CHAPTER 3 FOUDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT- is a persons overall set of expectations regarding what he or she will contribute

to the organization and what the organization will provide in return. Individuals contribute effort, ability loyalty, skills time and competencies. Organizations provide inducements in the form of tangible/intangible rewards. (Pay, job security, benefits, status, career opportunities, promotion opportunities) PERSON JOB FIT- is the extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization. One aspect of managing psychological contracts is management of the person job fit. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES- are personal attributes that vary from one person to another. Individual differences may be physical, psychological and emotional. Basic categories of individual differences include personality, attitudes, perception and creativity. PERSONALITY- is the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another. (Stable means do not change dramatically over time) Personality shaped by both heredity and environment affected by social experiences. Personality has internal and external elements. An internal state represents the thoughts, values and genetic characteristics that we infer from the observable behaviours. External traits are the observable behaviours that we rely on to identify someones personality. Example: we can see that a person is extroverted by the way he or she interacts with other people. Big Five Personality Dimensions five clusters represent most personality traits 1. Conscientiousness characterizes people who are careful, dependable and self-disciplined 2. Agreeableness (vs. non-compliant/hostile) includes traits of being courteous, good-natured, trusting, empathetic and caring 3. Neuroticism (vs. emotional stability) characterizes people with high levels of anxiety, hostility, depressed, self-conscious 4. Openness to experience (vs. resistant to change) refers to the extent to which people are sensitive, flexible and curious 5. Extroversion (vs. introversion) characterizes people who are outgoing, talkative, sociable and assertive MYERS-BRIGGS FRAMEWORK Framework based on the classical work of Carl Jung (Swiss psychiatrist) which was developed by (mother and daughter team) Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs-Myers.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) - a personality inventory designed to identify individuals basic preferences for perceiving and processing information. Carl Jung suggested that everyone is either extroverted or introverted in orientation and has particular preferences for perceiving (sensing or intuition) and judging or deciding on action (thinking or feeling). MBTI is designed to measure these as well as a fourth dimension relating on how people orient themselves to the outer world (judging versus perceiving). Sensing versus intuition- collecting information through senses versus through intuition, inspiration or subjective sources. Thinking versus feeling- processing and evaluating information using rational cause-effect logic versus personal values. Judging versus perceiving- orient themselves to the outer world judging types enjoy the control of decision making and want to resolve problems quickly. Perceiving types are more flexible and they like spontaneously adapt to events as they unfold and want to keep their options open.

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)- The extent to which people are self-aware, can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence Self-awareness- Ability to have a deep understanding of ones own emotions, and strengths, weaknesses, values and motives. Managing emotions- Refers to a persons capacities to balance anxiety, fear and anger so that they do not overly interfere with getting things accomplished. Motivating oneself- Refers to a persons ability to remain optimistic and to continue striving in the face of setbacks, barriers and failure. Empathy- Refers to the persons ability to understand how others are feeling even without being explicitly told. A persons ability to understand and be sensitive to the feelings, thoughts, and situations of others. Social skills- Refers to a persons ability to get along with others and to establish positive relationships OTHER PERSONALITY TRAITS AT WORK LOCUS OF CONTROL- personality traits referring to the extent to which people believe events are within their control. SELF EFFICACY- A persons beliefs about his/her capabilities to perform a task AUTHORITARIANISM-the belief that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems. MACHIAVELLIANISM- belief that deceit is a natural and acceptable way to influence others.

SELF-ESTEEM- the extent to which that person believes he or she is a worthwhile and deserving individual. RISK PROPENSITY- The degree to which a person is willing to take chances and make risky decision.

