UNIT 3 GRAPHIC STATICS

Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives

3.2 Analysis of Force Systems

3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 Scalar and Vector Quantities System of Forces ParallelogramLaw of Forces Composition and Resolution of Forces Equilibrium Conditions of a Coplanar System of Forces Geometry of Plane Frames Types of Supports System of Concurrent Forces - Bow's Notation - Force Polygon Concept of Free Body Diagram Space Diagram and Vector Diagram Analysis of a Plane Frame Types of Beams Types of Loads Shear Force and Bending Moment Reactions Using Funicular Polygon

3.3 Plane Frames

3.4 Beams

3.5 Summary 3.6 Answers to SAQs

INTRODUCTION
The branch of science that deals with contrivances or efforts such as machines and structures employed to perform a desired function is called as "mechanics" (the word "mechanics" is derived from a Greek word meaning "Contrivances"). So the study of conditions under which bodies move or are at rest forms mechanics. These two aspects of rest and motion of bodies have led to the division of mechanics into two parts viz. Statics, dealing with the study of bodies at rest, and Dynamics, dealing with the study of bodies in motion. Analysis of bodies at rest by graphical means is called as Graphic Statics. It can be further defined as the analysis of forces and displacements using the concepts of vectors through graphical means.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to represent the force graphically to perform the mathematical operations through graphical methods, understand Bow's notations, determine the resultants, components, equilibrants, reactions, internal forces etc., by the graphical methods, conceptualise free body diagrams, and analyse simple statically determinate structural systems such as stays, cranes and trusses.

ANALYSIS OF FORCE SYSTEMS.

3.2.1 Scalar and Vector Quantities
In the solution of engineering problems, ordinarily two types of quantities are met with, i.e. Scalar quantity and Vector quantity. A scalar quantity is a quantity with magnitude only. No direction is associated with a scalar quantity, e.g. length, mass, temperature, etc. The scalar quantity may be represented simply by a line segment set out to some convenient scale. A vector quantity possesses both magnitude and direction, e.g. force, velocity, etc.

Stresses in Solids

Figure 3.1

Ffpre 3.2

Consider a force of 10 kN acting on a beam at an angle of 60" as shown in Figure 3.1. The force of 10 kN can be represented by a line ab shown in Figure 3.2. Select a scale of 5 mm = 1 kN, then length of line ab = 10 x 5 = 50 mm = 5 cm. The line ab must be shown in the same direction as that of the force. Force scale in this example is then equal to 5 mrn = 1 kN. The selection of the force scale should be such that the lengths of the lines selected to represent the forces must be reasonable to work with and should give results of the desired accuracy. The accuracy of the solution depends on the force scale. A very small scale when selected may not be sufficient to draw the force diagram to a desired accuracy.

3.2.2 System of Forces

When several forces of various magnitudes and directions act upon a body, they are said to constitute a system of forces. When the vectors representingpe forces of a system, all lie in one plane, it is called as a coplanar system of forces. When all the forces of a system meet at a point, they are said to form a concurrent system of forces.

3.2.3 Parallelogram Law of Forces

It two forces represented by the vectors AB and A C acting at an angle 8 are applied to a body through a point A, their action is equivalent to the action of a single force represented by the vector A D both in magnitude and direction, obtained as the diagonal of the parallelogram constructed on the vectors A B and A C as shown in Figure 3.3 (a). It may be noted that the law is nothing but a law of vectorial addition. The triangle ACD in Figure 3.3 (b) also represent the equilibrium of three forces and is called as the triangle of forces.

(a)

(b)
Figure 3 3 :P d l e l o g m m L a w of Forcea

3.2.4 Composition and Resolution of Forces

m e reduction of a given system of forces to the simplest system or to a single force (called as their resultant) which will be in effect, equivalent to the given system of forces is called as composition of forces. The replacement of a single force by several comporlerlts along several directions which will be in effect, equivalent to the given single force is called as the resolution of a force. Example 3.1 A force of 10 kN acts at an angle of 60" anticlockwise to the horizontal at a point D as shown in Figure. 3.4 (a). (a) Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the force. (b) Find its components along two mutually perpendicular directions OX and OY making 45" and 135"respectively to the horizpntal.

Graphic Statics

(b)
Figure 3.4 :Resdution of Forces

Solution

(a)

Draw OX and OY to represent the horizontal and vertical directions respectively. Represent the force vector as OP along the direction inclined at 60' anticlockwise to the horizontal, choosing a convenienl scale (say) 1 cm = 2 kN for the magnitude of the force (Figure 3.4 (a)). Now, project OP on OX and 0 Y to get OH and ,OV as the horizontal and vertical components respectively of the given force to the same scale as OP is represented.

