Cross-contamination: it is the transfer of micro-organisms between food, surfaces and

equipments. This is of particular concern to high-risk foods*(protein rich moist foods and ready to eat foods can get contaminated easily by pathogenic bacteria). Cross contamination can occur directly between foods or indirectly through something else. For eg:1) Where raw food and ready to eat foods come into direct contact with each other. 2) Knives and chopping boards are used for raw foods and then for ready to eat foods without first washing them. 3) Hands not washed between using raw foods and ready to eat foods. 4) Dirty hands wiped on clothing. 5) Clothes not sanitised after wiping them on dirty surfaces. Cross contamination is the result of carelessness and not following of proper procedures. For eg: using the same knives and chopping boards for both raw and cooked food without washing. Avoiding cross contamination: 1) Creating barriers of good design and proper layout of premises. 2) Keep the handling of raw and ready to eat foods separate.(eg .separate refrigeration units for cooked and raw foods, 3) Using separate utensils and equipments. 4) Always store ready to eat foods away from or above raw foods(e.g. storing cooked food above raw food in a refrigeration unit) 5) Effective and thorough hand-washing. 6) Effective cleaning and disinfection of mops, cloths, equipments and work surfaces. 7) Cleaning the high-risk food area before the raw food area. Using colour-coded knives and chopping boards for raw and cooked food is a good way to prevent cross-contamination.(red for raw meat and yellow for cooked meat) Ways to prevent microbiological contamination: 1) prevent contamination and crosscontamination, 2) slow down or prevent multiplication of bacteria, 3) destroy harmful bacteria. Heat food until piping hot 3) Store food at 5 degree Celsius or below 2) Cover cuts and sores-1) Washing hands between handling raw and cooked food 1) Cook chicken thoroughly- 3) Store frozen food at -18 degree Celsius : 2)

Microorganisms are tiny living creatures found everywhere. Most are harmless, some are useful, some can cause spoilage in food and drink making it unfit for consumption. Those microorganisms that cause food borne illness are called as pathogens(disease causing microbes). Bacteria growth: Bacteria are simple, single-celled organisms which under favourable conditions can grow and divide into two identical cells. In ideal conditions, this will occur every 10-20 min depending upon the bacteria. Ideally most pathogens require a moist, low acid and protein rich food at a temperature of about 37 degree Celsius. Factors for bacteria growth There are certain factors that are required for bacteria to grow and survive such as :1) Food: Bacteria need food to grow and survive. The acidity of the food will determine the level of their growth. Salt and preservatives can inhibit the growth of bacteria in food (i.e., slow down or prevent). Pathogens need protein rich foods to grow. These are also called as High-risk Foods (for e.g.: cooked meats, cooked poultry, as well as cooked , lightly cooked or raw egg dishes, dairy products, salads and cooked rice). Any food that is consumed without much or further cooking is considered to be highrisk. Also, the greater the preparation and handling of a food product the more are the chances of it being contaminated. Hence, diced ham is more likely to be contaminated than a slice of ham . 2) Moisture : All living things require water to survive. Bacteria take their water from moist foods or wet surfaces but they do not require much moisture, so for eg.: centre of a pie or a chicken leg is sufficient. Moreover, the moisture needs to be in a form the micro-organism can use so salty solutions such as brine will hinder the growth of bacteria. Also, drying of food is a good solution. 3) Presence or absence of oxygen: Human beings need oxygen to survive. This is true for some bacteria and not for others. The growth of both types can be curbed by packing the food in other gases. Some bacteria need oxygen for survival and need exposure to air. Others grow well in the absence of oxygen; hence care has to be taken with vacuum-packed products. Controlled atmosphere-packaging involves food being packed in nitrogen or carbon dioxide which slows down the growth of bacteria. These foods have a longer shelf-life. 4) Temperature: Temperature can help to control the growth of bacteria. At high temperatures, bacteria can be killed while at low temperatures, bacteria can be stopped from multiplying or their speed of growth can be slowed down. Below 5 degree Celsius, pathogens become inactive and stop multiplying. They do not die, and as soon as temperature rises, they start multiplying again. Pathogens grow best at human body temperature(i.e.,37 degree Celsius). Above 63 degree Celsius, all pathogens will begin to die off. At the centre of food, if a temperature of 75 degree Celsius is reached, all normal living cells of pathogens will die for 30 seconds.

Between 5 and 63 degree Celsius, bacteria can survive and multiply rapidly. This is called the Danger Zone. Good food hygiene practices can keep food out of this danger zone.

5) Time: