Journal of Product & Brand Management

Emerald Article: Consumer perceptions of mentioned product and brand attributes in magazine advertising Gustav Puth, Pierre Mostert, Michael Ewing

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To cite this document: Gustav Puth, Pierre Mostert, Michael Ewing, (1999),"Consumer perceptions of mentioned product and brand attributes in magazine advertising", Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 8 Iss: 1 pp. 38 - 50 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/10610429910257977 Downloaded on: 09-06-2012 References: This document contains references to 31 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 1 other documents To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com This document has been downloaded 4357 times since 2005. *

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An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article

Consumer perceptions of mentioned product and brand attributes in magazine advertising

Gustav Puth
Professor of Marketing Management, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Pierre Mostert

Product Manager, Telkom SA Ltd, Pretoria, South Africa

Michael Ewing

Senior Lecturer of Marketing, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia Keywords Advertising, Brands, Consumer attitudes, Consumer marketing, Marketing communications, Perception Abstract The processes of consumer perception and decision making remain relatively complex phenomena despite the depth of research undertaken in the area. One way in which these processes may be influenced is through the explicit mentioning of product attributes in advertising. This study investigates consumer perceptions of mentioned product attributes in magazine advertising for a specific product category. Results confirm a clear relationship between attributes specifically mentioned in advertising for the three selected brands and respondents' rating of those attributes against evaluative criteria for the product category. Factor analyses of respondents' ratings indicate a clear convergence of factors extracted and the mentioned attributes for each brand.

Comparisons between competitive brands

Introduction Product attributes play an important role in marketing communication for both the consumer and the marketer alike. Consumers use attributes as the basis for evaluating a product and attributes promise benefits consumers seek when purchasing a product. Consumers also use attributes to make comparisons between competitive brands. The importance of studying attributes goes beyond the physical features of a product since consumers link attributes to benefits of purchasing and consuming products. These benefits, or consequences, in turn lead to certain end states or values that consumers wish to achieve (Aaker et al., 1992; Belch and Belch, 1995; Kotler, 1991; Mowen, 1993; Peter and Olson, 1994). Although the focus of this study is on product attributes and their function in advertising, it is important to note that it is the consumer's perception of product attributes that is of crucial importance to the marketer. As Lewin (1936) points out, people respond on the basis of their perceptions of reality, not reality per se. Porter (1976) confirms that perceptions are important to study, even if they are misconceptions of actual events. Attributes and their function can therefore not be discussed in isolation. Analysis of the consumer perception and decision-making processes is therefore extremely important to assist the marketer to understand consumer behaviour, draft better positioning strategies and develop more effective advertising campaigns based on product attributes and the associated perceived benefits. The perception process has long been recognised as the most significant barrier to effective communication. It is at this point that the sender does or does not get through to the receiver (Aaker and Myers, 1987), since correct decoding of marketing information hinges on the consumer's perception of

Decision-making process

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the communication content (Koekemoer, 1991). The process of decoding may further be influenced by the level of abstractness of the material. Consumers nevertheless act and react on the basis of their perceptions, not on the basis of objective reality. With this in mind, it is important that marketers understand the whole notion of perception and its related concepts so that they can determine more readily what influences consumers to buy (Schiffman and Kanuk, 1991). Perception studies A problem with perception studies is that two individuals may be subject to the same stimuli under apparently the same conditions, but how they recognise, select, organise and interpret them is a highly individual process based on each person's own needs, values, expectations and the like (Schiffman and Kanuk, 1991). Adding to the difficulties in understanding perception is the fact that perception is largely a study of what we subconsciously add to or subtract from raw sensory inputs to produce a private picture of the world. The comprehension of the perception process is further complicated by phenomena such as thresholds (a point at which an effect begins to occur), the possible existence of subliminal perception, perceptual defence and the entire selective perception process. Intrinsic and extrinsic attributes The importance of attributes to the marketer is that product attributes are used to set the marketer's brand apart from that of the competitors based on a specific attribute or often several attributes or product benefits (Belch and Belch, 1995). Attributes are furthermore used by the marketer as the basis for developing new products and the drafting of specific positioning strategies based on the differentiating attributes the product has. Stokmans (1991) adds that a product can be viewed as a bundle of intrinsic and extrinsic attributes or as a bundle of perceived attributes. The description of a product in terms of its intrinsic and extrinsic attributes is usually based on the marketer's perspective. The consumer, on the other hand, uses perceived attributes in the decision-making process. Peter and Donnelly (1995) emphasise the importance of product positioning strategies based on attributes by stating that these strategies are useful for giving marketers a clearer idea of consumer perceptions of market offerings and for selecting appropriate attributes for positioning products. Marketers make use of attributes In advertising, marketers make use of attributes to state that a product has a certain attribute or that its attributes provide certain benefits to the consumer. Marketers therefore use attributes in advertising to influence the consumer's evaluation of alternatives by featuring the product's salient attributes. The objective is to influence the consumer in such a way that the brand name is associated with the most important attribute. Propositions In view of the preceding literature review, and the general principles of consumer behaviour, the following propositions are forwarded as probable outcomes of the investigation: P1: Attributes found in advertising of the product category as a whole are perceived to be important by consumers when selecting the product.
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 8 NO. 1, 1999 39