Results

1. The horizontal component of the given force = 5 kN acting from left to right.

2. The vertical component of the given force = 8.66 kN acting vertically upwards. (b) Project the given force vector OP on OX' and OY' to get OM' and ON' which represent to the adopted scale the components of OF along O C and OY respectively as shown in Figure 3.4 (b).
Results

1. The component of the given force along OX' = 9.66 kIV acting along OX'

2. The component of the given force along OY' = 2.6 kN acting along OY' Examples 3.2 Cor~~pound system of forces shown in Figure 3.5 (a) to a single force. the

Figure 35 (a)

Fipre 35 (b) FTgure 35,: Composition of Forces

Solution
f
1

I
c

First, take any two convenient forces (say) OA and OB and find their resultqt as OP and any other third force (say) OC as OQ. Proceed in the same way until all the given forces in the system are compounded to a single force OR as shown in Figure 3. 5 (b).
Result

The resultant of the given system of forces is 21 kN inclined at 35.5' anticlockwise to through 0. the horizontal acting in the sense shown ~assinr

Stresses in Solids

Aliter

The horizontal and vertical components of all the individual forces may be determined first and then the net values of the horizontal and vertical componenfi may be finally compounded to get the single resultant force of the given system.

3.2.5 Equilibrium Conditions of a Coplanar System of Forces

Consider a body in equilibrium under the action of external, forces P,, P,, ...,P, all acting in one plane as shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 :A Body Acted upon by a Coplanar System of Forees

Equilibrium of the body means that the body does not move in the horizontal direction, does not move in the vertical direction and does not rotate about any point in the plane. For the body not to move in the horizontal direction, the net horizontal component of all the external forces when resolved horizontally must be equal to zero because if there remains any residual horizontal component unbalanced, then the body will keep moving in the horizontal direction. By the same reasoning, for the body not to move in the vertical direction, the net vertical component of all the external forces when resolved must be zero. And for the body not to rotate about any point in the plane, the net moment of all forces about that point must be zero. Therefore, for the body to be in equilibrium (without suffering any horizontal displacement, vertical displacement and rotation), all the three conditions stated above must be simultaneously satisfied. These are known as conditions of equilibrium which may be stated mathematically as below : When the body does not undergo any horizontal displacement as well as vertical displacement, it automatically follows that the body does not undergo displacement in any direction. Hence, it may be noted that to ensure the body against displacement in any direction, it is only necessary that the first two equilibrium conditions stated must be satisfied along any two arbitrary directions mutually perpendicular to each other. Therefore, in short, we can state that a body acted upon by a system of forces all of which lie in a single plane has got three degrees of freedom of movement, viz. displacements along any two mutually perpendicular directions and rotation about any point in the body. To arrest the body to remain in equilibrium all these three degrees of freedom must be curtailed. This is achieved when the three conditions of equilibrium are satisfied simultaneously.

3.3 PLANE FRAMES

3.3.1 Geometry of Plane Frames
The plane truss is a framework consisting of a number of bars joined together by pin connection. All the bars of the framework lie in one plane and this framework is stable against any type of loading acting in the same plane.
A few forms of plane trusses are shown in Figure 3.7. It can be seen that the different types of trusses are developments over a simple triangular shape. The spaces between the bars are hollow portions.

The truss carries the load from the structure supported by it and transforms the same to other structural members which in turn carrv them to the foundation.

Graphic Statics

Figure 3.7 :Different Types of Plane Trusses

The joints of the truss are also called nodes &d these joints or nodes are treated as hinged points. The loads are applied at the nodes so that the members of the truss are subjected to pure tension or compression.

3.3.2 Types of Supports

A body subjected to external loads may be placed over supports that develop such reactive forces to balance the external loads. The supports are so placed and so designed as to develop the desired reactive components.

Whenever any movement of a body is prevented by a support a reaction opposite to the direction of movement that is prevented will be offered by the support.
A hinged support shown in Figure 3.8 (a) fixes the body at the point of support completely in its position. It arrests the vertical and horizontal degrees of movement and therefore, a horizontal and vertical reactive components Hand Vrespectively, are developed.

Figure 3.8

Hence, the resultant reaction will be acting in an inclined direction as shown by the arrow along the line of action.
A roller support shown in Figure 3.8 (b) does not prevent the movement of the body in the horizontal direction and hence, the horizontal reactive component will be absent in a roller support. But the support prevents the vertical movement of the body at the support and hence, a vertical reaction will be offered. It must be noted that the reaction offered by a roller support will be always perpendicular to the plane of the support.

