mehmood-ul-Hasan and a teacher Maulvi Muhammad Mehmood Maulvi Muhammad Mehmood was appointed as its first teacher with a monthly salary of fifteen rupees. Maulana Muhammad Qasim at 10 rupees/month Maktab progressed so rapidly that even in its first year, it had 78 students. 1874, new building constructed in 1874 due to rapid growth of students. 1876, due to that rapid flow of students again a new building constructed. Later became the second largest Islamic University Today, It consists of 230 rooms. More than 400 Cabins (Hujras) and 8 Hostels. Haji Muhammad Abid was also the founder member and took great pains in collecting funds for madrasah. Though Deoband Madrassah took its origin in a very humble manner yet through dedicated approach, very soon it developed into one of the leading religious institutions of India.
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According To K.K. Aziz:

Darul-Uloom produced mullahs who were skilful in theological hair splitting competent in expounding the orthodoxies of their particular sects, but completely ignorant of modern Movements and developments even in Islam.
Reasons for Establishment Of Deoband Movement: Main causes of the Deoband Movement were as under i) After the 1857 war of Independence the Christian missionaries had started preaching their religion unhindered under the disguised patronage of the government. Under these circumstances, preaching of Islam was the need of the hour. ii) The Deoband Movement was the corollary of the Muslim desire for renaissance. iii) The Indian Ulema wanted to give a proper position to the teachings of the Quran and Hadith which enjoyed secondary importance of Dars-e-Nizami. Thus the Syllabus of Deoband comprised of Tafseer, Hadith, and Arabic literature, Fiqah, Ilmul Kalam, Serf-o-Nehv and Tajveed.
Rise of Dar-ul-Uloom Deoband

Efforts of Maulana Qasim and its expansion In Muradabad, Saharan Pur, Nagina Later Jamia Millia Nawakhlian (Qasim-ul-Aloom)
Basic Principles of Darul Aloom

Principles were conceived by Maulana Qasim Nanautvi Steps for collecting donations Permanent Residence for Students Coordination Among Teacher Educational Syllabus No Interference Donors and Preachers No permanent Income
The faculty instructed its students primarily in Urdu, the lingua franca of the urbanised section of the region, and supplemented it with study of Arabic (for theological reasons) and Persian (for cultural and literary reasons. In due course, it also unwittingly cemented the growing association of the Urdu language with the north Indian Muslim community.
Syllabus Of Deoband Madrassah:

i) ii) iii) In the first four years the Holy Quran was memorized. Then the disciplines of Urdu, Diniyat, Social Studies, geography, Islamic Civilization and Fiqah were Taught to the students for four years. In the Arabic course the students were taught Arabic literature, Hadith, Logic, Philosophy, fiqah, Tafseer, Ilmul Kalam, Mathematics and Manazara. In addition, the students of Urdu language, Arabic language and Translations were taught in three year Arabic course. In the five year Persian and Mathematics course, the students of Persian language, History of Islam, Geography, Mathematics and Translation were taught to the students.
iv)
Characteristics Of Deoband Movement:

Deoband's curriculum is based on the 17th-century Indo-Islamic syllabus known as Dars-e-Nizami. The core curriculum teaches Islamic law (Shariah), Islamic jurispridence (Fiqh), traditional Islamic spirituality (known as Tasawwuf, which is the focus of Sufism), as well as several other fields of Islamic study. i) Deoband was the only seat of learning where all the three branches of knowledge i.e. Maqulat, Manqulat and Ilmul Kalam were taught in a balanced proportion. In addition to the religious subjects the students were also given training in trades like calligraphy, bookbinding and medicine. Deoband Movement produced many eminent religious scholars, authors and orators like Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, Maulana Hussain Ahmed Madni, Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi, Maulana Ahmed Ali Lahori, Maulana Tajwri Najibabadi and Maulana Mahmud-ul-Hasan and Maulana Rashid Ahmed Gangohi. These scholars successfully checked the growth of Christianity and other secular faiths. The Ulemas of Deoband rendered great services in protecting/defending Islam against all anti-Islamic forces. This movement also protected religious and national rights of the Muslims. The current syllabus consists of four stages. The first three stages can be completed in a total of eight years. The final stage is a post-graduate stage where students specialize in a number of advanced topics, such as the sciences of Hadeeth, Fiqh and so on.
ii) iii)
iv)
v)
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Evolution
Maulana Rasheed Ahmed Gangohi took over in 15th April, 1880 Legitimacy regarding relations with non Muslims Thus western Education also nourished Mehmood-ul-Hassan (Sheikhul Hind) in 1889 and Tehreek-e-Reshmi Romaal Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi in 1920 and Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam
Impact of Deoband School

Many Islamic schools throughout modern India and Pakistan - and more recently in Afghanistan, the United Kingdom, South Africa - as well as in hundreds of other places throughout the world are affiliated, or theologically linked, to Darul Uloom Deoband. Famous seminaries have been established by its graduates, e.g.
Nadwatul Ulama in Lucknow Madrassah In'aamiyyah Camperdown, near Durban in South Africa,
and three important seminaries in Pakistan, viz.
Darul Uloom Karachi Jamia Ashrafia Lahore, and Jamia Zia-ul-Quran (Al-maroof Bagh Wali Masjid) Faisalabad. As the official website of the Darul Uloom proclaims in flowery language, 'the whole of Asia is redolent with the aroma of this Prophetic garden.'
Services of Dar-ul-Uloom Deoband

1. Religious Services a) Opposition of Innovations (Biddats) b) Opposition of Christian Missionaries c) Opposition of Western Education d) Spiritual and Ethical Reformation 2. Political Services a) Tehreek-e-Reshami Romal b) Participation In Tehreek-Khilaafat c) Tehreek-e-Pakistan o Majority of Institution was with Congress o Mualana Ashraf Ali Thanvi and Maulana Shabbir Usmani however participated in Tehreek-e-Pakistan with Quaid-e-Azam
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Notable Ulema
Mehmood-ul-Hasan Anwar Shah Kashmiri Mufti Mohammad Naeem Ludihanavi Raees-ul-Ahrar Maulana Habib-ur-Rehman Ludihanavi Shabbir Ahmad Usmani Ubaidullah Sindhi Husain Ahmed Madani Ashraf Ali Thanwi Muhammad Shafi Uthmani (Mufti-e-Azam Pakistan) Qari Muhammad Tayaib Qasmi (President of Khatm-e-Nubuwwat Movement Hong Kong,China). Muhammad Ilyas]] Kandhelvi Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi Nik Aziz Nik Mat (Chief Minister of Kelantan State, Malaysia) Allama Ghulam Mustafa Qasmi, Sindh, Pakistan Shaikhul Hadith Maulana Naseer Ahmad Khan Buland Shehri
Recent Developments
The Darul Uloom has expanded its activities and started new departments during the last decades. In view of great challenge from the Ahmadiyya Movement*(Qadiyanism), Darul Uloom convened the All India Tahaffuz Khatm-eNubuwwat Conference and established a special department to refute Qadiyanism. It started the 'Shaikhul Hind Academy' for publishing books, and training students in Urdu journalism. In 1996, the Computer Department was opened, which was later extended and an Internet Department also added. The Darul Uloom has also introduced a two-year full-time Diploma in English language and literature for students wishing to pursue higher education in universities. Khan Abdul Ghafar Khan said
I have had relation with Dar-ul-Uloom since the time the Shaikh-ul-Hind, Maulana Mehmud Hasan, was alive. Sitting here, we used to make plans for the independence movement, as to how we might drive away the English from this country and how we could make India free from the yoke of slavery of the British Raj. This institution has made great efforts for the freedom of this country
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Comparison with Aligarh Movement

Maulana Muhammad Qasim and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan both were pupil of the same teacher maulvi Mamlook Ali Nanutvi but in practical life there goals were different. i) Western vs. Orthodox Education
The Tahrik-i-deoband, immediately after its inception did not see eye to eye with the Aligarh due to the working strategy of the Aligarh. Aligarh Movement adopted the policy of reconciliation with the British whereas the Deoband stressed on the religious aspects of the Muslims and was opposed to the policy of reconciliation with the British. The complete different approach to the politics had widened the gulf between the two authorities. Maulana Muhammad Qasim, a Leading and prominent personality of Deoband had remained engaged in a controversy with Sir Syed. They had sharp differences on the political matters of the country. Maulana Qasim and his companions actively fought against the British and for sometimes set-up their own government in their own areas. On the other hand Sir Syed, who was active during the war of 1857, remained loyal to the British. He adopted the reconciliatory posture simply because he felt it essential for the protection and revival of the Muslims after war. When sir Syed advised the Muslims to keep themselves away from the congress politics, Maulana Rashid Ahmed Gangohi opposed him. The anti-British attitude was a marked feature in Deoband whereas the Aligarh followed a policy of cooperation to the British. The leaders and Ulemas of Deoband emphasized on the religious aspects of the Muslims and believed that the Muslims must strictly adhere to their religious customs so that they could easily combat the impact of secularism. ii) Educatinal Consciousness
Another glaring contrast between the Deoband and Aligarh movement was their different approach towards educational system. Aligarh laid stress on the western and English education. M.A.O college was the centre of English and its main objective was to prepare a bunch of students well equipped in the western style of education. On the other side Deoband was a seat of Islamic and religious learning. It laid stress on religious disciplines. iii) Role in Pakistan Movement
The political tension between the two institutions could not be lessened till 1947. This led to many controversies but, the establishment of a central institution, combining the features of two movements and imparting of education in religious and western field did have a healthier and unifying effect.
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Critical Analysis:
i) Deoband Movement no doubt contributed greatly to preserve Islamic rituals, customs and Islamic civilization but neglected the contemporary modern subjects. Thus the syllabus of Deoband could not meet the requirements of the modern age. In the syllabus of Deoband, the disciplines of Philosophy, Logic and rhetoric were over-stressed. As a result renowned orators were produced but the demands of the scientific age were neglected. The Deoband Movement due to its severance of link with the English language could not conform itself to the requirements of the modern age. Persian and Arabic languages and literature continued to enjoy a prominent position in the syllabus of Deoband whereas the practical utility of both these languages had ceased due to the official status of English Language.
ii)
iii) iv)
Conclusion:
Deoband, in fact, was a movement which focused on Islamic teachings rather than materialism. The pioneers of Deoband Movement were against the Aligarh movements of Sir Syed and considered him a materialistic who was imparting only modern knowledge to the Muslims and drifting them away from Islam. That was why; the Deoband Movement was started parallel to Aligarh Movement to adorn the Muslim lives with the Islamic teachings. This movement also raised Muslim consciousness in a superb way who later on demanded for a separate homeland for Muslims in India.
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Nadwa-Tul-Ulema Lucknow
Introduction:
Nadwa-tul-Ulema Lucknow was established by Maulana Abdul Ghafoor, Maulana Shibli Naumani and Maulana Abdul Haq in 1894. The institution was intended to be a modified version of Deoband. Nadwa's objective was reaching a middle path between classical Islam and modernity. Its establishment was necessitated by the fact that M.A.O Aligarh and Dar-Ul-Uloom Deoband had failed to produce Muslims equipped with Western knowledge and the religious education. M.A.O College Aligarh stressed more upon English language and the modern science subjects whereas Darl-Ul-Uloom Deoband neglected the modern western knowledge altogether. Consequently the graduates of M.A.O College seriously lacked in religious education whereas Darl-Ul-Uloom Deoband produced many Sufis, Ulemas and spiritual leaders. Under these circumstances, Nadwa aimed at producing the graduate well versed in both Western knowledge and religious education.
Establishment of Nadwat-ul-Ulema:
It was founded at Kanpur in 1894 in the first annual convention of Nadwatul Ulema ("Organisation of Scholars") by Allama Shibli Nomani, Muhammad Ali Mongiri, Ashraf Ali Thanwi and Mahmud-ul-Hasan, with an idea to counter the challenge of western education. Pioneer of the movement was Deputy Collector Maulvi Abdul Ghafoor In 1894 Maulvi Muhammad Ali Kanpuri was made its first Administrator (Nazim) Nadwa started regular functioning in 1898. In the beginning faced financial difficulties which were removed with the progress of time. The nobles of Jehan Pur provided land where a splendous library was constructed The State of Hyderabad in 1900 and Bhopal in 1905 fixed annual grants for this Muslim seat of learning. Later on, the government also sanctioned a monthly grant of 500 rupees for the Nadwa. The foundation stone was laid by Sir. John Briscott Hewitt, Lt. Governor of India on November 28, 1906.
Why NADWA? The choice of the name Nadwa got inspiration from a hall in Mecca, where nobles used to assemble to deliberate. Nadwa was eventually shifted to Lucknow in 1898 (from Kanpur) and updated the Islamic curricula with modern sciences, vocational training etc.
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Vision of the Founders:

Principles or representative of all the Islamic Institutions (Madaaris) should attend the annual convention of Nadwatul Ulema. A Federation of Madaaris should be formed so that all the Madaaris should come under one umbrella. To implement this scheme few large Madaaris should be started which will act as a main Madrasah known as NadwatulUloom and rest will be their branches. Nadwatul-Uloom will keep an eye on the activities of the branches. Expansion of Madarsa Faiz-e-Aam with Hostel facility. Sought to give Arabic, both modern and classical, a central place in its system of education besides facilitating links with Muslim West Asia.
Objectives of The Nadwa:

Nadwa had the following objectives. i) Nadwa aimed at the reformation of the Muslims by producing the graduates well equipped with both Western and secular knowledge. ii) One of its main objectives was the promotion of Islamic knowledge and thought. iii) Nadwa aimed at the reformation of the curriculum of Islamic education (This was proposed by Shah Muhammad Husain Allahabadi and seconded by Allama Shibli Nomani) iv) To end the mutual differences of the Muslim religious scholars. v) To work for the welfare of the Muslims. vi) To evaluate Nadwa to the status of Muslim seat of learning where students may be imparted the knowledge of the modern science subjects along with educational knowledge. vii) Aimed at producing an educated class of Muslims well versed in traditional learning and yet actively involved with the ruling power. Safety of Islamic Society
Syllabus Of the Nadwa-tul-Ulema:

In 1904, Maulana Shibli Naumani introduced revolutionary changes in the syllabus of the Nadwa-tul-Ulema. Eight years long period was fixed for the education from primary to higher level. Tafseer and Hadith were given importance over Philosophy and Logic and more stress was laid upon the teaching English language and the modern Arabic knowledge. A committee comprising of Maulana Shibli Naumani, Maulana Abdul Hayee and Maulana Abdul Qayum proposed the following syllabus for the Nadwa. i) Modern science subjects were introduced in place of Philosophy and Logic. ii) Tafseer was granted importance. iii) Hindi and Sanskrit were included. iv) Shah Waliullahs book Hajjatul Baligah, Imam Ghazalis book Iqtisa, Al-Razis Kitab Mualim Fi Asool-ud-Din and Al-Rushds book Kashful Walatah were included in the syllabus.
Services Of The Nadwa-Tul-Ulema:

Nadwa-Tul-Ulema Lucknow rendered invaluable services in the field of education and religion during the first quarter of the 20th century. Some of its services are as under: i) Nadwa modernized the Islamic educational syllabus and brought it in conformity with the contemporary requirements. Thus the Muslim students of Nadwa acquired knowledge of modern subjects along with religious education. ii) The teachers and students of Nadwa wrote many important books. iii) Darul Musanafeen Azamgarh was the product of Nadwa movement. This institution rendered invaluable services for the promotion of the research work in the Islamic knowledge and literature. iv) Maulana Shibli Naumani who was the main force behind the Nadwa Movement wrote many books and influences the contemporary writers. v) Al-Nadwa was the magazine of Nadwa. It rendered the writings of the prominent scholars adorned its pages. vi) Nadwa-tul-Ulema Lucknow adopted a moderate syllabus which was the beautiful blend of Aligarh and Deoband syllabus. Thus the syllabus of Nadwa possessed the ability to meet the challenges of the modern world.
Reaction of The Society

Initially Opposition by both Muslims and Non Muslims Sir Anthony Mcdonald governor of VP called them a tool of politics Ahmad Raza Khan Brailvi organized a warrior group against them Deoband Ulemas oppeded Maulana Shibli Naumani
Extension of The Movement

British Government, Aga Khan and Nawabs of Bhopal and Bahawalpur donated Maulana Shibli Naumanis time as the administrator is called the golden period of nadwa
Comparison
Deoband and Aligarh were opposites and Nadwa was formed to act as a bridge between them Syed Suleman Nadvi and Ashraf Ali Thanvi an era of good relations started as Suleman was a disciple of Thanvi All worked to educate the Muslims
Anjuman-e-Himayat-eIslam Lahore
Introduction:
Aligarh Movement and Darl-Ul-Uloom Deoband adorned the Muslims lives with modern and Islamic education. Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam also did the same job but in a different way.
Establishment Of The Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam:

On 24th Sep 1884 Chiragh Din called a meeting of 250 Muslims in Mochi Gate Mosque Lahore On September 24, 1884 Anjuman was found in the mosque Bakan Khan gate, Lahore. Anjuman-i-Himayat-e-Islam was based on uplifting the Muslim glory and respect by its own means and source without the support of the British government. When this Anjuman was found there were about 250 members of it.
Office Bearers
o Qazi Khalifa Hammed ud Din was made President o Maulvi Ghulam Ullah Qasoori made the General Secretary o Munshi Chiragh Din, Haji Mir Shamshuddin, Maulvi Ghulam Ullah Khan, Najamuddin Nazir and Dr Muhammad Din Nazir were other active members of the Anjuman-i-Himayat-Islam Lahore
Donation System
In the first meeting 54 rupees collected In the first year 750 rupees collected
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Administrative Structure
Lahore the centre office and the General Council sat there. Standing Committee to take decision
Objectives Of The Anjuman:

The renaissance and betterment of the Muslims by its own means was the chief objective of the Anjuman, other were as under:
i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii)
To furnish modern and Islamic education to the Muslims. Prevention of the propaganda of Christianity Answering the objections of Christian Missionaries Establishment of an Islamic Society on sound foundations. Formation of Modern Islamic Educational Institutes Protection of orphan children and to give them education. Protection and development of the Muslims social, political, economic, and educational rights.
Educational Services:
Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam was a pragmatic institution to achieve its objectives; the Anjuman took some practical steps.
i) Girls Education: In 1884, two schools were established under the administration of this Anjuman. The primary school for girls was also established. In 1925, a girls primary school was upgraded to high school. In 1938, Islamia college for women, Cooper road, Lahore was started by the Anjuman. ii) Boys Education: In 1889, established a boys school Madrassa-tul-Musalamin in Sheranwala Gate, Lahore In 1905, established Islamia College Railway Road, Lahore for boys Islamia College Civil Line, Lahore, Islamia college Lahore Cantt, Himayat-i-Islamia College, Lahore Islamia Degree College, Kasur These institutions really quenched the thirst of education of the students of the Punjab.
Sir Syed, Allama Iqbal, Nawab Mohsin-ul-Malik, Sheikh Abdul Qadir, Justice Shah Din and Maulana Altaf Hussain Hali attended its sessions and supported its activities.
Muthi Bhar Atta Scheme:

Muthi Bhar Atta Scheme was introduced for raising funds for the Anjuman. In every Muslims home a small quantity of the flour (Muthi Bhar Atta) was saved to support the Anjuman. After one week, members of the Anjuman accumulated that flour from every house and disposed of it for raising funds.
Political Services:
Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam also rendered invaluable political services under the flag of Muslim League. It played a major role in the freedom of the Muslims of the Subcontinent by arranging its annual meetings which were presided over by the leading Muslim personalities like Sir Syed, Allama Iqbal, Abdul Qadir, Maulana Hali. Later on, the students of Islamia College Railway Road, Lahore played a significant role in Pakistan Movement. They spread throughout the country and propagated the Two-nation theory. In March 1940, these students played a leading role in organizing the annual session of the Muslim league Minto Park, Lahore.
Social And Religious Services:

Amjuman is running an orphanage (Yateem Khana, established in 1884) Two centres for adult education. Published error-free Quran Introduced the Islamic education in its institutions.
Some Institutions Established by Anjuman

o o o o The Dar-ul-Shafqat (Male) Dar-ul-Shafqat (Female) Dar-ul-Aman (Female) Dar-ul-Uloom Dinia (Male) & (Female)
o o o o o o o o o
Public School(Co-Ed) Hamayat-e-Islam Degree College (Female) Hamayat-e-Islam High School (Boys) Hamayat-e-Islam Pasha Girls High School Hamayat-e-Islam Law College Hamayat-e-Islam Tibya College Hamayat-e-Islam Rajgarh School Hamayat-e-Islam Younani Shafa Khana Hamayat-e-Islam Library
Conclusion:
The Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam was a more middle class body that represented a spontaneous desire on the part of middle-class Muslims of Lahore to cooperate with each other for common good. The Anjuman also played a vital role to provide a political platform for Indian Muslims.
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Partition Of Bengal
Introduction:
Partition of Bengal which took place in the year of 1905 was another landmark in the political history of the Sub-continent. This partition went in favour of the Muslims of Bengal but the Hindus protested vehemently against it. From the British point of view the reasons for this partition were only administrative because the charge of the province was too heavy task for a Lt. Governor. According to the British historian: The Lt.Governor of Bengal had to administer, in 1903, An area of 1,89,000 square miles with a population of 7,80,00,000 and gross revenue of 75,00,000 pounds. No other provincial administrator of India had so huge Charge
Reasons / Objectives of Partition of the Bengal:

There were a lot of reasons behind the partition of the Bengal in 1905. Some of them are as under:1. Large Population of Bengal: According to the census of 1901 the population consisted of seven crore eighty lacs individuals. According to the area and population ratios its division into two parts was unavoidable. 2. Large Area of Bengal: According to the census of 1901 the area of Bengal province was one lac eighty nine thousand square miles thats why partition of Bengal was necessary. 3. Destruction of Chittagong Sea Port: Due to the availability of a sea port in West Bengal in Calcutta no thought was given to improve and develop the seaport in East Bengal at Chittagong. The division of Bengal was necessary to save it from destruction. 4. Problem of Language: The area of Arisa where language, Aryaya Arya was spoken divided into three provinces Bengal, Assam and U.P. The people and government had to face a lot of
problems due to this. The concerned provincial governments had to do official formalities in provincial as well as Arya Language. The people also could not remain separated. Therefore it was necessary to include, Arisa in any one province. 5. Destruction of Industry and Skill: Even thought jute was produced in large scale East Bengal was not given any importance in the field industry, because of which the local industries had collapsed and people were in bad conditions. 6. Economic Backwardness: The area of the West Bengal was totally ignored by the different government, so the surrounded areas of Calcutta were economically backward.
Details Of The Partition:

Lord Curzon felt the need of the partition of Bengal and submitted the scheme to the British government in February, 1905. The Secretary of state for India, St. John Brodick approved the plan in June and consequently the province of Bengal was partitioned on 16th October, 1905. According to this scheme, the province was divided into two provinces Eastern Bengal with Decca its capital and Western Bengal with Calcutta as its capital. 1. Province of Eastern Bengal: The province of Eastern Bengal had an area of 10,6540 square miles and a population of 31 million out of which 18 million were Muslims. The province included Assam, Silhit, East and North Bengal meaning Chittagong Dhaka, Commissionaires of Rajshahi and Maldah division. The centre of the new province was Dhaka and the seaport was Chittagong. Its administration would consist of a Legislative Council, a Board of Revenue of two members, and the jurisdiction of the Calcutta High Court would be left undisturbed. The government pointed out that the new province would have a clearly demarcated western boundary and well defined geographical, ethnological, linguistic and social characteristics. The most striking feature of the new province was that it would concentrate within its own bounds the hitherto ignored and neglected typical homogenous Muslim population of Bengal. Besides, the whole of the tea industry (except Darjeeling), and the greater portion of the jute growing area would be brought under a single administration. 2. Province of Western Bengal Besides the area of East Bengal and Assam other parts of Bengal were included in West Bengal. The area of Orissa was also included in it the area of West Bengal was one lac, forty one thousand five hundred and eighty square miles and had a population of 54 million out of which 45 million were Hindus. Muslim population
was only ninety thousand. The centre of the province remained Calcutta. The trade seaport remained Calcutta. So, The Eastern Bengal became a Muslim majority province because out of its 31 million population 18 million were Muslims.
Efforts to Re-Organize
In 1836, the upper provinces were sliced off from Bengal and placed under a lieutenant governor. In 1854, the Governor-General-in-Council was relieved of the direct administration of Bengal which was placed under a lieutenant governor. In 1874 Assam (along with Sylhet) was severed from Bengal to form a ChiefCommissionership and in 1898 Lushai Hills were added to it.
Reactions To The Partition