P2: In the case of advertising for specific brands, the attributes explicitly mentioned in advertisements are perceived as more important than general product attributes not mentioned in the advertisements. P3: There is a correspondence between the factors for individual brands and the attributes explicitly mentioned in the advertising for the respective brands. Research design The objective of the investigation is to determine underlying consumer perceptions of product attributes featured in magazine advertising. To reach this objective, a two-stage research design was used. Lipstick Content analysis was applied during the first stage to establish an exhaustive list of product attributes featured in magazine advertisements pertaining to a certain product category. It was decided to focus on cosmetic products and to study attributes of lipstick in particular. Lipstick was selected because the product is described by a variety of different attributes explicitly mentioned in advertisements. During stage two, a sample of lipstick users were required to evaluate the importance of the overall product attributes for the product category as well as for three brands of the product. Factor analysis was used to determine whether underlying factors exist among the input variables obtained through content analysis. Stage 1: Content analysis of magazine advertisements Analysis of advertising content has been widely discussed and used for a variety of research purposes over the last three decades (Aaker, 1984; Cutler and Javalgi, 1992; Dowling, 1980; Harmon et al., 1983; James and Vanden Bergh, 1989; Javalgi, et al., 1994; Kassarjian, 1977; Madden et al., 1986; Puth, 1981; Puth et al., 1982; Ramaseshan et al., 1996; Rice and Lu, 1988; Zandpour et al., 1992). It is employed in this study to create an exhaustive list of product attributes used as input variables to a multiple item Likert scale instrument, the results of which were then subjected to a series of factor analyses to determine underlying consumer perceptions of product attributes. Three women's magazines Three women's magazines were selected and all lipstick advertisements for the period June 1994 to May 1995 were included in the study. It is important to note that, although editorials and promotions regarding lipstick were excluded from the analysis, they were almost always accompanied by an advertisement. Twenty-two lipstick attributes were extracted from the advertisements. Stage 2: Evaluation of the attributes Once the exhaustive list of featured attributes had been compiled, a questionnaire was designed to determine the importance rating of each lipstick attribute when selecting a lipstick. In addition to determining the importance ratings for the total product category, performance ratings on each of the attributes for three specific brands of lipstick were determined to identify relationships between consumer perceptions of the listed 22 attributes and the explicitly mentioned attributes in advertising for three selected brands. Three advertisements of lipstick were therefore selected, each containing a different number of attributes. The objective of selecting advertisements each containing a different number of attributes was to
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determine whether performance ratings would vary as the descriptions and number of explicitly mentioned attributes varied. Clarins, Ellen Betrix and Maybelline The three advertisements selected were Clarins, Ellen Betrix and Maybelline. The Clarins advertisement mentioned 12 attributes, while Ellen Betrix and Maybelline mentioned four attributes each. Maybelline also portrayed a female model displaying the product. The importance and performance ratings of the lipstick attributes were measured by means of continuous rating scales, where the respondent had to assign a rating by placing a marker at the appropriate position on a dotted line where there was no explicit standard for comparison (Dillon et al., 1990). Once the questionnaire was completed, numerical values were ascribed to each dot. The extremes for the importance ratings for the lipstick attributes were ``extremely important'' (with a numerical value of one) and ``totally unimportant'' (numerical value of five). The questionnaire was presented to a group of female undergraduate university students. Respondents had to first rate the importance of each of the 22 attributes of the total product category when selecting lipstick. They were then presented with a projected image of the first advertisement, Clarins. After being exposed to the advertisement for a period of three minutes, they had to indicate the performance of the brand on each of the 22 attributes on a five-point scale ranging from excellent to poor. This process was repeated for Ellen Betrix and Maybelline. 187 respondents completed the questionnaire Respondents A total of 187 respondents completed the questionnaire. Of the 187 respondents 177 (94.7 percent) indicated that they used lipstick with only 10 respondents (5.3 percent) claiming not to use lipstick at all. Ten respondents (5.3 percent) claimed that they never used lipstick and a further 45 (24.1 percent) indicated that they seldom (0-2 occasions per week) used lipstick. A further 42 respondents (22.5 percent) indicated they used lipstick regularly (2-4 occasions per week), 41 (21.9 percent) fairly regularly (4-6 occasions per week) and 49 (26.2 percent) frequently (more than 6 occasions per week). It can thus be assumed that the majority of respondents (70.6 percent) could be classified as ``experts'' when selecting lipstick (regular, fairly regular and frequent users of lipstick). Analysis Factor analysis was applied to the four sets of data comprising the importance ratings for the total product category and performance ratings for each of the three brands. The purpose of factor analysis (Boyd et al., 1989) is to determine whether the responses to several of the statements are highly correlated. If statements are highly correlated, it is believed that the statements measure some factor common to all of them. In other words, factor analysis attempts to reduce a large number of variables to some smaller number by showing which belong together and which seem to measure the same thing (Emory and Cooper, 1995). The Varimax-technique of orthogonal rotation (Bagozzi, 1994) was used. Only factors with eigenvalues greater than one (Child, 1979) were extracted. Although factor loadings greater than 0.30 are often considered significant, it was decided to concentrate on values greater than 0.50 only, due to the small scale of the study.
41