Bodies may often be ''simply supported in which case the body is "simply" placed over the support. It is in effect, equivalent to a roller support except that there will be horizontal reaction due to friction between the body and the support. The friction will act to the advantage only and is always ignored and the reaction is taken as perpendicular to the plane of the support. Sometimes, the support conditions may not be clearly indicated. In such cases we must assume such support conditions that will develop the necessary reaction for the equilibrium

Stresses in Solids

of the body. For the external loadings acting over the structure shown in Figure 3.9, at least one end must be hinged so as to offer reaction to the horizontal component.

Figure 3.9 :One End Hinged to Offer Horizontal Reaction

Assumptions for the Analysis of Plane Frames

Before we proceed to analyse any frame, we must be appreciative of the following basic assumptions under which we base our solution : (1) All the joints of the frame are assumed to be frictionless hinge. Under this assumption, since a frictionless hinge is not capable of transmitting any moment, all the members of the frame are subjected to only axial forces (either tension or compression) when the external loads are applied through the joints. (2) It is assumed that the orientation of the various members of the frame is not disturbed after the application of the external loads. Actually, the orientation of the members will be slightly altered due to elastic shortening or extension of the members. The difference is quite trifling and considering the same amounts of splitting hair in a practical problem and hence, the same is ignored. (3) Under the action of the external loads, all the members of the frame behave "elastically". (4) The frame is "stable" under the action of the given external loads. If the frame is not stable, the equations of static equilibrium, which we make use of in our analysis, will nct be valid.

3.3.3 System of Concurrent Forces - Bow's Notation - Force Polygon

Let us first interest ourselves in the system of concurrent forces shown in Figure 3.10 (a). The most convenient way of identifying and representing a system of forces is achieved with the help of Bow's notation.
C

I
F2

F4

I
I

d
(b) vector hg m ar a

(a)Bow's Notation

Figure 3.10 :System of Concurrent Forces

To assign Bow's notation for a system of forces acting upon a body, we must go around the body once either in the clockwise direction or in the anticlockwise direction. In the example considered now, the body itself reduces to that of a point 0 and hence, we must go around the point. While going around the body each and every space must bc assigned a nolation, usually by an upper case alphabet, say, A, B, C ... etc. A space is constituted by the space in between the two adjacent lines of action of the forces. The start can be made from any force. Supposing, we start from F, and move in the clockwise direction, the line of action of the next force, we meet with is that of F,. Hence, designate the space in between the lines of action of F, and F , as A. Similarly, designate the space in between the line of action of the

force F, and that of the next forces F, as B and so on. The assigning of Bow's notation is completed with that of E between the line of adion of the last force Fsand that of the first force F, from which the start was made. Having given Bow's notation, now the force F2 may be called as AB. In the same way, the force C D refers to F . Also, the force F2may be , q called a BA and so on. In short, any force may be identified by the two letters denoting the two spaces which flank the line of action of the force.
Now. let us proceed to represent the system of forces. Make a start from the force AB and proceed clockwise taking every force in the cyclic order. Starting from an arbitrary point 'a', draw a line parallel to AB (Figure 3.10 (). Set out a vectorial segment 'aB'to some b) convenient force scale. (The same scale must be adopted for the representation of all the other forces of the system.) Now, the directed line segment 'aB'represents both in magnitude and direction the force F. Then, starting from'b', draw a line parallel to BC. Lay , off the vectorial segment 'bc', to represent the force BC to the chosen scale. Proceed in thc same way to represent all the forces. It may be realised that the directed vectorial segment 'a& represents both in magnitude and f 'bc' direction the resultant of the forces 'ac' and 'cd', i.e. the resultant o the forces 'ah', and 'cd'. Therefore, we can see. that when we represent the various forces as the sides of a polygon. We are continuously doing graphical addition and subtraction of the force vectors. If the end point of the last segment 'ea' coincides with the starting point of 'aB', then the resultant of the system becomes zero. When the resultant of the system of forces vanishes, the body is kept under equilibrium The polygon 'al)cdea' obtained as described above is called as the force polygon of the given system of forces. If the force polygon is a closed one, the resultant force is zero which means the body is in equilibtium If the force polygon does not close, the equilibrant of the q resultant force is obtained a the closing link of the polygon, the point of adion being the point of concurrency of the forces. Hence, we can state the proposition that for the body to be in equilibrium, under the action of a system of concurrent forces, the.force polygon must close. This proposition, we can see, is nothing but the translated version in graphical language of the two mathematical laws of equilibrium, viz. Z H = O and

It may be noted that the concept of force polygon implies the law of parallelogram of forces in a specific case when the number of forces acting over the body is two.

3.3.4 Concept of Free Body Diagram

In any organised arrangement of body or bodies, every constrained body is in equilibrium under the action of "active" and "reactive" forces. The diagram in which the entire arrangement of organised bodies or parts thereof is represented with the active and reactive forces over it, is called as the free-body diagram. In a free-body diagram, the isolated freebody with the effects of various causes that constrain the body is represented. Drawing the free body diagram can be gradually descended from the entire system to every one of its parts, for that matter, even to a point in that system Consider a ball of weight W hung from point P by means of a string and resting against a smooth wall at N as shown in Figure 3 11 (a). Isolate the ball and consider it as a free body.

-w
HUNG F R O M A STRING

(a) BALL

(b) F R E E

BODY O F B A L L

(c)

l R l A N 6 L E O F FORCES

StFessa in Solids.

The self weight of the ball W acts vertically downwards. ?be ball tend to fall down but the string pulls it up to keep the ball in position. The effect of the string over the ball is to exert a pull T as shown Figure 3.11 (b).The ball assumed to have a point contact with the smooth wall exerts a thrust Nnormal to the wall. ?be wall, in turn, exerts a thrust over the ball as shown in Figure 3.11 (c), the isolaled free body of the ball which is nothing but the triangle of forces.

33.5 Space Diagram and Vector Diagram

Space Diagram

The diagram representing the spatial arrangement of parts of the structure is called as the space diagram. The construction of the space diagram involves scalar quantities only. The system of forces acting over the structure is also always superposed over the space diagram schematically (not to the scale). Vector Diagram The vector diagram represents the system of forces acting over a structure by an orderly scheme of vectorial segments laid to scale. Accordingly, the vector diagram involves the representation of vector quantities to some convenient scale. Example 3 3 Determine whether the body shown in Figure 3.12 (a) and acted upon by the system of given external forces remains in equilibrium. If not, find the resultant force. Introduce the force that would bring the equilibrium of the body.
RESULTANT,

l0KN

(a) SPACE
Solution

DIAGRAM

W y r e 3.12 :Resaltant and Eguilibrant of a System of Coocurrent Forces

Firstly, we draw the space diagram representing all the given forces with their directions (Figure 3.12) and assign Bow's notation fromA to D for the spaces around the point of concurrency of the forces as shown. Now, we construct the vector diagramchoosing a convenient scale for the magnitude of the forces, starting from the force AB and proceeding in the clockwise direction, taking all the forces in the cyclic order as shown in Figure 3. 12 (b). In the vector diagram, the terminal of the force vector goes around and if it reaches the starting point, the force polygon will build a closed figure. If the force polygon closes, the body will be in equilibrium. In the example, it is seen that the force polygon does not close and hence, the body is not in equilibrium. Let us name the terminal point of the line segment representing the 40 kN force ate. Another force equal in magnitude and direction to ea is required to keep the body in equilibrium. Results (a) The resultant of the given system of forces = 24 kN acting in the direction parallel to 'a'through 0.

(b) The equilibrant of the given system of forces = 24 kN acting along the direction parallel to 'ea' through 0. Example 3.4 A body showh in Figure 3.13 (a) is in equilibrium under the action of a system of concurrent forces of which the force R is not known both in magnitude and direction, Find the value of R.

Figure 3 1 :Foree Pdygw .3

Solution Let us first give Bow's notation as shown in Figure 3.13 (a). Choosing a convenient force scale, we draw the vector diagram starting from the force AR proceeding in the clockwise direction and taking every force in the cyclic order. Since the body is in equilibrium under the action of the given system of forces, the force polygon must form a closed figure. Hence, the value of the unknown force must be the closing link of the force polygon 'da' in magnitude and direction. Result The value of R = 38.5 kN acting through the point of concurrency of the forces parallel to 'da.' Example 3.5 A weight W = 4 kN hanging on a cable BD is supported at point B by a cable AB and a boom BC as shown in Figure 3.14 (a). Determine the forces transmitted to the mast at points A and C .

.- _

( b1

FREE BOW OIAORAM OF JOINT B

( c 1 TRIAN8LE
FORCES

OF

(al WEIGHT

HANGING FROM THE CABLE

Figure 3.14

S t -

in SdlQ

sbl~tbn The tendency of the hanging weight W is to cause a "pull" or "tension" in the cable or and a "push*' "compression" in the boom. The free body diagram of the joint B. accordingly is &awn in Figure 3.14 (b). Considering the equilibrium of the print B, the force polygon may be drawn, which t' should form a closed triangle. The vectorial segments 'qr' and 'p represent the push in the boom and the pull in the cable respectively to the scale with which W is represented by 'pq'. Considering the equilibrium of the cable and the boom individually, the same forces at B in the cable and boom will be transmitted at A and C respectively to the mast.

3 . Analysis of a Plane Frame 36

Let us consider the plane frame shown in Figwe 3.15 (a) acted upon by the extemal loads given. It is desired to determine the forces in the various members of the frame. Before we proceed to determine the forces in the members,let us determine wmpletely the external forms acting over the frame. The external forces consist of actions that are imposed over the frame and reactions that are developed at the supports of the frame. The actions are given as data and the reactions remain to bc determined.

VECTOR D I A M A M

!XALE I c m = 10 KN

['b)

S P A C E OIAGRAM SCALE 1:100

(a 1

The left support 1 is hinged. A hinged support is capable of offering both horizontal and vertical reactions. But the frame under consideration is subjected to no action with a horizontal component. When there is no horizontal component of action there cannot be horizontal component of reaction. Hence, the left support though is capable of offering a horizontal reaction too, is not called to offer the same. Though for the particular case of the given external faces the frame will be in equilibrium even if both the supports are placed on rollers, one support is always hinged to take care of any unforeseen forces which may have horizontal components especially the wind forces. Therefore, the reaction at the left support is purely a vertical one. The right support is placed on rollers and hence, the reaction is a vertical component as shown. Also, it is easy to realise that both the reactions act vertically upwards. Now, there remain only the magnitudes of the reactions to he determined.

We draw the spaoe diagram to a convenient scale (say) 1 mm = 100 mm. First, we go around the frame and give Bow's m i o n kom A to D as sbown for the exterior spaces. Then, give Bow's notation to the interim spaces as E, F and G as shown in Figure 3.15 (a). Starting &om the force AB, pmxeding in the clockwise d i m , choosing a convenient force scale (say) 1 mm = 1 kN,draw the vector diagram Choose a suitable pole and draw the rays Oa, 06 and Oc. Now, parallel to say Du, draw a link of the funicular polygon in the
A.

1
1

'

The left support is hinged, we need not necessarily start from the hinge to draw the funicular polygon because it is known that the line of action of the reaction at the support is not inclined. Proceed to draw the other links and get the closing link of the funicular polygon as shown. Through o, draw the od parallel to t e closing link of the funicular polygon. The h vectors 'cd' and 'da' give both in magnitude and direction the values of the reactions R, and R, respectively. Now, run a cutting plane XX around the left support 1. Since the entire frame is in equilibrium, each and every joint of the frame must also be in equilibrium under tbe action of the fmces acting through the joint. Isolate the cut portion and draw the free-body of the joint 1 as shown in Figure 3.15 (c). Since all the members are subjected to only axial forces, the Line o action of the forces in the members is along their axes. Hence, the joint 1 is in f equilibrium under the action of a system of concurrent faces consisting of R,, the forces in A E and ED. We can now draw the face polygon for tbe system of forces and observing that the force polygon must close, we can determine the position of e shown in Figure 3.15 (d). Then the vectors 'ae' and 'ed' give both in magnitude and direction the forces in the members AE and ED respectively. Force da is considered vertically upwards as we have taken the naming order of separating spaces clockwise. Hence. from the force diagram we see that force ae is acting towards joint 1 and hence, the member force is compssive. Similarly, force ed is acting away from which we infer the member face to be tensile. Establish another cutting plane W around the joint 2 and consider its equilibrium By drawing the force polygon f a the system of concurrent forces acting at 2, we can locate the position of 'f ' in tbe vector diagram and hence, the values of the forces in the members BF and FE. Considering the equilibrium of the other joints 3 and 4, the f o r a s in all the members can be determined in the same way as explained. The force polygon for the various joints can be cunvenientJy drawn over the vector diagram itself a shown in Figure 3.15 (b) and such a s diagram in which the force polygons for all the joints are superposed is called as the "force diagram". The results are tabulated as shown in Table 3.1.

Member
AE

Force in kN

T e d
DE
15
5.5

Comprmdve
29
17.5 41

BF EF
CG

PC DG
L

55
21

Observations
I

(1)

there remain only two unknown faces, we can solve them. It is evident from the fact that the use o the condition that the force polygon f must close is equivalent to two mathematical equations, viz. Z H = 0; Z V = 0. For example, after solving for the f o m at the joint 1, if we consider the equilibrium of joint 3, we cannot solve the unknown forces at that joint because there are mote than two unknown faces. Hence, we have to proceed to snlv~ f a the faces at the p i t 2 and then come over to joint 3.

At any one joint, if

(2) If we want to m r the mow head for the vector 'a', point trom 'a' to ak it will 'e' when we consider the equilibrium of the joint 1, but the same will point from 'e' to 'a' when we consider the equilibrium o the joint 2. Hence, it is f better to avoid marking any arrow head in the vectors of the force diagram.

strrsa~~s l in dc i

(3) Only frames built-up of triangular elements are considered in this unit.
Example 36 .

Find out the forces in the various members of the jib crane shown in Figure 3.16 (a). Draw the space diagram to a convenient space scale (say) 1crn = 100cm. Give Bow's Notation.

( a) SPACE

OtA6RAM

t b) FORCE DIAGRAM
SCPLE l c m

SCALE 1: 100

= ZSKN

Sdutlon

In th~s example, it is not necessary to find out the reactions at the supports betore we p e e d to determine the fnrces in the members as we have a joint with only two members and an external form of known tnagnitude and direction. By considering the equilibrium of the joint 3, we can readily find out the forces in the members AD and BD and proceed to solve for the forces in all the members by considering the equilibrium of the other joints. In fact, after solving joints 3 and 2 by considering the equilibrium of the joints 1 and 4, we can find out the values of the reactions even without mstructing the funicular polygon. It may be realised that finding out the farces in members without determining the values o reactions at the supports is not f possible by proceeding fmm any of the joints in case of the truss shown in Figure 3.15 (a) as there were at least three rnembers meeting at any of the unsupported joints. C h m e a convenient force scale (say) 1 mm = 2.5 kN and draw the vector 'ab' vertically downwards. lhmugh 'a' draw a line parallel to the member AD. 7hcough 'b', draw a line parallel to the member BD. ?be point of intersection of the two lines drawn tixes the position of '8. he vectors 'brf and 'dayrepresent to the scale 'T BD chosen both in magnitude and direction the fixes in the ~nembers and DA respectively. Transfer the s e w s of the vector 'b8 and 'da' at the ends of the members BD and DA as shown in Figure 3.16. It is seen that, member BD suffers compression and DA Cension Similarly, consider the equilibrium of the joint 2 and t ' i i out the o m in the other members. The results ate tabulated as shown in Table 3.2. Table 3.2

SAQ

a
i .l)

Ztld!y\c praphlcitily the force\ F ; ~ g u ~7 \17 arid 3.1 8. e

In

thr rrremhers 0 1 thz trusseh shown III

Figure 3.14

Figure 3.20

3'4 BEAMS
3.4.1 Types of Beams . When the two ends of a beam are supported so as to offer lineat fotces as reactions, it is called as a simply supported beam. A beam with ooe end hinged and the otber placed on rollers may be called as a simply suppcxted beam. When om o both the end segments of a r beam are freely projecting from the supports, the beam is called as an overhanging beam. When one end of a beam is free and the other end fixed (in position end direction) the beam is called as a cantilever beam as shown in Figure 3.23 (a) to (d). A fued end can offer a linear force and also a moment as its reaction components.

(a)

SIMPLY OWPORTED

(b) OVER HANBINO

OVER -1, HANOI-

SPAN

LENBTH OF CANTILEVER

3.4.2 Types &Loads

1 Uniformly Distributed L .

d WDL)

When the external load acting upon the beam is distributed uniformly over a length of the beam, the loading is said as uniformly distributed load. ?be load is actually applied over an a e For example the self weight of the beam, the water pressure at ra the bottom of water tank etc. In Figure 3.24 (a), upon a simply supported beam AB, a UDL of intensity 10kN/macting over the length CD is sbown. By the intensity of UDL being 10 W m is meant that if that intensity of load acts over a length one f meter, the total load acting is 10 kN. Ihe intensity o load may be represented in the space diagram by a vertical ordinate with its sense as shown.An alternate way of representing a UDL is indicated in Figure 3.24 (b).

2. Uniformly Varying Load

In this kind of loading the intensity of loading varies uniformly from section to section along the length of the beam. For example, the water pressure upon the sides of the water tank. In Figure 3.25, a uniformly varying load of intensity zero at the free end and 20 kN/m at the fixed end of a cantilever is represented.

3 Concentrated Load . PhysicaYy tbe loads can be applied only over a finite area. However, we often find it convenient to think of loads as concentrated loads when the loads are applied comparativelyover a small area. Consider a uniformly distributed load of intensity 50 kN/m acting upon a beam over a length of ds = 1 rn as shown in Figure 3.26 (a). The total load is 50 kN and it may be obtained as the area of the loading diagram, i.e. the integrated value ofitheloading diagram is 50 kN/m x 1 m = 50 kN. Suppose same total load of 50 kN is applied over a length of ds = 20 cm only. The total area of the loading diagram should be the same and hence, the ordinate of the loading diagram should be 250 kN/m as shown in Figure 3.26 (b). A concentrated load may be realised as thq "limit" of the area of the loading diagram when the length dr + 0 as shown in Figure 3.26 (c).