1. Reaction of Hindus:
The Hindus reacted toward the partition of Bengal in a hostile and violent manner. The Hindus could never support a move which was to bring prosperity and happiness to the Muslims. The Hindus started agitation against the partition. Indian National Congress also organized protest meetings and demonstrations throughout the country. Almost, the entire Hindu community opposed this partition that includes Lawyers Journalists Business Community Educated Elite Hindu Nationalists Anglo-Indian and British Press Indian National Conference o Students o o o o o o o Steps Taken Against Partition By Hindus: Moreover the above said whole Hindu community made concrete efforts to annul the partition which are given below Disobeyed government orders by refusing to pay taxes and rentals. Erupted Communal clashes at a number of places which aggravated the law and order situation in the country. Thrown Bombs and made attacks on the lives of the British people.
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Organized Swadeshi movement by which the foreign goods were boycotted. Derailed The train carrying the Governor of the Eastern Bengal and made an attempt on Viceroys life which failed.
Reasons Behind The Hindus Reaction: The reasons for Hindu opposition to the partition were as follows: i) The Hindus believed that they would come under the domination of the Muslims in the new province and their superior position would be downgraded to the inferior status. As the provincial high Court and other judicial bodies were to be shifted to Decca, the Hindu lawyers feared that their legal practices would be affected. Since Decca was to become the centre of journalists and academic activities, So the Hindu press and media feared that from now onward the Muslim point of view should be projected in the newspapers and magazines. The Hindus also feared that their income would seriously be lessened. The Hindu lords, capitalists and traders did not like the partition because it was to put an end of their exploitation of the poor Muslims. Before partition the Hindus enjoyed a dominant position in the political sphere in the province over the Muslims. The partition put an end to their superior political status and political dominance over the Muslims.
ii)
iii)
iv) v)
2. Reaction of Muslims
The new province of Eastern Bengal brought happier prospects of political and economic life for the Muslims. The Muslims overnight turned into majority by the creation of the new province. The Muslims were 18 million out of the total population of 31 million in the new province. The partition of Bengal .provided chances of great progress to the Muslims who formed the majority group in the new set up. In the combined province of Bengal the Muslims were a suppressed and dominated class of society. The Hindus had monopolized trade and Government services which aggravated the economic condition of the Muslims. The partition of Bengal provided them with a chance to rehabilitate their social position. They hoped that their social status would get a tremendous boost in the new province. The Muslims, therefore, expressed their utmost happiness over the partition of Bengal. They offered their gratification in a loyal way to Government for taking a step for their social, economic and political uplift. On the other hand, the Hindus showed violent reaction to the partition. According to Dr. I.H. Qureshi:
This modification of the boundaries of Bengal was made an occasion for unprecedented agitation by the Hindus---first of Bengal, and later on other parts of India. Ulterior motives were imputed to Curzon: he had deliberately 68 Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam Cell: 03336587420
tried to divide the Hindus and the Muslims by drawing the line between Hindu and Muslim halves of Bengal; he had favoured the Muslims by giving them a new province in which they were in a clear majority, he had vivisected the Bengali homeland; he had struck a deadly blow at Bengali nationality; he had sought to weaken the nationalist and patriotic Movement of the people of India which had its strongest centre in Bengal.
Initial Reaction By Muslims o o o o o Muslim Press and Leaders Mohammedan Provincial Union Farizi and Wahabi Movements Economic Apprehensions Factor of Land System in Bengal
Strong Reaction by Muslims Islamic Conference in Dhaka 1906 Hindu Muslims Riots Formation of Muslim League
Annulment Of The Partition:

The vigorous Hindu agitation rocked the Government which could not withstand the extreme pressure of the movement. .The Hindus threatened the Government to boycott the forthcoming tour of India of the King George. The threat proved successful and the British Government succumbed to the Hindus agitation. The partition of Bengal was ultimately annulled at the recommendation of the Viceroy Lord Harding, King George V announced the annulment of the partition on 12th December, 1911 at a Royal meeting known as Delhi Darbar. This decision pleased the Hindus but the Muslims felt betrayed. According to I.H. Qureshi:
Muslim reaction to these decisions was naturally bitter. For years the government of India and Home government had been telling the Muslims that the decision regarding the partition of Bengal was final and would not be reopened. Such flagrant disregard for solemn promises created a feeling of distrust among the Muslims. They lost all faith in British pledges. They were convinced that the Government listened only to sedition and clamour, that constitutional approaches did not pay, that loyalty was rewarded with treachery..
Main Features of The Annulment of Partition:

1. Firstly, the Government of India should have its seat at Delhi instead of
Calcutta. By shifting the capital to the site of past Muslim glory, the British
hoped to placate Bengal's Muslim community now aggrieved at the loss of provincial power and privilege in eastern Bengal. 2. Secondly, the five Bengali speaking Divisions viz The Presidency, Burdwan, Dacca, Rajshahi and Chittagong were to be united and formed into a Presidency to be administered by a Governor-in-Council. The area of this province would be approximately 70,000 sq miles with a population of 42 million. 3. Thirdly, a Lieutenant-Governor-in-Council with a Legislative Council was to govern the province comprising of Bihar, Chhota Nagpur and Orissa. 4. Fourthly, Assam was to revert back to the rule of a Chief Commissioner. The date chosen for the formal ending of the partition and reunification of Bengal was I April 1912.
Affects of The Annulment of Partition of Bengal:

1. Start of Extremism in Politics The Division of Bengal was called as cutting apart pieces of motherland and a danger to the unity and the steps they took to reunite it were extremists. The extremism started after division of Bengal remained till the division of India which was a big problem for British. 2. Unveiling of Congress True Face The Congress supported the Hindus of Bengal in annulment of division of Bengal. This made it quite clear that Congress was not an organization for all Indians but only and only representative party of Hindus. 3. Promotion of Muslims Political Awakening The Hindus opposition on the decision of Division of Bengal promoted political awakening in Muslim. On 1st Nov. 1906, 35 members delegations of Muslims headed by Sir Agha Khan met Viceroy Lord Minto at Simla and play an important role for the protection rights and interests of Muslims. Two months after the Simla delegation All India Muslim League was formed on 30th December 1906. Pakistan at last came into being from this platform. 4. Establishment of Dhaka University: After the annulment of division of Bengal the British government compensated the hurt feelings of Muslims by establishing a Muslim University in Dhaka. Islamiat was included for the first time in the syllabus in this university. 5. Turning Point to Nationalism: The Partition of Bengal indeed marks a turning point in the history of nationalism in India. It may be said that it was out of the travails of Bengal that Indian nationalism
was born. By the same token the agitation against the partition and the terrorism that it generated was one of the main factors which gave birth to Muslim nationalism and encouraged them to engage in separatist politics. The birth of the Muslim League in 1906 at Dacca (Dhaka) bears testimony to this. The annulment of the partition sorely disappointed not only the Bengali Muslims but also the Muslims of the whole of India. They felt that loyalty did not pay but agitation does. Thereafter, the dejected Muslims gradually took an anti-British stance.
Conclusion:
The Partition of Bengal of 1905 left a profound impact on the political history of India. It disappointed the Muslims and their faith in the justice of the British government was shaken badly. From a political angle the measure accentuated Hindu-Muslim differences in the region. One point of view is that by giving the Muslim's a separate territorial identity in 1905 and a communal electorate through the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 the British Government in a subtle manner tried to neutralise the possibility of major Muslim participation in the Indian National Congress. The Hindus agitation against the partition reinforced the feelings of the Muslim about Hindu designs. They realized that the Hindus would never allow the Muslims a prosperous and happy life. The Hindu agitation against the partition furthered the Two- Nation Theory. This agitation also convinced the Muslim leaders of the need for a separate Muslim political organization which could safeguard the interests of the Muslims of India and which could counter the Hindu and Congress propaganda.
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Simla Deputation
Introduction:
The Hindu opposition of Urdu and partition of Bengal revealed it to the Muslims that the Hindus would never allow the Muslims a respectable position in the Indian society. The political scene of India, at that time, was dominated by the vigorous activities of the Congress who had no rival in the political arena. The Muslims believed that only as organized endeavour would lead them to success. Political Scene of India in that arena was as follow: 1. Ever since its establishment in 1885 as a political organization, All India Congress had been actively striving for the Hindu cause. It had ignored the aims and objectives which said that the Congress would work for the protection of interests of all communities of India irrespective of their religion and nationality. It, however, could not pursue this lofty principle of looking after the interests of all communities of India and very soon indulged in purely pro-Hindu activities. It became clear, by Congress designs, that it was a forum meant to project the Hindu demands only. 2. The Hindu opposition to Urdu and partition of Bengal revealed it to the Muslims that the Hindus and Congress would never allow them a respectable place in the Indian society. The Hindu and Congress agitation intensified these feelings and aroused Muslim suspicions about Hindu designs. 3. The rise of Hindu Nationalism awakened Muslims feelings of separate identity. 4. The movement launched by Swami Dayanand and B.G. Tilak raised Muslims eye-brows who seriously pondered over their future plans to safeguard their interests.
Simla Deputation:
The political awakening of the Muslims of the Sub-Continent found its meaningful and effective expression on October 1st, 1906, when a delegation of 35 Muslim leaders met Lord Minto to present the demands of the Muslim community. The Muslims of Indo-Pak were in minority and were not satisfied with the system of joint electorates because under this system they did not get a due representation in the presence of Hindu majority.
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Members Of The Deputation:

The delegation consisted of 35 members representing all parts of the country. It was led by His Excellency Sir Agha Khan who was his way to China and broke his journey at Colombo to render this valuable national service.
Demands Of The Muslims:

Main demands put forwarded by the delegation were as under: i) Demand of Separate Electorate: The Muslims should be given the authority to elect their representatives in the elections of the councils. For this reason the Muslim constituencies should be reserved meaning the Hindu and Muslim constituencies should be separated, so that Muslim voter could vote for Muslim representatives and Hindu voters for Hindu representatives. Demand for More Seats than Population: Muslims should be given more seats than their population because of their historical and political importance. Demand for Share in Government Service: Muslims should be given employment according to a special proportion in all the government & semi-government organizations. Membership of Judges: Muslims should be made judges of High courts and Supreme Courts Membership of Executive Council: At least one Muslim may be appointed in Viceroys Executive council. Representation In the Imperial Legislative Council: The Muslims may be given due representation in the imperial legislative council. Representation in the Senate and Syndicate of Universities: Muslims should be given representation in the syndicate of the universities
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viii) Muslim University at Aligarh: Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College Aligarh should be given the status of a University.
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Lord Mintos Response To The Muslim Leaders:

Lord Minto gave a patient hearing to the demands of the Muslims presented by Simla Deputation. He expressed his complete agreement with the principles of the separate electorates. He promised to give a sympathetic consideration to the demands and assured the deputation that he would do all what was possible to meet the demands said:I am aware of the injustices and aggression inflicted upon the Muslim and I am also trying to compensate them. I will definitely take these demands to the committee which will come to India to implement constitutional reforms and will compile the recommendations.
Importance Of The Simla Deputation:

Simla Deputation enjoys great importance in the history of Pakistan Movement. It was through this deputation that the Muslims of India for the first time highlighted their demands as a community on national level. According To Dr. I.H Qureshi:
The Simla Deputation occupies a crucially important place in the history of Muslim-India. For the first time the Hindu-Muslim conflict was lifted to the constitutional plane. The rift in the society was now to be reflected in legal and political institutions. The Muslims made it clear that they had no confidence in the Hindu majority that they were not prepared to put their future in the hands of assemblies elected on the assumed basis of a homogenous Indian nation. By implication the Muslims rejected the idea of a single Indian nation on the ground of that the Muslim majority had an entity and could not be merged into Hindu majority.
Simla delegation was successful because the Viceroy gave the positive response to the member of the delegation. The importance of Simla Delegation is as follows:1. Basis of Pakistan Movement: The formation and demands of Simla delegation are like a milestone in the history of Muslims of sub-continent. The positive and encouraging answer of the Viceroy of India created a sense of political awareness and confidence amongst the Muslims. 2. Source of Establishment of Muslim League: Successfulness of Simla Delegation motivated and encouraged the Muslims to establish the separate Muslim Political Part y for the Muslim in 1906. 3. Security for Islamic Ideology: The demand for separate electorate by the delegation was an effort to free the Muslims from slavery of Hindus formed by British domination. Because of this demand the representation of Muslims in the councils and other elected offices was to be handed to Muslim leaders.
4. Protection of Muslim Rights and Interests: The demand for more seats than the population was an effort to make the golden era of Islamic rule and organizational and political abilities of the Muslims, prominent. 5. Freedom from Economic Exploitation: The demand for getting employment in government departments was an end to economic exploitation of Muslims. 6. Representation in Administration and Judiciary: The demand for appointing Muslims in High Courts and Supreme Courts as judges and membership in the administrative council of Viceroy was a cause of creating a sense of security among the Muslims. 7. Educational Development of Muslims: The demand for representation in the Senate and Syndicate of Universities and the status of University to be given to Aligarh Mohammadan Anglo Oriental College was unavoidable for the educational development and awakening of political administrative consciousness.
Conclusion:
It was a great achievement of the Simla Deputation to have convinced the Viceroy about the genuineness of the Muslims demands. The Muslims were now convinced that organized efforts were essential to press for the acceptance of the demands. The most important demand of separate electorate was accepted by the government and incorporated in the Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909. After the Simla Deputation the Muslims decided to continue the spirit of Muslim coordination and cooperation in the political field. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Malik took a step forward in this connection and wrote to Agha Khan,
The deputation which went to Simla should be kept alive, and I suggest that a committee of members of deputation should be appointed to correspond with the Government for the realization of the representation made. This is the work of All-India Conference and if you agree, I should make detailed proposals.
Agha Khan agreed with the Proposals in December 1906 and the leaders who took part in the Muhammadan Educational Conference at Dacca in December in 1906 founded All-India Muslim League.
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Muslim League
Introduction:
After the war of independence 1857, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan advice the Muslims not to join the congress and also tried to keep them away from the politics. Till his death in 1898 he worked for the Muslim Political Interest itself but after the death of the Sir Syed Ahmad Khan the Muslim felt that there will be a separate political party of the Muslims which worked for the Muslim interest only. As a result of the Aligarh Movement the Muslims of the Sub-Continent acquired political awakening and started thinking in terms of a nation. As a separate nation they developed their own distinct aspirations. However, Indian National Congress failed to come up to the expectations of the Muslims because it protected Hindu interest at the cost of all considerations. Thus, the Muslims felt the need of the political party which could safeguard their interests.
Factors Leading The Formation Of Muslim League:

Following were the main factors which led to the formations of Muslim League: i) Urdu Hindi Controversy: Urdu Hindi Controversy (1867) made it clear that the Hindus were prejudiced and the culture of the Muslims is in danger. Defense of Urdu and Muslim culture was the need of time. So All India Muslim League was founded to meet the challenges. The antiMuslim attitude shown by the Hindus during the Hindi-Urdu controversy convinced the Muslims that they could not develop just working relationship with the Hindus. Partition of Bengal: The partition of Bengal (1905) on administrative grounds was in the favour of the Muslims, created new situation in politics. The partition proved a blessing for the Muslims but the Hindus reacted violently towards the Partition of Bengal and asked for its annulment. The anti-Muslim attitude convinced the Muslims that the Hindus were not interested in their welfare. Extremist Hindu Sectarian Parties and Movements: The Slogan of the Hindu Sectarian parties formed in the eighteenth century was:
India is only for Hindus all other are foreigners. There are only two choices for them that they should either accept Hinduism or leave India.
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To give effective answer to the Hindu organizations a political platform was necessary for Muslims. iv) Negative Attitude of Indian National Congress: Indian National Congress was hi jacked by the Hindus failed to protect the rights of the Muslim community so the Muslims were compelled to form their own party to guard their rights and to face the challenges of Indian National congress. The pro-Hindu attitude of the Congress totally disillusioned the Muslims. Ignoring the Political Life: According to the Act of 1892, the British gained more powers and gave the Hindus a share in the government and neglected the Muslims. The Muslims were the second big nation of the sub-continent but no political rights were given to the Muslims. The Hindus and the British did not accept the separate identity of the Muslims as a nation and no share was given to the Muslims in the government. In spite of that a large political pressure was raised on the Muslims by the Hindus and the British. Due to this pressure the Muslims of the subcontinent started thinking about their own league. Communalism: After the war of independence (1857) the Hindus got an opportunity and the communal riots started. The Hindu proved prejudiced against the Muslims. The extremist organizations like Sanghtan, Shudhi, Arya Samaj and Hindu Mahasaba endangered the life of Muslims. The Muslims were scared of all their activities and they decided to form All India Muslim League. Deprivation of the Muslims: After the war of independence of 1857, the British and the Hindus jointly victimized the Muslims politically, socially and economically. After the war of independence the status of the Muslims as a nation was changed and they became minority in the same country. Doors of new jobs for the Muslims were closed. The Hindus started music before mosques and started a movement against slaughter of cow. And a lot of political and economical pressure was raised after the war of independence on the Muslims.
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viii) Success of liberal Party and Political Reforms: In the start of the 20 century, The Liberal Party won the elections in England and Mr. Morley the new Liberal Prime Minister of England promised to introduce. The chances of the reformation of political institutions provided an opportunity for the Muslims to form a political party to protect their representation. ix) Success of Simla Deputation: A deputation of Muslim leaders called on Lord Minto, the Vicroy. on 1s1 October, 1906 at Simla. Sir Agha Khan, the Head of the Deputation, presented a memorandum and requested for
basic political, economic, cultural and other rights for the Muslims. The success of the Simla Deputation encouraged the Muslim leaders and on the way back the members of Deputation seriously felt the need of a Muslim political party. So all India Muslim League emerged on the scene. x) The British attitude: Another important thing in this regard was the fact that the British snatched power from the Muslims and joined hands with the Hindus to persecute them. The Muslims were economically deprived and some of them turned against the British and the Hindus because of their mode of thinking. According to the Act of 1892, the British gained more powers and they gave the Hindus a share in the government. This further became the cause of frustration for the Muslims. Problem of Slaughtering Cow: The Hindu sectarian organization Arya Samaj formed Gao Raksha Sabah for the protection of cows in 1883 whose goal was to stop Muslims from sacrificing cows. Under these circumstances unity of Muslims was unavoidable to stop the intrusion of Hindus in religious affairs and for that formation of an organized party was necessary.
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According To K.K. Aziz:Between 1902 and 1905 Muslim leaders had made some attempts to negotiate with Hindu politicians. Agha Khan had remonstrated with Sir Pherozeshah Mehta about the necessity of persuading the Congress to gain Muslim confidence. When these efforts failed, it was felt that the only hope lay in the establishment of a Muslim political body to secure independent political recognition from the British Government as a nation within nation. The AllIndia Muslim League was accordingly established in December 1906 at a meeting of Muslim leaders in Decca. The Muslim league was thus a child of four factors: First, the old belief uttered by Syed Ahmed Khan that the Muslims were somehow a separate entity. Secondly, the Hindu character of the Indian National Congress which did not allow the Muslims to associate themselves with other Indians. Thirdly, the agitation against the partition of Bengal which conveyed to the Muslims the Hindu designs of domination. And, finally, the Muslim desire to have their own exclusive electorates for all representative institutions.
Formation Of Muslim League:

After the successful meeting of Simla deputation, the annual meeting of the Muhammadan Educational conference was held at Decca on 30th December, 1906. 1. Founders of the Muslims League: After the session, the Muslim leaders approved a resolution of Salim Ullah which proposed the formation of a political organization for the Muslims named as All-India Muslim League.
Mohammad Ali Johar, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Maulana Zafar Ali supported the resolution. 2. First President of Muslim League: On 30th December, 1906 Muslim League was established. Sir Agha Khan was the first President of the Party. Syed Ameer Ali was made the President of London Branch. 3. Head Office: The Head Office was decided in Aligarh 4. First Annual Session of Muslim League: First Annual Session of Muslim League was established in Karachi in 1907 in which it was decided that the membership will be given to the Muslims of the sub-continent.
The resolution declared that: Resolved that the meeting composed of the Muslim leaders from all parts of the country form an organization styled as All-India Organization/Muslim League for the furtherance of the following objectives.
Objectives Of The Muslim League:

The objectives of the Muslim League were as under: i) ii) To promote among the Muslims of India the feelings of loyalty to the British government and to remove misconception. To promote and advance the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India and to respectfully represent the needs and requirements to the government. To prevent the rise among the Muslims of India any feeling of hostility towards other communities without prejudice to the other aforementioned objectives of the Muslim League.
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Achievements of Muslim League:

After the establishment of the Muslim League it worked for the Muslim interests and raised the pressure on the British Government: 1. The first the most important achievement of Muslim League was the attainment of right of separate electorate for the Muslims in 1909. The acceptance of separate electorate was the first step by the Government taken towards the establishment of self-rule in India.
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Muslim League answers to the Congress and the British Government on their Propagandas against the Muslims. In the leadership of Sir Agha Khan the Muslims League signed and agreement with Congress in 1916 at Lukhnow. In 1920 Muslim League was successful to become first Muslim Aligarh University. In a very short period time Muslim League became the single representative party of the Muslims of the sub-continent. It also worked for the Muslim interests only. In 1930 Allama Iqbal gave the concept of separate states for the Muslims in Allahabads address while addressing the 21st annual session of the Muslim League. In 1940 in the leadership of Quaid-e-Azam it also demanded Pakistan. Finally we can say All India Muslim League created Pakistan on 14th August, 1947.
Services and Change In The Goals of The Muslim League (1906-1913):

In spite of some early successes the Muslim League could not assume that political importance and significance which All Indian Congress had achieved. The Government too, was not very considerate and sympathetic towards Muslim League as it was towards Congress. Then Jinnah in 10913 injected a new vigour to this Muslim political organization. During the period from 1906 to 1913 Muslim League got itself established as a Muslim political organization. Muslims joined the League and forged unity among their ranks. The annulment of the Partition of Bengal and Western aggression towards Muslim countries, Balkan Wars, Libya-Italy War, Demolition of the Mosque in Kanpur (1913), etc. weakened Muslim faith in the British and provided opportunities to the Muslims to join the Muslim League. This led to a major drift in the Muslim Leagues policy. Consequently Muslim League in its annual session held in Lucknow in 1913 adopted a new strategy and changed its goals: Self-government under the British Crown keeping in view the peculiar conditions in India. Good relations with other communities cooperation with any party working for similar goals.
This change brought the Muslim League and Congress closer. In this way the era of cooperation between Hindus and Muslims set in. The role of the Quaid-i-Azam is highly noteworthy to bring the Congress and the Muslim League to the table.
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According To I.H. Qureshi:

At its annual session----historic in retrospect----at Lahore, the League for the first time, adopted the idea of partition as its final goal. Jinnahs presidential address to the session is a landmark in the history of Muslim nationalism in India, for it made an irrefutable case for a separate Muslim nationhood and for dividing India into Muslim and Hindu States.
Critical Analyis:
Many Hindu historians and several British writers have alleged that the Muslim League was founded at official instigation. They argue that it was Lord Minto who inspired the establishment of a Muslim organization so as to divide the Congress and to minimize the strength of the Indian Freedom Movement. But these statements are not supported by evidence. Contrary to this, the widely accepted view is that the Muslim League was basically established to protect and advance the Muslim interests and to combat the growing influence of the Indian National Congress.
Conclusion:
All India Muslim League met with early success the; government accepted the demand of separate electorate in 1909. In 1916 Muslim League signed a Pact with Indian National Congress and got significant concessions for the Muslims, Muslim League under the leadership of Agha Khan, Waqar-ul-Mulk and Quaid-e-Azam worked very hard. Muslim League in its annual Session at Lahore passed an historic resolution in 1940 demanding a separate homeland for Muslims. It was in 1947 that Muslim League succeeded in getting Pakistan for Muslims after a struggle of seven years.
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Minto-Morley Reforms
(Indian councils Act -1909)
Introduction:
By 1909 the political turmoil and unrest prevailed in India. The Extremists Hindu and Congress activities had forced the Muslims to give a serious thought to their future line of action in order to protect and safeguard their interests as a nation. By now the Muslims had come to realize with firmness that they were a separate nation. The demand for separate electorate by the Simla Deputation and later by the Muslim League was the first step taken into the direction to protect and maintain the separate image of the Muslims. The British Government had realized the importance of Muslims anxiety about their future and was convinced that the present constitutional provisions were inadequate to provide safeguards to the Muslims. The Government therefore, decided to introduce new constitutional reforms to dispel Muslim suspicions. The Government made it clear that it was in favour of giving more rights to the Indian people. The Viceroy Lord Minto in accordance with the policy of the Government set to the task of preparing a draft Bill, in collaboration with Lord Morley, the Secretary of State for India, for the introduction of constitutional reforms. The Bill was prepared and presented in the Parliament for approval. The Bill, after approval by the Parliament and Royal Assent, was enforced in 1909 and came to be known as Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909.
Object of Mint-Morley Reforms:

The Act of 1892 proved inadequate because it failed to come up to the expectations of the people. As a result, the British government introduced Minto-Morley Reforms in 1909 in favour of giving more rights to the Indian people. These reforms aimed at meeting the demands of the Muslims who wanted the system of separate These reforms also aimed at pleasing the Hindus who has been demonstrating against the partition of Bengal.
These reforms were formed on the basis of the recommendations drafted by Lord Minto, the Viceroy of India and Lord Morley, Secretary of State for India.
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Salient Features Of Minto-Morley Reforms:

Following were the main features of Minto-Morley Reforms: 1) Enlargement of Imperial Legislative Council: The size of Legislative councils as enlarged by raising the number of additional members in Bihar, Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Orissa and U.P to 50 and those Assam, Burma and Punjab to 30. The Governor Generals Council was to consist of 69 members out of whom 37 were to be officials and 32 non-officials. Increase in Powers of Legislative Council: The members of the Legislative Councils were allowed to move resolutions regarding taxations, loans and grants. However, the Council could not discuss State, Railways and ecclesiastical. Enlargement of Executive Council: The number of the members of the Executive Councils of Bombay, Madras and Bengal was raised from 2 to 4. Introduction of Separate Electorate System: The system of separate electorates was introduced. All the communities were granted due representation in the Imperial Legislative Councils. Out of the elected 27 seats, 6 were given to Landlords, 5 to Muhammadans, One to Muhammadan landlord and one each to Chambers of Commerce of Bombay and Bengal. Indians were appointed to the Executive Council of the Viceroy and in the provincial Executive Councils S.P Sinha was the first native member to Governor-Generals Executive Council. In the provincial assemblies, the Chambers of Commerce, University, Senates, Landlords, District Boards and Municipalities were given due representation.
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Criticism To The Minto-Morley Reforms:

Minto-Morley Reforms failed to meet the aspirations of the people due to the following reasons: i) The system of separate electorates proved ineffective because it provided a limited franchise. As a result of limited franchise the votes could be influenced. According to the reforms the system of elections was indirect. The members of assemblies were not elected indirectly by the people. Thus they felt no responsibility towards the people. The women were not granted right of going to the poll.
ii)
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Vested interests like chambers of Commerce, Landlords, District Board, University Senates and Municipalities were given undue representation. According to Garrat and Thompson, The Act made no theoretical change on the Executive side, though in the Legislatures right of criticism was increased. According to A.B Keith, The Reforms of 1909 failed in their object if that was to check the propaganda for self-government and were clearly unlikely to satisfy the demands.
Significance of Minto-Morley Reforms

Following is the importance of Minto-Morley Reforms: A Step Towards Constitutional Development: The Minto-Morley Reforms gave impetus to the constitutional development in India. Morley in his address to the House of Lords said If it could be said that this chapter of reforms led directly or necessarily to the establishment of a parliamentary system in India, I for one would have nothing at all to do with it. A New Direction to Indian Politics: These reforms introduced the system of elections for the first time which created a great deal of political awareness among the Indian people. Muslim Leagues First Achievement: The acceptance of separate electorate for the Muslims enhanced their political importance and significance.
Reaction Of The Muslims:

Despite certain constitutional drawbacks and flaws in the Minto-Morley Reforms the Muslims on the whole welcomed them mainly because of the introduction of system of separate electorates. Agha Khan while addressing the leagues annual session at Delhi in January 1910 said, I am glad our just demand has been recognized, we must accept it as final with appreciative spirit, worthy of our traditions.
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Conclusion:
The importance and utility of Minto-Morley Reforms cannot be set aside because of some weaknesses in the scheme. It acceded the Muslims, their much cherished demand, the separate electorate in the provinces where legislative councils existed. The Muslim League performed in a commendable manner by achieving major demands of the Muslims after only two years of its inception. It scored an amazing political triumph within a short time of its political struggle. The separate electorate set the course of Muslim freedom movement which culminated in the shape of Pakistan after a forty years intense struggle. It also gave strength to the Two-Nation Theory which became the basis of Muslim freedom struggle.
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Lucknow Pact (1916)

Background:
In the first half of the twentieth century, the Hindu-Muslim controversy was going on but certain events took place that made the Hindus and Muslims to think about the collaboration in their struggle of self-rule. 1. Annulment Of The Partition Of Bengal: The annulment of the partition of Bengal in December 1911 shocked the Muslims and they felt convinced that even loyalty to the British government was not enough to safeguard their interests and rights. Thus, the Muslim leadership decided to change the strategy of the Muslim League. As a result, in December 1912, League changed its aim from loyalty to form self-government suitable to India. However, the league retained its rights to modify self-rule in accordance with their needs and requirements. 2. Jinnah Joins The League: In the meantime, Jinnah joined the Muslim League. Mohammad Ali Jinnahs entry into the league also helped to change the attitudes of the Muslims towards the Hindus. He worked day and night for the Hindu-Muslim unity and earned the title of Ambassador of Unity. Ultimately his efforts bore fruit and Congress and League held their annual sessions simultaneously at Lucknow. Presiding at the Muslim League session, he advocated the Hindu-Muslim unity by saying,
Towards the Hindus our attitude should be of goodwill And brotherly feelings, cooperation in the cause of our Motherland should be our guiding principle. Indias real Progress can only be achieved by a true understanding And harmonious relations between the two great sister Communities.
3. Kanpur Massacre:
4. Change In The Basic Objects:
5. Allahabad Conference:
Signing Of The Lucknow Pact:

During the joint session at Lucknow an agreement was signed between the Congress and the League, which is historically known as The Lucknow Pact or CongressLeague Scheme.
Main Clauses Of The Pact:

Following were the main clauses of the Lucknow Pact. 1. Approval of Separate Electorate: The right of Muslims separate electorate was accepted by Congress. 2. Demand of Self-rule From the Government: Both congress and Muslim League demanded self-rule from the government. 3. Head of the Government: The Governor-General should be the Head of the government of India. 4. Proportion of the Indians in Executive Council: Half of the elected members of the Executive Council of the Governor-General should be Indians. 5. Salary of the Secretary of State: The salary of the Secretary of State should be drawn from the British Exchequer. 6. One Third Muslim Representation: Four-fifth members of the Imperial Council should be Indians and one-third members of the Imperial Council should be Muslims. 7. Proportion of Muslim Presentation in the Provinces: In Province Muslims will be given representation in the ratio of: Punjab: 50% Bengal: 40% Bombay: 33% U.P: 30% Bihar: 25% C.P: 15% Madras: 15% 8. Weightage to Muslims and Hindus in Minority Provinces: Muslims will be given weightage in Muslim minority provinces and Hindus will be given weightage in Muslim majority areas. 9. Election of the Provincial Legislature Members: The members of the provincial legislature should be directly elected through broad franchise. 10. Sepration of Judiciary from Executive: Judiciary shall be separated from the Executive. 11. Agreement on Unanimous Law: Unofficial bill, if opposed by threefourth members of a community (any nations chosen members), it will not be passed.
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Role of the Quaid-e-Azam

Jinnah was the principal architect of the Lucknow Pact and was hailed as an ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity. He presided over the League session at Lucknow in December 1916. Jinnah said,
To the Hindus our attitude should be of good-will and brotherly feelings. Cooperation in the cause of our motherland should be our guiding principle. Indias real progress can only be achieved by a true understanding and harmonious relations between the two great sister communities. With regard to our own affairs, we can depend upon nobody but ourselves
Settlement of Communal Issue:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Joint demand of complete self-government for India Reserved seats for Muslims Muslims right of separate electorate 1/3 elected Muslim members in center Provincial resolutions affecting a particular community should require majority of that community 6) Muslims withdrew their majority in Punjab and Bengal
A Political Bargain on Both Sides:

a) Congress conceded 1) Separate Muslim Electorate even in Punjab and central provinces where it wasnt allowed by British even 2) One Third Muslim seats in Central Legislature. 3) In Madras 15% Seats to 6.15% Muslims 4) In United Provinces 30% Seats to 14% Muslims 5) Unofficial bill, if opposed by three-fourth members of a community, it will not be passed. b) Muslims League conceded 1) Right to Vote in General Constituencies accorded to them in 1909 Reforms 2) 1/10 Seats in Punjab 3) 1/4 Seats in Bengal resulting in 40% Seats
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Achievements of Lucknow Pact:

On August 20, 1917 the Secretary of State Montague promised for: 1. Greater association of Indian in all branches of government. 2. Responsible government 3. Induction of Indians in the commissioned ranks.
Historical Significance of Lucknow Pact:

The Lucknow Pact was a bright chapter in the dark and gloomy environs of the Indian political history marred with communal strife and narrow-mindedness. It was a political agreement which set in a new path leading towards a happy and prosperous future. The Lucknow pact created political homogeneity between the two separate political entities, Hindus and Muslims, who frankly and fairly admitted each others interests with sincerity. The credit for creating this harmonious situation undoubtedly went to the unflinching and untiring efforts of the Quaid-e-Azam who was conferred with a proud title of Ambassador of HinduMuslim Unity by the famous poet politician Mrs. Sarojni Naidu. Recognition and Security of Separate Identity and Rights of Muslims. Recognition of Status of Muslim League as a Muslim Representative Party. Success of Muslims Political Insight of Quaid-e-Azam Hindu Muslim Unity (first and last time) and Its Impact 1. Effective Role in Legislature 2. The British accepted their role in the Political Domain. Changing Phase in Hindu-Muslim Relations
Reaction of the Hindus:

The Hindus of the United Provinces expressed their resentment because it granted separate electorates to the Muslims of India. All India Hindu Mahasbaha also did the same.
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Reaction of the Muslims:

Muslims belonging to the Sir Syed School of Thought in the Punjab and United Provinces went against the Lucknow Pact. Sir Muhammad Shafi led this group. In retaliation, Sir Muhammad Shafis Punjab Muslim League was disaffiliated from the Central Muslim League and the Muslim League under Sir Fazal Hussain was recognized. The Bengali Muslims also disapproved the Lucknow Pact because their majority was changed into minority in the Provincial Legislative Council. Newspaper of Aligarh i.e., Al-Bashir, Al-Mizan, Zulqurnain, Mashriq and Aligarh Institute Gazette were against the Lucknow Pact.
Critical Analysis/Conclusion
i) Symbol Of Unity: The Lucknow Pact was a symbol of unity between the Hindus and Muslims for first time in the history of freedom struggle in the Sub-continent. The great achievement of this pact was the acceptance of Congress of the right of separate electorates of Muslims. Congress before that never accepted Muslim League as the true representative of the Muslims of India but through this Pact Congress recognized Muslim League on equal footing with it. this Pact gave Muslim League real strength for first time. Enough Concession To each other: Both the parties gave enough concession to each other. For example, Muslims were given representation in non-Muslim majority provinces and Hindus were also given more representation in Muslim minority areas. Atmosphere Of Cooperation: This Pact created an atmosphere of cooperation between the two-nations. But this proved a transitionary period. Muslims happiness could not last longer when they found Congress withdrawing from the Pact in the Nehru Report. The atmosphere of amity and brotherhood in which pact was formed had now again converted into that of hostility. They political path of Congress changed when Gandhi took its leadership and we find that sincere efforts made by Quaid-e-Azam proved futile and he accepted the reality of Two-nation theory.
ii)
iii)
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Khilafat Movement
Background:
After the First World War in 1918, British and its allied powers decided to divide Turkey among themselves. Turkey supported Germany in the First World War. Germany lost the war and Turkey had to face the music. British and its allies also resolved to dissolve the designation of Khilafat. The designation of Khilafat always remained holy and sacred in the Muslim history. Khalifa is considered the vicegerent of Allah on the Earth. Therefore, the Muslims became infuriated on this unholy act of the British government. Maulana Mohammad Ali Johar and Maulana Shaukat Ali Johar along with other Muslim leaders started a movement called the Khilafat movement. Ottoman empire as the last symbol of lost glory for Muslims in early 19th century Political situation of turkey Russia, France, Italy and Britain
Indian Muslims conditional support to Britain in First World War 1. Ottoman Caliphate would be restored 2. Holy places would be protected
The Khilafat Movement:

Anjuman-i-Khuddam-i-Kaba -1913 Majlis-i-Khilafat -1919 All India Khilafat Committee in Lucknow session of League
Role of Jauhar Brothers:

Choice of the Turks by M Ali Jauhar Comrade vs. London Times Deputation to London to convince British PM
Objectives Of The Khilafat Movement:

The Khilafat Movement aimed at presenting the Ottoman Empire and the continuity of the temporal power of Khalifa to protect Muslim lands without any mandate. Mohammad Ali put forward the demands of the Khilafat Movement in a speech delivered at Paris on March 21, 1920 by declaring:
The Khilafat shall not be dismembered but that the Khalifa Shall have sufficient temporal power for the defence of the Faith, that in the Island of Arabia there shall be exclusive, Muslim control without mandate or protection and that the Khalifa shall remain as heretofore the warden of the Holy places.
Following were the objectives of the Movement. 1) To keep the institution of Khilafat institution and Khalifah to carry out the business of government usual. 2) Restoration of Turkeys grace as it possessed before and during World War-1 and no change to occur in the boundaries of Turkey. 3) The sanctity of Makkah and Madina should be maintained and non-Muslim forces should not be allowed to enter in these two sacred cities.
Impotant Events:
1) Hindu Muslim Unity 2) Khilafat Delegation
Delegations were sent to U.K. and other European countries to convey the feelings of the Muslims to the governments.
3) Sevary Agreement
4) Non-cooperation Movement:
Gandhis Support 4 Stages of the Program 1. a) Titles Awarded Given up b) Educational Institutes Boycotted 2. Resignations of Civil Governments Servants 3. Police and Military to be Quitted 4. a) Refusal to Pay Taxes b) Civil Disobedience
5) Hijrat Movement (1920):

Arrests and detentions
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Between December 1921 to January 1922 30,000 arrests Ali brothers and Azad also arrested
6) Civil Disobedience
7) Arrival of Prince of Vales
8) Mopla Revolt
9) Trial of Rebellion
10) Incident of Chora Chori
Efforts of Lord Reading:

British PM unmoved
Causes Of The Failure Of Khilafat Movement:

1) Failure of Khilafat Delegation:
2) Failure of Hijrat Movement: After Hijrat Movement, the Muslims had to come back to the Sub-continent but now they had lost their hearth and home. They had to face the severe circumstances in the Khilafat movement.
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3) Arrest of Muslim Leaders
4) Gandhis Shrewd Politics: Quaid-e-Azam admonished the Muslims that this movement should not be started but Muslims were not listening to him. Gandhi also joined Muslims in their Khilafat Movement. In fact, he wants to protect the British government and needed autonomy of India through this movement. Therefore, he joined the Khilafat Movement for achieving his coveted plan. Apparently, he was showing that he was sincere to the Muslim cause. 5) Unreliable Hindu Muslim Unity: Non-cooperation movement, Hijrat movement, Moplah revolt and the Chauri Chaura tragedy did a great loss to Muslim properties, wealth and lives. a) Chauri Chaura Incident police opened fire on a mob which then killed 22 policemen, Gandhi announced end to movement b) Mopla Incident Hindus died in Muslims fight against police and it became a communal issue c) Hijrat Movement d) Hindu Movements e.g. Shuddhi, Sangathan
6) Difference of Objects: Gandhi said I claim that with us both, the Khilafat is the central fact. With Maulana Muhammad Ali because it is his religion, with me because in laying down my life for the Khilafat, I ensure safety of the cow that is my religion, from the Musalman knife. 7) Political Jump of Gandhi: After the tragedy of Chauri Chaura, Gandhi left the Khilafat movement saying that he did not like violence. 8) End of Khilafat in Turkey: In 1924, Mustafa Kamal Ata Turk assumed power in Turkey and abolished the institution of Khilafat himself. This act of him really disappointed Muslims. Thus the Khilafat Movement came to an end without achieving its goals. 9) Establishment of K.S.A:
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Results and Effects Of Khilafat Movement:

1) The Credit Side Of Khilafat Movement: It trained Muslims for political action and agitation. It united the extremists and modernists on one platform. They learned that Hindus can never be friends of Muslims. Their differences are too deep-rooted to weed out. The Muslims got acquainted of their political power. It made Muslims politically conscious. It destroyed the myth of Muslims loyalty to the British. 2) Adverse Side Of Khilafat Movement: o Muslims became more interested in national affairs than international one. o Hijrat movement cost millions of rupees and millions of families. o Muslim emotionalism gave nothing to them. Khilafat was abolished not by British but by Turks themselves. o Religious leaders for the time being vanished from political arena.
Conclusion:
Every movement against the British rule left its good as well as bad effects on the people. After Khilafat Movement Muslims of the Sub-continent become united, strong and conscious about their separate identity which led them towards final destination. This was the real credit which Muslims derived from Khilafat Movement.
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Delhi Proposals
Background:
After the failure of Khilafat a wide gap was created between Hindu and Muslim leadership. But once more Muslim and Hindu attempt to give a united front to British Raj Pandit Moti Lal Nehru requested Quaid e Azam that if the Muslim League surrenders its demand for separate electorate, the congress shall accept any other demand.
Salient Features of the Delhi Proposals:

Considering separate electorates to be the main hindrance in improving HinduMuslim relations, Quaid-i-Azam proposed that if the Hindus agreed to provide certain safeguards, the Muslims would give up this demand. Consequently, the proposals were formally approved at a conference held by the Muslims in 1927 at Delhi, and are now called The Delhi-Muslim Proposals. Following are the safeguards that were proposed:

Sindh should be separated from Bombay and made a province. Introduction of reforms in the North West Frontier Province and in Baluchistan on the same footing as in other provinces. Unless and until the above proposals were implemented, the Muslims would never surrender the right of their representation through separate electorates. Muslims would be willing to abandon separate electorates in favour of joint electorates with the reservation of seats fixed in proportion to the population of different communities, if the above two proposals were implemented to the full satisfaction of Muslims and also if the following proposals were accepted. Hindu minorities in Sindh, Baluchistan and the North West Frontier Province be accorded the same concessions in the form of reservation of seats over and above the proportion of their population as Muslims would get in Hindu majority provinces. Muslim representation in the Central Legislature would not be less than onethird (33%). In addition to provisions like religious freedom, there was to be a further guarantee in the constitution that on communal matters no bill or resolution would be considered or passed if three-fourth of the members of the community concerned were opposed to it.
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Reaction to Delhi Proposals:

These proposals were to be accepted or rejected in toto. Muslim Leagues Reaction: In effect, the Muslims agreed to give up the separate electorates in form of the reservation of seats. Sir Muhammad Shafi of Muslim League opposed this proposal. Congress Reaction: Unfortunately, the Congress first accepted but later rejected the proposals. Hindus were stunt on the suggestions. They did not even think that Muslim world withdraw from separate electorate. That was the reason that some Hindu parties started to criticize them. At last, on March 20, 1947 the Hindu members of central assembly presented their points which were not acceptable for the Muslim.
Critical Appreciation:
Delhi Muslim suggestions were a clear-cut proof of the wisdom of the Quaid-eAzam. In these suggestions the interests of Muslims were secure. That was why; Nehru presented his report in August 1928. In reply to that the Quaid-e-Azam
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Nehru Report
Background:
Simon Commission came to India in Feb-March, 1928 from the Britain. All political parties rejected the Simon Commission and its report. Simon commission (No Indians in it). Resentment in India Constitutional Suggestions in Air
Lord Birkenhead, who was British Secretary of State Of India, was very much offended on the treatment extended to the Simon Commission when the Indian political parties rejected the recommendations of the Simon Commission, he declared in the parliament, The Indian are so divided, opposed and fed up of each other that they are unable to provide an unanimously accepted constitution. Nehru considered this statement as an insult offer the political leaders of India and decided to prepare a report comprising of a plan for India.
Nehru Report:
All-Parties Conference was held on 19th May, 1928. During this conference a sevenmember committee under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru was formed to formulate an agreed constitution. The report presented by the committee is known as Nehru Report. Congress Committee Moti Lal Nehru as head, Jawahar Lal Nehru as Secretary, 2 Muslims Nehru Report was presented on 10th August, 1928 and admonished government that if the report was not implemented immediately, Non-cooperation movement would be launched in the whole Sub-continent. The report contained the following recommendations: 1) 2) 3) Full-responsible government on the model of the constitution of selfgoverning dominions to be introduced in the Sub-continent. Ending of Separate Electorate: Separate electorate should be replaced by the joint electorate with the reservation of seats for minorities in proportion to their population. Parliamentary Form of Government (dominion): The foreign affairs defence and army should be placed under the control of the parliament and viceroy.
4) 5) 6) 7)
Separation of Sind from Bombay: Sindh should be separated from Bombay. Status of NWFP and Balochistan: Full provincial status should be given to NWFP and Baluchistan. Demand of Strong Central government. Unitary form of government to be introduced in the centre. Hindi as Lingua Franca: Hindi should be made official language.
Reaction To The Nehru Report:

The Nehru Report shocked the Muslims because it envisaged the establishment of Hindu Raj in the guise of a responsible government. It made the Hindu-Muslim rift final and irrevocable. The anti-Muslim suggestions of Nehru report shattered the Lucknow pact and the Delhi proposal and these anti-Muslim Hindu designs brought the unity among the Jinnah League and the Shafi League. When the report was discussed in the Indian Legislature Assembly, Jinnah and other Muslim leaders rejected it in strong words. 1. Comments of Maulana Shaukat Ali Khan: Maulana Shaukat Ali Khan said:
From my childhood I am fond of keeping hunting dogs and I have never been them treat a rabbit like the Hindus have treated the Muslims in Nehru Report.
2. Comments Of Sir Agha Khan: Sir Agha Khan said that