Four sets of data

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Results In discussing the results of the investigation, only the mean scores and the outcomes of the factor analysis on the importance ratings of the 22 attributes for the total product category, and the factor analyses of the performance ratings for each of the three brands on the 22 attributes are reported. The assumption here is that this not only will provide a basis for comparing brand performance against product category attributes, but that it will also allow for comparing the factors of each brand with the actual mentioned attributes in its advertisement. Table I depicts the mean scores of the importance ratings of each of the 22 attributes identified through content analysis for the total product category, as well as the performance mean scores for each of the three selected brands on each of the 22 product category items. In selecting a lipstick... In evaluating the relative importance of the 22 items for the total product category, colour was considered by respondents to be the most important attribute when selecting a lipstick (mean value of 1.50). The features that lipstick should not run or bleed, should stay on lips, prevent dryness and have a long-lasting wear are the next important. The least important attributes were the claim that lipstick should be perfume-free, the brand name and the use of an innovative formula. As far as the performance of the items with reference to each of the three brands is concerned, it seems clear that those items specifically mentioned in advertising for the brands generally performed better than items not mentioned in the advertisements. Table II represents a comparison of the results of the factor analyses for the product category and each of the three analysed brands. In each instance, the
Product category 1.50 1.51 1.55 1.60 1.63 1.85 1.86 1.89 2.02 2.12 2.14 2.30 2.36 2.36 2.44 2.47 2.48 2.60 2.72 2.80 2.80 2.98

Variable Colour Does not run or bleed Stays on lips Prevents dryness Long-lasting wear Smooth Moisturises Protects lips Price Nourishes Matt finish Vitamin-E enriched Not tested on animals Polished colour Phytospheres Hypo-allergenic Conditioning colour Light texture Creamy texture Brand name Innovative formula Perfume-free

Clarins 2.06* 2.38 2.43 2.02 2.12* 1.67* 1.81* 1.81* 3.01 1.81* 2.63 2.54 1.97* 2.14 1.86* 2.17* 2.27 2.47* 2.06* 1.97* 2.49 2.89

Ellen Betrix 1.77* 2.58 2.60 2.26 2.61 2.07 2.06 2.22 2.95 2.13 2.49 2.62 2.63 2.23 2.57 1.83* 2.37 2.07 2.37 1.92* 2.51 1.93*

Maybelline 2.32 2.66 2.56 1.94* 2.56 2.22 1.85 2.45 3.08 2.33 2.74 2.75 3.24 2.10* 2.81 2.94 2.65 2.36 2.47 2.48* 2.24* 2.96

Notes: *** Scale: 1 = extremely important; 5 = not important at all; **Scale: 1 = excellent; 5 = poor; * specifically mentioned in advertisement

Table I. Importance mean scores*** for the product category and performance mean scores** for the selected brands
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Product category (%) Clarins (%)

. .