3.43 Shear Force and Bending Moment

Consider a simply supported beam AB of span 10 m subjected to a concentrated load of 100IrN acting at a section 4 m from the right support. Then reactions are RA = 40 kN and RB= 60 kN as shown in Figure 3.27 (a). Make a vertical cut at a section XX, 2 m from the support A and isolate the portion AB as a free body as shown in Figure 3.27 (b). Sincethe beam is in equilibrium under the action of the external load, the cut portion AX must also be in equilibrium under the action of the loads acting over the cut portion and the forces induced across the cut section Consider the equilibrium of the cut portion AX. The equilibrium condition, ZV = 0, demands that a vertically downwards force equal in magnitude to RA = 40 kN be developed at the section XX. Similarly, C M = 0 demands that a moment of 80 IrN m with the sense as shown be induced at the section XX. The tendency of the force F is to cause relative sliding or

Stresses in Solids

"shearing off' between the two portions AX and XB. The force F is called as the shear force. The tendency of the moment M is to cause bending of the axis of the beam. The moment is called as the bending moment.

Figure 3.27 :Shear Force and Bending Moment

The same values of the shear force and bending moment but with senses as developed at the cross section X can be obtained by considering the equilibrium of the portion BX as shown in Figure 3.27 (c). Hence, it can be established that when a beam is subjected to transverse load, the cross sections of the beam suffer a shear force and a bending moment. The shear force at any cross section of a beam is the algebraic sum of all the transverse forces acting to the left (or right) of the section. The bending moment at any section of a beam is the algebraic sum of moments of all the forces acting to the left (or right) of the section. ?be relationship between the loading, the shear forces and the bending moment at any cross section may be mathematically stated as follows :

and

---

dM dx

-F

where w = the intensity of loading at the section distant x from the chosen origin. From the above two equations, it is evident that if the loading is integrated, the shear force diagram results arld if the shear Sorce diagram is again integrated the bending moment diagram results.

3.4.4 Reactions Using Funicular Polygon

Example 3.7 A horizontal structural member is in equilibrium under the system of forces shown in Figure 3.28 (a). The lines of action of R, and R, are as given in the figure. Find the magnitudes of the forces R, and R,.

IOKN

20 K N

(a) Space Diagram Scale :1 em = 1 m

(b) Vector Diagram Scale :1 an = 10 kN Figure 32 .8

Solutlon

Draw the space diagram choosing a convenient space scale say 1 cm = 1 m and give Bow's notation as shown in Figure 3.28 (a). Draw the vector diagram adopting a convenient force scale say 1 cm = 10 kN. Start from the force AB and proceed in the clockwise direction taking the forces in the cyclic order. The line of action of DE is

vertical and hence, 'e' must be in the vertical through 'd'. The force EA is inclined 30' clockwise to the vertical and hence, 'e' must also be in the line parallel to the line of action of R, through 'a'. Hence, locate 'e' as the point of intersection of 'ae' and 'de' as shown in Figure 3.28 (b). Now 'de' and 'ea' represent both in magnitude and direction the values of R2 and R,, respectively.
Results

Graphic Statics

The magnitude of R, = 9 kN, and The magnitude of R2 = 35 kN.

Example 3.8 A horizontal structural member is in equilibrium acted upon by the system of parallel forces shown in Figure 3.29 (a). Find out the values of RA and R,.

(a1 SPACE

DIAGRAM

SCALE l c m

= 1m

Solution

Draw the space diagram choosing a convenient space scale (say) 1 cm = 1 m and give Bow's notation as shown in Figure 3.29 (a). In Example 3.7. the use of the only proposition that the force polygon must close (which we have seen in equivalent to two mathematical equations, viz. C H = 0 and C V = 0 ) supplied us the values of the two unknowns R, and R,. Of course, the proposition that the funicular polygon must close will also be automatically satisfied since that is the consistent equilibriumcondition for the same example. But in the present example, since there is no horizohtal action, there is not any horizontal reaction too and hence, the use of the proposition that the force polygon must close is, in effect. equivalent to a single mathematical law, viz. C V = 0 which will not be sufficient to solve for the two unknowns RA and R,. Hence, we must necessarily make use of the proposition that the funicular polygon must close for the equilibrium of the member to solve for both the unknowns RAand R,. The step-wise procedure is explained in subsequent paragraphs. Starting from the force AB, choosing a convenient force scale (say) 1 cm = 5 kN, draw the force vector 'ah', 'bc' and 'cd'. Now, we realise that the vectors 'de' and 'ea' of the force polygon "match with the other vectors 'ab' 'bc' and 'cd' and hence, the location of 'e' becomes indeterminate. Theretore, we must proceed to draw the funicular polygon. Choose any arbitrary pole 0 and join O with a, B, c and d. Now parallel to the say On. in the space A, i.e. in between the lines of action of RA and the force AB, draw any line which constitutes one link of the funicular polygon. Similarly, draw links h parallel to t e rays Ob, Oc and Od in the spaces B, C and D respectively as shown in Figure 3.29 (a). Now, since the funicular polygon must close for the member to be in equilibrium, the closing line of the funicular polygon (shown as the dashed line) must