"Any sensible person cannot think muslim will accept these insulting conditions."
3. Comments Of Quaid-e-Azam: Quaid-e-Azam on 22 December, 1928 at a failure of Calcutta convention and due to stubbornness commented on Nehru report
"From now the paths of Hindu and Muslims are separate."
According to K.K Aziz:

There is a little doubt that the Nehru Report conferred The real power upon the Hindu majority and envisaged a Hindu Raj. At least that was the impression it conveyed to the Muslim mind. The Lucknow Pact had been forgotten. The good old days of the Khilafat Movement were fled never to return. The unity of the Congress-League scheme was buried deep under the debris of communal riots.
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Quaids Amendments:
An All-Party National Conference was held in Calcutta in December, 1928 to consider the Nehru Report. Quaid-e-Azam proposed amendments to the Nehru Report. i) ii) iii) One-Third representation for the Muslims in the central legislature. Muslim presentation in the Bengal and Punjab provinces on the basis of population. Residuary powers be given to the provinces instead of the central government.
All these amendments, proposed by the Quaid-e-Azam when put to vote, were rejected by the Hindu majority.
Conclusion:
With few exceptions League leaders rejected the Nehru proposals. Quaid-e-Azam rejected the Nehru Report altogether and said, The Committee has adopted a narrow minded policy to ruin the political future of the Muslims. I regret to declare that the report is extremely ambiguous and does not deserve to be implemented. Owing to the partiality of the Nehru Report, Quaid-e-Azam presented his celebrated his famous Fourteen Points in 1929 which became the core demands the Muslim community put forward as the price of their participating in an independent united India. Their main objections were:
Separate Electorates and Weightage - the 1916 Congress-Muslim League agreement Lucknow Pact provided these to the Muslim community whereas they were rejected by the Nehru Report; Residuary Powers - the Muslims realized that while they would be a majority in the provinces of the North-East and North-West of India, and hence would control their provincial legislatures, they would always be a minority at the Centre. Thus they demanded, contra the Nehru Report, that residuary powers go to the provinces.
The inability of Congress to concede these points must be considered a major factor in the eventual partition of India. This was the major historical significance of the Nehru Report.
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Fourteen Points Of Quaid-e-Azam

Background:
Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah did his best to bring rapprochement between the Muslim League and the Congress. His efforts bore fruit and the Congress and the Muslim League reached an agreement in the annual session at Lucknow in 1916. In Lucknow Pact, Congress first time conceded the right of separate electorate for Muslims and provided for the provincial autonomy. but the way in which Gandhi withdrew from the Khilafat Movement, opened the eyes of the Muslims. Furthermore, the publication of Nehru Report in which Congress adopted a stubborn attitude and withdrew its acceptance of separate electorate of the Muslims, shocked the Muslim leadership out of its dream of Hindu-Muslim unity. Quaid-e-Azam decided to give his own formula for the constitutional reforms in reply to the Nehru Report. He gave his famous 14 points in the Muslim League session of Delhi in 1929. These points were:
Quaids Fourteen Points:

1) 2) 3) Form of Constitution: The form of the future constitution shall be federal, with the residuary powers vested in provinces. Autonomy for Provinces: A uniform measures for autonomy shall be granted to all provinces. Composition of Legislature: All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the definite principles of adequate and effective representation to minorities in every province without reducing the majority in any province to a minority or even equality. Representation of Communal Groups: shall continue by separate electorates provided that it shall be open to any time to abandon its separate electorate in favour of joint electorate. Muslim Representation The Central Legislature: In the central legislature, Muslim representation shall not be less than 1/3rd. Safeguard for Muslim majority Areas: Any territorial redistribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and NWFP. Separation of Sindh from Bombay: Sind should be separated from Bombay.
4)
5) 6)
7)
8) 9)
10)
11)
12) 13)
14)
Introduction of reforms in NWFP and Balochistan: Reforms should be introduced in the province of NWFP and Baluchistan. Full Religious Liberty: that is, the liberty of belief, worship and observance, propaganda, association and education shall be granted to all the communities. Approval of Any Resolution: No bill or resolution or any part thereof shall be passed in any legislature or any other elected body if 3/4th of the members of any community oppose it as being injurious to the interests of that community. Provisions for Muslims: Provision should be made in the constitution giving Muslims an adequate share along with other Indians in the services of the State and other local self-governing bodied having due regard to the requirements of efficiencies. Composition of Cabinet: No cabinet either central or provincial should be formed without having 1/3rd Muslim ministries. Safeguard for Muslim Community: The constitution embody adequate safeguard for the protection of Muslim culture, and for the promotion of Muslim religion, education, personal laws and Muslim charitable institutions. Constitution of Indian Federation: No change shall be made in the constitution by the central legislature except with the consent of the states constituting the Indian Federation.
Hindus Reaction:
Hindus rejected the Fourteen Points and considered these against the concept of united Indian although Quaid had not demanded any separate homeland for Muslims.
Muslims Reaction:
The celebrated Fourteen Points of Quaid-e-Azam injected a new life in the frail souls of the Muslims and cleared upon them how they could protect their political, economic, social and cultural rights.
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Importance Of The Points:

There was nothing new in these 14 points. These were the demand that Muslims had been put forward time and time again but These points comprehensibly covered all the problems of the Muslims confronting them in 1929. provided the structure of the constitutional reforms in India. These points contained the germs of Pakistan. On the basis these points it was agrees that the political power and opportunities for development were to be equally divided among the Hindus and the Muslims. Muslims adopted a stiff attitude towards their demands and successfully achieved a separate homeland under the able guidance of the great Quaid.
These points not only protected the political rights of the Muslims, but also

Comparison Between The Nehru Report And The Fourteen Points Of Quaid:
i) Quaids Fourteen Points There should be a federal form of government in India. Nehru Report There should be a unitary form of government in India. Quaids Fourteen Points There should be full provincial autonomy in India. Nehru Report There should be a dominion status in India. Quaids Fourteen Points Quaids 14 points gave a concept of separate electorate for all communities of India. Nehru Report Nehru Report gave a concept of joint electorate for all communities in India. Quaids Fourteen Points Sindh should be separated from Bombay. Nehru Report Sindh should not be separated from Bombay.
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Quaids Fourteen Points The issue of language was not discussed language in 14 points. Nehru Report Hindi should be made an official. Quaids Fourteen Points Quaids points were the solution of the whole Indian communities. Nehru Report Nehru Report was based on narrow mindedness and protected only Hindu interests. Quaids Fourteen Points Central Legislature should not make any legislation without the prior permission of any other unit of federation. Nehru Report There was no such thing in the Nehru Report. Congress considered itself the only representating body of the whole India. It did not want division of India and favoured joint electorate in place of a separate electorate.
vi)
vii)
viii) Quaids Fourteen Points Quaids 14 points suggested the establishment of a state in which Muslim culture, civilization and religion should be protected. Nehru Report While Nehru report wanted to occupy the whole India. ix) Quaids Fourteen Points Inclusions of Muslims in the cabinet Nehru Report Against the inclusion of Muslims in the cabinet Quaids Fourteen Points 1/3rd Representation in central government for Muslims Nehru Report 1/4th representation for Muslim in central government Quaids Fourteen Points Obsessed with communal issues. Nehru Report Obsessed with rule of majority.
x)
xi)
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Round Table Conferences

The Indian political community received the Simon Commission Report issued in June 1930 with great resentment. Different political parties gave vent to their feelings in different ways. The Congress started a Civil Disobedience Movement under Gandhis command. The Muslims reserved their opinion on the Simon Report declaring that the report was not final and the matters should decide after consultations with the leaders representing all communities in India. The Indian political situation seemed deadlocked. The British government refused to contemplate any form of self-government for the people of India. This caused frustration amongst the masses, who often expressed their anger in violent clashes. The Labor Government returned to power in Britain in 1931, and a glimmer of hope ran through Indian hearts. Labor leaders had always been sympathetic to the Indian cause. The government decided to hold a Round Table Conference in London to consider new constitutional reforms. All Indian politicians; Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and Christians were summoned to London for the conference. Gandhi immediately insisted at the conference that he alone spoke for all Indians, and that the Congress was the party of the people of India. He argued that the other parties only represented sectarian viewpoints, with little or no significant following.
First Round Table Conference

The first session of the conference opened in London on November 12, 1930. All parties were present except for the Congress, whose leaders were in jail due to the Civil Disobedience Movement. Congress leaders stated that they would have nothing to do with further constitutional discussion unless the Nehru Report was enforced in its entirety as the constitution of India. Almost 89 members attended the conference, out of which 58 were chosen from various communities and interests in British India, and the rest from princely states and other political parties. The prominent among the Muslim delegates invited by the British government were Sir Aga Khan, Quaid-i-Azam, Maulana Muhammad Ali Jouhar, Sir Muhammad Shafi and Maulvi Fazl-i-Haq. Sir Taj Bahadur Sapru, Mr. Jaikar and Dr. Moonje were outstanding amongst the Hindu leaders. The Muslim-Hindu differences over casted the conference as the Hindus were pushing for a powerful central government while the Muslims stood for a loose
federation of completely autonomous provinces. The Muslims demanded maintenance of weightage and separate electorates, the Hindus their abolition. The Muslims claimed statutory majority in Punjab and Bengal, while Hindus resisted their imposition. In Punjab, the situation was complicated by inflated Sikh claims. Eight subcommittees were set up to deal with the details. These committees dealt with the federal structure, provincial constitution, franchise, Sindh, the North West Frontier Province, defence services and minorities. The conference broke up on January 19, 1931, and what emerged from it was a general agreement to write safeguards for minorities into the constitution and a vague desire to devise a federal system for the country.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact
After the conclusion of the First Round Table Conference, the British government realized that the cooperation of the Indian National Congress was necessary for further advancement in the making of the Indian constitution. Thus, Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, extended an invitation to Gandhi for talks. Gandhi agreed to end the Civil Disobedience Movement without laying down any preconditions. The agreement between Gandhi and Irwin was signed on March 5, 1931. Following are the salient points of this agreement

The Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement. The Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference. The Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the Congress. The Government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to offenses not involving violence. The Government would release all persons undergoing sentences of imprisonment for their activities in the civil disobedience movement.
The pact shows that the British Government was anxious to bring the Congress to the conference table.
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Second Round Table Conference

The second session opened on September 7, 1931. There were three major differences between the first and second Round Table Conferences. By the second:
Congress Representation The Gandhi-Irwin Pact opened the way for Congress participation in this conference. Mahatma Gandhi was invited from India and attended as the sole official Congress representative accompanied by Sarojini Naidu and also Madan Mohan Malaviya, Ghanshyam Das Birla, Muhammad Iqbal, Sir Mirza Ismail Diwan of Mysore, S.K. Dutta and Sir Syed Ali Imam. Gandhi claimed that the Congress alone represented political India; that the Untouchables were Hindus and should not be treated as a minority; and that there should be no separate electorates or special safeguards for Muslims or other minorities. These claims were rejected by the other Indian participants. According to this pact, Gandhi was asked to call off the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) and if he did so the prisoners of the British government would be freed excepting the criminal prisoners, i.e. those who had killed British officials. He returned to India, disappointed with the results and empty-handed. National Government two weeks earlier the Labour government in London had fallen. Ramsay MacDonald now headed a National Government dominated by the Conservative Party. Financial Crisis During the conference, Britain went off the Gold Standard further distracting the National Government.
The main task of the conference was done through the two committees on federal structure and minorities. Gandhi was a member of both but he adopted a very unreasonable attitude. He claimed that he represented all India and dismissed all other Indian delegates as non-representative because they did not belong to the Congress. The communal problem represented the most difficult issue for the delegates. Gandhi again tabled the Congress scheme for a settlement, a mere reproduction of the Nehru Report, but all the minorities rejected it. As a counter to the Congress scheme, the Muslims, the depressed classes, the Indian Christians, the Anglo-Indians, and the Europeans presented a joint statement of claims which they said must stand as an interdependent whole. As their main demands were not acceptable to Gandhi, the communal issue was postponed for future discussion. Three important committees drafted their reports; The Franchise Committee, The Federal Finance Committee and States Inquiry Committee.
On the concluding day, the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald appealed to the Indian leaders to reach a communal settlement. Failing to do so, he said, would force the British government would take a unilateral decision. Quaid-i-Azam did not participate in the session of the Second Round Table Conference as he had decided to keep himself aloof from the Indian politics and to practice as a professional lawyer in England. On his return to India, Gandhi once again started Civil Disobedience Movement and was duly arrested.
Communal Award 1932:

According to this accord the minorities were given the right of separate electorate in India and Muslim majority in Punjab and Bengal was transformed into minority. Both the major parties did not accept the award and condemned the real nature of the Round Table Conference.
Poona Pact 1932

Poona Pact, (Sept. 24, 1932), agreement between Hindu leaders in India granting new rights to untouchables (low-caste Hindu groups). The pact, signed at Poona (now Pune, Maharashtra), resulted from the communal award of Aug. 4, 1932, made by the British government on the failure of the India parties to agree, which allotted seats in the various legislatures of India to the different communities. Mahatma Gandhi objected to the provision of separate electorates for the Scheduled (formerly untouchable) Castes, which in his view separated them from the whole Hindu community. Though in prison, Gandhi announced a fast unto death, which he began on September 18. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, the untouchable leader, who felt that his groups special interests might be advanced by the governments system, resisted concessions until Gandhi was near death. He and the Hindu leaders then agreed to the pact, which withdrew separate electorates but gave increased representation to the Scheduled Castes for a 10-year period. Ambedkar complained of blackmail, but the pact marked the start of movement against untouchability within the Indian nationalist movement.
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Third Round Table Conference

The third session began on November 17, 1932. It was short and unimportant. Only forty-six delegates attended since most of the main political figures of India were not present. The Congress was once again absent, so was the Labour opposition in the British Parliament. Reports of the various committees were scrutinized. The conference ended on December 25, 1932. In this conference, Chaudhary Rahmat Ali, a college student, coined the name "Pakistan" (which means "land of pureness") as the name for the Muslim part of partitioned India. Jinnah did not attend it. From September 1931 until March 1933, under the supervision of Samuel Hoare, the proposed reforms took the form reflected in the Government of India Act 1935.
Impacts:
These conferences were arranged to have a amicable solution for the political problems of the Sub-continent but these conferences badly failed to achieve their desired object. After all, Sectarian tensions were augmented. Gandhi declined to accept the Muslims as a Nation Main reasons of the failure of these conferences were Gandhis narrowmindedness and Enmity towards Muslims. No fruitful coalition on any constitutional formula was flourished. Right of separate electorates for Muslims remained unaffected. Reforms regarding separation of Sindh from Bombay were presented which were later accepted in Government of India Act 1935.
Conclusion:
From Muslim point of view, the Round Table Conferences were totally fruitless. In his address to the students of the Aligarh University in 1938, Quaid said: I received the shock of my life at the meetings of the round Table Conference. In the face of danger, the Hindu sentiment, the Hindu mind, the Hindu attitude led me to the conclusion that there was no hope of unity. I was very pessimist about my country. The position was most unfortunate. The Muslims were like the dwellers in No Mans Land; they were led by either the flunkeys of the British Government or the camp followers of the Congress.
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Allama Iqbals Presidential Address December 1930

Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal ranks amongst the Muslim intellectuals who left a deep impact on history. He inspired Muslims of the Sub-Continent and beyond. He infused a moving spirit and identity in the Indian Muslims. He presented a framework of their political future and talked how that would help to achieve the goal of Ummah. He presented a vision and dream in his Allahabad Address.
Background:
The Hindu-Muslim question had great importance and stood crucial to British Indian history after 1857, especially in the 20th century. To Muslims, the key issue remained separate identity. They tried their level best to make the rival nations understand that the Muslims are a separate nation having different culture and civilization, interests and rights. The Two Nations theory could not fascinate the Hindus and the British peoples because they believed in territorial nationalism. The Hindus desired to absorb them in their majority but they could not face the arguments of the Muslim intellectuals. By 1930, Muslims had developed a sense of identity and political demands. Iqbal delivered his Presidential address in this background. Iqbals stay in Europe, 1905-08, helped to crystallize his thoughts. He returned to India in 1908 and started work on the roots of Muslim decline and the mechanism to uplift the Muslims. He reminded them to follow the teachings of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) practically as the ideal leader. He emphasized on the ideals, teachings and principles of Islam. He sought salvation through Islam. He was awarded with many prominent social positions: Title of Sir was conferred in 1922 Member Punjab Legislative Council (1927-1930)
He delivered lectures on Islam in Aligarh, Hyderabad and Madras (1928-29). At Allahabad, he presided over the meeting and delivered his famous address.
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The Address, December 1930:

Iqbal presented a review of the political and social situation of India and solution of the ills befalling India. He evaluated the importance of role of Islam in the lives of Muslims of British India. He said that the European view of duality of religion and state does not apply here in the Indian society. Rejecting the secularism he said, religion is not a totally personal affair. He explained that Islam offers an ethical order, socio-political structure, legal framework, code of life, culture and civilization. It is a living, dynamic force that has a profound impact on the lives of Indian Muslims. With the force of Islam the scattered and disoriented people have been turned into an organized force. The Muslims are not willing to submerge their religious individuality. They have lack of trust, fear of domination from Hindus. If the British want any sort of internal harmony it would be impossible unless the communal question is settled. Its historical reality that India is a continent inhabited by diverse people. No political arrangement may be acceptable without recognizing this reality. 1. Islam Is A Living Power:
2. Complete Code of Life: He mentioned that Islam was not simply the name of a few creeds,the oral recognization of which would make our ideal Muslim.It had given its followers,the concept of a particular and unique political society which covered all the phases of their life. 3. Concept of Islamic Nationality: Allama Iqbal explained in his address that Islam was the major formative factor in the life history of Indian Muslims. It furnished those basic emotions and loyalties which gradually unify scattered individuals and groups and finally transform them into a welldefined people, possessing a moral consciousness of their own.
4. Protection of Islamic Values: If the Muslims have an opportunity to develop in accordance with their Islamic civilization and tradition, they would be willing to sacrifice their lives for India.
5. Separate Recognition of Muslims: lqbal made it clear,
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India is not a country, it is a Sub-continent of human beings belonging to different languages and practicing different religions. Muslim nation has its own religious and cultural identity. 6. Idea of Single Nation is Impractical: In March, 1909 when lqbal was asked to address a meeting by Raj Amritsar, he refused the single Nation theory and said, I remained the supporter of this idea but now I am of the view that preservation of separate nationhood is useful for Hindus and Muslims birth. To have the concept of single nation in India is no doubt poetic and beautiful but impractical regarding present circumstances. 7. Two Nation Theory: Iqbal said explaining the two nation theory. Despite living together for 1000 years, Hindus and Muslims have their own individual ideologies so the only solution of political conflict in India is to have a separate independent parliament for each nation. 8. Demand of Separate Country: Allama Iqbal said in his Allahabad Address: I would like to see the Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, Sindh and Balochistan amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim state appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India. 9. Condemnation of Western Democratic Concepts: lqbal was strongly against the western concept of Democracy. Despite flourishing all over the world, this system cannot provide solution of the problem of Islamic world. Iqbal was of the view that all social and political problems can be solved with the help of Islamic system. He said, Western democracy is devoid of depth, it has merely an attractive outlook. 10. Solution of Constitutional Reforms: Talking about the solution of constitutional problems of India Iqbal said a) Sindh should be separated from Bombay and made a province b) Reforms should be introduced in NWFP c) They should be given representation in separate electorates in Punjab and Bengal in such a way that their majority should not be reduced to minority
d) 1/3 Representation should be given to Muslim in Centre. 11. Necessity of Muslim Unity:
12. Islam Guarantee of Success:
13. Eradication of Racial & Regional; Prejudices: Once lqbal said, Concept of nation and homeland is confusing the Muslims. That is why Islamic humane objects are becoming dim. It is also possible that these concepts may destroy the real concepts of Islam. 14. Islamic Is Not Separate From Politics: Iqbal was in the favour of basic Islamic concept that politics is a part of religion and religion specially Islam provides complete guidance about it, Islam does not consider matter and soul separate from each other. Allah, Universe worship and state all are the basic elements of single unit. Man is not so alien that he should leave worldly affairs for the sake of religion.
Reaction of The Hindus:

The Hindus and the British criticized a lot on Iqbals address. A Hindu Newspaper Partab in its Editorial Note titled it as the dream of a Ferocious Muslim of North-west Hindustan. They also called it a cabal of Pan Islamism and said that Muslims after establishing state in North-West of India want to occupy on sub-continent by joining hands with Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey. They also said that this was an illegal solution and could not be practiced in the sub-continent.
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Importance:
Iqbals address is a forceful and logical presentation of the Muslim case in India. Why should they be treated as a political entity rather than a minority? Two Nation Theory: Allama Iqbal defined the Muslims of India as a nation and suggested that there could be no possibility of peace in the country unless and until they were recognized as a nation and under a federal system the Muslim majority units were given the same privileges which were to be given to the Hindu majority units. It was the only way in which both the Muslims and the Hindus could prosper in accordance with their respective cultural values. Importance of Islam: In difficult times, Islam has saved the Muslims. Our faith, culture and historical traditions are more important than patriotism. Territorial adjustments will enable the Muslims to develop themselves in accordance with their ideals and serve the cause of Ummah. Redistribution of territory developed later on concept of Muslim homeland. Letters to Jinnah: He further expressed these ideas in LETTERS TO JINNAH from May 1936 to November 1937. He talked of a separate federation of Muslim provinces. The North Western India and Bengal can be considered as entitled to self-determination like other nations in India and outside. Shariahs development is impossible without a free Muslim state or states. He advised the Muslims to be above self-interest and devote themselves to Islam Ideological base of Pakistan: The greatest historical significance of Allama Iqbals Allahabad address was that it washed all political confusions from the minds of the Muslims thus enabling them to determine their new destination. This national spirit which Iqbal fused among the Muslims of India later on developed into an ideological base of Pakistan. Unity and
Analysis:
It is on his Allahabad adress that Allama Iqbal is known as the dreamer of Pakistan.His address proved to be a milestone in the history of the Sub Continent and the creation of Pakistan. After influencing from his presidential address later on Ch. Rehmat Ali presented the Idea of Pakistan including the areas of Punjab, Sindh, NWFP, Balochistan and Kashmir
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The Government of India Act, 1935

Background:
The Act of 1919 did not make important changes at the Centre. The Indians felt that that the Reforms of 1919 had not given them enough powers and they were dissatisfied with them. The Rowlett Act, the Jullianwala Bagh Tragedy, Martial Law and other sad happenings added to the resentment and bitterness of the people. The major Indian parties and influential sections of people in the country boycotted the Simon Commission. The recommendations of the Round Table Conferences were contained in a white paper which was published in 1933 and discussed in the parliament.
The Government of India Act, 1935:

A committee was set up under the chairmanship of Lord Linlithgow, the Viceroy of India, to consider the recommendations of the white paper. The report of the committee was published in 1934 which was contained in a Bill of Law. The report along with the Bill was presented in the British Parliament for approval. The Parliament passed the Bill which after the Royal assent on 24th July 1935 was enforced in the country as Government of India Act, 1935.
Salient Features of Act of 1935:

It was the most important and most comprehensive legislation introduced by the British Government in India. The Act contained 14 parts and 10 schedules and consisted of two parts. Part I pertained to provincial subjects while Part II contained federal list of subjects. The Act came into operation on 1st April, 1937 except part II which could not be enforced until a specific number of Princely States acceded to the Indian Federation.
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a) Provincial Reforms
The provincial reforms were as follows. The provinces were given more authority and powers and for the first time the provinces were made the separate entities. The system of Diarchy was scrapped in the provinces and introduced in the centre. Three lists of subjects were drawn up which were a) The Federal List b) The Provincial List c) The Concurrent List The provincial legislatures were given powers of legislation on provincial and concurrent subjects. The provincial executive was handed over to the representatives of the people who were accountable before the provincial legislatures. The country was divided into 11 provinces. Responsible parliamentary system was introduced in the provinces. The provinces were given complete autonomy. The Ministers were to be chosen from the representatives of the people. Every province was given a council of ministers whose advice was binding on the Governor. However, in the discharge of his responsibilities the Governor was to act under the general control of the Governor-General. Special powers were given to the governors for the protection of the rights of the minorities. i) Federal Part of the Act The main provisions of the Federal part of the Act were as follows: The Act proposed to give a federal form to the Indian Constitution. The proposed Federal Legislature was a bicameral body consisting of the Council of States (Upper House) and The Federal Assembly (Lower House). For the Council of State direct election was proposed. The Cabinet of Ministers must also be represented by the important minority communities. The Council of State was to consist of 260 members, out of these 104 nominated by the rulers were to represent the Indian States, 6 were to be nominated by the Governor-General and 150 were to be elected. The Council of State was a permanent body and its members were to be chosen for nine years, one-third retiring every three years. The Federal Assembly was to consist of 375 members, out of these, 250 members were to be representatives of British India and 125 of the Indian
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States. Its life was fixed at five years, unless dissolved earlier by the Governor-General. Diarchy was to be introduced at the Centre. The Federal subjects were to be divided into two parts Reserved (Governed by the Governor-General) and Transferred (Controlled by ministers responsible to the Legislature). Communal electorate were to be continued and allocation of seats was to be proposed. Governor-General was given the special powers of issuing ordinance and suspension of constitution if time demanded. Defence, Finance and Foreign Affairs departments were kept reserved to be administered by Governor-General with the advice of three advisors to be appointed by the Governor-General and responsible to him and not to the legislature. The division of legislative power is essential in a Federation. A Federal Court of India was to be established.
An Appraisal of the Act of 1935: The Act of 1935 failed to satisfy various political sections of the country. The political leaders of India rejected it for it did not meet the demands of the different political factions. Quaid-e-Azam described it as thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad and totally unacceptable. Rajgopalacharia, too, declared it as worst than the system of Dyarchy. Nehru condemned it as a new chapter of slavery. The Federal System introduced by the Act of 1935 was defective in many ways. There was no guarantee of individual liberties neither it could give a workable dominion status. The people were not given their rights. All authority was vested in the Parliament which was under British influence. The system of Dyarchy which had failed in the provinces was introduced in the Centre without any prospective results. Vast authority was given to the Governors in the provinces and to the Viceroy in the Centre which was against the principle of democracy and provincial autonomy. The Minister of State could interfere in the Government services without any reason. The Central part of the Act could not be enforced and was suspended for some time. However, the provincial part of the Act was enforced on 1st April 1937, under which the elections were to be held in the country.
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Drawbacks Of The Act / Critical Analysis:

The federal system which was introduced by the Act of 1935 was defective in many ways: i) ii) iii) iv) v) There was no guarantee to the individual liberties neither it could give a workable dominion status. The people were not given their rights. The system of diarchy which had failed in the provinces was introduced in the centre without any perspective results. All authority was vested in the Parliament which was under the British influence. Vast authority was given to the Governors in the provinces and to the Viceroy in the centre which was against the principles of democracy and provincial autonomy. The Ministers of State could interfere in the Government services without any reason.
vi)
Conclusion:
The Act of 1935 failed to satisfy various sections of the country. The political leaders of India rejected it as it could not meet the demands of different political factions. Quaid-e-Azam called it as a defective document. Rajagopalachari, too, considered it as worse than the system of diarchy.
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Government of India Act, 1935 Implementation:

The Government of India Act, 1935 was not fully promulgated but the only provincial part was introduced in the country. Muslim League and the Congress criticized it but agreed to contest provincial elections.
The 1937 Elections:

The elections of 1937 were held with the restricted franchise and separate electorate. The Congress projected itself as an all-India force representing all religions and factions of the society. The Muslim League contested for the Muslim seats. There was a tough competition from the other Muslim organizations. The elections were completed in February 1937. The Congress got majorities in five provinces, Madras, U.P., C.P., Bihar, and Orissa. It emerged as the largest party in Bombay and won 704 out of 1585 general seats. The Muslim League performed poorly in the elections and got only about 21 percent of Muslim seats without winning majority anywhere, Bengal, Punjab, NWFP, and Sindh. It was mostly due to the organizational problems and opposition by local Muslim groups.
Anti-Muslim Policies of the Congress Governments:

First all Congress governments in the provinces launched anti-Muslim drive basically to exclude the Muslim League and other Muslim organizations from the government making process. With the installation of Congress ministries the Hindus came out to impose Hindu nationalism on the Muslims. Following were the attitude and policies of the Congress ministries towards Muslims.
1. Formation of Provincial Governments: In July 1937, Congress formed governments in 6 provinces. In NWFP, Khudai Khidmatgar and Congress formed a coalition government. In the Muslim majority provinces, the Muslim League could not form the governments. The Muslim League desired to be in government in the U.P. but the Congress consented to a conditional support:
a) Dissolve AIML Parliamentary Board b) AIML members not to function as a separate group c) AIML members to express allegiance to the Congress Definitely the above-mentioned terms were a device to subvert the existence of the Muslim League. Therefore, no agreement was possible on this issue.
2. Muslim Mass Contact Campaign: The Congress started a Muslim mass contact campaign. The main objective of this campaign was to crush the popularity of the Muslim League amongst the Muslims. It was Nehrus imagination to destroy the image of Muslim League as the only representative party of the Muslims. The campaign began by directly contacting the Muslim masses with a view to win them over to the Congress. The Congress ministries adopted overall negative and cruel attitude, especially towards the Muslim activists. This unjust treatment compelled the Muslims to be disciplined in every sphere of life.
3. Hoisting of Three-Coloured Flag The Congress, after taking over the government in the provinces, immediately ordered the hoisting of three-coloured flag with the British Union Jack to prove that there were only two powers in India which were the British and the Congress.
4. Interference In Judiciary:
5. Interference In Executive:
6. Bande Matram: In order to strengthen the Hindu nationalism, Bande Matram was adopted as a national anthem and was to be recited before the start of official business every day.
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7. Wardha Scheme: The Wardha Scheme was the outcome of Gandhis philosophy. It preached the Hindu nationalism and principles of non-violence. It aimed to develop a high respect among the young minds about the Hindu heroes and religious leaders.
8. Widdia Mander Scheme: Another attempt was made to erase the Muslim culture by introducing a new educational system. The educational policy was known as Widdia Mander Scheme and meant to convert the non-Hindus to Hinduism. It was introduced in all educational institutions. Under this scheme the students were asked to pay respect and homage to Gandhis picture every day in their assemblies in the schools. The students were asked to bow before Gandhis picture and sing hymns in his praise. Dr. Zakir Hussain, a Congress Muslim, was the author of this scheme. The Wardha and Widdia Mander schemes sought to isolate the young generation of the Muslims from their religion, culture and civilization.
9. Language Problem:
10.
Ecomoic Poverty of The Muslims
11. Interference In Religion
12. The Issue of Cow Slaughtering
13. Social Pressure
14. Morti Pooja (Statute Worship)

15. Hindu-Muslim Riots The Hindu-Muslim riots were usual during the Congress rule. Organized attempts were made on the honour, property and lives of the Muslims by indulging in the communal and religious feuds. The Hindus were free to assault the innocent Muslims in any area. The Muslim houses and property were set on fire and their women and children abducted. Muslim massacre and plundering of their localities were the scenes of the day.
Muslims Response To Congress Government:

The Muslims were well aware of the theocratic inclination of the Hindu people. They arranged a close monitoring of the government. They publicized their policies and raised the issues. The mobilization of Muslims on these matters required keen probe to collect the original facts of the Hindu atrocities.
1) The Pirpur Report: On March 28, 1938, the Council of Muslim League appointed an eight-member committee under the presidentship of Raja Syed Muhammad Mehdi of Pirpur that presented its report on, November 15, 1938. It tried to dig out the cruelties of the Congress ministries in seven provinces. The report took up the Congress support to the rival Muslim organizations, intimidation and threats to the pro-Muslim League people.
2) The Sharif Report, March 1939: The ML deputed Mr. Sharif with members to investigate the injustices under the dictatorial rule of the Hindus. This report mainly collected the facts, concentrating on ill treatment of the government with the Muslims in Bihar.
3) The Fazl-ul- Haq Report: (December 1939): A. K. Fazl-ul-Haq published a pamphlet entitled Muslim Sufferings Under the Rule of Congress and made many alarming revelations e.g. forbidding of Azan, attacks in mosques, noisy processions of the Hindu scoundrels, forbidding of the cow-slaughter etc. This pamphlet responded the indictments by the Congress on the Muslims.
All the reports described the Congress government as an attempt to create Hindu Raj that wanted to overwhelm the Muslim culture and their identity. It was a rigorous threat to the Muslims interests.
4) Muslim League Activism: The Muslim League highlighted the issues and mobilized the Muslims to counter them adequately. It reorganized the Muslim community to cope with the situation. The Muslim League arranged its session at Lucknow in October 1937. Many prominent leaders like Fazl-ul-Haq participated in the session while Sikander Hayat and Saadullah announced their support to the Muslim League. The Muslim leaders shed a sharp criticism on the Congress policies. They protested against the reduction of status of Urdu and other Muslim related issues. They created realization, amongst the Muslims, of what can happen under the Congress rule and urged for serious thinking about the future political and constitutional arrangements. They unearthed the real objectives of the Congress and urged the need of unity among the Muslims under the banner of Muslim League.
5) End of the Congress Rule: The Second World War began in 1939. Britain declared war against Germany. The government appealed to all political parties for help and assistance in this hour of need. Congress convened its meeting to consider Governments appeal and put the following conditions for assistance in war: 1. The British Government should explain the objective of the war. 2. The Government should announce that the elected legislature would draft the constitution of India. 3. The members of the Viceroys Executive Council should be those only who enjoy the support of the Central Assembly. The acceptance of these demands would have meant the transfer of power to the Congress as these demands clearly showed that the Congress was asking for the right of constitution making. The government could not accede to these demands as it wanted to pacify both Congress and the Muslim League. Viceroy declared that due consideration would be given to the point of view of every party and that dominion status would be given to India after the war. The Congress did not believe the promises of the government. The Congress leaders expressed their utter disappointment on the decision of the government. The
Congress with a view of putting more pressure on the government refused to extend co-operation to government in the war activities and announced to resign from the ministries. The Congress High Command asked its ministers to tender resignations in protest against the decision of the government. In November, 1939 the Congress ministries resigned from their office. The poor Muslim population took a sigh of relief as they have been relieved of the most tyrannical and oppressive rule of the Congress.
6) Day of Deliverance: With the resignation of the Congress ministries the Muslims of India were relieved of the most dreadful domination of the Congress and Hindu majority. The two and half years of the Congress rule was a bitter and painful experience for the Muslims of India who had seen the real Hindu mentality. The Quaid-e-Azam appealed to the people to observe the Day of Deliverance on 22nd December, 1939. The Muslims of India, in accordance with the appeal of the Quaid-e-Azam celebrated the day with happiness. Public meetings were held and thanksgiving prayers were offered in token of relief from the tyranny, oppression and high-handedness of the Congress regime. The Muslim League redefined its position during the World War II. They expressed their enthusiasm that no constitution to be enforced without the consent of the Muslims. They eradicated their organizational weaknesses and refined their objectives keeping the experiences of the Congress ministries.
Effects of Congress Raj:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Unity and Oneness of Muslims Discernible Of Hindu Narrow-mindedness Demand of Separate State Increase in Muslim Leagues Fame End of Unified Nationalism
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The experience of Congress Rule compelled the Muslims to launch the movement for separate homeland. The Hindus made them realize that Hindu government would mean an anti-Muslim rule in India. The Muslims disappointment from the Congress leadership decided to open a new phase of history. Quaid-e-Azams article in Time and Tide concluded that Muslims are a nation. No Constitution can be enforced by ignoring Muslims. His comments on March 13, 1940 are remarkable:
If some satisfactory settlement cannot be found for Muslims in united India, the Muslim will have to demand for division of the country.
The Lahore Resolution:

The Muslim League held its 27th annual session at Lahore (Minto Park) on 22-24 March 1940. The Lahore Resolution was moved by Maulvi Fazlul Haq and seconded by Ch. Khaliquzzaman that finally approved on March 24, 1940. Jinnah rightly expressed his valuable remarks about the political circumstances of India and the Muslims stand. On 21st March, 1940, the working committee of the Muslim League appointed a committee to draft the famous Lahore Resolution. On 22nd March, 1940, the committee submitted the resolution. Next day, on 23rd March, 1940, Fazl-ul-Haq, the premier of Bengal, moved the resolution which was seconded by Chaudary Khaliq-u-Zaman and supported by sir Zafar Ali Khan, Nawab Ismail Khan and others. He said:
Indian problem is not communal but international. No Constitution can work without recognizing this reality. Muslims of India will not accept a constitution that establishes a government of the Hindu majority on them. If Hindus and Muslims are placed under one democratic system, this would mean Hindu Raj.
Text of the Resolution:

The Lahore Resolution embodied the demand for a separate Muslim State in these words:
No constitution plan would be workable in this country or acceptable to the Muslims unless it is designed on the following basic principles, namely that the geographically contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted, with such territorial readjustment as may be necessary, that the areas in which the Muslims are in majority as in the North 125 Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam Cell: 03336587420
Western and Eastern Zones of India should be grouped together in independent states in which the constitutional units shall be autonomous and sovereign. Adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards should be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights.
They decided that the Federal system under Government of India Act, 1935 was not acceptable for the Muslims. No revised constitutional plan would be acceptable unless it was framed with their approval and consent. Adjacent units where Muslims are in a majority, as in Northwest and East, should be constituted as Independent States where the constituent units will be autonomous and sovereign. Protection of minorities would be given priority.
Reaction of Muslims to the Pakistan Resolution:

The Muslims responded to the Resolution with amazement and hope for better future. They gathered under the dynamic leadership of Quaid-e-Azam who gave meaning and shape to their quest for independence. With the passage of Pakistan Resolution the Muslims began to acquire new hope and confidence in their destiny. The Resolution infused high spirits among the Muslims who were now determined to fight to the last end for the accomplishment of Pakistan. The Muslims were convinced that there was no other solution of the Indian problems except the creation of two separate and sovereign states of Hindustan and Pakistan. They demanded Pakistan because they were not accepted by the Hindus to live with them in peace in spite of their efforts and wishes. The Muslims were tormented by the fear that being Muslims they would not be acceptable to Hindu majority in the united India. Pakistan, therefore, was not demanded on the basis of hatred for the Hindus but for the safeguard of the Muslim civilization and culture.
Hindu Reaction to the Pakistan Resolution:

The Hindu reaction to the Pakistan Resolution was hostile. The Hindu leaders condemned it and referred to the partition as vivisection of mother India. The Hindu leaders tried to build up agitation against the partition. Gandhi called it a moral wrong and a sin to which he would never be a party. The Hindu Press came out with the most aggressive propaganda against the resolution and declared it as a conspiracy against the unity of country. They refused it and referred to the partition as "Vivisection of Motherland".
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Mr. Gandhi said that:

I think that Muslims will not accept this partition because their religion will not allow them to commit such kind of suicide
Raj Gopal Achariya said that:

"Dividing India was like dividing a cow between two brothers."
Sardar Patel said that:

Its a dream of a mad man
Quaid-e-Azam warned the Hindus that:

"If the Hindus tried to get the whole of India they would lose the whole, but if they gave one-third to the Muslims they would get two-thirds."
Significance:
1) Clear Determination of The Goal It paved the way for the creation of Pakistan in 1947 as a single state and provided the principles of a constitutional plan for partition of India. Muslims of India instead of seeking alliance with Hindus (one nation theory) now identified themselves with a two nation theory and separate homeland for themselves. The resolution was made part of the All-India Muslim League's constitution in 1941 and based on this in 1946, the Muslim League demanded a separate nation from the British Raj. As Quaid-e-Azam put it in his address:
"Mussalmans (Muslims) came to India as conquerers, traders and preachers and brought with them their own culture and civilization. They reformed and remoulded the sub-continent of India. Today, the hundred million Mussalmans in (British) India represent the largest compact body of Muslim population in any single part of the world. We are civilization, language and literature, art and architecture, names and nomenclature, value and proportion, legal laws and moral code,customs and calendar, history and traditions, aptitude and ambitions, in short we have our distinctive outlookof life and on life. By all canons of international law we are a nation."
According to I.H Qureshi:

The passing of the Lahore Resolution was a historic event in retrospect. At the time when it was passed its significance was not completely app-rehended by many observers. In I India, of-course, there was a hue and cry among the Hindus..In fact, it was the Hindu press which dubbed the Lahore Resolution as a demand for Pakistan.
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Throwing the light on the implications of the Lahore Resolution, Dr. Waheed-uzZaman writes in his book entitled Towards Pakistan.
The Lahore Resolution was inspired by mixed motives in the minds of those who framed it but there can be no reasonable doubt that it was presented as a practical solution of the communal problemThe Resolution was at once subjected to severe criticism by represent-tative Congressmen on various grounds.
2) Autonomy of The States: This Resolution did not specify any demarcation of the territory but it defined the future plan of struggle for the establishment of the Muslims states (later the word states was replaced by state in 1946) in the Northwestern and Eastern areas where the Muslims were in overwhelming majority. It also intended to give importance to the autonomy of the states. There was no use of the word Pakistan but Pakistan was kernel of the Resolution. 3) Unity among Muslims The Muslims responded to the Resolution with amazment and hope for better future.They gather under the dynamic and heroic leadership of Quaid-e-Azam who gave new meaning and shape to their quest for independence.With the passage of Pakistan Resolution the Muslims began to acquire new hope and confidence in their destiny.The Resolution infused a high spirits among the Muslims who were now determined to fight to the last end for the accomplishment of Pakistan.The Muslims were convinced that there was no other solution of the Indian problems except the creation of two independent states of Hindustan and Pakistan. 4) Increase in The Fame of Muslim League
5) Desire to Establish An Islamic State The acceptance of Pakistan Resolution Strengthend the Two-Nation Theory which was the basis of Muslim struggle for independence.The Two-Nation Theory was the manifestation of the principle and philosophy of Muslim nationalism on which the whole Pakistan movement was based.The passage of the Pakistan Resolution gave impetus to the freedom movement.The Pakistan Resolution was a demand for the protection and safeguard of the national identity of the Muslims.
6)
Change in Indian Politics
7) Great Leadership of Quaid-e-Azam

For his position and influence Mr. Gandhis criticism may be considered to be most important. One passage of the article published shortly after the adoption of the Lahore Resolution contained the gist of his comments:
The Two-Nation Theory is an untruth. The vast majority of Muslims of India are converts to Islam or are descendants of converts. They did not make a separate nation, as soon as they become converts. The Bengali Muslim speaks the same tongue that a Bengali Hindu does, eat the same food and has the same amusements as his Hindu neighbour.
However, Quaid-e-Azam defended strongly the Lahore Resolution in the sense that it was the only solution of the communal problem. He said:
The Hindus and the Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs and literatures. They neither intermarry nor interdine together, and indeed they belong to two different civilizations, which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. .. To yoke together two such different nations Into a single state, one as a numerical minority and other as a majority, must lead to the growing dis-content and final destruction of any fabric that be may be so built up for government of such a state.
According To K.K. Aziz:With the adoption of the Pakistan ideal by the Muslim League in 1940, Muslim nationalism had come into its own. It had taken the Muslims three quarters of a century finally to decide what they wanted. They had tried everything; a revolt in 1857, friendship with Britain, opposition to the Congress, extremist agitation, co-operation with the Congress, belligerent neutrality, negotiations, appeals and threats. First as dethroned rulers they resented the overlordship of the British. Then as a weak minority they sought friendship with the governing power. Then for a time they made a common cause with the Hindus and led the Khilafat agitation. Then once again their separatism came to the surface and they fought for communal safeguards. When these safeguards failed to give them the protection they needed or expected the latent nationalism triumphed. The march of history had made a nation of a community. No longer did they eat out their heart in sullen impotence, trusting in the beneficence of the British or the goodwill of the Hindus. To the Congress claim that India was a national state, that it was neither plural nor multinational the Muslims answered with the brand new idea of a separate Muslims nationalism.
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Conclusion:
The Lahore Resolution set an independent Muslim State as the goal for the Muslims of the Sub-continent. Consequently, henceforth in the shape of Pakistan the Muslims had a clear target for their political struggle. This changed strategy worked wonders and the whole Muslim nation gathered under the banner of Muslim-League and within seven years succeeded in achieving an independent Muslim State on 14th August, 1947.
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Cripps Mission Plan

Background:
On March 11, 1942, the British Prime Minister, Sir Winston Churchill made an announcement in the House of Commons that a member of the War Cabinet, Sir Stafford Cripps, would go to India "to satisfy himself upon the spot by personal consultation that the declaration upon which we agreed, and which we believe represents a just and final solution, will achieve its purposes, Sir Stafford Cripps was a socialist. He was instrumental in persuading Russia to fight along with Allies in the Second World War. For his sterling services, he had been taken in the British I Cabinet. He had come to India twice before and was a friend of Jawaharlal Nehru. So it was hoped that some solution of the Indian political problem was in sight. Sir Stafford left for India on March 22. The Cripps' Mission synchronized with the crisis of war in South-East Asia. A pertinent question arises here as to what were those compelling reasons which forced conservative Churchill to send Sir Stafford Cripps to have a dialogue with prominent political leaders of the various political parties. In fact, the following were the reasons due to which Churchill, who was reluctant to concede anything to Indians earlier, change his stand and sent Cripps to India.
Circumstances of Appointment
1. Non-co-operation of the Congress: Though Congress was opposed to Fascism, Nazism and Japanese militarism, yet it had refused to extend its active cooperation in the war efforts to British Government because the British Government had not fulfilled the demands of the Congress. So it was felt in British circles that without giving few rights to Indians, their active cooperation would not be forthcoming. 2. Pressure of Chiang Kaishek: In February 1942, Chiang Kaishek, President of China, visited India and met Mahatma Gandhi. In his farewell speech, he emphasized the need of granting actual political power to Indians. 3. Pressure of Roosevelt: On August 14, 1941, President Roosevelt of U.S.A. and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of U.K. held a historic meeting on a ship in the Atlantic Ocean and issued a Declaration known as 'Atlantic Charter'. The Declaration solemnly pledged to uphold the rights of manliberty, equality and fraternity throughout the world. Indian opinion hailed the Atlantic Charter and urged for a definite statement pledging the British Government to declare India an independent state soon after the war. Churchill, on the other hand, stated that the Atlantic Charter applied only to
Europe and not to Asia or Africa. On the contrary, President Roosevelt clarified that the Atlantic Charter would be applied throughout the world. So there was pressure on Churchill by the American President to resolve the political problem of India at the earliest. Object of the Mission: The British Prime Minister in his statement in the House of Commons on March. 11, 1942 declared the object of the mission of Cripps in these words: "We will strive in their name to procure the necessary measure of assent not only from the Hindu majority but also from those great minorities amongst which the Muslims are most important." It means that Cripps did not come to India as a plenipotentiary to negotiate the terms of an agreement; he came as a British Cabinet Minister just to persuade the Indian leaders to accept the Declaration whose terms were rigid and unalterable in substance. Object of the Declaration: In the preamble of the Declaration it was announced that the object was "the creation of a new Indian Union which shall constitute a Dominion, associated with the United Kingdom and the other Dominions by common allegiance to the Crown, but equal to them in every respect, in no way subordinate in any aspect of its domestic or external affairs." 4. Australian Pressure: The Foreign Secretary of Australia, Mr.-Eratt, in a spirited debate on Indian problem in his Parliament, stressed the need of independence of India so that India might extend full co-operation to British Government in carrying out the war. Danger of Japanese Invasion: The entry of Japan in the war in November 1941, posed a menace to India's eastern frontiers for Japan was fighting against the British and her allies. Japan's phenomenal success in the early stages of the war filled the minds of Indians with the hope that the days of the British imperialism in India were numbered. Japan had overrun Singapore, Malaya, Philippines, Indonesia and Andaman and Nicobar islands. Japanese ships were moving in the Bay of Bengal. By 8th March 1942, Japan had captured Rangoon, the capital of Burma. Now the British Government fully realized the gravity of the situation. Churchill admitted in his autobiography that after the capture of Rangoon it was felt by his colleagues that if India was to be protected properly, every possible effort would have to be made to resolve the political statement in India without any further loss of time. That is why Churchill, after three days of Japanese entry into Rangoon, decided to send Sir Stafford Cripps to India.
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Cripps Mission:
The Britain Government appointed a delegation under the chairmanship of Sir Stafford Cripps, a prominent member of the War Cabinet of England. The Cripps Mission reached New Delhi on March 23, 1942 to hold discussions with the Indian leaders. The Cripps Mission could not hold talks with the Indian leaders and left after a fortnight. The Cripps Mission, however, submitted its own suggestions to the Government in April 1942 for constitutional reforms. a) Post-War Proposals: Important terms of the proposal were as follows: 1. A new Indian Dominion was to be created which would be associated with the British Commonwealth. 2. A Constitution-making Body would be set up immediately after the war. 3. There would be provisions for the participation of Indian States in the Constitution-making Body. 4. The members of the Constitution-making Body were to be elected by an electoral college consisting of the entire membership of the Provincial Legislative Assemblies. 5. If any province did not like to accept the new constitution, it could later retain its existing constitutional position. 6. There would be provision in the constitution for the protection of racial and religious minorities. 7. The Government of India Act 1935 will remain in force until the cessation of war. 8. There would be elections to the Provincial Assemblies at the end of the hostilities. 9. The suggestions are to be accepted or rejected as a whole and there shall be no amendments. 10. The recommendations would be implemented only if both Muslim League and Congress accept them unanimously. b) Immediate Proposals During the War: The second part of the plan was concerned with the, immediate and interim arrangements during the period of the war. It contemplated no change in the existing situation. It was stated in the Declaration that during the period of the war His Majesty's government must inevitably bear the responsibility for and retain the control and direction of the defense of India as part of their world-wide effort; but the task of organizing to the full the military moral and material resources must be the responsibility of the government of India with the cooperation of the people of India. It, therefore, invited the Indian leaders to the counsels of the country, of the Commonwealth, and of the United Nations. Thus, the Draft Declaration implicitly ruled out any major change in the form of the constitution during the war period.
Merit of the Declaration:

The only merit of the Declaration was that self-determination, for the people of India had been accepted in principle. It was conceded Dominion status for a new Indian Union: with the power to secede if it chooses, from the British Commonwealth.
Defects of the Plan:

1. The constitution-making body was so constituted that the people's right to self determination was vitiated by the introduction of non-representative elements. Completely ignoring the 90 millions of people of the Indian states and their treatment as commodities at the disposal of their rulers was a negation-of both democracy and self-determination. The people of the states had no voice in choosing their representatives, nor were they to be consulted at any stage, while decisions vitally affecting them were being taken. 2. The acceptance beforehand of the principle of non-accession for a province was a severe blow to the conception of Indian unity and an apple of discord likely to generate growing trouble in the provinces, and which might well lead to further difficulties in the way of the Indian states merging themselves in the Indian Union. 3. The acceptance of the principle of non-accession would compel substantial. Non-Muslim groups to remain against their wishes in the predominantly Muslim-majority areas. 4. The most serious defect of the plan was that the British government was not prepared to transfer power to India during the war. No vital changes in the existing structure were contemplated.
Reaction of Muslim League:

The scheme was opposed by the Muslim League because the proposals held out the prospects of a single Union of India.
Reaction of Congress:
The Congress rejected the Crippss proposals because he did not give assurance that the Governor-General would act as a constitutional head in case of all the departments except Defence. Moreover, the Congress was opposed to the principle of non-accession of the provinces, because it virtually meant acceptance of the idea of Pakistan.
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Quit India Movement:

The Congress, in order to put more pressure on the Government, launched Quit India Movement against the British Government. The Congress had decided on 8th August 1942, to get independence from the British and to capture political power in India at all cost with a view of stopping the creation of Pakistan. Violent agitation was launched to press the British to quit India. The Quaid-e-Azam considered Quit India Movement as anti-Muslim action of the Congress and declared it as political Blackmailing. The Muslim League, in reply to Quit India slogans by the Congress, demanded Divide India and go. Quaid-e-Azam said,
The Quit India Movement, in fact is a conspiracy to establish Hindu Raj and to finish Muslim demands.
The Government took stern action against Quit India Movement. The prominent leaders of this movement including Gandhi, were arrested and put in jails. The movement lost its momentum and very soon failed.
Causes of Failure:
Gupta points out that three reasons have been given for the failure the Cripps mission: 1) Gandhi's opposition led the Indian National Congress to reject the British offer 2) Cripps' modification of the original British offer, which provided for no real transfer of power 3) The behind-the-scenes efforts of the Viceroy and Secretary of State for India to sabotage the mission. Gupta concludes that documents released in 1970 support the third interpretation. Messages between Viceroy Lord Linlithgow and Secretary of State L. S. S. Amery reveal that both opposed the Cripps Mission and they deliberately undercut Cripps. While the British government utilized the Cripps Mission as evidence of its liberal colonial policy, personal and private correspondence reveals contempt for the mission and elation over its failure. Some other reasons were as under 1. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad has clearly explained the reasons for the failure of the plan in his autobiography, 'India Wins Freedom'. He writes that the reaction of the Congress leaders to the plan was mixed. Gandhiji was against the acceptance of the proposals because of his opposition to war. "In fact," writes Azad, "his judgment of the merits of the proposals was colored by his inherent and unchangeable aversion to anything which might involve India in war." Jawaharlal Nehru was inclined to consider the proposals favorably
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
because he "was deeply troubled by the developments in Europe and Asia, and was anxious concerning the fate of the democracies. There were prolonged negotiations between Cripps and the Congress President, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. From the observations and private conversations of Cripps, Azad was convinced that the British government was not averse to the transformation of the Viceroy's Executive Council into a national government composed of Indian members with the exception of the Defense Member. Although the Congress had many objections to the proposals, they decided to keep the problem of future in abeyance, and having received satisfactory assurance on the formation of the national Government, felt that the only important matter which remained for adjustment related to the office of the Defense Member. National Defense in time of war covered very large ground comprehending or impinging upon every national activity. Therefore, the nontransfer of Defense would leave a very truncated sphere of authority, for the administration of other departments. The Congress which demanded control over the whole field of government could not be satisfied with such attenuated authority. But even on Defense the Congress did not adopt an uncompromising attitude. They went to considerable lengths of concessions in the hope of reaching a positive settlement. They offered to serve under a British Viceroy and to accept a British Commander-in-Chief not only for the control of military operations, but as a member of the Cabinet. But they were told that British power during the war must remain absolute and dictatorial. When they tried to negotiate in order to narrow the margin on disagreement, they were told: "Take it or leave it." The British Cabinet told -Cripps that there could be no surrender of authority of the Viceroy conferred by the Act of 1935. It showed that the assurances that Cripps had given the Maulana Azad were illusory. Naturally, the Congress rejected the proposals. They said in their resolution. "Any proposal concerning the future of India must demand attention and scrutiny, but in todays grave crisis, it is the present that counts and proposals for the future are important in so far as they affect the present." Thus the Cripps' Plan failed because the British government was not prepared to part with even an iota of power during the period of the war.
Critical Analysis Of The Cripps Mission Plan:

Both Congress and Muslim League rejected the Cripps Mission Proposals. Congress, at that time, was not ready to accept anything less than the self-rule. Gandhi rejected it by calling it as post-dated cheque on a failing bank. Muslim League also rejected it because at that time the movement for the establishment of Pakistan had gained momentum and nothing less than Pakistan was acceptable to the Muslims. But in one respect Cripps Plan was very important. It had seeds of Pakistan in its non-accession Clause. According to this clause any province or state could accept the federal constitution or reject it. so there was a wide scope for the autonomy of the Muslim majority areas. But though these proposals did not concede the concept separate Muslim State unequivocally.
Simla Conference
The Viceroy, Lord Wavell, to have a dialogue with the major political parties in 1945, called Simla conference. The following politicians were invited to participate in the Conference at Simla, a summer resort, and capital of the Federal government in the summer season. Congress: Pandit Nerhru, Beldev Singh and Azad Muslim League: Quaid-e-Azam, Liaquat Ali Khan and Abdu Rub Nishter Chief Ministers: All provinces Unionist and other parties representatives
Background:
The Indian National Congress kept on pressurizing the British government to quit India. The failure of Cripps Mission encouraged the Congress leaders. Gandhi was not prepared to tolerate British Raj anymore. His Quit India Movement gained momentum. Gandhi wanted immediate transfer of power to the majority party. He tried to blackmail the government, and gave the boycott call to the workers. Civil disobedience Movement, Quit India Movement, Swedeshi Movement and other methods were used to force the British to quit India. Processions and protest meetings were arranged in all the cities. Gandhi and his party was expecting the defeat of the Allied Forces at the hands of the Japanese, therefore, the Hindus continuously built up the pressure against the government. In all such activities the All India Muslim League was ignored. The expectations of Gandhi were not fulfilled. The Allied Forces gained the ground. The desperate Gandhi changed his tactics and turned toward the Muslim League. Gandhi Jinnah dialogues were arranged. The former wanted to entrap the later. Gandhi was now ready to give some concessions to the Muslims in order to start a joint struggle of the two parties. The Quaid very well understood his mind. He did not agree to enhance the strength of the Ghandian movements. The Quaid did not budge an inch from his demand for Pakistan. The situation demanded some sort of government initiative. So the Viceroy gave his plain in the Simla Conference.
Wavell Plan:
The Vicroy of India Lord Wavell chalked out a plan to settle the political issues with political parties to introduce a frame work order, under which the elections to federal
and provincial legislative assemblies could be conducted for the formation of future government. The plan was a s under:The future constitution will be framed with the consent of all major political parties. An Executive Council will be made and representatives of all major political parties will be included in the Council. The council will consist of six Hindus, five Muslims and one British. The Vicroy will preside over the meetings of the Executive Council. The Commanderin-Chief will be ax-officio member of the Executive Council. All the members of the Council will be nominated by the Viceroy. Provincial Executive Councils will also be organized. Governor of the province will be the Chief of the Council, in each province.
Failure of The Conference:

The conference had to decide the political infrastructure, the formation of assemblies and governments at central as well as provincial level. The move was encouraging for Congress. What so ever was the situation, the Congress was going to form the government on the basis of its majority. Congress joined the conference proceedings with high hopes. It had also declared before holding a conference that it would not accept partition in any case. The meeting started to discuss the first point on agenda. The point related to the nomination of five Muslim ministers of the Vicroys executive Council. The Quaid-eAzam vehemently argued that all the five would be nominate don the recommendations of All India Muslim League. No other party had a right to send even a sin member. The Vicroy and Indian National Congress wished to nominate Maulana Azad as, Muslim minister. The Quaid did not agree to this proposal. Now Vicroy asked the Quaid to accept Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana, the leader of Unionist party. The Quaid-e-Azam rejected this name as well and insisted that all the five ministries should be given to All India Muslim League. The very first point created a fuss and further discussion was futile, therefore, the Simla Conference failed in getting any objective.
Responsibility for Failure:

The Indian National Congress held the Quaid-e-Azam responsible for the failure. Lord Wavell also critized the inflexible attitude of the Quaid-e-Azam. Quaid-e-Azam refuted the blame and disclosed the trap prepared by Lord Wavell and Gandhi to entrap the Mus1ir It was their joint venture. Had Muslim league accepted the plan, it would never have a separate state in the shape of Pakistan.
Conclusion:
Simla Conference was a step to make a possible understanding between the British Govt. and the Indian Political Leaders but the formula of the nomination of Muslim members unwrapped the mentality of lord Wavel and Congress. It was the foresight of the Quaid-e-Azam that rescued the Muslims. On the whole, the Wavel Plan was a symbol of weakness of the British Rulers.
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1945-46 General Elections

General elections were held in the sub-continent in 1945-46. The World War was over and the USA emerged as a super power. It looked forward to get its share from the colonies of UK, and it was asked to hand over the power to the people.
Purpose of Elections
General elections were imperative in the sense that the government intended to know the real political force of every political party. The future of the sub-continent was to be decided in the light of the peoples mandate in the elections. The failure of Simla Confe and it responsibility was the important issue in those days. The elections could clarify the situation, which political party was holding the just stand. To know the peoples mind, the government announced the election schedule. The elections of Federal Assembly and all provincial assemblies were to be held in late 1945 and early 1946, respectively. All political parties welcomed the decision.
Manifestos of Different Parties

Following were the programmes of different parties: Congress: Congress gave the following points as its manifesto: Freedom of India United India (Akhand Bharat) Representation of the Hindi and all the minorities of India Muslim League: Liberation of India from British Rule Partition of India (Achievement of a separate Homeland for the Muslims) Muslim League as the representative of All the Indian Muslims The Muslim League highlighted partition in his manifesto. The Quaid-e-Azam termed the elections as referendum on one issue, and the issue was Pakistan or no Pakistan. He made it clear that the defeat of Muslim League would mean burial of
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the idea of the creation of Pakistan. And if the Muslims supported All India Muslim League, no power on earth would be able to stop the creation of Pakistan.
Election Campaign:
All political parties campaigned during the elections. The two major political parties stood against each other. Congress: Congress wanted to check the intentions of Muslim League at every cost. The leaders traveled from North to South and East to West. Peoples contact campaign went on full swing. Congress compromised with Majlis-e-Jamiat and Unionist Party. A big election alliance of four parties was formed against Muslim League. Muslim League: The Muslim League did not make any compromise with any other party and contested all the important seats single handedly. The elections were a matter of life and death for Muslim League. The Quaid-e-Azam toured throughout the subcontinent and pursued the Muslims to get realized the importance of the elections. The Quaid-e-Azam openly challenged that the Muslim League would prove the demand for Pakistan as the only option left for Muslims. BAN KE RAHE GA PAKISTAN LEY KE RAILIEN GAY PAKISTAN Were the slogans raised by the Muslims in the streets, bazaars, processions and
electoral meetings.
Results of Election
Following were the results of the elections: Federal Assembly: The election of Federal Assembly were held in December, 1945 on the basis of separate electorate. 30 seats were allocated to the Muslims. The Muslims League won
all the seats.
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Provincial Assemblies: The provincial elections were held in January, 1946. The Muslim League defeated its rivals on 434 seats out of 495 Muslim seats. Muslim League came out victorious. The claim of the Quaid- proved true and the absolute majority of the Muslims supported demand for Pakistan. Now no power on earth could stop Pakistan from coming into being.
Conclusion
The results proved that the Muslim League was the sole Muslim political party, and further that the stand of the Quaid in Simla Conference was absolutely just. Now no one could fix responsibility on him for the failure of Simla conference. These lections paved an easy way for the creation of Pakistan
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Cabinet Mission Plan

Background:
When Labour Party came in power in England in 1945, it ordered the holding of the elections in India.. the Lord Panthic Lawrence, the Secretary of State Of India, Sir Stafford Cripps, the President of Board of Trade and Mr. A.V Alexander. The World War-Il was over. In the general elections war hero of the conservative party, Mr. Churchill was defeated and Mr. Attlee succeeded him as Prime Minister in 1945. The victorious Labour Party had made a commitment, in its manifesto, to settle the future of the sub-continent. After that the Labour Government sent the famous Cabinet Mission to India in March, 1946 to bring round all the political parties to an amicable formula for the freedom.
Members of the Cabinet Missions:

The Cabinet Mission consisted of 1. 2. 3. Sir Stafford Cripps - the President of Board of Trade Lord Pathick Lawrence - the Secretary of State Of India A.V. Alexander
The Mission arrived on 24th March, 1946.
Condition Before The Arrival Of The Cabinet Mission:

When the Cabinet Mission came to India, the situation there was very tense. Both Hindus and Muslims were at daggers drawn against each other. Freedom was in sight but there was no clear indication about future of the sub-continent. Hindus wanted that the British should go at once giving Congress the reins of the government without dividing it or giving any part of it to the Muslims. On the other hand, Muslims wanted the establishment of Pakistan, according to the Resolution which they had passed on 23rd March 1940. They wanted the freedom from both the British and the Hindus. Quaid-e-Azam made it clear to the mission that in India there were two-nations not one nation, the Hindus and the Muslims. There is no way other than the partition of India.
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Main Recommendations:
It made the following proposals: 1. Indian Union: The sub-continent will be given the status of a union. The union will consist of main provinces and princely states. a) The system will be federal. b) The centre will deal with Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communications. c) All other departments will be handed over to the provinces. d) All taxes will be levied by the centre. 2. Groups of Provinces: Provinces will be divided into three groups: A) Hindu majority provinces e.g. Bombay, Madras, U.P. Urisas and C.P, Bihar B) Muslim majority provinces in NW - Punjab, Sindh and NWFP C) Bengal and Assam
1) Nature of the federation was unique in which three tiers were to exist, a) Centre, b) Group of Provinces and c) Province Three different organizations at all these three levels would be formed. 2) There will be a legislature and executive comprising representatives of provinces and states. 3) No legislation on communal affairs if the majority of the two communities are not present and voting in favour. 4) One point was quite strange that the powers of central and provincial organizations were specifically mentioned in the Cabinet Mission Plan but the powers of Group of Provinces were not defined. This matter was left to the provincial and group organizations to solve them. 5) The provinces will get representation in the Federal Assembly and Federal Cabinet as per their respective population. 3. Constituent Assembly: CA to be elected by the elected members of the provincial assemblies. The Constituent Assembly will formulate a constitution for the whole sub-continent. After that three provincial groups (General, Muslim, and Sikh on the basis of population in provinces) will frame their respective constitutions. 4. Interim Government: The Interim government will immediately he installed and it will run the system of government till the formation of the constitution. The representatives of major political parties will be included in the interim
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government. No Britisher will be the minister. The cabinet will be powerful in administrative matters.
5. Separation from the Group: If a province likes, it will be authorized to quit

the group to which it is being attached. Such a province would be free to join any other group of choice.
6. Separation from Indian Union: One or two groups of provinces will be

authorized to quit the Indian Union after ten years. It means that group B or C or both will be able to maintain their sovereignty. The two groups were of Muslim majority provinces. Possibility of the creation of Pakistan was just Nine years away, and this was the demand of Pakistan.
7. Veto Power: The option to reject the Cabinet Mission Plan was given to every
political party but that party would not be able to join the interim government. The right to join the interim government was given only to the parties who supported the plan. Congress was pleased to see, this condition as the Muslim League was not allowed to veto the Plan. In case it vetoes, it would be kept away from the government.
Negotiations:
The Cabinet mission held negotiations with the political leaders of the country and arranged a joint Conference at Simla. The congress was represented by Abdul Kalam Azad, Jawaharlal Lal Nehru, Valabhai Patel and Ghaffar Khan. Muslim League was represented by Quaid-e-Azam, Liaquat Ali Khan, Nawab Ismail and Sardar Abdul Rab Nishtar. Both the parties put their proposals. The fundamental issue at Conference was that whether there should be two independent states or one state. There was a deadlock as neither party accepted the proposals of the other. They could not come to mutual understanding. As a result, the mission had to give its own formula.
Three-Tier Constitutional Plan:

On May, 1946, the Cabinet Mission and Viceroy published a statement containing their own plan of the constitutional problem. The focal point in the plan was the preservation of a single federal system for India. On administrative, economic and military basis, they rejected the proposal of two independent sovereign states. The Mission was, however, of the opinion that Muslim culture might submerge in purely unitary India dominated by Hindus.
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These considerations led them to formulate a three-tier constitutional plan, which was as under: 1. First, there should be union of India embracing both British India and Indian States which should deal with the subjects of Communication, Defence and Foreign Affairs and have power to raise finance required for the subjects. 2. There should be three groups of provinces. Group A. Consisting of six Hindu majority provinces; Bombay, Madras, United provinces, Central provinces and Bihar. Group B. Consisting of Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Baluchistan. Group C. Bengal and Assam. 3. Third, all the provinces and States should be the basic unit. All the subjects other than union subjects and all the residuary powers should be vested in provinces; States would retain all the subjects and powers other than those ceded to them. The Mission also proposed of setting up of an interim central Government in which all the portfolios should be held by the Indian nationals.
Long-Term And Short-Term Plan:

The plan consisted of two parts; a long-term plan and a short-term plan. The long-term plan was concerned with a constitutional making body and short-term with interim government. The Viceroy also announced the importance of the plan, that if any party did not accept the plan, other would be allowed to make an interim government. Muslim League pondered over the plan and after great consideration, it decided to accept the plan even if it was not devoid of shortcomings. On the other hand, Congress immediately rejected the plan and decided to accept the plan and decided to accept it partially. According to its promise, Viceroy was obliged to call the Muslim leaders to form an interim government along with any other party. But the Viceroy went back on his words and said that there was no question of interim government without participation of Congress. Everyone condemned this partial attitude of the Viceroy.
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Muslims Direct Course To Achieve Pakistan:

Muslim League passed two resolutions on July 27, 1946. First resolution was concerned with the partial attitude of the Viceroy and the second explained Muslim Leagues direct course to achieve Pakistan. Muslim League decided to denounce all the titles given by the British government and drew back from the acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan.
Establishment Of The Interim Government:

Muslim League celebrated the day of direct course on Aug 16, 1946. Strikes, demonstrations and meeting were held all over the country to protest against the partial attitude of the Viceroy. Consequently Hindu-Muslim riots stated. Congress met the Viceroy and asked him to allow for making of interim government. Viceroy said that it would be better to include Muslim League in the interim government. As a result, talks between Nehru and Quad-e-Azam became successful and interim government was formed.
Critical Analysis:
a) Merits Of The Plan: Democratic Principles: Its greatest merit was that the Constituent Assembly was to be constituted on the democratic principles of population strength. The principle of weightage was discarded at all. Minority Protection: The democratic method of decision of issues by simple majority in the case of communal issues. However, safeguards were provided for minorities. All Indian Members: The scheme required that all members of the constituent assembly were to be Indians. Neither the British Government nor the non-official Europeans in India were to be given representation in the constituent assembly. Recognition Of Pakistan: Though the idea of Pakistan was discarded by the Cabinet Mission but in the division of the provinces we find the clear demarcation of Muslim and Hindu majority areas. This indirectly concede the idea of separate state for the Muslims of India.
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b) Demerits Of The Plan: Other Minorities Were Ignored: Although the rights of the Muslims were protected, it was not done with regard to other minorities such as Sikhs in the Punjab. Unclear Position Regarding The Grouping Of Provinces: The proposals of the Cabinet Mission with regard to the grouping of the provinces were not clear. Both the Congress and the Muslim League interpreted the provisions differently. The Muslims regarded the compulsory grouping of the provinces as one of the cornerstones of the Cabinet Mission proposals and were not prepared to come to a compromise on that question. The Congress stand was that the making of groups was optional for the matter of fact, and they were to join the groups or not join the groups at all. However, the British Government gave its verdict in favour of compulsory grouping of the provinces. Defective Method Of Drafting Constitutions: Another defect of the scheme was the order in which the union and the sectional assemblies were to meet and work and draft their constitutions. It looked ridiculous first to form the constitution of the provinces and then to frame the constitution of the union. It was like putting the cart before the horse.
The Reaction Of The Political Parties:

a) Congress Reaction The Cabinet Mission plan met different reactions by the political parties of the subcontinent. The Congress Working Committee rejected it and demanded an immediate withdrawal of the British; Gandhi regarded this plan as an apple and an advice. According To V.P. Memon, Mr. Gandhi commented on the plan saying:
It was open to the Constituent Assembly to vary the proposals, to reject or improve upon them; otherwise the Constituent Assembly could not be a sovereign body. Thus the mission had suggested certain subjects for the Union Centre: The Constituent Assembly could if they chose, add to them or reduce them. Similarly, it was open to the Constituent Assembly to abolish the distinction of Muslims and non-Muslims which the mission had felt forced to recognize. As regarding groups, no province could be compelled to belong to a group against its will.
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Subject to these interpretations Gandhi Jee said:

The mission had brought something of which they had every reason to be proud.
The Congress was critical of groupings and right to ask for review of constitutional relationship. It agreed to contest elections for the CA but declined to be bound by the proposals of the Cabinet Plan. The nonsensical stand of the Congress was that they were free to make any change in the proposal. Definitely the ML was alarmed by the Congress intentions.
b) Muslim League Reaction The Muslim League Council also weighed its pros and cons for three days were totally disappointed from the Cabinet Mission Plan. They considered the plan a victory of he Opponents of Pakistan. They felt that the idea of Pakistan was totally ignored and the demand of the Muslim League was rejected. But Quaid-e-Azam accepted it and said,
I am sorry to see that the demand for Pakistan has been ignored by the Mission Plan. We still believe and say with full confidence that the solution of political problems lies in the creation of two Independent sovereign states.
Finally for the greater benefit of the Muslims, it gave its acceptance to both long term and short term plan. It accepted the plan for two reasons: The party workers Basis and foundation of Pakistan was in the compulsory grouping and the right to ask for review. The Sikhs rejected the scheme completely on the ground that compulsory grouping was suicidal to their interests.
Conclusion:
Gandhi in his press statement talked about the supremacy of the Parliament and expressed his opinion that Parliament would be empowered to bring changes in the system, introduced by the government on the basis of the Cabinet Mission Plan. It means that Hindu majority in the Parliament would dictate its terms. The safeguard provided by the Cabinet Mission to the Muslims could be withdrawn by the Hindu majority Parliament. The statement of Gandhi further aggravated the frustration of the Muslim nation. The first reaction of the two political parties was totally different. It looked clear that Congress was going to give its consent and the decision of the Muslim League would
be contrary to it. The matter was widely discussed in the general councils of both the parties. The council of Muslim League gave full mandate to the Quaid-e-Azam to declare the policy. He, contrary to the expectation of all the political circles, declared to accept the plan and Congress was put to an embarrassing situation. The Quaid declared the he accepted the plan with the idea that the demand for the creation of Pakistan would be in a position to establish their own independent sovereign state comprising of Assam, Britishers were about to leave the sub-continent, and could play havoc with the Muslim nation. The Quaid-e-Azam exchanged views with his party leaders and then discussed the forthcoming problems of the Muslims with the Viceroy. On his repeated requests, the Quaid-e-Azam honoured his invitation and joined the government. Pundit Nehru had also appealed to the Muslim League but the Quaid-e-Azam gave the whole credit to the Viceroy. The Muslim League withdrew its call for the Direct Action. The five members of the Muslim League who took the oath of office as Minister were: Liaqat Ali Khan Abdul Rab Nishtar I.I Chandrigar Raja Ghazanfar Ali Khan Jogindar Nath Mandal
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Background:
Lord Mountbatten had been appointed as the last Viceroy of India who was to replace Lord Wavell. He arrived in India on 22nd March, 1947. He came charged with the task to make a peaceful transfer of power from British to Indian hands by June, 1948.
Approval Of The 3rd June Plan:

Lord Mountbatten soon began negotiation with the political leaders of India. After prolonged talks, Mountbatten worked out a partition plan by middle of April, 1947. Then on 2nd May 1947, he sent that plan to England for approval. The British Government approved the plan with certain amendments and sent it back to India on 10th May, 1947. This draft was not accepted by Nehru and other Congress leaders. Thus at the request of the Viceroy, Nehru and Memon prepared a revised partition plan which suited their interests. Mountbatten took that plan to England and at the threat of his resignation got it approved by the British Cabinet. He returned back to India on 31st May, 1947. The partition plan was made public on 3rd June, 1947 and is known as 3rd June Plan.
Main Features Of The 3rd June Plan:

Following were the main features of the plan. a) Formation and Application of Constitution: The Indian people shall make the constitution of India. This constitution shall not be applicable to those areas whose people reject it. b) Division of Military Assets: Military assets shall be divided between the two countries after the partition. c) Demarcation of Boundaries of New Counties: A boundary commission shall be set up to demarcate the boundaries of the two countries. d) Demarcation of Boundries of Provinces: The legislatures of Punjab and Bengal shall decide that whether the provinces should be divided or not. 1. Division of Punjab: Finally, the decision was taken to divide Punjab province into two parts. The Muslim majority area would go to Pakistan and non-Muslim majority area to Bharat, respectively. A Commission was created to draw the line of demarcation between Pakistani Punjab and Bharati Punjab. 2. Division of Bengal: The principle approved For Punjab was also approved for Bengal. The province was to be divided into East Bengal and West Bengal. East Bengal was pre-dominantly a Muslim area while Hindus were in majority in West Bengal. A Boundary Commission for the demarcation of the boundary was created by the British government.
e) Annexation of Sindh: The members of the Sindh Provincial Assembly got the right to join Pakistan or Bharat by a majority vote. f) Annexation of NWFP: The people of NWFP had to decide their fate by a referendum. They could either join Pakistan or Bharat. g) Annexation of Balochistan: Balochistan had not yet been given the status of a full-fledged province. It was decided that Shahi Jirga and Municipal Committee Quetta would decide the future of Balochistan by the majority votes of their members. h) Annexation of States: There were 635 states in the sub-continent where Nawabs and Rajas were ruling over their areas and people with internal sovereignty. The external sovereignty was lying with the British government. Each state was given the right to join Pakistan or Bharat, keeping its geographical position and special circumstances in view.. Both countries shall have their own Governor-General who will be the Executive Head of their respective countries.
Implementation Of The 3rd June Plan:

The 3rd June Plan was implemented as under. 1) Punjab Province: The Legislative Assembly of Punjab decided by 91 to 27 votes to join the new constituent assembly. Thus, the Punjab province was partitioned and the West Punjab joined the new assembly. 2) Bengal Province: Bengal province decided by 106 to91 votes to join new constitutional assembly and the East Bengal joined Pakistan. 3) Sindh Province: Sindh Legislative Assembly decided by 30 to 20 votes in favour of Pakistan. 4) NWFP Province: In NWFP, a referendum was held, in which 2, 89, 24 votes were cast in favour of Pakistan and 2, 874 against Pakistan. 5) Baluchistan Province: In Baluchistan, the members of Shahi Jirga and the Municipality of Quetta decided in favour of new constituent assembly.
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The Objectives Resolution (1949)

Background:
Quaid-e-Azam laid the foundation stone of Constitution-making. But after death on September 11, 1948, the process of constitution-making slowed down. Khan Liaquat Ali Khan, the then Prime Minister of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan rose to the occasion and took a practical step towards constitution-making. He furnished a resolution in the Legislative Assembly on 12th March, 1949. This resolution was popularly known as Objective Resolution. The Objectives Resolution was the first constitutional document that proved to be the foundation of the constitutional developments in Pakistan. It provided parameters and sublime principles to the legislators. It made the constitution-making process easy task setting some particular objectives before them that would be acceptable to the people of Pakistan who had suffered a lot under the Hindu-dominated majority.
The Constituent Assembly (1947-54)

The first Constituent Assembly came into existence under Indian Independence Act 1947. The elections were held in July 1946 to decide the destiny of the All India Muslim League (AIML)s claim that it is the only representative party of the Indian Muslims that desire separate homeland, Pakistan. The members from the districts that became part of Pakistan were declared members of the Constituent Assembly. The number of such members was 69. It increased to 79 after the 1947 when some states joined Pakistan and then increase in the population. There were two major parties, Muslim League and Congress in the Assembly at that time. This Assembly had dual functions to perform.
Features of the Objectives Resolution

After a long discussion, the assembly adopted the Objective Resolution moved by Liaquat Ali Khan on March 12, 1949. Objective Resolution contained the following features for the constitution of newly-born country: i) Sovereignty Of Allah: The preamble of Objective Resolution recognized the sovereignty of Allah over the entire universe and the authority which He delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people.
ii)
Trust Authority: The authority which He has delegated to the state of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust. Constitution: Constitution will be framed for sovereign, independent state of Pakistan. 4. The state shall exercise its power through the representatives of the people.. 10. People of Pakistan should prosper and attain their rightful place in the comity of nations and make contribution towards international peace and progress and happiness of humanity. Principles Of Democracy: The principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice initiated by Islam shall be fully observed. Islamic Way Of Life: Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accordance with the teachings and requirements of Islam as set out in the Holy Quran and Sunnah. Minority Protection: Adequate provision shall be made for minorities to freely profess and practise their religion and develop their culture. Federation Of Pakistan: The territories now included in or in accession with Pakistan and such other territories as they may after be included or accede to Pakistan shall form a federation wherein the units will be autonomous with boundaries and limitations on their power and authority as may be prescribed. Fundamental Rights: Fundamental rights including the equality of status, of opportunity and before law, social and political justice and freedom of thought, expression, faith, belief, worship and association subject to law and public morality shall be guaranteed. Minority Rights: Adequate provision shall be made to safeguard the legitimate rights of minorities and backward and depressed classes. Independence Of Judiciary: The independence of Judiciary shall be fully secured.
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Integrity Of Federation: The integrity of the territories of Federation, its independence and all its rights including its sovereign rights on land, sea and air shall be safeguarded. In the context of above mentioned features, constitution-making process in Pakistan became alive again. People from different walks of life demanded the promulgation of this resolution in practice in Pakistan.
Importance of the Objectives Resolution:

The Resolution declared the sovereignty of Allah as the distinctive political philosophy. The Western democracy gives the notion that sovereignty lies in the people but this Resolution is important having the concept of the sovereignty of Allah. It clarified that people would utilize powers gifted by Allah so they would have to work within the limits prescribed by Him. The exercise of the powers is a sacred trust. The representatives of the people of Pakistan will manage the affairs under the universal ideology of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance, and social justice with the spirit of an Islamic framework. The Resolution pledged to give the due respect and rights to the minorities, backward and depressed classes in the benign society of Pakistan. Their rights, interests, religion and culture were not confuted. Its important that the Resolution promised the federating units for due powers, autonomy and territorial integrity.
Objections by Non-Muslims
i) The major objection by the Non-Muslims was that the government was trying to mix the religion and politics that was against the spirit of democracy. The non-Muslims objected on the Sovereignty of Allah and minorities rights, saying it would promote inequality in the society. They were also of view that Shariah was not adequate for the modern time. They feared that it would encourage the religious extremists to work for the establishment of a Theocratic State.
ii) iii)
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Objective Resolution Magna Carta Of Pakistan:

Objective Resolution can be called Magna Carta of Pakistan because thanks to this resolution, fundamental rights have also been given to the people of Pakistan. In Magna Carta, British King John also gave fundamental rights to its citizens in the advent of the 13th century (1215). King was supposed to act according to the law rather than according to his caprice or will. In Objective Resolution, sovereignty is kept with Allah and man is considered His vicegerent. According to Objective Resolution no law should be enacted in this state against the canons off Islam. Fundamental rights have also been given to all of the communities. minorities rights have been protected in this resolution. Therefore, in the context of above mentioned facts, Objective Resolution can be called Magna Carta of Pakistan.
Subsequent Demands For Islamization:

After the acceptance of Objective Resolution on March 12, 1949, demand for Islamization in Pakistan was at its peak. Ulemas became active in the implementation of Objective Resolution in the whole country. Basic principles committee with its chairman Liaquat Ali Kahn appointed some subcommittees to examine fundamental rights, judicial, federal and provincial structure of the country. The report of the committee received heavy criticism from the society on the issue of Islam. Ulemas from all sects presented their demands for Islamization in Pakistan which are as follows: 1. Go is the sovereign of the whole universe. 2. All the laws of the government should be according to the pristine injunctions of Islam. 3. Head of the state and the government should be Muslim. 4. Rule of law should be implemented in its real form. 5. Judiciary should be kept separate from the executive. 6. Basic amenities of life should be fulfilled by the government i.e. clothing, food, shelter, health and education etc. 7. Minorities should be allowed to present their religion in the limits given by Islam. 8. Minorities rights should be protected efficiently. 9. The publication of such material would be proscribed which might be against the basic ideology of Islam. 10. No law would be made against the Sharia.
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Conclusion:
The Objectives Resolution is a basic and primary document of the constitutional history of Pakistan. It is a framework that provides mechanism to achieve goals for a better life of the people of Pakistan. Its important that it embraces centrality of Islam to polity sustaining their links with the pre-independence period. The AIML leaders were modernist Muslims not in favour of an orthodox religious state. Therefore, they selected the middle way abiding by the Islamic laws and the international democratic values. The Resolution remained Preamble of all the constitutions due to its importance.
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Background:
According to the provision of the 3rd June Plan, two Boundary commissions viz. Two Boundary Commissions namely Punjab Boundary Commission and the Bengal Boundary Commission were constituted for the division of Punjab and Bengal between Pakistan and India. These commissions were placed under the chairmanship of Sir Cyril Radcliffe, an English Lawyer who would have the power to make the Award which may be called as the perfidious Redcliffe Award. Members of the Boundary Commissions were as under:
Members Of The Punjab Boundary Commission:

Chairman: Sir Cyril Radcliffe Mr. Justice Din Mohammad (Pakistan) Mr. Justice Mohammad Munir (Pakistan) Mr. Justice Mehar Chand Mahajan (India) Mr. Justice Tej Singh (India)
Members Of The Bengal Boundary Commission:

Chairman: Sir Cyril Radcliffe i) ii) iii) iv) Mr. Justice S.A Rehman (Pakistan) Mr. Justice Abu Saleh Mohammad Akram (Pakistan) Mr. Justice C.C. Biswas (India) Mr. Justice B.K Mukherjee (India)
Radcliffe Award:
Chairman of the Boundary Commission Sir Cyril Radcliffe arrived in India on 8th July, 1947 and instructed both the Commissions to demarcate the boundaries of their respective provinces on the basis of the contiguity of the Muslim and non-Muslim areas according to the 1941 census. The commissions started their work and the councils on behalf of the Muslim League, Congress, Sikhs and other parties presented their arguments. The chairman Radcliffe did not participate in public sittings but studied the records of the proceedings. Finally, as it was feared both the
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commissions failed to evolve agreed award due to a host of conflicting interests. As a result, Radcliffe gave his own awards in Punjab and Bengal.
Unjust Demarcation of Boundaries

India and Pakistan agreed to accept the award of the Boundary Commission and to take proper measures to enforce it. Redcliffe did not take part in the public sittings of the Commissions, in which arguments were presented by the Muslim League, the Congress, the Sikhs and other interested parties. He studied the record and proceedings of the meetings and held discussions with other members of the Commission. As expected the members of the Boundary Commissions were unable to reach agreement on the boundaries. Lord Redcliffe, as the Chairman, gave his award.
Unjust Award In Punjab:

Cyril Radcliffe, the chairman of the Boundary Commission, as feared by Jinnah, could not maintain partiality and in order to please Mountbatten and Congress gave its prejudiced award. In Punjab, the Radcliffe Award snatched a number of Muslim majority areas from Pakistan. These included Gurdaspur, Pathankot and Batala Tehsil (Gurdaspur district), Anjala Tehsil (Amritsar), Jullundur Tehsil (Jullundur district) and Zira and Ferozepur tehsils (Ferozepur district). Out of these, Pathankot tehsil was given to India in order to provide a link between Kashmir and India.
Unjust Award In Bengal:

Similarly, in Bengal province the most important question was related with the future of Calcutta. It was the capital of province. Although, the Muslims made a quarter of the population of Calcutta, large section of its population consisted of scheduled castes that were allied with the Muslim League. In any case, for more than two hundred years Muslims of Bengal had contributed to make Calcutta what it was in 1947 and centre of commerce and industry. The city of Calcutta was the biggest educational, industrial and commercial centre. The development of Calcutta was based on the toil of Muslim peasantry of Bengal. East Bengal produced most of the raw material which had to be sent to Calcutta because all the factories and mills were in Calcutta. The Congress leaders were determined to get Calcutta by foul and fair means. Eventually, Calcutta was awarded to India, ignoring the claims of the Muslims.
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Reaction To The Radcliffe Award:

The biased Radcliffe award pleased the Hindus because it deprived Pakistan of many Muslim majority areas. On the other hand the Muslims of Punjab and Bengal were shocked to see the award which totally went in favour of India. Jinnah too was greatly disappointed but he accepted the plan with sportsman spirit. During the course of his broadcast speech, he said:
The division of India now finally and irrevocably effected. No doubt we feel that the carving out of this great inde-pendent Muslim State has suffered injustices. We have been squeezed in as much as it was possible and the latest blow we have received was the award of the Boundary Commission. It was an unjust, incompre-hensible and perverse award, but we have agreed to abide by it, it may be our misfortune but we must bear up this one more blow with fortitude, courage and hope.
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Constitution Making (1947-56)

Constitution is a basic document in the handling of domestic affairs. It sets out the framework for governance and exercise of power. It gives guiding lines of relationships among the federating units. Law making is always within its limits. The modified Government of India Act (1935) became the Interim Constitution of Pakistan in 1947. The Constituent Assembly (CA) was given the task of framing the Constitution. The first meeting of the CA was held on August 11, 1947 at Karachi. The process began with the passing of the Objectives Resolution in which the Islamic and democratic values were adopted as grounds for the future constitution. The Basic Principles Committee (BPC) consisting of 24 members was made to work for the constitutional powers. The various sub-committees on Federal and provincial powers, Franchise, Judiciary, and Fundamental Rights started working. Board of Talimat-i-Islamia was also set up to seek advice on the religious matters.
First BPC Report, 1950

1. The Objectives Resolution to be included in the Constitution as the directive principles. 2. Legislature: Two houses of the parliament. Upper: (House of Units) Equal representation for the units Lower: (House of People) On the basis of Population. Both the Houses would enjoy the equal powers. 3. The Head of State elected by joint session would be for five years (Two terms only). President had discretionary and emergency, appointment and other powers. President was not answerable to anyone, might be a Muslim or nonMuslim, would be assisted by the Prime Minister (PM) and Cabinet that would be answerable to the CA. Parliament may impeach him by 2/3 majority. He was given the power to abrogate the constitution. 4. Cabinet responsible to both the Houses. 5. No mention of national language
Criticism:
This report was severely criticized throughout the country. It could not satisfy both the wings, East and West. The religious group objected that the report contained nothing about Islamisation. On the question of representation, the East Pakistan (EP) protested that their majority had been denied by the Report. They remarked that they were thrown into a permanent minority. The population of EP was slightly
larger than that of the West Pakistan (WP) but it was treated as the small provinces because both the Houses were given equal powers. So the domination of WP was intolerable for the East wing. The language issue proved subversive to the national solidarity. The Eastern Pakistanis condemned the proposal that made Urdu as official language.
Second BPC Report, 1952

1) Head of State would be Muslim and no change in powers. 2) Equal representation to East and West wings: UH (Upper House) 60, 60 LH 200, 200 3) More powers were given to Lower House. Cabinet was made responsible to Lower House. 4) It was promised that law making would be in accordance with ISLAM. No law would be made in violation of Islamic principles. 5) Advisory Board of five Islamic scholars was founded. 6) Silent on national language.
Criticism:
The politicians particularly from the Punjab deplored the Report because formation of the UH on the basis of representation was not acceptable. It was declared against the principle of federation. The WP favoured equality only for Upper House. The political crisis removed Prime Minister Nazimuddin and attention diverted from the core issue.
Muhammad Ali Bogra Formula October 1953

The proposals were revised in the light of the criticism and decided: o Upper House: Equal representation to all five units o Lower House: More representation to Eastern part While in joint session, both wings had equal representation: i) ii) iii) East Pak West Pak Upper House 10 40 Lower House 165 135
------------------------------------Joint Session 175 175

Decision by majority but it must include 30 percent members from each zone.
Criticism:
It suggested some difficult process but mostly it was widely acceptable. Two languages, Urdu and Bengali, were approved as official languages that injured the national unity as Quaid-i-Azam had wished Urdu as national language. This is important that after the Formula, the work began on constitution drafting because the deadlock was over.
CA Dissolution
In October 1954, GG (Governor General) dissolved the CA that was challenged in the Sindh court by Maulvi Tamizuddin. The court declared the dissolution illegal but the Federal Court upheld the GG action but asked for setting up an elected CA.
2nd Constituent Assembly, June-July 1955

Ghulam Muhammad called a Convention on May 10, 1955. All its members were to be elected indirectly (by the provincial assemblies). In this way, the 2nd CA came into existence.
One Unit Scheme, October 1955:

The presence of different provinces in the WP had complicated the issue of the WP representation in the CA. It was handled by uniting all the WP units into ONE (One Unit, October 30, 1955). Now both the parts had become two units and could be addressed equally.
Constitution-Making:
One Unit scheme helped the task of constitution making to accomplish successfully. The previous committees report helped the new Assembly that completed its work and presented in the 2nd CA on January 9, 1956. It, with certain amendments, was approved on January 29, 1956 and enforced on March 23. With this Pakistan had become an Islamic Republic.
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The 1956 Constitution

Introduction:
Chaudhary Muhammad Ali was a sincere politician and an experienced parliamentarian. He took personal interests in the constitution-making process. He presented the draft of the first Constitution of Pakistan in the second assembly. It was approved by the assembly on 29th February, 1956. Then this draft was sent to the Governor-General Major-General Sikander Mirza who ratified it on 2nd March, 1956. Thus, the first constitution of Pakistan was formed nine years after the independence of the nation. Finally, the first constitution was enforced on 23rd March, 1956 and Pakistan was declared as Republic. 23rd March as you know is an important day in the history of Pakistan. You would recall that on 23rd March 1940 The Lahore Resolution was presented for approval in the annual session of ML held at Lahore. So when this constitution was introduced it was decided that it should be introduced on such a day of historical importance. Therefore on 23rd March this constitution was introduced.
Details:
1. The Objective Resolution passed by the First Constituent Assembly on 12th March 1949, was included in the preambles of 1956 Constitution. 2. The 1956 Constitution of Pakistan comprises 13 Chapters 234 articles and 6 schedules. Under the Constitution of 1956, in which the whole constitutional framework and principles for governance and power management have been outlined. 3. This Constitution describes Pakistan as Islamic Republic of Pakistan that is the official title of the Pakistani state. 4. Parliamentary form of Government modelled on British Pattern, was adopted. Head of the State, however, was not nominal head; he could actively participate in decision-making. 5. There was clear impact of Government of India Act 1935 and the 1 st Interim constitution of 1947 on this constitution. Some of the articles of the Indian Act of 1935 and the 1st Interim constitution have been incorporated in this constitution with some adjustments and modifications here and there and in certain cases language is very similar if not the same. So in a way there is some continuity from the previous document to this document. Although it is different from the previous one in most respects but there in some continuity.
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Salient Features of 1956 Constitution

1. Nature: The 1956 Constitution consisted of 13 Chapters, 234 Articles, 3 Parts
and 6 Schedules. 2. Preamble: Objective Resolution was made a part of the constitution of 1956 which declared that the all sovereignty belonged to Allah.
3. Written Constitution: Like American Constitution 1956 Constitution was

written.
4. Semi-rigid Constitution: Unlike the British Constitution it was not flexible. It
was a semi-rigid constitution. Unlike the constitution of USA, it was not very difficult to make amendment to it; A simple one-third majority of the assembly could make an amendment to it.
5. Parliamentary System: The Constitution of 1956 provided a federal system in

the country which consisted of the following institutions: a) The President b) The Prime Minister c) The Parliament a) President: According to the constitution of 1956, President was the head of the State. The President would be of 45 years of age, Muslim and qualified to be a member of National Assembly who was elected by the National Assembly and all the four provincial assemblies by a majority vote for a period of five years. He enjoyed the following powers: o Executive Authority vested in the President who exercised it on the advice of the Prime Minister except in the matters he had discretion. o He was to be elected by National Assembly (NA) and Provincial Assemblies. o President had ceremonial functions and exercised limited powers. o He could nominate the Prime Minister. o He could appoint the provincial governors, judges of Supreme and High Courts, Auditor General and Advocate General. o He could call a session of the National Assembly and was authorized to dissolve it. o He was authorized to promulgate ordinance during the period when the National Assembly was not in session. o H was authorized to reduce or condone the punishment given by the Courts. o He could declare emergency in the country. b) Prime Minister: PM would be appointed by President. President could not remove him unless he was sure that PM did not enjoy the support of majority
in the National Assembly. The President would be its sole judge. He could ask PM to show his support. Cabinet was collectively responsible to NA. PM was the head of government assisted by cabinet. c) Parliament: The constitution of 1956 provided a unicameral legislature called the National Assembly which consisted of 300 members plus 10 women seats. Out of these, 150 members were elected from East Pakistan and 150 from Principle of parity was observed for representation. Method of direct elections was adopted for general seats. West Pakistan. It enjoyed full authority over the federal list of subjects. All legislative powers were rested with NA. President could return, reject or sign the bills. Regarding monetary bills of ordinary expenditure NA had all powers but they could not vote on Consolidated Fund List. Salaries of President, judges, federal service commission, etc. were to be paid through Consolidated Fund. NA could control the Executive. It was compulsory to call two sessions of the assembly in a year one to be held in Decca while the other was to be convened in Karachi. 6. Federal System: The constitution provided three lists: Federal, Provincial and Concurrent. There were two Provinces in the federation of Pakistan.
7. Provincial Structure: At the provincial level there was elected Assembly.