Ellen Betrix (%)

Maybelline (%)
.

JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 8 NO. 1, 1999

. . . . . . . . . . .

Lip care (24.1) protects lips (0.76) prevents dryness (0.73) nourishes (0.73) moisturises (0.52) Colour as value for money (7.9) colour (0.65) does not run/bleed (0.58) conditioning colour (0.56) price (0.56) Durability (7.1) long-lasting wear (0.78) stays on lips (0.77) Composition (6.0) innovative formula (0.77) vitamin-E enriched (0.57) polished colour (0.50) Texture (5.1) creamy texture (0.76) light texture (0.68) Brand association (5.0) not tested on animals (0.70) brand name (0.66)

Durability and protection (39.9) stays on lips (0.82) does not run/bleed (0.74) long-lasting wear (0.74) matt finish (0.64) smooth (0.57) conditioning colour (0.56) protects lips (0.56) Naturalness as value for money (8.8) not tested on animals (0.83) price (0.77) perfume-free (0.71) hypo-allergenic (0.60) Formula (5.7) innovative formula (0.71) prevents dryness (0.69) nourishes (0.64) Texture (5.4) light texture (0.76) moisturises (0.73) creamy texture (0.65) Brand association (4.9) brand name (0.70) colour (0.65) polished colour (0.55)
.

Lip care and colour (28.4) nourishes (0.78) protects lips (0.74) smooth (0.55) prevents dryness (0.52) colour (0.52) conditioning colour (0.51) Durability as value for money (9.0) price (0.78) does not run/bleed (0.72) stays on lips (0.69) matt finish (0.63) perfume-free (0.60) Texture (6.3) light texture (0.79) creamy texture (0.72) moisturises (0.57) Composition (5.6) innovative formula (0.78) vitamin enriched (0.63) Naturalness (5.2) not tested on animals (0.75) polished colour (0.63) perfume-free (0.50) Brand association (4.7) brand name (0.63) long-lasting wear (0.56) Cumulative percent: 63.8

Lip care and durability as value for money (43.0) stays on lips (0.80) does not run/bleed (0.79) price (0.79) long-lasting wear (0.72) prevents dryness (0.60) phytospheres (0.58) matt finish (0.57) conditioning colour (0.54) protects lips (0.54) vitamin enriched (0.50) Lip care (9.9) creamy texture (0.71) moisturises (0.66) light texture (0.61) nourishes (0.61) not tested on animals (0.61) innovative formula (0.58) protects lips (0.58) vitamin enriched (0.56) Brand association (5.7) perfume-free (0.84) hypo-allergenic (0.75) brand name (0.72) colour (0.67) Appearance (5.2) polished colour (0.82) smooth (0.52)

Cumulative percent: 52.2

Cumulative percent: 59.2

Cumulative percent: 64.7

Table II. Comparative factors of product category and brands

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factors with percentage of variance explained, as well as the constituent variables with their respective factor loadings, are given. Although it should be kept in mind that the factors of the product category are based on an importance rating, and those of the brands on performance ratings, the comparison nevertheless provides insights on how each brand relates to clusters of perceived important attributes for the total product category. The five-point scale The most salient observation that can be made from Table II, is the difference between the results of the simple rating of attributes and the results of the factor analysis on the ratings. When the 22 items were rated on the five-point scale in terms of their relative importance, colour emerged as the most important attribute. However, after application of the factor analysis, it seems clear that lip care and protection emerged as the most important factor for the total product category as well as each of the three brands. Table III indicates the comparison of the factors analysis for each brand with the attributes mentioned in the advertising for the particular brand. The order of the mentioned attributes is arbitrary, and does not indicate any particular importance rating. Discussion The primary objective of this investigation was to determine consumer perceptions of displayed product attributes in advertising. In order to do this, it was necessary to determine the relevant product category evaluation criteria (attributes) used to evaluate lipstick. This was achieved through the use of content analysis. Twenty-two attributes were identified which in turn were used as input variables to the second phase of the research project, a quasi-experimental design. A sample of lipstick users was required to evaluate the importance of the overall product attributes for the product category and the performance three advertised brands the users were exposed to against these product category attributes. Factor analysis was then used to reduce the number of attributes to a more manageable set. The result was the identification of a number of underlying factors pertaining to the product category as a whole, and to each of the three brands selected for the study.
Clarins Attributes Protects lips Nourishes Phytospheres Moisturises Smooth Light texture Creamy texture Long-lasting wear Hypoallergenic Not tested on animals Colour Brand name Ellen Betrix Attributes Hypoallergenic Perfume-free Colour Brand name Maybelline Attributes Polished colour Innovative formula Prevents dryness Brand name