constitute the link in the space E. Tbe position of 'e' in the vector diagram may be easily obtained as the point of intersection of the say through 0 parallel to the closing line of the funicular polygon and the vertical timu@ '6. Having oMained the location of 'e' in the vedor diagram, 'de' and 'ea' represent both in m g i u e and antd direction the values of RBand RA, respedively. R d t RA= 22 W , and RB=28W. Exmple 3.9 A horizontal structural member is in equilibrium under the action of a system of forces shown in Figure 3.30 (a). Tbe direction as well as the magnitude of R, and the. magnitude of R, are not known. Determine the values of the mknown forces R, and R,.

(a)SPACE

DIAGRAM

(b) VECTOR

DIAGRAM

SCALE l c r n = l r n

SCALE 1 c m = lOKN

Solutlon In Example 3.8, there remained only one unknown link (to be in the space E ) of the funicular polygon and hence, using the proposition that "thefunicularpolygon must close", we readily d&rmined the unlmown link as the closing link of the polygon. In the present example, the line of action of R, is inclined which, in effect, is equivalent to two mlmown forces viz., RHand R Consequently,tbere are two unknown links , of the funicular polygon to be in the two spaces E and F and hence, the location of t e unlmown links becomes indeterminate. Therefore, we must employ a tactic to h remove one extra unknown.RHand Rvboth must necessarily pass through 2 and hence, the point 2 itself can be considered as the link of the funicular polygon in the space F,Then, we can proceed with the construction of the funicular polygon in the same way as explained earlier starting from 2. Draw the space diagram to a convenient scale (say) 1cm = 1 m and assign Bow's notation as shown in Figure 3.30 (a). Starting from the force AB choosing a convenient force scale (say) 1cm = 10 kN,draw the force vectors 'ub', 'bc' and 'cd' as shown in Figure 3.30 (b). Choose a convenient pole 0 and draw tbe rays 04 Ob, Oc and Od, starting from the end point 2, d a a link in ?he space A parallel to ?he rw say Oa. Similarly, draw the links in the spaces B, C and D parallel to the rays Ob, Oc and Od, respectively. Now obtain the closing link of the funicular polygon as the dashed line shown in Figure 3.30 (a). Parallel to the closing link of the funicular polygon, through 0 , draw a ray which cuts the vertical tbrougb 'd' at e. l h n , '&' and 'ed' represent to the vector scale both in e t u d e snd direction,the values of R2and R,, respectively. Result

R2= 30 W acting vertically upwards, and R, = 38 W acting at 35' clockwise to t e vertical as shown. h

3.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been introduced the various concepts of Graphic Statics. Here, you have seen, how to determine the resdtants, components, equilibtants, reactions at the supports, internal forcesetc. bf a given system Now, you can easily analyse the given system with the help of the graphical methods described in this unit. An attempt has also been made to familiarise you w t the Bow's notations. ih With reference practical engineering problems, methods were discussed that are used to analyse various statically determinate structural systems such as stays, beams, cranes and uusses etc.

3.6 ANSWERS TO SAOs

SAQ 1

(a) Forces in the members of the truss shown in Figure 3.17 are as follows : F, = 108 kN (tension)
F, = 108kN (compression)

F, = 50 kN (compression) F, = 50 kN (tension)

F5= 100 kN (tension)

F, = 108 kN (tension) F, = 108 kN (compression) F, = 100 kN (compression)

Students are expected to find the forces in the members of the truss by referring the preceding text and examples.
SAQ 2

(a)

Students are expected to find the forces in the members of the truss by referring the preceding text and examples. Students are expected to find the forces in the members of the truss by refemng the preceding text and examples.

SAQ 3

(a) R, = 18 kN (upward) R, = 32 i(N (upward)

R, = 15 kN (upward) R, = 35 kN (upward)

R, = 6.2kN (upward) R, = 4.8 kN (upward)

R, = 60 kN (upward) R, = 60 kN (upward)