The Parliamentary System under the nominal headship of Governor. The real powers were given to Chief Ministers and his cabinet. Centre had some overriding powers and some Emergency powers too. They were Clause 191: Security or economic life was under threat for external or internal reasons. Clause 193: Constitutional crisis in provinces. 8. Independent Judiciary: The constitution of 1956 established an independent judiciary which consisted of the following Courts: o The Supreme Court o The High Courts (One each in East and West Pakistan) o The Lower Courts. The Supreme Court was the highest court of the country. It not only heard appeals from the Lower Courts but also interpreted the Constitution at the request of Federal or the Provincial authorities. Similarly, two High Courts were established in Decca and Karachi. Judges of these courts were appointed by the President of Pakistan. At centre level the highest court was Supreme Court, then High Courts in provinces and subordinate courts were established.
Higher Courts have the power to hear the disputes between governments. They were guardians of the Legal rights of the citizens. 9. Fundamental Rights: The Constitution of 1956 provided the following Basic Rights to Its people irrespective of religion, caste or creeds but they could be suspended in case of emergency. a) Safeguard against arrest and detention b) Security to person and property c) Safeguard against forced labour d) Freedom of movement e) Freedom of speech f) Freedom of assembly g) Freedom of association h) Freedom to hold property i) Freedom to profess religion j) Freedom to earn livelihood
10.
National Language: Both Urdu and Bengali were grated the status of
national languages. However, it was decided that English would be the official language for 25 years. 11. Directive Principles of State Policy: These principles provided guidelines for policy making. Principles of Objectives Resolution were included as preamble. The other principles included surety about Islamic practices, Welfare of people, non-discrimination, and fulfilment of basic needs, etc. 12. Islamic Provisions: The Constitution of 1956 included the following Islamic Provisions: a) According to the Constitution of 1956, the country was named as Islamic Republic Of Pakistan. b) The Objective Resolution was made a part of it which declared that Sovereignty of the universe belonged to Almighty Allah. c) According to Article 32, the President of Pakistan would be a Muslim and of 40 years of age. d) Article 18, provided that the all citizens would be free to profess and practice their religion. e) The constitution put a ban on liquor, gambling and prostitution. f) According to Article 198, no un-Islamic law would be enacted in Pakistan. g) Existing laws would be brought in conformity with Islamic teachings. A Commission was to be appointed to examine the laws for bringing them in conformity. Whether a Law is Islamic or not, NA had to decide. The matter could be taken up with the Judiciary. h) Other Islamic clauses were part of Directive Principles.
i) The constitution provided for brotherly relations with Muslim countries. j) The constitution included a provision for the establishment of an Islamic Research Institute. k) It also provided for setting up an Islamic Advisory Council.
Working of the Constitution

No elections were held after the enforcement of elections. It was finally abrogated on October 7, 1958. It worked from March 23, 1956 to October 7, 1958.
Causes Of Failure Of The Constitution:

The Constitution of 1956 was abrogated in 1958. The causes of its failure were as under: a) The multi-party system was one of the main causes of its failure. b) General elections were not held up to 1956. Consequently, the parliamentary system did not strike roots in country. c) The politicians were insincere and preferred their personal interests over national interests. d) The eleven-year period from 1947 to 1958 was a period of political instability which witnessed the rise and fall of nine prime ministers. These circumstances were not conducive to democracy which was a hallmark of the constitution of 1956. e) The constitution was modelled on the One Unit of West Pakistan. Opponents of the One Unit created hatred against the Constitution. f) Irresponsible and unpatriotic acts of Ghulam Mohammad destabilized the democratic process. He did not hesitate to dissolve the First Constituent Assembly. Similarly, the Federal Court was pressurized to give verdict against the Sindh High Court which was a mockery of democracy. Later on, Sikander Mirza promoted the palace intrigues which led to frequent rise and fall of ministries. g) In the early fifties, the political, geographical, military and administrative problems of Pakistan brought economic depression in the country. These circumstances led to unemployment, bribery, hoarding and dearness. The politicians exploited the situation at the cost of democratic values. Thus, people lost faith in the constitution of 1956. h) At the time of Independence, Pakistan did not inherit any constitutional traditions because it had yet to frame its own constitution which suited its particular Islamic and democratic requirements. As an interim arrangement, the government Of India Act, 1935 was enforced with certain amendments.
Subsequently, the First Constituent Assembly took nine years to give to the country its first constitution in 1956. The selfish politicians did not miss any opportunity to damage the image of democracy. The ministries continued to fall like nine pins even after the enforcement of the constitution of 1956. These circumstances convinced the military regimes that the Constitution of 1956 was incapable of meeting the challenges of the day.
Critical Analysis / Drawbacks:

The Constitution of 1956 was a great achievement but it was also criticized for its some flaws. We can pinpoint some of them as following: 1. Absence Of Islamic Provisions: No provisions were made to make Islam as a state religion. 2. Head Of A State: In the absence of the President, the speaker of the National assembly might be acting president and a speaker might be a nonMuslim. In other words, Head of the state could be a non-Muslim. 3. Authority Delegated To The People: According to the Constitution, the authority was delegated to the people of Pakistan and the people of Pakistan could be Muslims and non-Muslims. 4. Interpretation Of Quran And Sunnah: Interpretation of the Quran and Sunnah was referred to the legislature rather than theologians. Hussain Shaheed Suharwardi said, you are deluding the people by calling it an Islamic State. 5. Response Of East Pakistan: The people of East Pakistan were not happy with this constitution because they were demanding their share in the government according to their population because their population was more than that of West Pakistan. Moreover, they were demanding to declare the religion of the State as Islam. But the rulers of the day were not inclined to do. General Sikander Mirza said, We cannot run wild on Islam. So these controversies gave rise political and constitutional problems in the country and ultimately paved the way for military intervention.
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The 1962 Constitution

Background
Military took over on 7 October 1958 and consequently Ayub Khan became Chief Martial Law Administrator. One major task was to frame a new Constitution. Ayub Khan constituted a Constitutional Commission on 17th Feb, 1960, under the chairmanship of Justice Shahabudin. The Commission comprised ten members from the both wings of the country. In order to appraise itself of the causes of the failure of the parliamentary system and the opinion of the people, the Commission prepared a questionnaire and printed its 28,000 copies in Urdu, Bengali and English languages. These copies were distributed throughout the country but only 6,289 replies were received. In addition to, the Commission visited various parts of the country and interviewed 565 people who were interested in constitutional matters. Finally, the commission submitted its report to the President in May, 1961. On the basis of this report a new constitution was framed which was enforced in the country on 8th June, 1962.
Constitution Making
The government introduced Basic Democracies in October 1959. Under this system Forty Thousand basic democrats (local councilors) were to be elected in each province. They have to perform functions as local government and their role in developmental work. They also acted as an electoral college for the election of president and the national assembly. Elections for the Basic Democracies (BD) were held in December 1959 and January 1960. Then Presidential referendum was held by the elected BD members on February 17, 1960. A Constitutional Commission was established in February 1960 under the chairmanship of Justice Shahabuddin, former Chief Justice. The tasks assigned to the Commission were: o To examine the causes of failure of Parliamentary system. o Recommend a new system keeping in view the a) genius of people b) standard of education c) internal conditions of the country d) need of development Commission presented its report in May 1961 after then two committees reviewed it. Under the report of these committees the new Constitution was drafted.
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Ayub announced the Constitution on March 1, 1962. Elections to the National Assembly (NA) and Provincial Assemblies (PAs) were held in April and May 1962 respectively. The new Constitution was enforced on June 8, 1962. Martial Law was withdrawn. The new Constitution was consisted of 250 articles, 5 schedules.
Salient Features of the Constitution

1. Written Form
It was also written. Like the constitution of USA, INDA and France, the constitution of 1962 was a written document. It comprised of 250 Articles and 5 Schedules.
2. Rigid Constitution:
It was a rigid constitution and it was not easy to make an amendment to it. A twothird majority of all the members of the National Assembly was required to make any amendment. If the amendment concerned provinces then it was necessary that the two-third majority of all the members of the concerned provincial assembly approve the proposed amendment. Finally, the President had the authority to use is powers of veto against the amendment. In this case the Assembly could pass the amendment with a three-fourth majority. But the President enjoyed the powers to veto it again and to ask for a referendum by the 80,000 members of Basic Democracies.
3. Name of the Country

The Constitution of 1956 declared, The Republic of Pakistan as the country name. However, owing to the public reaction, the word Islamic was included later on. The full name of the country thus became the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
4. Presidential System
A Powerful President who was responsible for administration and affairs of the state. He should be a Muslim, at least 40 years of age, should be qualified to be a member of NA. He would be elected through indirect elections for a period of five years. If he has held office for more than 8 years, he could seek re-election with the approval of the National Assembly and the Provincial Assemblies. National Assembly was given the power to impeach the president, however it was difficult to achieve. President could dissolve the NA but in that case he must seek re-election. Powers of the President:
The term of President was 5 years to act as the Head of the State as well as Chief Executive-solely responsible for countrys administration. He was also the Focal point of all the Executive, Legislative and Judicial powers. Cabinet was responsible to him. Governors and ministers could be appointed and removed by him. He was eligible to promulgate any ordinance and veto against any legislated law. He could make his Cabinet and the members of his cabinet should not be necessarily the ministers of the National Assembly. He was the most powerful person to administrate and legislate. He was not answerable to National Assembly. He had all powers to accept any bill of the assembly or cancel it. All key appointments were to be made by President Powers i.e. nomination the Judges of Supreme and High Courts, Auditor General, Advocate General, Higher Officials of the army and higher bureaucracy were in his hands. He could also declare State of Emergency in the country.
5. National Assembly (NA)

NA was consisted of one house on the basis of principle of parity between two wings of the country. There were 150 seats plus 6 seats were reserved for women. All were elected indirectly. For the membership minimum age limit was 25 years. Later on, the number was increased to 218, out of these 200 members were elected, ten were nominated by government and eight reserved for women. This assembly was called the National Assembly.
6. Legislative Powers:
NA had all the powers of law making but law was to be finally ratified by the president. President could sign, reject or return the bill.
7. Financial Powers
Financial Powers of NA were limited. Only new expenditure could be voted. NA could not reject Consolidate Fund List and Recurring Expenditure.
8. Federalism
There were two provinces of the federation: East Pakistan and West Pakistan. The constitution provided for a federal system with the principle of parity between East Pakistan and West Pakistan.
9. Provincial Governments
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According to the constitution, the provincial governments were established in both wings of the country. The provincial governments were headed by the Governors who could appoint provincial ministers with the approval of the President There was a strong center with a Powerful President. He had enough powers to manage provincial affairs. In case of emergency powers Central government could take direct control of the province.
10.
Indirect Elections:
This constitution established the system of indirect elections. An electoral college comprising 80,000 members (later on 1, 20,000) of Basic Democracies elected the president of the country and the members of the National Assembly.
11.
Judicial System:
The constitution established an integrated judiciary which comprised higher courts and lower courts. Supreme Court was the highest court of Pakistan. It could hear appeals against the decisions of lower courts. In addition to, it had the authority to interpret the constitution. The lower courts included the High Courts, District courts and Service Tribunals. 12. Principles of Policy Following were the principles of policy: No law shall be framed in contravention to Quran and Sunnah. Islam would be implemented in day to day life. Prohibition on the use of drugs in the country. Both the provinces enjoy the full powers. Rights of minorities will be protected. Opportunities for participation in national life. National solidarity would be observed. Illiteracy will be wiped out of the country. Education and well-being of people. The standard of living of people will be raised. Interests of backward people would be looked after. Friendly relations will be established with the Muslim countries.
13.
National Languages:
Urdu and Bengali were declared national languages but English was retained as an official language. 14. Fundamental Rights
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This constitution guaranteed to all the citizens their fundamental rights of speech, movement, peaceful assembly, prosperity and religion.
15.
Political Parties
Originally Political Parties were not allowed. Political Parties Act was introduced in 1962.
16.
Islamic Provisions
Objectives Resolution was the Preamble of the Constitution. Other Islamic provisions were a part of Principles of Policy and not the constitution. Following were the Islamic principles of the Policy: Gods sovereignty was proclaimed as the basic principle. Pakistan was declared as Islamic Jamahiriya Pakistan: The president must be a Muslim. No law shall be repugnant to the teachings and requirements of Islam as set out in the Holy Quran and Sunnah and all existing laws shall be brought in conformity with the Holy Quran and Sunnah. The Muslims of Pakistan should be enabled individually and collectively, to order their lives in accordance with the fundamental principles and basic concepts of Islam, and should be provided with facilities whereby they may be enabled to understand the meaning of life according to those principles and concepts. Teachings of the Quran and Islamiat to the Muslims of Pakistan should be made compulsory. The word Islamiat was not included in the relevant Article of the former Constitution. Unity and observance of Islamic moral standards should be promoted amongst the Muslims of Pakistan It was designed for the Research and instructions in Islam for assisting the reconstruction of Muslim society on truly Islamic lines. An Advisory Council for Islamic Ideology was made in the constitution having 5 12 members. It was a recommendatory body.
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Causes Of The Failure Of The Constitution Of 1962 - Critical Analysis

The Constitution of 1962 could not win popularity among masses due to following reasons: i) Gen. Ayub Khans rule was a constitutional autocracy and the constitution of 1962 was actually just a tool to achieve this purpose. That is why it could not become popular among people. The Constitution conferred unlimited powers on the President. President Gen. Ayub Khans regime could be compared to the British vice-regal system which existed in India during the thirties and forties of the century. The people of East Pakistan were not happy with the constitution because West Pakistan dominated all spheres of life. All the high officers like Presidents, Commander-in-Chiefs of Army, air Force and Navy were from West Pakistan. The system of Basic Democracies introduced method of indirect election to the President and the National Assembly which deprived Pakistani people of their basic rights.
ii)
iii)
iv)
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Constitution Of 1973
Background:
After the debacle of 1971, the country faced serious political and constitutional problems. The Constitution of 1962 had been abolished. Zulifqar Ali Bhutto when took over the reins of the country, he gave a serious attention towards the framing of a new constitution for the country. The National assembly appointed a committee on 17th February, 1972. The committee was headed by Hafiz Pirzada to frame a draft constitution for the new constitution. The committee submitted the draft constitution in the National Assembly on 2nd February, 1973. The draft was passed by the assembly and the President gave his assent on April 12, 1973. It was promulgated on 14th August, 1973.
Salient Features Of The Constitution Of 1973:

a) Written Constitution: The constitution of 1973 is a written document. It consists of twelve parts comprising of 27 Chapters and 280 Articles. The twelve parts deals with the following topics. Part One= Introductory Part Part Two= Deals with Fundamental Rights Part Three= Deals with the Federation Of Pakistan Part Four= Deals with the Provinces Part five= Deals with the links between Federation and Provinces Part Six= Deals with the matters like finance, property and contracts. Part Seven= Deals with Judiciary Part Eight= Deals With Electoral System Part Nine= Deals with Islamic Provisions Part Ten= Deals with emergency Part Eleven= Deals with Amendment Procedure Part Twelve= Deals with Miscellaneous matters.
b) Introductory: The constitution of 1973 commences with an introductory in which Objective Resolution is included which declares Gods sovereignty over the Universe.
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c) Rigid Constitution: It is a rigid Constitution means it is not easy to make amendment to it. only Two-third majority of both the houses of Parliament is required for any amendment. d) Federal System: The constitution introduced a federal system in the country. According to this system, the country consisted of federal government and four provinces. President is the Head of the State. e) Federal system Of Government: Unlike the Constitution of 1962, the Constitution of 1973 introduced a parliamentary system of Government in the country. Prime Minister is the Head of the government. He is the leader of the majority party in the parliament. He runs the affairs of the country with the help of a cabinet. The members of his cabinet are elected by the ministers of parliament. Prime Ministers enjoy wide powers. f) Bicameral Legislature: Unlike the constitution of 1956 and 1962, this constitution set up a bicameral legislature comprising of a National Assembly (Majlis-e-Shoora) and a Senate. The tenure of the National Assembly is five years. The Senators are elected for the term of 6 years. Half of the members of Senate retire after every three years. g) Direct Elections: The Constitution of 1973 provides for a direct system of election to the members of national and provisional assemblies. The elections are held on adult franchise basis. h) Fundamental Rights: This constitution guarantees fundamental rights to all citizens, these are: 1) Security of person and property 2) Safeguard against slavery and forced labour 3) Freedom of Movement 4) Freedom Of Speech 5) Freedom Of Peaceful assembly 6) Freedom to hold property 7) Freedom to earn livelihood 8) Equality before law 9) Freedom to profess religion 10) Protection of language and culture the following
i) Independent Judiciary: This constitution has set up independent judiciary in the country. The Judges are appointed by the President of Pakistan but they cannot be removed from services without the recommendations of Supreme Judicial Council. j) High Treason: This constitution declares that any unlawful abolishment of the constitution of Pakistan would be considered a high treason.
k) Rule Of Law: The constitution has established rule of law in the country. According to this constitution the people of Pakistan are guaranteed their fundamental rights and all of them are equal before law. l) National Language: Urdu has been declared national and English as an official language. m) Single Citizenship: This constitution has enforced the principle of single citizenship in Pakistan. According to this provision, the duties and rights of the citizens are determined by the federal constitution only. Thus throughout the country the people are the citizens of Pakistan only. n) Principle Of Policy: The following principles of policy have been laid down in the constitution of 1973. Local Bodies will be set up for solving local problems. The parochial prejudices will be discouraged. The women shall be given equal representation in all spheres of life. The rights of minorities will be protected. Links with Muslim countries will be promoted. People from all parts of the country allowed to serve in Armed Forces. State shall promote social justice. o) Islamic Provisions: The Constitution included following Islamic provisions: Country was named as Islamic Republic Of Pakistan. Gods sovereignty was declared over the universe and authority delegated by Him is a sacred trust. Islam was declared as a State religion of Pakistan. Teachings of Holy Quran and Arabic made compulsory in the country. Muslims shall be allowed to mould their lives according to the teachings of Islam. Prime Minister and President should be Muslims. During oath-taking ceremony, both Prime Minister and President must declare that they believe in the Oneness of God/Almighty Allah, the sacred revealed books of Allah with the Holy Quran being the last of all and the Prophet hood of Muhammad (PBUH) as the last prophet of Allah. Parliament was given the Islamic name as Majlis-e-Shoora. Establishment of Council of Islamic Ideology to bring all the existing laws into conformity with the injunctions of Holy Quran and Sunnah and advice the President, National Assembly, Senate, Governor or Provincial Assemblies on Islamic matters. Promotion of friendly relations with the Islamic countries be promoted.
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p) Referendum: This constitution allows the President to hold referendum on national issues of extreme importance. Prime Minister can also ask the President to hold referendum on any national issue.
Critical Analysis:
In light of the previous experience, the Constitution of 1973 was more Islamic in character than the previous ones. Emphasis was made to establish a real Islamic system in all aspects of social life. Keeping this objective in mind, more Islamic provisions were laid down in the Constitution of 1973. The Constitution recognized Islam as the religion of the country and enjoined upon the State to serve the cause of Islam and to bring all existing laws in conformity with Islam. The Islamic Advisory Council was set up to recommend ways and means to bring existing laws of the country in conformity with the Islamic principles. The Constitution of 1973 remained in force for nearly four years. It was, however, suspended by General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, who imposed Martial Law in the country on July 5, 1979. However, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq who ran the country with Martial Law passed the Eighth Amendment in the Constitution in 1985. This Amendment empowered the President to dissolve the National Assembly under Article 58(2) b. This Article was later repealed by the Parliament during Nawaz Sharif's era through Thirteenth Amendment introduced on April 1, 1997. The Thirteenth Amendment was in turn repealed by the Legal Framework Order of 2002, which effectively restored the discretionary powers of the President enacted by the Eighth Amendment.
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Advocate Ch. Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

The Sufic Tradition

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

The Naqshbandi Order:

The Qadri Order:

The Chisti Order:

The Rifa's Order:

The Shadhili Order:

The Mevlavi Order:

The Bektashi Order:

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

The Ni'amatullah Order:

The Tijani Order:

The Jarrahi Order:

Sufism in Modern Times

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

Mujadad Alf Sani (Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi)

Brief Life Sketch:

Social Conditions of India:

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

Services to Islam (Efforts to Purify Muslim Society of Unislamic Practices):

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

Two Nation Theory

Opposition of Innovation (Biddat)

Promotion of Naqshbandia Chain

Reformation through Letters

Shiekh Ahmed and Two-Nation Theory:

Literary Works of Hazrat Mujadid Alif Sani:

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

Agreed to construct the mosque. Shariats superirority to Myticism

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

Shah Wali Ullah Muhaddith Dehlvi

Conditions of India At That Time:

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

Brief Life Sketch:

Achievements and Services

1. Literary and Religious Works:

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

Object of The Movement

Haji Shariatullah (1781-1840)

Condition of Bengal on That Time:

His Revival Efforts and Services / Effect of The Faraizi Movement:

Resistance to Landlords & European Indigo Planters:

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

Dudu Mian (1819-1860)

His Revival Efforts and Services:

b) Opposed Hindu Zamindars & British Regime

Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam

The Mujahideen Movement

Background of the Mujahideen Movement

Objectives of Mujahideen Movement

Phases of The Struggle of Mujahideen Movement:

Battle At Okara (1826): Syed Ahmed Shaheed Brelvi reached Nowshehra

Conspiracy of Sikhs After Several Defeats: The above said victories

Establishment of The Caliphate of Syed Ahmad: On January 11,

Diplomacy of Ramjit Singh: These victories and successes of Mujahideens

Battle of Balakot (1831): Balakot was thought to be safe as it was protected

Prepared by: Muhammad Faisal ul Islam