Factors

Factors

Factors

Lip care and colour Durability as value for money Texture Composition Naturalness Brand association

Lip care and durability as value for money Lip care Brand association Appearance

Durability and protection Naturalness as value for money Formula Texture Brand association

Table III. Comparison of brand factors with mentioned attributes

44 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 8 NO. 1, 1999

The results of the study

The results of the study are discussed below in view of the three propositions formulated at the beginning of the investigation. P1: Attributes found in advertising of the product category as a whole, are perceived to be important by consumers when selecting the product. In determining the perceived importance of each attribute when evaluating lipstick, it was found that all the attributes identified through content analysis were perceived by the respondents to be important when selecting lipstick. None of the attributes scored a mean value greater than 3.0, where a rating of 1.0 was considered extremely important and a rating of 5.0 totally unimportant. This confirmed the relevance of exhaustive list of product attributes to the study. Thus, Proposition 1 can be accepted. P2: In the case of advertising for specific brands, the attributes explicitly mentioned in advertisements are perceived as more important than general product attributes not mentioned in the advertisements.

Explicitly mentioned attributes

With reference to the explicitly mentioned attributes for all three advertisements (Clarins, Ellen Betrix and Maybelline), the mentioned attributes were perceived as more important and consistently attained better mean scores than attributes not mentioned in the advertisements. It can therefore be assumed that the respondents specifically noticed the mentioned attributes and perceived these attributes to be of greater importance. Further, in each instance where the mentioned attributes varied, the attributes that were deemed important differed. It can therefore be suggested that explicitly mentioned attributes are perceived to be of greater importance with regard to a specific brand. These findings indicate that Proposition 2 can be accepted. P3: There is a correspondence between the factors for individual brands and the attributes explicitly mentioned in the advertising for the respective brands.

Underlying factors

During the second stage of the study, factor analysis was used to determine underlying factors pertaining to the multiple evaluation criteria for the product category lipstick when applied to product-specific advertisements. Factors were subtracted from each of the four sets of data. An interesting finding was that the factors identified for the total product category differed from the importance ascribed to attributes in terms of mean scores. On the mean scores, colour was rated the most important single attribute when selecting lipstick, but the first identified factor suggested that lip care was the most important feature sought when selecting lipstick. An innovative formula and brand name received relatively poor ratings, yet composition and brand association featured as characteristics considered when selecting a lipstick. When changes in consumer perceptions of attributes for the total product category lipstick, compared with product-specific advertisements containing explicitly mentioned attributes, varied, the level of correspondence between the featured attributes in the advertisements and the identified factors differed with each of the three advertisements. As more attributes were mentioned in the advertisements, the more the factors identified for the advertisements corresponded with the mentioned attributes. It can therefore be suggested that the more attributes are identified in advertisements, the greater the correspondence between the mentioned