ATTITUDES- are complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations or other people. A cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings and behavioral intentions toward an object Structural Components of Attitudes Affect: a persons feelings toward something (represent your positive or negative evaluations of the attitude object)Ex. Mergers are good Cognitions: the knowledge a person presumes to have about something (established perceptions about the attitude object what you believe to be true) Ex. Lec believe that mergers reduce job security for employees. Intention: a component of an attitude that guides a persons behavior (represent your motivation to engage in a particular behavior with respect to the attitude object) Ex you might plan to quit rather than stay with the company during a merger. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE- The anxiety a person experiences when he/she simultaneously possesses two sets of knowledge or perceptions that are contradictory or incongruent. (A state of anxiety that occurs when an individuals beliefs, feelings and behaviors are inconsistent with one another) People change attitude: To be more consistent with past behaviors When behavior is known to others, done voluntarily, and cant be undone Availability of new information Changes in the object of the attitude Object of the attitude becomes less important To reduce cognitive dissonance

JOB SATISFACTION- The extent to which a person is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work. (a persons evaluation of his her job and work context.) Job satisfaction affects mood, which leads to positive behavior towards work and to stay with the organization. (Lower turnover of employees) (EVLN) model predicts 4 ways employees respond to dissatisfaction:

1. Exit: Leaving the situation by resigning from the organization or transferring 2. Voice: May be positive and constructive e.g. trying to work with management to solve a problem, or may be confrontational e.g. filing a complaint or engaging in behaviors to draw attention 3. Loyalty: Enduring and waiting for the problem to be resolved 4. Neglect: Passive activities with negative outcomes e.g. reducing work effort, increasing absenteeism ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT (job commitment) - A persons identification with and attachment to an organization (emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in an organization) If organization treats its employees positive (Lower turnover, higher job performance, less absenteeism, improved customer satisfaction) and negative consequences (Too little turnover which limits bringing in new knowledge and ideas, conformity which hold back creativity) PERCEPTION- The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment (The process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting information in order to make sense of the world around us.) BASIC PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES SELECTIVE PERCEPTION- the process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs. (The process of filtering information received by our senses) STEREOTYPING-the process of categorizing or labelling people on the basis of a single attribute. (The process of assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category.) Example: Sex role stereotyping -women are not encouraged to become engineers because the profession has a male stereotype. Problems with Stereotyping leads to inaccurate judgments about individuals based on social categories and may lead to unintentional discrimination, or an overt form of discrimination (prejudice- refers to unfounded negative emotions and attitudes toward people belonging to a stereotyped group) ATTRIBUTION THEORY- We attribute causes to behavior based on our observations of certain characteristics of that behavior (Making inferences about the causes of behavior) Internal: behavior due mainly to persons own ability or motivation

External: behavior due mainly to factors beyond persons control (e.g. luck, availability of resources) The Three Attribution Rules: Consistency -- the persons behavior in the past Distinctiveness -- the persons behavior in other settings Consensus how others would behave in same situation Internal attribution made if: High consistency -- person behaved this way before Low distinctiveness -- person does not behave like this toward other people or in different situations Low consensus -- other people do not behave this way in similar situations

External attribution made if: Low consistency -- person didnt behave this way before High distinctiveness -- person behaves like this toward other people or in different situations High consensus -- other people behave this way in similar situations Implications of attributions it affects decisions (grievances, reward distribution, punishment) and Employee self-efficacy (feeling of accomplishment only if we make an internal attribution) WORKPLACE BEHAVIOR- A pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness TYPES OF WORKPLACES BEHAVIOR Performance Behaviors All of the total set of work-related behaviors that the organization expects the individual to display. Example: Ben (an assembly line worker who attached parts to a product as it passes by. (has relatively few performance behaviour); Scientist (performance behaviour)has more diverse and much more difficult to assess. Dysfunctional Behaviors Behaviors that detract from organizational performance Absenteeism: when an individual does not show up for work Turnover: when people quit their jobs

Organizational Citizenship- The extent to which a persons behavior makes a positive overall contribution to the organization Example: Jake who does work that is acceptable in terms of both quality and quantity. However, she refuses to work overtime, wont help newcomers learn the ropes, and is generally unwilling to make any contribution beyond the strict performance of his job. Jake may be seen as a good performer but she is not likely to be seen as a good organizational citizen.