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attributes and the labelled factors becomes. In view of these findings, proposition 3 can be accepted. ``Forced'' A final important finding was that as more attributes were mentioned, the factors identified for the advertisements corresponded to the factors identified for the product category. As the number of explicitly mentioned attributes decreased, the correspondence between the mentioned attributes and the identified factors decreased. The correspondence between the factors unaccounted for and the factors identified for the product category increased, leading to the suggestion that when specific guidelines (attributes) are not provided in advertisements, consumers are ``forced'' to lean on their previously held beliefs and perceptions. Acknowledgement is then given to the product category rather than to the advertised brand. Conclusions Attributes can be used by the marketer in an advertisement to position the product in the mind of the consumer according to the product's attributes or to change the perception the consumer currently holds of either the attributes of the product category or of a specific brand. It is important to note that perceptions that consumers hold of attributes often differ from the intended meaning conveyed by the marketer through his advertisements. Relative competitiveness It can be suggested that the marketer needs to determine which attributes (characteristics or factors) are perceived to be of value to the consumer for the product category. Once these attributes have been identified, the marketer may benefit by evaluating the brand on these criteria to determine its relative competitiveness. The identified attributes should, if present in the marketer's product, clearly be communicated through the marketer's advertisements. Besides mentioning the identified attributes, the marketer should also mention the product's differentiating attributes, since attributes that are explicitly mentioned in advertisements are perceived to be of greater importance to the consumer. It is also worth noting that, as more attributes are mentioned in advertisements, the greater the correspondence will be between identified factors and mentioned attributes. Where fewer attributes are mentioned, the consumer is ``forced'' to lean on previously held beliefs and perceptions. The marketer therefore stands at risk of failing in the intended message (trying to create or change a certain perception in the mind of the consumer) if attributes are not explicitly mentioned in advertisements.
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Child, D. (1979), The Essentials of Factor Analysis, Holt, Rhinehart & Winston, New York, NY. Cutler, B.D. and Javalgi, R.G. (1992), ``A cross-cultural study of the visual components of print advertising: the United States and the European Community'', Journal of Advertising Research, January/February, pp. 71-80. Dillon, W.R., Madden, T.J. and Firtle, N.H. (1990), Marketing Research in a Marketing Environment, 2nd ed., Irwin, Boston, MA. Dowling, G.R. (1980), ``Information content in US and Australian television advertising'', Journal of Marketing, Vol. 34, pp. 60-8. Emory, C.W. and Cooper, D.R. (1991), Business Research Methods, 4th ed., Irwin, Boston, MA. Engel, J.F., Warshaw, M.R. and Kinnear, T.C. (1994), Promotional Strategy: Managing the Marketing Communications Process, 8th ed., Irwin, Boston, MA. Harmon, R.R., Razzouk, N.Y. and Stern, B.L. (1983), ``Information content of comparative magazine advertisements'', Journal of Advertising, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 10-19. James, E.L. and Vanden Bergh, B.G. (1989), ``Information cues in general type and direct response magazine advertisements'', in Rotzoll, K.B. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1989 Conference of the American Academy of Advertising, RC-77. Javalgi, R., Cutler, B.D. and White, D.S. (1994), ``Print advertising in the Pacific Basin: an empirical investigation'', International Marketing Review, Vol. 11 No. 6, pp. 48-64. Kasarjian, H. (1977), ``Content analysis in consumer research'', Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 4, pp. 8-18. Koekemoer, L. (1991), Marketing Communications Management: A South African Perspective, Butterworths, Durban. Kotler, P. (1991), Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation, and Control, 7th ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Lewin, K. (1936), Principles of Topological Psychology, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Madden, C.S., Caballero, M.J. and Matsukubo, S. (1986), ``Analysis of information content in US and Japanese magazine advertising'', Journal of Advertising, Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 38-45. Mowen, J.C. (1993), Consumer Behavior, 3rd ed., Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, NY. Peter, J.P. and Donnelly, J.H. Jr (1995), Marketing Management: Knowledge and Skills, 4th ed., Irwin, Boston, MA. Peter, J.P. and Olson, J.C. (1993), Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy, 3rd ed., Irwin, Boston, MA. Porter, L.W. (1976), Organizations as Political Animals, Washington, DC, Presidential Address, Division of Industrial-Organizational Psychology, 84th Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association. Puth, G. (1981), A Functional Model and a Componential Analysis of Advertising as Communication, unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Bloemfontein. Puth, G., Oberholzer, A. and Myburgh, J.T. (1982), ``The portrayal of sex roles in South African television commercials'', Communicare, Vol. 5 No. 2, pp. 35-9. Ramaseshan, B., Ng, I. and Ewing, M. (1966), Patterns of Print Advertising: A Comparative Study of Western and Asian Countries, Curtin University School of Marketing Working Paper Series, 9601, Perth. Rice, M.D. and Lu, Z. (1988), ``A content analysis of Chinese magazine advertisements'', Journal of Advertising, Vol. 17 No. 4, pp. 43-8. Schiffman, L.G. and Kanuk, L.L. (1991), Consumer Behavior, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall International, London. Stokmans, M.J.W. (1991), ``The relative importance of product attributes: consumer decision theories in new-product development'', published Doctorial Dissertation, Delft University Press, Delft. Zandpour, F., Chang, C. and Catalano, J. (1992), ``Stories, symbols, and straight talk: a comparative analysis of French, Taiwanese and US TV commercials'', Journal of Advertising Research, January/February, pp. 25-37.

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